The Rise of Tenements - Shubham Kirve

Glasgow School of Art

Session 2020-21

Bachelor of Architecture (Hons.)

Stage 4: Research Project

The Rise of Tenements An analysis of The Tenements Identity, characteristics, influences and its relation to forming a Burgh.

A Visual Research Project Name: Shubham Santosh Kirve B.Arch Stage 4(Hons.) 20/21 Supervisor: Ian Alexander Word count: 4963 1

Acknowledgments

I Gratefully acknowledge the kind support, guidance and advice of IAN ALEXANDER my Supervisor whose direction and experience were invaluable in preparation of this work during my study at The Glasgow School of Art. Special thanks to Architect JOHN JOSEPH BURNS for discussing his research, having a sit-down conversating and critiquing my analysis.

I wholeheartedly appreciate my partner JÚLIA NAVARRO for her assistance and support through the elaborate inner workings of this Dissertation.

I would like to mention Ema Ferreira for her friendship and company.

Finally to my MOTHER and FATHER, my deepest gratitude.

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Contents

Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………4-5

Chapter 1: The juxtaposition of Roman domestic architecture (Insula) and Glasgow’s rapid

growth resulting in the rise of ‘Tenements’..................................................................6-34

Chapter 2: Thatch Houses of Scotland and the making of Burghs.…………………………………………....35-50

Chapter 3: Scottish Castles and Tower Houses as a visual influence………………………………………...51-64

Chapter 4: Two cities and their Tenements……………………………………………………………………………....65-80

Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………………………………………...81-83

Bibliography…………………………………………………………………………………………………………...84-88

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Introduction

This dissertation conducts a case analysis on multiple influences related to 'The Glasgow Tenement' in the context of adaptability, overpopulation, and functionality. It draws upon Frank Worsdall and his deep analysis of Glasgow's domestic architecture; through Lost Glasgow by Carol Foreman, it examines Glasgow's forgotten architectural heritage. With several other books and dissertations like Glasgow -The Forming of the city (Peter Reed - 1993), The Castles of Scotland (Martin Coventry -1995), Lost Edinburgh (Hamish Coghill - 2005) and a dissertation written in 1972 by Watt, J.M. The Glasgow Tenement the research dives deeper into the several origins of the 'Tenement'.

Further examining asks - through a comparison of plans, sections, and images (accessible to me at this given time) - What are the oldest Scottish Influences on the 'continental form of housing typified by the Tenement'? - How did Tenements and their influences adapt to specific situations like overpopulation, industrialisation, "glorified urban living", and economic distress? The outline as follows: Chapter 1 - The juxtaposition of Roman domestic architecture (Insula) and Glasgow's rapid growth resulting in the rise of 'Tenements.'

Puts together Roman domestic architecture (Insula) and the rapid growth of Glasgow (17th century- early 20th century), resulting in the rise of 'The Glasgow Tenements'.

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Chapter 2 - Thatch Houses of Scotland and the making of Burghs.

The Chapter summaries Thatch Houses as one of the first forms of vertical housing and their relation to forming a Burgh.

Chapter 3 – Scottish Castles and Tower Houses as a visual influence.

It Presents a historical context of Scottish Castles and Tower Houses concerning the detachment towards fortification and the growing emphasis on comfort and luxury.

Chapter 4 – Two cities and their Tenements.

Compares Edinburgh's city to Glasgow regarding its crowded old town and the new town's resulting creation.

The essay concludes with a better understanding of the effect that a group of influences have over Glasgow Tenements as we know them today and speculates that the working middle class is the driving force for the Tenement’s evolution as an archetype for urban living.

We resolve all the newly brought up questions after the analysis made in the dissertation with a sit-down conversation with architect John Joseph Burns of Holmes Miller (Architecture & Planning practice). Where we reach closure on some topics like the overly glorified Tenements designed by the city improvement trust in and around the medieval town centre. Together, we analyse the suburban development on the previously industrial Calton district and Scotland's political and social image, which helped shape the domestic and the public buildings alike.

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Chapter 1: The juxtaposition of Roman domestic architecture (Insula) and Glasgow’s rapid growth resulting in the rise of ‘Tenements’.

Roman Domestic Architecture Insula (plural insulae) in Latin is quite an ambiguous term used in urban architecture as its primary meaning is “Island”. In the Residential and urban context, it refers to “apartment house,” “apartment block,” or “block of flats,” which could also be translated as “street block” or “city block”.1 In the mercantile city of Ostia at the Tiber river’s mouth (less than 20 miles from Rome), a building boom produced the need to build high-rise apartments. (Figures 1.1 and 1.2) These high-rise apartments, ‘Insulae’, first appeared as housing for the bulk of the urban population. These masses consisted of ordinary people of lower- or middle-class status. Glasgow faced overpopulation in the second half of the 16th Century, but high rise apartments in the form of tenements did not hit the boom until the 19th Century.2(Figure 1.3 and 1.4) The similarity between the two port cities urban housing architecture does not end here; For Instance, The Caseggiato del Serapide (House of Serapides), built in the Second C.E., had a very familiar layout to today’s ‘Glaswegian Tenement’, shops at the ground level, while staircases lead to apartments on upper floors.3 (Figures 1.5, 1.6 and 1.7) The ‘Insulae’ at Ostia were also unique for their time because some showed evidence of luxury living. One such example could be the so-called ‘Garden houses’ (Case a Giardino) from the 2nd and 3rd Century. The ‘Garden houses’ stood four stories high, with sixteen units on the ground floor and windows facing a 1

Storey, Glenn R. 2004. "The Meaning Of "Insula" In Roman Residential Terminology". Memoirs Of The American Academy In Rome 49. doi:10.2307/4238817 Pg-47.

