No Limits | 2015 Spring

NO LIMITS The Hotchkiss Science & Technology Magazine

Winter 2015

MICROBIOMES

OUR INTESTINAL ALLIES

THE INVISIBLE CLOAK NOT ALL IT’S CRACKED UP TO BE THE DISEASE OF ADDICTION

‘PSYCHIC INCOME’ AND THE

SEARCH FOR ET AN INTERVIEW WITH SETH SHOSTAK

CONTENTS

FROM THE EDITORS On a clear winter night, the air frigid and still, one might look up at the

04 Quantum Key Distribution

Physics meets cryptography.

countless stars twinkling in the sky above and wonder, “Are we alone?”

It’s a question that transcends geographic, political, and cultural boundaries. And for centuries, we could only wonder, speculate.

05 Invisibility Cloak

A new cloaking device makes objects appear invisible.

06 Microbiomes

Know thyself, know what lies within thee.

Such is the case no longer. We now know that a significant fraction of stars in the sky are host to habitable planets, lending credence to the possibility that we aren’t alone. Indeed, with the tools of modern science, astronomers like Seth Shostak have begun the search for intelligent life, scanning the sky for radio signals indicative of an advanced

08 ‘Psychic Income’ and the Search

for ET

civilization.

It’s a pattern ubiquitous in the sciences. Questions previously thought

An interview with Seth Shostak.

12 Not All It’s Cracked Up To Be

New insights on addiction.

16 A Portrait of a Parasite

No need for alarm!

unanswerable have been conquered time and time again. We know how the diversity of Earth’s species arose (evolution by natural selection).

We know why the sun shines (nuclear fusion). Today, we continue to chip away at the terra incognita of human knowledge.

In this issue, you’ll have the chance to learn about the answers we’ve

18 Nanotechnology

produced. Some of those answers are clear, satisfactory. Correspondents

Even the tiniest things can make a difference.

can keep online transmissions secure with quantum key distribution;

19 The Physics of Swimming

The other answers are tentative, preliminary, incomplete. For instance,

Science leads to better times.

20 Can You Die From a Broken Heart?

A new look on an old question.

A mechanical breakthrough.

23 Summer Research

Hotchkiss students share research experience.

24 Astrophotography

James Post ‘15 Tony Zhang ‘15

Art Editor Vivian Xiao ‘15

Editorial Board Bobby Kwon ‘16 James Tsui ‘15 Elaine Wang ‘16 Jake Yoon ‘15

Contributing Writers

astronomy.

Elaine Chen ‘17 Daniel Guerra ‘15 Michael Hernandez ‘16 Daniel Kim ‘18 Tim Koay ‘16 Viola Lee ‘16 Lucy Paddock ‘18 Samantha Sanders ‘16 Elisa Xu ‘17

But given our track record, it’s safe to say that these frontiers will con-

Faculty Advisor

watchmakers can build watches that wind themselves automatically.

though scientists have partially uncovered the nature of sleep, we’re still not sure why we sleep. Despite the growing awareness of the role of our microbiomes, our gut flora, in our well-being, the mechanisms through which they affect our health remain poorly understood.

22 The Datejust

Editors-In-Chief

Such murky waters are present across all disciplines, from biology to

tinue to recede. Sleep science will advance. We will learn more about our microbiota. And one day, we may finally discover the telltale signs of an extraterrestrial civilization, answering that age-old question: “Are

Dr. Susan Park

Visit us online:

we alone?”

hotchkissmedia.org/nolimits

For now, enjoy this issue!

Like us on Facebook:

27 Works Cited

The Editors

facebook.com/hotchkissnolimits

Comments may be sent to: Tony Zhang ‘15 tzhang@hotchkiss.org James Post ‘15 jpost@hotchkiss.org Vivian Xiao ‘15 vxiao@hotchkiss.org FRONT COVER Image by NASA/JPL-Caltech.

2 • No Limits • Winter 2015

No Limits • Winter 2015 • 3

QUANTUM KEY DISTRIBUTION

INVISIBILITY CLOAK

BY DANIEL GUERRA ‘15

BY JAMES POST ‘15

I

n a technological world, hackers pose a serious threat. A

same as the polarization state of the photon the second person

skilled person with a powerful computer has the potential

receives. But if a hacker is listening in on the transmission, the

to shut down websites, rob online shoppers, and even gain

photon’s polarization state (unknown to the hacker) would have

access to classified documents. Now, more than ever, the

to be cloned in order for the hacker and the receiver to receive

safety of a nation lies in the strength of its cyber-security.

identically polarized photons. This cloning, according to the no-

One currently developing cyber-security strategy is quantum key

cloning theorem, is impossible.

distribution, which addresses the specific problem of hackers intercepting certain online transmissions.

How can this idea be put into practice? Quantum key distri-

I

t seems that the invisibility cloak is more plau-

works takes on a doughnut shape—the hole at the center

sible than was previously thought. Students at the

being where the light rays converge.

University of Rochester have developed a simple device capable of “cloaking” objects, using only four

This might sound disappointing, but the device still pro-

lenses. The device operates by bending the light

duces mind-boggling effects, effects that could certainly

around an object so the photons actually “dodge” the

be expanded to produce something quite useful. In fact,

object and hit instead the background, making it seem as

due to its simplicity, the device can be expanded with no

if the object wasn’t there at all.

loss of accuracy, meaning a much bigger device can be

bution involves placing a string of polarized photons at the

made as long as big enough lenses can be manufactured

Suppose the FBI establishes a code to be used in communica-

beginning and end of the transmission of a key. The sender can

Now, while “light-bending” may seem like a complicated

for it. So even though the area of invisibility of this device

tion with the CIA. All codes have a “key”: an algorithm, formula,

then communicate with the receiver to check if the sequences

task accomplished only with high-end technology, it is

is limited to the shape of a doughnut, that doughnut

or sequence that allows its user to decrypt encrypted informa-

of photons that were received match the sequences that were

actually very easily done with simple lenses. Four lenses

could be enlarged quite a bit. Although the limitation is

tion. The FBI would need to share the key to this code with the

sent. If the sequences don’t match, the two parties can conclude

are used to bend light and re-focus it so it looks as it did

still significant, as research in this area develops we could

CIA; the key would be transmitted electronically.

that a hacker was eavesdropping. By revealing if a hacker eaves-

when it went through the first lens. Although the lenses

see it overcome.