2

Worsdall, F., 1979. The Tenement. 1st ed. Edinburgh: W & R Chambers Ltd. Pg-1.

3

DR. BECKER, JEFFREY A. 2016. "Roman Domestic Architecture: The Insula – Smarthistory".

Smarthistory.Org. https://smarthistory.org/roman-domestic-architecture-insula/ .

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(Figure 1.1) Plan of 2nd century CE Ostia showing building classification categories and the extended street

(Figure 1.2) A simplistic plan of the archaeological site divided into regione, Ostia Antica. Present Day (Each building mentioned in the writing can be referred back to its regione through this map).

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(Figure 1.3) Coming out of the Medieval times, Glasgow had an exponential growth never seen before around the curving spine of the High Street. The speculative reason could be Glasgow's growing identity as a center for learning. The Glasgow University formed in 1451 impacted the increase in the population. Students and teachers brought in trades men and servants required to sustain the new academic community.

The university began its life closer to the Quadrivium of Wyndeheid but within a decade was moved down the high Street. This move placed it in the center of both the Glasgow Cross (the new economic center) down south and (the old economic center) Quadrivium for the next 500 hundred years. The academic community brought in more new housing and business to the area and strengthened the High Street.

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(Figure 1.4) A detail from Sulman’s panorama of Glasgow; published as a supplement to the Illustrated London News in 1864. I chose this picture as it shows the overgrown and extremely populated city-center of Glasgow in 1860. St. Andrew’s Square (center), Nelson’s Monument (bottom right) and the Clock tower of high street(Top left )can be seen prominently.

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(Figure 1.5) Demarcated location of the Casa di Serapide, Insula X, Regione III (As per the archaeological site survey).

(Figure 1.6) Casa di Serapide, Insula X, Regio III

(Figure 1.7) Salt market from Bridgegate, Glasgow, 1868, Thomas Annan

(The Building of Serapis, Insula X, Region III) Restored to its original state.

Arcades - A covered passage with arches along one or

This image shows the market Street, which is closed off vertically by shop fronts and Living quarters above them.

both sides.

Boutiques - A small shop.

Escalier - Staircase or Stairway.

Cour - Yard, a central courtyard in this context.

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central courtyard or a garden. These type of luxury apartments were later converted for commercial use.4 An example of a lower-class ‘Insula’, the ‘Caseggiato di Diana’ (Casa Di Diana), was likely used for short renting or temporary living. They acted more like an Inn for those working for a short period.5(Figure 1.8) The owners of ‘Insulae’ were usually wealthy Romans. In some cases, the ‘Insulae’ could be partly owned by several individuals, like a modern-day housing association.

Large, concentrated populations also meant that there were instances of risk living in these rapidly erupting Insulae. The structure was prompt to fire, especially for those dwelling on the upper floors, the living quarters on the upper floor were also less than ideal. As the demand for them grew exponentially, the businessmen did not mind making poor construction as if it were intended to fail. They could simply construct new ones and charge greater rent for the tenants.6

The Glasgow Tenement Tenement or ‘tenementum’ in Latin approaching the nineteenth Century referred explicitly to a type of building, a domestic building with more than one story which consisted of individual houses or households with a common entrance and staircase. This classification was not always the case; the term initially was referred to as ’a holding’ or synonymous with steading.7 The polished ashlar frontages of white and red stone (referring to tenements) came to the scene due to the considerable change in Scotland’s social conditions 4

DR. BECKER, JEFFREY A. 2016. "Roman Domestic Architecture: The Insula – Smarthistory".

Smarthistory.Org. https://smarthistory.org/roman-domestic-architecture-insula/ .

5

Bakker, Jan Theo. 1999. "Regio I - Insula III - Caseggiato Di Diana (I,III,3-4)". Ostia-Antica.Org. https://www.ostia-antica.org/regio1/3/3-3.htm .

6 DR. BECKER, JEFFREY A. 2016. "Roman Domestic Architecture: The Insula – Smarthistory".

Smarthistory.Org. https://smarthistory.org/roman-domestic-architecture-insula/ .

7

Worsdall, F., 1979. The Tenement. 1st ed. Edinburgh: W & R Chambers Ltd. Pg.-ix.

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OSTIA : RECONSTRUCTION OF THE HOUSE OF DIANA Casa di Diana, Insula III, Regio I (The House of Diana, Insula III, Region I)

4.

OSTIA : HOUSE OF DIANA PLAN OF THE GROUNDFLOOR

4.

KEY : 3.

1. FAUCES ENTRANCE.

5. 6.

2. STAIRCASE TO THE UPPER FLOORS.

4.

3. SIDE ENTRANCE FROM THE VIA DEI BALCONI.

4.

4. TABERNAE SHOPS.

4.

4.

5. COURTYARD. 4.

4.

6. FOUNTAIN. 1. 2.

a : rez de chaussée -the ground story of a building. b: étage- floor, in this context upper floor.

KEY Pièces d'habitation - Living rooms, in this context, living quarters.

Boutiques, pièces annexes - Small shops (On the ground floor), ancillary rooms Passages couverts, escaliers - Covered passages, stairs Cour - Yard, a central courtyard in this context.

(Figure 1.8) While doing the said research I was unable to get hold of a good elevation or a plan. So I have attempted to redraw them(Elevation on top and ground floor plan on the left) based on some of the illustrations as seen on the right and some drawings I found in a dissertation (Mentioned in the Bibliography).

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at large. Just as in the city of Ostia, apartment blocks’ arrival can be loosely traced back to the burgesses (merchants and craftsmen). The need for vertical housing began in the 17th Century; Trade business in Scotland was very diverse; hence, not as profitable as specialized cargo. However, the travels taken by Scottish merchants brought back considerable wealth and, more importantly, brought knowledge of cultured European societies. Glasgow, in its entirety, had eleven ports, each placed strategically on roads and on the bridge over the Clyde River on the south, which all lead to the inner city. The Urban development resembled that of the present coastline cities of Europe and followed the economic boom of the Roman port cities of the past. The buildings quickly went vertical, and in a short time, they were already three stories high with an attic closely resembling a ‘tenement.’8 The logical next step to cope with the economic boom was expanding the trades and facilitating bigger ships. Bigger ships meant deepening of the River Clyde. This process was done by digging out the river and erecting a stone embankment for about ten miles all the south side of the river. The river deepened from the natural 2 feet to 6 feet 10 inches. (Figure 1.9) The trade with the New World gaining importance, the legalization of free trade with English colonies and the merging of Scottish and English parliament meant that Glasgow was on a rapid growth trajectory. It started rivalling Bristol as it became the most important location on the west coast for trade with American colonies.9

8

Worsdall, F., 1979. The Tenement. 1st ed. Edinburgh: W & R Chambers Ltd. Pg-3

9

Worsdall, F., 1979. The Tenement. 1st ed. Edinburgh: W & R Chambers Ltd. Pg-3

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(Figure 1.9) I was unable to find appropriate images or plans of the Clyde river harbor prior to the 19th Century. The image above shows the proposed location of the ‘Windmill Croft’ Dock along the Clyde river. The harbor in 1840s was filled with transatlantic vessels using the restricted breath of channel as a canal-like linkage to the sea.

This was not always the case the river initially was deepened to the 6 to 10 feet measure to allow barges and smaller vessels to transship cargoes at port Glasgow and to move tobacco leaf and manufactured goods more quickly, more reliably and more profitably than road transport.

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New Town and Bourgeois The American war of Independence in 1775 changed commerce; there was no more direct tobacco trade between Glasgow and the American colonies. This singular investment state would have affected some tobacco firms, but Glasgow’s merchants had already diversified their interests and spread their investments widely. The diversification was done by tobacco ships carrying sugar and other commodities via the Caribbean to Glasgow. The Merchants, or “Virginia dons”, as they liked to call themselves, did a lot for the prosperity of the city. They were giving ships, port facilities, financial, commercial, and social advancement, thus causing the first major expansion of the medieval city.10 The Bourgeois class was content living in the urban tenements until it became a traditional form of urban housing. As their wealth, prestige, and the city prospered, the idea of comfort/convenience to the trading center became more of an annoyance to their increased reputation. The bourgeois moved to the old city’s borders, taking with them a piece of tenement history.11 The type of housing they built was Georgian style, like the Georgian house museum in Edinburgh, “a simplified form of an Italian Renaissance villa, with pediments, Corinthian pilasters, Palladian windows, balustrades and ornamental urns”.12 The Classy middle class moved westwards during the expansion. The streets north of Trongate were referred to as Glasgow’s “New Town”. Ingram Street at its spine, the new town brought in wide streets and squares. (Figure 1.10) This refinement was achieved by moving away from individually laid out medieval Riggs to a

10

Carol Foreman, Lost Glasgow: Glasgow's Lost Architectural Heritage, 1st edn (Edinburgh: Birlinn Limited, 2002) Pg-76,77

11

Worsdall, F., 1979. The Tenement. 1st ed. Edinburgh: W & R Chambers Ltd. Pg-4

12

Worsdall, F., 1979. The Tenement. 1st ed. Edinburgh: W & R Chambers Ltd. Pg-4

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1 2

(Figure 1.10) A survey by John McArthur, published in Glasgow Magazine and Review in 1783 is a plan of the city of Glasgow. The map shows the extent of the town at that time. The new town taking shape in the form of the grid pattern. Starting from the west the newly formed Buchanan Street, Queen street and Miller Streets form the vertical lines connecting to the Ingram street. One house standing on the Buchanan street and St. Andrew’s church alone on the north of Ingram Street.