dropped on the distribution of a key, quantum key distribution

have to be of exact focal lengths and have to be set at

Unfortunately, many cyber-security systems don’t effectively

lets the two parties know if their code is safe. If they find that

exact distances apart, this process is revolutionary in its

protect key distribution. It may be extremely difficult for hackers

a hacker may have gained access to a key, then a new key can

simplicity. In fact, the entire procedure for making this

to break a code, but they can more easily “listen in” on transmis-

be generated.

device at home is detailed in the University of Rochester’s

sions of keys and retrieve copies of keys without leaving a trace.

website, and it’s only four lines long. This is also the first Clearly, quantum key distribution isn’t a cure-all safeguard

cloaking device that works independent of the angle of

However, quantum key distribution allows the senders and

against cyberterrorism, but it’s an excellent example of how

the incoming rays of light. Essentially, this means that

receivers of a key to determine if a hacker was eavesdropping. To

ideas from science can be applied in cryptography. Creativity

people can look at the first lens from any angle and the

understand how it works, we have to understand the no-cloning

will be necessary to solve many of the technological and envi-

object will still appear invisible.

theorem, a basic principle of quantum mechanics. It states that

ronmental problems of the future, and only through a compre-

an unknown quantum state can’t be copied. What exactly does

hensive knowledge of science and the integration of multiple

Unfortunately for Harry Potter fans and the rest of the

this mean?

disciplines can an answer to these problems be reached.

population there is flaw with this system. You see, light can’t really bend “around” the object (at least not with

A quantum state could be the polarization state of a photon (the

this set-up), so instead, it converges into a single point

fundamental particle that carries light). Imagine that one person

in space. Since all the light from the background passes

sends a photon to another. If no hacker is “listening in,” then

through there, the object can’t overlap that point, or the

the polarization state of the photon that was sent will be the

effect won’t work. Thus, the area where the cloaking effect

4 • No Limits • Winter 2015

Although the lenses have to be of exact focal lengths and have to be set at exact distances apart, this process is revolutionary in its simplicity.

No Limits • Winter 2015 • 5

MICROBIOMES

KNOW THYSELF, KNOW WHAT LIES WITHIN THEE

BY VIOLA LEE ‘16

Because gene sequencing is applicable to a wider range of organisms, including bacteria that cannot be cultured, it has become a crucial agent in learning about the human microbiome.

R

esearchers call it the next big

As it has in many other areas of biomedi-

“All diseases begin in the gut,” Hip-

still being researched, but recent evi-

nisms of the treatment. We don’t know if

genes for toxins and antibiotics, as well

thing. Macroscopic perspec-

cal research, gene sequencing has revolu-

pocrates said, back in 460 BC; current

dence suggests that the microorgan-

the bacteria are entirely responsible for

as other important genes involved with

tives may overlook this aspect

tionized the entire field of microbiology.

studies are only beginning to confirm

isms produce vitamins, enzymes and

the development of these conditions. We

metabolism. Study of bacteriophages

of human biology, yet the hu-

Prior to the advent of this technology,

this centuries-old speculation. Not sur-

other compounds that help us metabo-

also have yet to find out how treatments

in the human body has made the mi-

man body is itself an entire ecosystem

the only way to study microorganisms

prisingly, most microbial activities in the

lize nutrients and maintain the immune

work. Researchers are developing new

crobiome pertinent to AIDS and HIV re-

of bacteria, viruses, fungi and other mi-

like bacteria was to grow them in a lab

human body were centered in the human

system. Researchers speculate that the

work from what we know already—we

search, an unexpected and incredible link.

crobes. These elements play a crucial role

culture. This method was heavily lim-

gut. 100 trillion bacterial genomes with

gut microbiome influences the devel-

do know that dietary changes influence

in regulating our essential physiological

ited because most bacteria in the hu-

over 8 million protein-coding genes were

opment of intestinal bowel diseases.

bacteria, that bacteria are significant con-

Lab work continues. The sky is really

processes. Changes in the microbiome

man intestine cannot be cultured. Gene

sequenced and mapped. Disorganization

stituents of the microbiome, and that the

the limit—science is always met with

have been linked to obesity, heart dis-

sequencing solved this problem—sci-

of commensal bacteria has been found to

Nutrition-based therapy has been fre-

composition of the microbiota is abnormal

technical challenges, but with each

ease, diabetes, cancer, and even Alzheim-

entists are now able to profile complex

be associated with many conditions like

quently used to treat inflammatory bowel

in patients with gut diseases. We’ve come

passing year, with enhanced methods,

er’s and autism. Recognizing the micro-

microbial communities and investigate

inflammatory bowel disease, asthma, ar-

disease, although the biological mecha-

this far, but there is still much to be done.

increased knowledge and more defini-

biota’s importance, the NIH launched

evolutionary relationships of commen-

thritis and multiple sclerosis—identifying

nisms of this treatment are unknown. Di-

the Human Microbiome Project in 2007.

sal bacteria. Because gene sequencing

these relationships could potentially al-

etary changes clearly have an impact on

Of course, bacteria are not the only in-

swered, the solutions become publi-

The project aimed to map out various

is applicable to a wider range of organ-

low for development of future treatments.

the gut microbiome, but studies revealed

fluential constituents of the human

cized, and the next questions are asked.

genomes within the human microbiota,

isms, including bacteria that cannot be

that each individual responds differently

microbiome. Bacteriophages, a group

seeing this initiative a sequel to the more

cultured, it has become a crucial agent in

What commensal bacteria do in the

to such changes. This variability compli-

of viruses also inhabiting the intesti-

well-known Human Genome Project.

learning about the human microbiome.

healthy and diseased human gut is

cates the understanding of the mecha-

nal ecosystem, are known to contain

6 • No Limits • Winter 2015

tive statistics, more questions are an-

No Limits • Winter 2015 • 7

‘PSYCHIC INCOME’ AND THE SEARCH FOR ET AN INTERVIEW WITH SETH SHOSTAK

BY TONY ZHANG ‘15

D

r. Seth Shostak is the Senior Astronomer

at

the

SETI

Institute, where he and many

As a senior astronomer at SETI, what’s a typical day for you like?

second guess, well, where are they, where

Well, to me it’s actually more interesting

should we point this antenna. The aliens

why there are people who think this is

never send us an email saying, “Hey, we’ll

not interesting, actually! [laughs] You

To be honest, a typical day for me is

be over in this star system over here.” We

know, honestly, I believe that we all have

didn’t get a fax from them saying, “By the

some curiosity about whether there’s

way, we’ll be at 1527 MHz on the dial.” We

something up there in the sky. Even as a

don’t know where to tune the receivers,

kid, you look up at the stars and you kind

and we don’t know where to look.

of wonder, “Are there any kids up there

others continue the search for extraterrestrial intelligence.