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The Shawfield Masion Labled as No. 1 on the zoomed in map created by John McArthur ‘The Plan of the city oF GLASGOW’ (Figure 2).

(Figure 1.11) The Shawfield Mansion was home to Daniel Campbell, a member of Parliament in the early 1700s. Daniel Campbell was one of the first to move out of the overcrowded medieval city setting a trend of dictated mansions and expansion to the west. This mansion was also the site of a riot against ‘malt tax’ in June 1725.

Here I have presented the plans of the Ground floor(left) and the first Floor(right) both have an identical layout. The elevation on the top shows an early example of a Palladian Villa in Britain. It had apavilion17 roofed seven-bay frontage with a pedimented three-bay projecting centerpiece.

gridiron pattern. One example of the New Town tenements was Spreull’s land, 182 Trongate built in 1784. The Spreull’s was designed with shops on the ground floor and superior dwelling on the upper three floors. Each floor had two flats of five main apartments. The drawing-rooms were situated at the back of the building looking onto the court.13 (Figure 1.12) By the late 18th Century, the New town had become the most desirable area for living. As early as the 1820s, the classy residential suburb was starting to get commercialized. Warehouses and inns had taken over several houses and land, which resulted in the wealthy moving further west.14

Cotton is king!

The movement away from the tobacco trade due to the change in Glasgow’s relationship with the American Colonies resulted in the concentration on West Indian trade and the textile industries’ boom. Production started taking more importance than the trade, and Manufactures and Investors rose to power, equaling the long-standing Glasgow Merchants.15 David Dale, one of the many post-tobacco merchants with Richard Arkwright’s help, the inventor of the Water-frame, founded the famous spinning-mills of New Lanark in 1784. An entire village was set up next to the mills. The village consisted of three-storied apartment blocks closely resembling ‘Tenements’. This type of town architecture became the outline for Scottish industrial housing, as seen in the coming years of Glaswegian history.

David Dale employed hundreds of orphans at New Lanark. They were accommodated in ‘Tenements’ as described by Frank Worsdall: 13

Carol Foreman, Lost Glasgow: Glasgow's Lost Architectural Heritage, 1st edn (Edinburgh: Birlinn Limited, 2002) Pg-80,81,82

14

Carol Foreman, Lost Glasgow: Glasgow's Lost Architectural Heritage, 1st edn (Edinburgh: Birlinn Limited, 2002) Pg-87 15 Carol Foreman, Lost Glasgow: Glasgow's Lost Architectural Heritage, 1st edn (Edinburgh: Birlinn Limited, 2002) Pg-77

18

The Spreull’s Land Labled as No. 2 (I could not find the exact location of the building so i have marked the general location) on the zoomed in map created by John McArthur ‘The Plan of the city oF GLASGOW’ Figure 2.

(Figure 1.12) The New town occupied by the merchant class consisted of some notable villas inspired by Tenements but the larger section of the development took the traditional form of tenements. The Tenement to survive the longest was the Spreull’s Land, 182 Trongate. As seen in the elevation it has a typical tenemental frontage we recognise today. Shops below and living quarters up above. The tenement had a special feature of a hanging stair made possible with steps built into the outer walls.

The creators of this Tenement are unknown but there is a chance that Robert or James Adam(notable contributors to the architecture of Glasgow and Edinburgh at that time) helped build this one of a kind masterpiece of the late 18th century.

19

(Figure 1.13) The image depicts one of the many lost streets of Glasgow. Jamaica Street in the 1880s had moved on from merchants wealthy housing to being famous for its collection of early iron-framed warehouses. The building on the right is the only one standing, known as “The Iron Building”, for its first and most refined of the street’s grand iron edifices.

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(Figure 1.14) One of the Improvement Trusts' methods to tackle the ever-growing slums and homeless population of the area was the erection of common 'lodging-houses' or 'models' as they were generally known. This plan is of a lodging house in Clyde Street (now Abercromby Street) in Calton, by Carrick, 1870. These lodging houses were sometimes repurposed, dreaded oldTenements of the old city, or purpose-built but still poor construction and sometimes withinhumane standards.

21

(Figure 1.15) Once the high street's prestige, these tenement buildings of the 18th and early 19th Century by late 19th Century were 'made down', or subdivided, into lodging houses.

Note the Seventeenth-century ashlar-faced blocks, with crowstepped gablets.

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“well-aired rooms, three in a bed, on a straw mattress with sheets and blankets, the dormitories being scrubbed weekly and lime-washed twice a year”.16 Steam power’s application to cotton spinning caused an immediate concentration of mills in the area just outside the city limits. From nineteen in 1787, thirty-nine in 1796, to 120 mills in 1812. The main hot spots of the thriving industry were Anderston on the west and Calton on the east. These villages gained importance as industrial communities. The millworkers were not segregated as in the rural areas but drawn from the district around their employment place. The mill workers were provided three-story Tenements with scant provisions for comfort. The buildings stood as close to each other and the mills as possible. As employment in mills became prominent, immigrant workers (Irish, island folk and Highlanders) started filling in. The ones who failed at employment were left displaced, impoverished, and deprived. The authorities did very little in terms of housing for these folks.17

Unemployed, looking for lodging.