He also writes popular articles on sci-

answering emails. I think that’s my job

ence and technology, and hosts the SETI

description now; I get about 500 emails

Institute’s weekly radio show, Big Picture

a day, so I have to spend a lot of time

Science. Last October, Dr. Shostak visited

on that. But I also have administrative

campus and delivered the 2014 Augur

tasks, because I run this SETI group: the

Lecture. He was kind enough to sit down

group that’s using these radio antennas

with No Limits to talk about his exciting

to try and eavesdrop on any aliens that

work in the quest for ET.

might be broadcasting signals that are washing over our bodies as we sit here in

How did you become interested in science, and more specifically, in astronomy and extraterrestrial life?

Lakeville. But I also do a lot of outreach; I write a lot of articles. Every week we have an hour-long science radio show. No two days are the same; that’s one of the nice things about my job—it’s not very routine.

I was interested in science as a kid; I don’t think there’s anything terribly remarkable in that answer. I think that

So, have you been working on any research lately?

kids get interested in things between the ages of 8 and 11, and I certainly became

Yeah, we have various research pro-

interested in such things. And I went to a

grams—SETI research programs are the

lot of really cheesy science fiction films

ones I’m most involved with. We’ve been

when I was very young and I think that

trying to decide where to point these

that stimulated a lot of the interest in

antennas—if you’re trying to pick up a

astronomy, anyhow.

signal from the aliens, you have to sort of

8 • No Limits • Winter 2015

The aliens never send us an email saying, “Hey, we’ll be over in this star system over here.” We didn’t get a fax from them saying, “By the way, we’ll be at 1527 MHz on the dial.” We don’t know where to tune the receivers, and we don’t know where to look.

looking back this way?” You could have These days we’re looking in a couple

asked that question 100,000 years ago

of places, including the center of the

when you were on the savannas of Africa,

Milky Way galaxy—that’s the one place

but there wasn’t much you could do to

everybody will know, even the Klingons,

answer the question. Today, of course, we

so maybe they have a big transmitter,

have some equipment; we have some

who knows? And I’m also trying to get

knowledge; we might be able to answer

a new program started where we look

that question. So, to me it sounds like one

at red dwarf stars. Those are little runty

of those questions that everybody would

stars, but there’s good reason to think

like to answer.

that those might be better place to look for ET.

I suppose you could have walked through the streets of Seville in Spain in 1491

Looking for aliens sounds like a great job, but many people don’t think it’s worth the time and effort. Why do you think it’s important that SETI does what it does?

and ask the citizenry, “Hey, you know, there’s this guy, Chris Columbus, he’s gonna sail to the west … he’s lookin’ for Japan, but, who knows, he might stumble across a new continent. Do you think we ought to be spending the money to do that?” And the guy will say, “What’re you

No Limits • Winter 2015 • 9

It’s not the pay, and you don’t get a whole lot of recognition at parties...

But, there is this: you have the opportunity to know something nobody else ever knew... It’s, if you will, psychic income, not monetary income.

talking about? I mean, we got problems right here; we shouldn’t

years, they make them twice as fast. Otherwise you won’t buy a

aren’t very many of them.” That was very commonly believed

nobody else ever knew. You could be the first one; you could be

be spending that money.” So you could always make this argu-

new one. I mean, they don’t wear out; it’s not like your car, right?

just a few decades ago, and now, of course, we know that maybe

the first kid on your block to know something. And that’s really

ment against exploration, but I think it’s always a bad argument.

So, computer technology is increasing very quickly, and as a con-

more than half of all stars, maybe closer to all, stars have plan-

interesting. And you understand a lot of stuff, even if you’re not

sequence, the speed with which we can search the heavens and

ets. Planets are as common as fire hydrants: they’re all over the

the first to discover it. Newton’s Laws, by having studied that, and

look for a signal keeps going up. So that’s one good thing. I think

place. That’s something we didn’t know.

understanding it, a lot of the world makes sense suddenly. It isn’t

Where is SETI headed in the next few years?

that that will change SETI slowly to allow us to look over more

kind of mysterious: how does this work, how does that work? You

Where we’re headed… well, nobody knows where we’re headed,

of the sky, look at more star systems, use different techniques—

Does that affect how we do the experiment? A little bit, because

know how it works! And there’s some satisfaction in that, some

because it depends on money, unfortunately. I know when you’re

don’t just look for radio signals, look for something else. All of

it means you can look at just about any random star, and even

satisfaction in being able to understand the physical world. It’s,

young you don’t care about money, but when you’re actually

this will happen. I usually bet people a cup of Starbucks we’ll

though you don’t know, you can kind of assume it may have a

if you will, psychic income, not monetary income. But there’s a

doing research you find out that a lot of it is kind of determined

find ET within two dozen years. So I’m buying a lot of Starbucks

planet or two. The other things we’re learning are, well, what

lot to be said for the kind of work that gets you to bound out of

by how much funding you can get to do this. You may have a

stock…

fraction of those planets are the kind where you’d like to live,

bed in the morning.

great idea, but if nobody’s willing to pay the money to, you know, keep you in hamburgers, you’re not going to be able to do it.

And in SETI, that’s particularly a problem because we don’t get

where you could build a condo or something like that. And that

It seems that the future of SETI is inextricably tied up with advances in computing power.

may be a fairly high percentage.

Would you have any advice for students who are interested in a career in science?

What’s the best part about being a scientist?

government money; it’s all just private donations. So a lot of my job, in fact, consists of thinking about where could we maybe

It is, in terms of the experiment, it is. I mean, there are other

If they’re interested in science, they’re interested in psychic

get some money to do this. So where it’s going depends on how

things that have an influence on SETI. One of the big science

Best part about being a scientist? Well, I’ll tell you this: it’s not

income. They’re not doing it because they’ll be able to have a

much money there is; there’s very little money.

stories of the last twenty years is finding that there are plan-

the pay, and you don’t get a whole lot of recognition at parties—

10,000 square-foot home up in the Catskills, they’re doing it

ets around other stars. I mean, when I was your age, Tony, you

other people just come up to you and say “Whaddaya do for a

because they’re interested. And that’s the best thing. The best

But one thing is obvious: the equipment keeps getting better.

went to a local planetarium and they would tell you, “Nah, there

living?” “Oh, I look for aliens.” They think you’re crazy, or they just

advice you can give to young people is: whatever you’re inter-

That’s mostly because of computers. I live in Silicon Valley; they

probably aren’t any planets out there. Yeah, we have some here

say “Excuse me while I refresh my drink” and walk away.

ested in, that’s what you ought to do. You’ll do it better and you’ll

have careers there to try and make computers faster—every two

around the sun, but it’s hard to make planets and maybe there

But, there is this: you have the opportunity to know something

also enjoy it more.

10 • No Limits • Winter 2015

No Limits • Winter 2015 • 11

NOT ALL IT’S CRACKED UP TO BE:

THE DISEASE OF ADDICTION

BY SAMANTHA SANDERS ‘16

I

magine trying to live without air. Now, try to imagine some-

This is not, however, to say the physical brain does not play

thing worse” (Reed, 2011). This is the reality for the 23.5

a role in addiction. Scientists have recently concluded that

million Americans who identify as addicts. Some people

all known abused drugs affect one pathway in the brain: the

view addicts as weak, and blame addiction on poor decision-

rewards system, a chain of brain cells located in the limbic sys-

making skills. But if we look to the frontal lobe of the brain as

tem at the front of the brain. These rewards normally function

being directly related to decision-making as well as control,

by making instinctually necessary survival skills, such as eating

then addiction is indicative of a predetermined trait that, if

or sex, more pleasurable, and are typically used by the brain as

expressed, makes you susceptible to the disease of addiction. If

a sort of positive reinforcement. By far one of the most essential

we then view addiction as a genome or neural disorder, similar

parts of this pathway is called the mesolimbic dopamine system,

to Huntington’s disorder, then why are we not looking for effec-

which holds the VTA-NAc (the ventral tegmental area and the

tive methods for treating it? As a whole, our society often lets

central component: the nucleus accumbens), which serves as a

stigma engulf sensitive issues, and this way of dealing with

site for dopaminergic neurons, and tells an organism whether

problems has allowed us to think of addicts as deviant, rather

stimuli are good or bad, and is a target for dopamine neurons

than unwell. Nearly one in fourteen people are addicts: this

that mediate rewarding effects, respectively. Drugs and other

means that any one of the students in a classroom could be

substances, however, actually hijack that reward system. When a

prone to dependence. In examining the brain, its behavior, and

person experiences an artificial reward, they feel the same plea-

the way substances act in the body, we can determine the effects

sure they would feel for doing something morally or instinctu-

of addiction as well as categorize it as a legitimate medical

ally correct, which allows habits and addiction to form.

condition.

The rewards one feels from drugs are almost immediate.

Both voluntary and involuntary behavior is initiated and pro-

Cigarettes, cocaine, and caffeine, all of which are mind-altering

cessed by the brain; drugs, being defined as “mind altering sub-

substances, are easily accessible addictions because they are

stances,” can cause a change in that behavior (Brick & Erickson,

not only quick, but also relatively cheap. Often, in examining the

1998). “Drug use in individuals is often associated with a variety

way drugs work in the body, scientists use the BBB model. This

of emotional problems such as depression, anxiety, schizophre-

model has three major parts: a stimulus, a sensory receptor that

nia … and other complicated problems referred to as antisocial

detects the stimulus, and a response. Drugs work the same way:

personality and conduct disorders” (Kuhar, 2012). Mental health

a substance stimulates the body and then after being sensed,

problems enable drug use in individuals because the brain and

our body reacts; this reaction is often known as a high. The main

mind are directly related. This dichotomy of who we are vs. what

site for psychoactive drugs is the nervous system. Psychoactive

we are is what allows us to link the brain to emotion. “It is easily

drugs work by altering neurotransmitter activity. This could work

concluded that addiction largely comes from the mind rather

in one of several ways, such as releasing extra neurotransmit-

than the brain” (Gazzinga, 1998).

ters, blocking synapses (junctions between nuerons), or destroying synapses to keep neurotransmitters (those things that give

12 • No Limits • Winter 2015

Addiction itself is not actually the itch for the next high... addiction is the longing for a remembered feeling of ecstasy. While most people think addicts are seeking chemical contentment, what they are really seeking is a semblance of happiness, and the last time they can remember feeling that way was when they were high.

No Limits • Winter 2015 • 13

Addiction comes from the Latin root for enslaved, suggesting an addict is literally a slave to their own mind. If this is true, shouldn’t addicts be treated less like deviants and more like struggling people?

you “good feelings”), such as serotonin, in your system for even

Now that we understand why drugs are so powerful, the next

longer.

question is, Why is addiction? The rewards pathway by itself, which rewards the brain with “happy thoughts,” does not do

Once a drug enters the system, they travel through the blood,

much in the way of habit forming—otherwise every person

and depending on whether they are lipophilic or hydrophilic,

would be a hamburger addict. In actuality, “the hedonic assess-

will concentrate in either fatty tissue or muscles. However, this

ment of rewards does not depend on the dopaminergic based

all depends on drug class. Each drug class brings a range of side

process” (Nutt, 2007). Over time however, as the neurotransmit-

effects in addition to addiction. For example, caffeine, which

ters or synapses become used to the effects of a drug, the body

blocks adenosine and has lipophilic properties, is one of the

builds a tolerance. One patient said “I know this will sound

most socially accepted drugs. While a stimulant, it is different

strange … but cocaine doesn’t get me high any more and still I

from a psychostimulant like cocaine, because it does not affect

can’t stop.” For many drug users this is the case. Through a brain

one’s dopamine levels, and therefore, cocaine falls into a differ-

tomography, it was proven that people continue the recreational

ent class, despite the fact that they both “block and stimulate.”

use of substances because drug paraphernalia itself is enough to activate the memory circuit and start drug cravings again.