The early 19th Century saw a significant unemployment scale, and when the recession hit in 1816, the mills were forced to close. People were left with no money, and they were only able to afford the most wretched accommodations.

The displaced, impoverished, and deprived became the large chunk of the community that moved away from the industrial houses into the decaying old city around the high street, the Gallowgate, Bridgegate and Salt market –where buildings were oldest and rent the cheapest. The authorities did very little in terms of housing, keeping an abysmal standard.18 This lack of care for old tenements on the medieval High Street gave ‘Tenements’ a bad name and forced an association to poverty and slum.

16

Worsdall, F., 1979. The Tenement. 1st ed. Edinburgh: W & R Chambers Ltd. Pg-4,5

17

Worsdall, F., 1979. The Tenement. 1st ed. Edinburgh: W & R Chambers Ltd. Pg-5

18

Worsdall, F., 1979. The Tenement. 1st ed. Edinburgh: W & R Chambers Ltd. Pg-6

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“A report of 1896 tells us that the normal inmate of the lodging-house has no place in the social scale and no desire to attain one. ‘His horizon extends not beyond the day to which he awakens, and if for that day he can stay the pangs of hunger if he can get the wherewithal to command the two luxuries of his lifealcohol and tobacco therewith, he is content.”19

Epidemics and improvement programs Glasgow was long overdue for proper care, especially of the slums and the decaying populous. The improvement came in late after the cholera epidemics of 1848 and 1853. The defective water supply from the contaminated Clyde river, wells, and the inhumane housing standards of the 1850s were the notable causes.

The slums lacked legislation to safeguard health. Tenements were being built in what had been garden ground belonging to the street buildings creating long narrow lanes or closes, which meant that they were deficient in both light and ventilation.20(Figure 1.16) The city conducted several inquiries into these less than adequate housing standards resulting in the Police Act of 1862. Some of the clauses were like height limitations to four stories, an equal ratio to be maintained between the building height and the street’s width, not to mention sanitation improvement, backyard gardens, and inclusion of ash pits. An image of a Victorian city with its grey, beige, and reddish sandstone spreading rapidly with 21052 tenement houses authorized between 1872-1876. These are the improved tenements that one would see and recognize today.21

19

Worsdall, F., 1979. The Tenement. 1st ed. Edinburgh: W & R Chambers Ltd. Pg-8

20

Worsdall, F., 1979. The Tenement. 1st ed. Edinburgh: W & R Chambers Ltd. Pg-8

21

McKean, Charles. 2020. "The Glasgow Story: 1830S To 1914: Buildings And Cityscape: Tenements".

Theglasgowstory.Com. Accessed December 23. https://www.theglasgowstory.com/story/?id=TGSDF10.

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(Figure 1.16) A photograph by Thomas Annan of the Fiddler's Close, 75 High Street. Frank Worsdall, in his book, notes the development of the city's water supply: "a pump above the original well can be seen in the right foreground, with behind it an outside sink at the top of the stair-a traditional stage. In the Tenement on the left, there is an internal water supply, although the soil pipe still discharges into an open drain.

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(Figure 1.17) The 1-inch discs (above) give the house's cubic footage in question and the number of adults who can legally occupy it. Half an adult can be interpreted as a child below eight years of age. (From the collection of the People's Palace, Glasgow Green.)

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Tenements remained relatively of neutral pattern offering single-room flats or apartments with a parlor, dining and drawing rooms, acquiring Glasgow an image of physical homogeneity and a semblance of an integrated community. (Figures 1.18 and 1.19) However, as it started becoming uneconomical for private builders to continue building houses for rent in 1910, Tenement’s construction effectively stopped.22 (Figure 1.21) The tenements and the current uses of the word ‘insula’ describe multifamily or multi-dwelling houses run on tenancies. One cannot deny that both types were fueled by the growing middle class and their pursuit for economic growth.23 May it be for the purpose of housing cheap labor or having luxuries of a larger house in the urban growing congestion of a prosperous city, here in Glasgow or back in ancient Rome.

22

Worsdall, F., 1979. The Tenement. 1st ed. Edinburgh: W & R Chambers Ltd. Pg-11

23

Storey, Glenn R. 2004. "The Meaning Of "Insula" In Roman Residential Terminology". Memoirs Of The American Academy In Rome 49. doi:10.2307/4238817 Pg-80.

27

(Figure 1.18) These pictures show the life of a Room-and-kitchen house, 1946. This single-end in Howard Street, now Finnart Street, Bridgeton, was built by the City Improvement trust. The single-end got mixed with poverty and Slum housing, but it was, in fact, an ideal layout for a single person living in the city of Glasgow.

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(Figure 1.19) 1-5 Abbotsford Place. It is an excellent example of tenements' adaptability for various social classes. These elevations and plans show the Tenement's use for middle-class housing.

29

(Figure 1.20) The elevations and plans are of a tenement at High Street and Duke Street's corner, built (1899-1902) by City Improvement Trust.