Even drugs of the same class can have different properties in

Addiction itself is not actually the itch for the next high; after

the body. For example, consider the commonly used controlled

several uses the body builds a tolerance to the high amount of

substance Adderall, an amphetamine. But the illegal drug meth-

dopamine. The result of the tolerance to dopamine is anhedonia,

amphetamine acts differently in the body, despite meting an

the inability to feel pleasure, and so addiction is the longing

amphetamine. Meth, whether it’s being used to treat something

for a remembered feeling of ecstasy. While most people think

as menial as obesity or is being used recreationally, has existed

addicts are seeking chemical contentment, what they are really

for many years as a major abused substance. One thing that

seeking is a semblance of happiness, and the last time they can

makes meth so much more toxic is its ability to destroy specific

remember feeling that way was when they were high.

neurotransmitters. This is why the tolerance effect of methamphetamines is so immediate and noticeable. By affecting the

If the feeling of being high truly dissipates once an addict has

nerve cells, the high of meth becomes about the phenomenon

formed a habit, they are only seeking emotion. Since anhedonia,

of numbness, while others seem to focus in on the idea of

which is commonly associated with diseases such as depression

‘euphoria’. Society sees meth and the other drugs of its class as

and anxiety, exists for addicts as well, addiction is also a disease

somewhat similar. This is odd because crystal meth is one of

that is chronic and comparable to the aforementioned medically

the world’s most powerful drugs, but Adderall is used to treat

accepted conditions. It is hard for people to grasp the concept

hyperactivity in children.

of addiction because medicine and the definition of “disease”

14 • No Limits • Winter 2015

is ever-changing. In recent years, the stigma surrounding many

esting thought: my desire to drink coffee came from the fact

medical conditions, such as depression, has been dispelled. A

that everyone around me was drinking it and they said it would

disease is defined as “a disorder of structure or function in a

make me better and more efficient. Without coffee I experience

human, animal, or plant, especially one that produces specific

headaches and feel sluggish and ineffective, in addition to other

signs or symptoms or that affects a specific location and is not

withdrawal symptoms. If this is what several hours without

simply a direct result of physical injury.” This definition directly

a mild stimulant feels like, can you imagine what it must be

corresponds with all mental disorders, whether it be schizophre-

like to be an addict? I imagine it’s something like trying to live

nia, anxiety, or addiction.

without air.

Addiction comes from the Latin root for enslaved, suggesting an addict is literally a slave to their own mind. If this is true, shouldn’t addicts be treated less like deviants and more like struggling people? The pull of drugs is clear: the longing to try something because it is so absolutely important in one’s mind to remember it. The desire that pulls people to drugs is the same desire that keeps them addicted. When we think about this in terms of cocaine or heroin, it can seem like a far off concept.

However, if applied to your morning cup of coffee it is an inter-

No Limits • Winter 2015 • 15

A PORTRAIT OF A PARASITE

BY DANIEL KIM ‘18

T

oday in this modern society, you might

ship, then we call this type of relationship symbio-

causes malfunction in our immune system, causing our immune

the host’s bottom. Next day, she will meet her death, but if the

feel you are completely safe from para-

sis, but if only one of them is benefiting, we call

system to work against us. Others approach the parasite-allergy

host by any chance touches her sprayed eggs and then touches

sites since we cook, roast, boil, and some-

the beneficiary a parasite, and the victim a host. So,

relationship differently. For example, Dr. David Pritchard, an

another object, the object becomes infected. The eggs then wait

times, burn, our food before we eat, and

can virus or bacteria be called parasites? Although

immunologist and biologist at the University of Nottingham,

for another person to come by and accidently get infected.

use a huge amounts of pesticides. But it is quite

they do act like parasites, they aren’t eukaryotes—

believes that the behaviors of our immune system that lead

possible to find parasites in your food no matter

organisms with nuclear membranes. Ticks, fleas, or

to allergies were developed to expel parasites, and that some

The whipworm is actually one of the most beautiful parasites. It

how clean you are, and in most parasite cases, the

the freaks from Ridley Scott’s movie Aliens would

parasites, such as hookworms, have a way of switching this

is also one of the nicest parasites that exist, because once it goes

host (you!) is unaware of the parasite living inside.

fit the description of parasites perfectly.

behavior off. After extensive research, he obtained proof to sup-

inside a human’s body in an egg form, it hatches and stays there

port his theory; for whatever the reason, it seems there really is a

drinking only 0.005 microliters of blood until it dies. The reason

Find that hard to believe? Four hundred thousand

Now, having learned some science before, you

relationship between the absence of parasites and the increase

whipworms are beginning to receive attention is that they have

Milwaukee people in 1993, thirteen hundred New

might ask why your immune system lets parasites

of allergies.

some positive effects on autoimmune disorders. Scientists tried

Yorkers in 2005, two thousand in Utah in 2007,

live inside your body. The fact is that in some

and four thousand Swedish in 2010 all suffered

cases, it doesn’t, and your immune system keeps

So, are parasites dangerous, or helpful? It all depends on what

with whipworms, and found that it worked. The scientists gave

from Cryptosporidium, a parasite that causes severe

fighting the parasites until they recoil inside a

kind of parasite it is. But usually, when a human is the final

twenty-five hundred whipworm eggs to each patient in three-

diarrhea. In the Milwaukee diarrhea outbreak, an

cyst—a pocket the parasites create to hide them-

host—the host of even a fully grown parasite—the parasite isn’t

weeks intervals, and after four months they found that seventy-

estimated 104 people were actually killed by diar-

selves in—or until they completely die away. In

harmful. Because the parasite only wants to be left in peace and

five percent of the patients felt better, and sixty-five percent

rhea. Not a pretty way to die.

some cases, such as those of tapeworms and

to reproduce, it does its best not to disturb the host. It is when

were completely cured. Four more months of therapy yielded

roundworms, however, the parasites aren’t affected

a human is the intermediary host—when a parasite gets ready

astonishing results.

Imagine how much worse the situation ise in

by our immune system. You can think of this lack

to move onto its final host—that the parasite can be harmful.

under-developed countries. Frankly, the chances

of defense as a kind of a mutual agreement. Since

Because an intermediary host is not the parasite’s permanent

Of course, there are more interesting parasites. Dracunculus, for

for us to suffer mortal or permanent damages

repeatedly attacking parasites with no success

home, it does whatever it wants in there.

example, is a parasite that drills out of your skin when it wants

from parasites are pretty low, but to people who

tires our body as much as it does the parasites, our

can’t get properly processed water or the right

immunity recognizes specific parasites, and does

One of the most interesting parasites is the threadworm. This

sites, not by a bacteria or virus, and kills more people than any

medical treatments, the existence of parasites

not disturb them as long as they aren’t wandering

parasite is a little bit more than one centimeter long, and

other parasites. Sparganosis, Cryptosporidium, and liver fluke are

could easily mean severe injury. For example, look

off into places they shouldn’t be.

unlike other parasites that originated from other animals and

all parasites that are good to know about, especially since they

adapted to humans, this special parasite’s first host in history

are still causing harm to people in the modern world.

at this picture of Dracunculus inside an African

16 • No Limits • Winter 2015

to cure people suffering from Crohn’s disease by infecting them

to lay eggs. The infamous disease malaria is also caused by para-

boy’s leg. We don’t suffer from these parasites

The theory above is what led many parasitologists

was human. You get infected with this parasite when you hap-

because we have well-processed water. This boy

to believe that allergies might be caused from

pen to consume one of its eggs. Once the egg is in, the worm

Parasites are fascinating organisms to study, so consider giving

didn’t, and it is likely that there are all other sorts

the absence of parasites. Allergies became more

grows in to an amigo near the appendix. There the male and

them another glance instead of just making a grossed-out face.

of parasites inside him, feeding off the little nutri-

prevalent recently, and studies show that when a

female threadworm have an affair, and the male one dies. The

If you actually consider making parasitology your career and join

ents that he manages to get.

population is rid of its parasites, the percentage

female one, however, stays there devouring food and filling

one of the hugely funded projects for the cure of malaria, aller-

of allergy-inflicted people rise sharply. These led

itself with eggs for one to two months and finally moves to the

gies, Crohn’s disease, Alzheimer’s disease, autism, etc., then you

So what exactly are parasites? Imagine a relation-

some parasitologists to believe that when para-

large intestine. There it waits until the right moment; when the

won’t regret having to study those wormy creatures. And even if

ship between two intimately connected organisms.

sites are completely gone from our body, the sud-

host falls into REM sleep, the threadworm slips past the slightly

you take only a little bit of interest, at least you won’t be absent-

If the two are both benefiting from the relation-

den absence of work of some of our immune cells

open anus passage and sprays its future offsprings all around

mindedly feeding those worms inside you.

No Limits • Winter 2015 • 17

NANOTECHNOLOGY

THE PHYSICS OF SWIMMING

EVEN THE TINIEST THINGS CAN MAKE A DIFFERENCE

BY MICHAEL HERNANDEZ ‘16

BY ELAINE CHEN ‘17

N

anotechnology is going to be huge. Nanotechnology

Assembling materials on a tiny scale is not easy, but its benefits

is the manipulation of materials on the nanoscale.

are vast. When latticed together, nanocrystals can be three times

A nanometer is a billionth of a metre, so you can

stronger than the material made by larger particles we see

imagine how small nanomaterials are. Many cur-

everyday. What’s more, nanotechnology can allow greater fuel

rent technological innovations originate from this discipline,

storage for vehicles and greater memory storage for computers.

but scientists have yet to ensure the safety of nanotechnology.

Y

ou may not be Michael Phelps, but you want to be a

important to keep horizontal movements such as hip swinging

faster swimmer! As it turns out, a bit of physics can

and shoulder swaying to a minimum. A swimmer who reduces

help with that. Two of the most important concepts

movements that create negative kinetic energy will actually feel

that can be used to improve times in swimming are

as though they are swimming slower (since they use less energy),

rotation and energy. Rotation, in this case, refers to a swimmer’s

whilst moving faster because of the increase in their positive

rotating about the spine. Also, in swimming, one is predomi-

kinetic energy.

However, although nanotechnology can benefit us in many dif-

Nanotechnology has also been crucial in contributing to envi-

nantly focused on motion, and thus on kinetic energy. In order

ferent ways, the risks to using nanotechnology cause many to

ronmental cleanliness. SAMMS (Self Assembled Monolayers

to use these concepts to improve one’s swimming, it is important

To be truly good at swimming requires a great deal of practice

avoid it.

on Mesoporous Supports) is a simple nanotech tool that can

to understand them.

and time. But hopefully, with these tips, you’ll be able to shave a few seconds off of your time!

remove mercury, lead and other toxic metals from the oceans.

The use of nanotechnology can allow us to create much more

However, one risk is that nanomaterials placed in the environ-

The most important idea needed to get a swimmer to the next

advanced materials. Because nanotechnology products are

ment can transform or malfunction due to temperature, salinity

level is rotation. The swimmer’s rotation about the axis of his

made with careful detail and assembled on the nanoscale, they

and the presence of other beings. The altered nanomaterials

spine play a key role in backstroke and freestyle. One of the

also have very smooth surfaces. Feel your shirt right now; it is

may potentially change atmospheric, soil, or water chemistry.

main purposes of rotating is that it reduces frontal drag, since the swimmer is on their side as opposed to their stomach.

not entirely smooth. That’s because normally when we produce something on a macroscale, there are nanoscale ridges on the

Other risks of nanotechnology arise when considering its

Additionally, when rotating, a swimmer is able to make use of

surfaces which makes the surface feel rough. Nanotechnology

potential uses within the human body. Because nano-objects

major muscles of their body, such as the latissimus dorsi, the

fills these nanoscopic ridges with matter since nanotech deals

are so tiny, many medical scientists use them to reach targets

large muscle group running along the back. This relieves the

with materials at the nanoscale. With a nanotech window, you

that could not be contacted with drugs. This means that the tiny

high stress placed on the shoulder and improves the efficiency

wouldn’t even need to scrub your car windows! On a typical

nanoparticles are capable of fighting dire illnesses such as can-

of the swimmer. Rotation, when combined with a solid base in

glass window, water drops linger on the pane because the tiny

cer! But the tiny nanoparticles could also harm us; some might

the arms and legs, yields a greater output, and thus faster times.

bumps of the glass surface allow the water to adhere. If those

sneak past the bloodstream and get through the blood-brain

tiny bumps were eliminated, the water would trickle right off

barrier, causing serious, undetectable brain damage.

Kinetic energy is another idea helpful in improving times. A swimmer’s kinetic energy is comprised of their “positive” kinetic

the surface. This applies not only to water, but to dust and other Research in nanotechnology may fundamentally change the way

energy (the kinetic energy of their forward movement) and their

we live today. Nanotechnology can make materials stronger and

“negative” kinetic energy (the energy of any lateral movement).