30

(Figure 1.21) 31

Chapter 1 (Figure 1.1) Crawford, Katherine. (2019). Visualising Ostia's Processional Landscape Through a Multi-Layered Computational Approach: Case Study of the Cult of the Magna Mater. Open Archaeology. 5.

10.1515/opar-2019-0028.

(Figure 1.2) R.Consoli), MM (. B. "Ostia." Ancient History Encyclopedia. Last modified May 10, 2013. https://www.ancient.eu/image/1208/.

(Figure 1.3) Reed, Peter. 2006. Glasgow. 1st ed. Edinburgh: Edinburgh Univ. Press. Pg-17

Text - Pg16 (Figure 1.4) Worsdall, F., 1979. The Tenement. 1st ed. Edinburgh: W & R Chambers Ltd. Plate 27 Text - Plate 27

(Figure 1.5) "Atlante Di Ostia Antica". 2021. Ia-Ostiaantica.Org. Accessed January 10. https://www.ia-ostiaantica.org/news/atlante-di-ostia-antica/.

(Figure 1.6) "ARCHITECTURE ROMAINE - CALAMEO Downloader". 2021. Calameo.Download. Accessed January 10. http://calameo.download/00089986955030948f485. Pg. 13

(Figure 1.7) "Saltmarket From Bridgegate". 2021. National Galleries Of Scotland. Accessed April 12. https://www.nationalgalleries.org/art-and-artists/9035/saltmarket-bridgegate.

(Figure 1.8) "ARCHITECTURE ROMAINE - CALAMEO Downloader". 2021. Calameo.Download. Accessed January 10. http://calameo.download/00089986955030948f485. Pg. 13

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(Figure 1.9) Reed, Peter. 2006. Glasgow. 1st ed. Edinburgh: Edinburgh Univ. Press. Pg-46 Text - Pg-41

(Figure 1.10) Carol Foreman, Lost Glasgow: Glasgow's Lost Architectural Heritage, 1st edn (Edinburgh: Birlinn Limited, 2002) Pg-81 Text - Pg-81

(Figure 1.11) Agostini, De. 2019. "Plan And Facade Of Daniel Campbell's Shawfield Mansion, Glasgow,...". Getty Images. https://www.gettyimages.co.uk/detail/news-photo/plan-and-facade-of-daniel-campbells-shawfield -mansion-news-photo/1150976145.

Text - Pg-91 and 92

(Figure 1.12) Worsdall, F., 1979. The Tenement. 1st ed. Edinburgh: W & R Chambers Ltd. Plate 24 and Figure 3, Pg-72 Text - Pg-72,73

(Figure 1.13) Carol Foreman, Lost Glasgow: Glasgow's Lost Architectural Heritage, 1st edn (Edinburgh: Birlinn Limited, 2002) Pg-201 Text - Pg-201

(Figure 1.14) Reed, Peter. 2006. Glasgow. 1st ed. Edinburgh: Edinburgh Univ. Press. Pg-94 Text - Pg-94

(Figure 1.15) Reed, Peter. 2006. Glasgow. 1st ed. Edinburgh: Edinburgh Univ. Press. Pg-107 Text - Pg-107

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(Figure 1.16) Worsdall, F., 1979. The Tenement. 1st ed. Edinburgh: W & R Chambers Ltd. Plate 5 Text - Plate 5

(Figure 1.17) Worsdall, F., 1979. The Tenement. 1st ed. Edinburgh: W & R Chambers Ltd. Plate 6 Text - Plate 6

(Figure 1.18) Worsdall, F., 1979. The Tenement. 1st ed. Edinburgh: W & R Chambers Ltd. Plate 19 Text - Plate 19

(Figure 1.19) Worsdall, F., 1979. The Tenement. 1st ed. Edinburgh: W & R Chambers Ltd. Figure 5, Pg-80 Text - Page-80

(Figure 1.20) Reed, Peter. 2006. Glasgow. 1st ed. Edinburgh: Edinburgh Univ. Press. Pg-100 Text - Pg-100

(Figure 1.21) Worsdall, F., 1979. The Tenement. 1st ed. Edinburgh: W & R Chambers Ltd. Plate 8

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Chapter 2: Thatch Houses of Scotland and the making of Burghs.

Thatched houses are pretty rare in present-day Scotland, but this was not the case in prehistoric times.24 One could find Thatched houses as the only way of living back then. The best way to understand this type of housing is by looking at an archaeological excavation analysis of a bronze age house built in Scotland. The study tells us that they were built with low stone walls, presumably with turf or soil, and straw or heather was used as thatch material for the roof, held up by timber frames.25 Jumping forward to the 14th and 15th Century Scotland, the population had concentrated in and around prosperous land, forming small medieval towns. One such town was Glasgow, a small medieval town comprising no more than three to four hundred homes and a population of merely a few thousand. (Figure 2.1) The town folk's houses were an evolution of the thatched houses made in prehistoric times.26(Figure 2.2) James Cleland, a historical writer, wrote about the routines and the day-to-day lives of Glasgow's citizens; he mentions the state of the average domestic houses of the 19th Century as they were: "of a very moderate and frugal cast. The houses were almost without exception covered with Thatch, and those occupied by the highest class of citizens contained-

24

Hunnisett-Snow, Jessica. 2018. "Thatch In Scotland''. Buildingconservation.Com. https://www.buildingconservation.com/articles/thatch-scotland/thatch-scotland.html.

25

SCOTLAND, HISTORIC ENVIRONMENT. 2018. SCOTLAND’S THATCHED BUILDINGS: Introductory Designation Report 2018. 1st ed. Edinburgh: Historic Environment Scotland: Designations Team. Pg-6

26

Hugh McBrien, W. 2004. "The Glasgow Story: Beginnings: Early Times to 1560: Everyday Life: The Home".

Theglasgowstory.Com. https://www.theglasgowstory.com/story/?id=TGSAA04

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(Figure 2.1) A concept drawing of medieval Glasgow, showing its double cruciform shape created by its eight main streets. Notably Glasgow was never a walled city instead each main road met the open country. The only form of divide were the larger stone archway and two wooden gates at the end of each street which would be closed at night, guarded in times of plague and locked if there were any forcible threats.

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(Figure 2.2) The artistic renders are of Thatched houses in the ‘Bell o’ the Brae’(the name given to the steep part of High Street) which were made of basic materials(turf, soil, straw and heather), and a few new introductions like wattle or clay for walls, crafted timber for the roof shingles and timber logs for the primary structure.

37

only one public room, a dining room, even that was used only when they had company."27(Figure 2.3) These types of housing were commonly arranged along the main street of the town. (Figure 2.4) As time passed and the medieval town concentrated a higher number in population and economy, the well to do folks chose to go vertical, building two-story houses. These houses had a larger footprint with commercial activity on the ground floor and living quarters above. (Figure 2.5) The poorly constructed houses near the 'prime plots' around the market cross were soon replaced with more substantial multi-story Thatched houses. These houses were the first to use stone walls and a more robust timber structure, keeping the ground floor as commercial premises, and the increased number of upper floors were left for the use of the owner and or tenants.28 By the late 16th Century, vertical housing was popping up everywhere in the burgh. Moreover, the street frontages' elegant buildings were made from stone and slate, but the rising population houses were still timber and Thatch. (Figure 2.7) Since people stopped working at home and started powering industries, trade, and overseas commerce, the medieval town population increased.29 As a result, buildings were built up higher to accommodate tenants while still retaining the thatched roof. (Figure 2.8) In Scotland's earliest found legal documents about Thatch houses (17th Century onwards), Thatch is mentioned as a specific roof material. These documents consist mainly of by-laws banning or regulating the use of Thatch in burghs due to its fire risks consequently, Thatch houses started to disappear from the centers of the burghs by late 17th century.30(Figure 2.11) 27

Hamish Fraser, W. 2004. "The Glasgow Story: 1770S To 1830S: Everyday Life: The Home".

Theglasgowstory.Com. https://www.theglasgowstory.com/story/?id=TGSCA04.

28 Hugh McBrien, W. 2004. "The Glasgow Story: Beginnings: Early Times to 1560: Everyday Life: The Home".

Theglasgowstory.Com. https://www.theglasgowstory.com/story/?id=TGSAA04 29

Hugh McBrien, W. 2004. "The Glasgow Story: The Rising Burgh: 1560 to 1770s: Everyday Life: The Home".

Theglasgowstory.Com. https://www.theglasgowstory.com/story/?id=TGSBA04

30

SCOTLAND, HISTORIC ENVIRONMENT. 2018. SCOTLAND’S THATCHED BUILDINGS: Introductory Designation Report 2018. 1st ed. Edinburgh: Historic Environment Scotland: Designations Team. Pg-7

38

(Figure 2.3) This watercolor by Andrew Donaldson, c.1817 shows an average domestic house on the high street. Roofed with thatch, these houses of the early 19th century were inflammable, ram shackled and vermin-ridden. Hence, were prone to disease and horrendous to live in.

39

(Figure 2.4) In Glasgow's case, the High Street houses were built on linear plots, with the front part of the house being a place for commerce and living, and the back part (sometimes a separate structure ) being small workshops where the 'materials' would be made.

40

(Figure 2.5) Above is a thatched malt barn and kiln that stood back from the roadway at the foot of Mitchell Street. Built in the sixteenth Century.

41

(Figure 2.6) Glasgow University Began its life in the so called ‘Auld Pedagogy’ which stood on the south side of Rottenrow. The images show its ruins which were removed close to 1860.

42

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(Figure 2.7) The woodcut shows how a part of Kirk Street would have looked in 1747. We can see the Great Tower of Bishop’s Castle built by Bishop Cameron (A great example of vertical housing perpetuate by old tower houses) in the center and The Glasgow Cathedral behind it. This image also shows domestic houses on either side of the street, where we can notice the more substantial materials used to make these houses.

(Figure 2.8) This painting by William Simpson illustrates the south side of Drygate with Rottenrow in the distance. The street in 1843 had a mix of buildings: starting from the left; a Thatch building built around 1440, a tall and narrow tower-shaped dwelling house from the late 14th century and a 17th-century tenement featuring timber gables. The tenement on the right appears to be a more modern version constructed during the expansion of Drygate.