Nanotech surfaces—that is, surfaces designed with nanopar-

longer-lasting, and more efficient materials means less waste

Ideally, a swimmer would have only positive kinetic energy. This

ticles (potentially screens or windows)—can also be water-

and less energy expense. In spite of the risks, nanotechnology

principle helps in understanding the importance of swimming

repellent, self-cleaning, scratch-proof, and resistant to UV light.

also has the potential to find many solutions to modern biologi-

in a straight line. Superfluous movements, such as teetering the

Such properties are a result of purposeful atomic structuring.

cal and environmental problems.

shoulders back and forth, add to negative kinetic energy, energy

materials as well.

that is essentially wasted. To perform at an optimal level, it is

18 • No Limits • Winter 2015

A swimmer who reduces movements that create negative kinetic energy will actually feel as though they are swimming slower (since they use less energy), whilst moving faster because of the increase in their positive kinetic energy.

No Limits • Winter 2015 • 19

CAN YOU DIE FROM A BROKEN HEART?

BY ELISA XU ’17

T

he question itself may have

bereaved group (0.16%) experienced an

Although it is not common, several cases

a humorous connotation, but

MI or a stroke compared with 67 of the

in history demonstrate that it is possible

Broken-Heart Syndrome does

controls (0.08%) during the same period

to die from a broken heart. When a Doctor

exist. Broken-Heart Syndrome,

of time. The experimental group also

Who actress died in July 2012, her hus-

also called stress-induced cardiomyopa-

tended to have an elevated risk of rare

band, Marcus Ringrose, died in his sleep

thy, is the body’s reaction to a surge of

afflictions such as non-MI coronary syn-

the day after her funeral. When actress

stress hormones—a surge usually caused

drome and pulmonary embolism. The

Brittany Murphy, age 32, died in 2009

by an emotionally stressful event. When

study concluded that the death of a part-

from pneumonia, her husband, Simon

a patient experiences grief from losing

ner is associated with a range of major

Monjack, died five months later. After

a loved one or from a breakup, he also

cardiovascular events in the immediate

Margaret Williams died in Wales in July

experiences sudden and intense chest

weeks and months after a partner passes

2014, Edmund, her husband of 60 years,

pains. These chest pains are caused by a

away.

died a week later. Her funeral became

part of the heart temporarily enlarging

their funeral; the couple was united in

and failing to pump well; the rest of the

Fortunately, Broken-Heart Syndrome is

heart functions either normally or with

treatable. Most people who experience it

slightly more forceful contractions.

recover within weeks, and aren’t at high

Though in some ways grim, Broken-Heart

risk for another episode. Still, the fact that

Syndrome shows the incredible depth

Aside from causing Broken-Heart Syn-

the syndrome exists is a bit dishearten-

and power of love by revealing the emo-

drome, grief can result in other drastic

ing. We are so heavily impacted by grief

tional and physical impacts of losing a

heart complications such as strokes and

that it not only affects us mentally for

loved one. Instead of viewing the syn-

myocardial infarction (MI), more com-

a short period of time, but also leads to

drome as a human defect, perhaps we can

monly known as heart attack. Recently, a

potentially devastating physical conse-

think of it as a reminder to treasure our

study was conducted with elderly people

quences.

loved ones while they are still with us.

cular events between individuals whose

Now that we’ve established some of the

So yes, you can technically die from a bro-

partners had died within the last 30 days

consequences of having your heart bro-

ken heart. But having a broken heart is

with those of a matched control group

ken, it’s time to tackle the original ques-

certainly not a fatal condition.

of individuals whose partners were still

tion: can you die from a broken heart?

death as they were in life.

to compare the likelihood of cardiovas-

alive. The results showed that 50 of the

20 • No Limits • Winter 2015

No Limits • Winter 2015 • 21

© University of Chicago

THE DATEJUST A MECHANICAL BREAKTHROUGH

SUMMER RESEARCH HOTCHKISS STUDENTS SHARE RESEARCH EXPERIENCE

BY TIM KOAY ‘16 There is no question that Rolex is the most renowned watch manufacturer in the world. It is easy to assume that this status was the result of shrewd marketing strategies and extravagant endorsements. However, to disregard the history of its products would be doing the story a great disservice. The Datejust, one of Rolex’s earliest models still available today, provides the perfect example to explain the automatic movement.

The Datejust, released some seventy years ago, was game changing. It was the first automatic wristwatch with an automatically changing date window, a feature that we often take for granted today. Its waterproof and rugged design made it a favorite among many everyday watch wearers. The main driver of the watch, Rolex’s perpetual motor, automatically winds the watch and negates the need for manual winding. The centrally mounted semi-circular weight of the movement harnesses energy whenever the wearer moves his arms by winding the

SAM BARTUSEK ‘15

DAVID JUNG ‘15

My lab’s work focused on vascular tissue engineering using stem cells. My specific project was a very small scale piece of that larger goal, which was dealing with the chemical composition of the gels on which the stem cells are cultured (PEG-DA hydrogels). Different gels affect the stem cell differentiation in varying ways; I wanted to incorporate a certain chemical group (acrylate) into the surface of the gel, which would help the stem cells differentiate into the type of vascular cells needed for the experiment.

I completed two research projects over the summer—one in microbiology and another in immunology. For microbiology, I sought to establish pathogenic bacterias’ relation with other forms of life, discovering that they inhibit the growth of animals and fungi but stimulate the growth of plants. For immunology, I worked in a lab in Korea and looked for a way to target sepsis and septicemia, which are one of the leading causes of hospitalrelated deaths in the world.

BOBBY KWON ‘16

TONY ZHANG ‘15

I completed two research projects over the summer that pertain to the overall field of developmental biology. In examining Extracellular Matrix Dynamics, I SNP-mapped numerous C. elegans (nematode) genes implicated in dysfunctional molting. In another project working with zebrafish, I engineered a TALEN—transcription affector-like effector nuclease—for use in a knockout technique to examine a retinal gene implicated in neurodegeneration and the development of ALS and Frontal Lobe Dementia.

Over the summer, I worked with Dr. Kartik Sheth of the National Radio Astronomy Observatory on galaxy evolution. In particular, we looked at the evolution of bulge size in spiral galaxies (the bulge is the central, especially bright part of spiral galaxies) imaged by the Hubble Space Telescope. After diagnosing countless software issues and dealing with many other difficulties, I found that for a sample of 39 spiral galaxies, there was a statistically significant trend for bulges to become less pronounced over time, a result that runs against our current picture of galaxy evolution.

mainspring, which provides the power for all the wheels and gears of the watch. Comprising of a hairspring and a balance wheel, the oscillator determines the precision of the watch by the regularity of its oscillations. The oscillations convert the rotation of the gears and wheels into controlled regular steps, or as most people know them, seconds.

The automatic movement transformed the mechanical watch industry. People no longer needed to perform the simple task of winding a watch, saving more time to simply enjoy the complex machine on one’s wrist. While quartz movements and electronic watches have dominated the contemporary scene, mechanical wristwatches such as the Datejust still stand out among the pack as a result of their timeless beauty and revolutionary ingenuity.

22 • No Limits • Winter 2015

No Limits • Winter 2015 • 23

ASTRO PHOTOGRAPHY

BY LUCY PADDOCK ‘18

T

he Greenwich Royal Observatory (UK) holds an annual contest for the best astronomy photographer of the year. The competition, now in its 6th year, is a beauti-

3.

2.

ful showcase of some of the world’s best astrophotography and features multiple winners in different

categories. This year’s contest had a record 1700 entries from over 50 countries. There was even a photo taken from the edge of space! The winning images are below.

1.

Earth and Space: Aurora over Glacier Lagoon by James Woodend, UK

2.

Robotic Scope: NGC 3718 by Mark Hanson, USA

3.

Our Solar System: Ripples in a Pond by Alexandra Hart, UK

4.

The Sir Patrick Moore Prize for Best Newcomer: Coastal Stairways by Chris Murphy, New Zealand

1.

2.

24 • No Limits • Winter 2015

3.

4.

No Limits • Winter 2015 • 25

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5.

6.

Table of Contents Image by NASA/JPL-Caltech. Web. <http:// www.wallpapervortex.com/wallpaper-30674_ sky_stars_and_telescope.html#.VL1kHGTF_q8> Model of cocaine molecule. Web. <http:// upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/46/ Cocaine-from-xtal-3D-vdW.png> Microbiome Image. Web. <http://edbites. com/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/microbiome. jpg> X-ray Image. Web. <http://www.dhefc.org/ wp-content/uploads/2013/03/xray.png> Pool Image. Web. <http://www.smstrapids. org/css/pro/cust_stock_bg/lane_lines.jpg>

Deep Space: Horsehead Nebula (IC 434) by Bill Snyder, USA

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stance-abuse.jpg> Drug Image. Web. <http://myfamilysihat. com/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/ubatan2.jpg> Friedman, Richard A. “Lasting Pleasures, Robbed by Drug Abuse.” The New York Times. The New York Times, 30 Aug. 2010. Web. Gazzaniga, Michael S. Mind Matters: How Mind and Brain Interact to Create Our Conscious Lives. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1988. Print.

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National Institute on Drug Abuse. Nationwide Trends Retrieved from http://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/drugfacts/nationwidetrends Nutt, David J. 2007. Drugs and the future brain science, addiction and society. London: Elsevier/Academic. http://site.ebrary.com/ id/10158436.

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Cox, Lauren. Allergy Desperation. 2009. http://abcnews.go.com/Health/AllergiesNews/ story?id=8114307 Firger, Jessica. 2014. http://www.cbsnews. com/news/parasites-causing-infections-in-theus-cdc-says/ Parasite Image. Web. <http://www.csgc.ucsd. edu/NEWSROOM/NEWSRELEASES/RESOURCES/2012/OPCupdates/Hechinger/3_parasites-big. jpg> Parasite Image 2. Web. <http://www.morningtonvetclinic.com.au/wp/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/Parasite1.jpg> Sboboda, Elizabeth. Can Hookworms Protect Against Allergies. 2008. http://www.nytimes. com/2008/07/01/health/01iht-01prof.14122951. html?pagewanted=all&_r=0 Seomin’s Parasite Stories by Seomin. Eulyoo Publishing Co., Ltd Summers RW, Eliott DE, Urban JF, et al. Trichuris suis therapy in Crohn’s disease. Gut 2005; 54: 87-90 Nanotechnology: Even the Tiniest Things Can Make a Difference Picraux, Tom. Nanotechnology. 2014. http:// www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/962484/ nanotechnology/ Nanotechnology Image. Web. <http://blog. zesty.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2013/11/nanotechnology-2.jpg> National Nanotechnology Initiative. http:// www.nano.gov/you/nanotechnology-benefits Sumastre, Michael. 6 Cool Nanotechnologies That Could Change the World. 2012. http://www. techopedia.com/2/28876/trends/6-cool-nanotechnologies-that-could-change-the-world United States Environmental Protection Agency. http://www.epa.gov/nanoscience/

basicinfo.htm Can You Die From a Broken Heart?

Photo. Web. <https://c1.staticflickr.com/9/85 14/8506455462_948dfa1d9d_b.jpg> Iain M. Carey, Sunil M. Shah, Stephen DeWilde, Tess Harris, Christina R. Victor, Derek G. Cook. Increased Risk of Acute Cardiovascular Events After Partner Bereavement: A Matched Cohort Study. 2014. https://archinte.jamanetwork. com/article.aspx?articleid=1832196.

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Hope, Jenny. Daily Mail. 2014. http://www. dailymail.co.uk/health/article-2566854/Griefbroken-heart-doubles-risk-heart-attack-stroke. html Evans, Stephen. Can You Die From a Broken Heart. 2014. http://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-28756374 Sleep Studies Krueger, James et al (2008). Sleep as a fundamental property of neuronal assemblies.

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Sleep Image. Web. <http://www.myhousecallmd.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/ Valuable-Sleep.jpg> Physics of Swimming Hall, Gary. (2014). Why We Should Rotate Our Bodies in Freestyle and Backstroke. http:// swimswam.com/rotate-bodies-freestyle-backstroke/.

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JPG> Heaton, Jason. http://www.hodinkee.com/ blog/under-pressure-a-look-at-rolex-water-resistance-testing Summer Research Cells Image. Web. <http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/plants/lycophyta/lycostemxs.gif> Biology Cells Image. Web. <http://cnasstudent.ucr.edu/images/biology-cells.jpg> Zebra Fish. Web. <https://sangerinstitute. files.wordpress.com/2012/07/zebrafish.jpg> Spiral Galaxy. Web. <http://scitechdaily.com/ images/New-VLT-Image-of-Messier-100.jpg> Back Cover Image by NASA/JPL-Caltech.

No Limits • Winter 2015 • 27

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