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(Figure 2.9) The basic materials for thatched houses(heather, straw, reed, wattle, clay and marram grass) remind the same as late as the end of the 19th Century. The images above show Thatch houses around Glasgow during the 19th century. Starting from the top, Picture 1: Main Street, Gorbals, Picture 2: Ladywell Street, Picture 3: Shawlands neighborhood.

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(Figure 2.10) The map shows the extent of over filling of houses with-in the old town. Narrow lanes and closes were the main accesses to the tenements behind the once on the High street. The north side of the high street in particular was filled with illness, as a result of living so tightly together. Plague and leprosy were frequent, and the burgh’s solution was death penalty for sheltering adeceased. There was the danger of fire and structural problems too, due to the heights of the buildings. The Scottish Parliamentin 1624 forbade the use of thatch for roofing (to prevent fires) – slates, tiles or lead started to be used thereafter.

(Figure 2.11) The rural or suburban building-types are standing alongside new tenements that had reached four stories high by the late 19th century. The thatch-roofed rubble cottages could be from the early 18th century.

(Figure 2.12) 47

(Figure 2.13) This archetype was quite influential to the Tenement as it picked up on the same load-bearing walls, timber frame structure and replaced the thatched roof with stone slates or tiles. This connection is made clear by the open plan thatched houses and their modularity and adaptability to the resident's various needs.

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Chapter 2 (Figure 2.1) Carol Foreman, Lost Glasgow: Glasgow's Lost Architectural Heritage, 1st edn (Edinburgh: Birlinn Limited, 2002) Pg-12 Text - Pg-12

(Figure 2.2) Carol Foreman, Lost Glasgow: Glasgow's Lost Architectural Heritage, 1st edn (Edinburgh: Birlinn Limited, 2002) Pg-26 Text - Pg-26

(Figure 2.3) Carol Foreman, Lost Glasgow: Glasgow's Lost Architectural Heritage, 1st edn (Edinburgh: Birlinn Limited, 2002) Pg-25 Text - Pg-25

(Figure 2.4) Carol Foreman, Lost Glasgow: Glasgow's Lost Architectural Heritage, 1st edn (Edinburgh: Birlinn Limited, 2002) Pg-31

(Figure 2.5) Carol Foreman, Lost Glasgow: Glasgow's Lost Architectural Heritage, 1st edn (Edinburgh: Birlinn Limited, 2002) Pg-47 Text - Pg-47

(Figure 2.6) Carol Foreman, Lost Glasgow: Glasgow's Lost Architectural Heritage, 1st edn (Edinburgh: Birlinn Limited, 2002) Pg-16 Text - Pg-16

(Figure 2.7) ABACUS, Scott. 2004. "Theglasgowstory: Around The Castle". Theglasgowstory.Com. https://www.theglasgowstory.com/image/?inum=TGSA01003.

Text - Carol Foreman, Lost Glasgow: Glasgow's Lost Architectural Heritage, 1st edn (Edinburgh: Birlinn Limited, 2002) Pg-8

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(Figure 2.8) Carol Foreman, Lost Glasgow: Glasgow's Lost Architectural Heritage, 1st edn (Edinburgh: Birlinn Limited, 2002) Pg-20 Text - Pg-20

(Figure 2.9) Worsdall, F., 1979. The Tenement. 1st ed. Edinburgh: W & R Chambers Ltd. Plate 25 ABACUS, Scott. 2004. "Theglasgowstory: Around The Castle". Theglasgowstory.Com. https://www.theglasgowstory.com/image/?inum=TGSA01255&t=2 "The Hidden Glasgow Forums • View Topic - Past Present | Glasgow, Glasgow Scotland, Scottish Heritage". 2021. Pinterest. Accessed April 12. https://www.pinterest.de/pin/546976317230724244/.

Text - Plate 25 and SCOTLAND, HISTORIC ENVIRONMENT. 2018. SCOTLAND’S THATCHED BUILDINGS: Introductory Designation Report 2018. 1st ed. Edinburgh: Historic Environment Scotland: Designations Team. Pg-6

(Figure 2.10) "Bird's Eye View Of Edinburgh From The South, 1647 - James Gordon - BRITTON-IMAGES". 2021.

BRITTON-IMAGES. https://britton-images.com/product/birds-eye-view-of-edinburgh-from-the-south-1647-james-gord on/.

Text - SCOTLAND, HISTORIC ENVIRONMENT. 2018. SCOTLAND’S THATCHED BUILDINGS: Introductory Designation Report 2018. 1st ed. Edinburgh: Historic Environment Scotland: Designations Team. Pg-7

(Figure 2.11) Horsey, Miles. 1990. Tenements & Towers. 1st ed. [Edinburgh]: H.M.S.O. [for the Royal Commission on Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland]. Pg-1 Text - Pg-1

(Figure 2.12) Horsey, Miles. 1990. Tenements & Towers. 1st ed. [Edinburgh]: H.M.S.O. [for the Royal Commission on Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland]. Pg-xii Text - Pg-xii

(Figure 2.11) "Scottish Croft House Design (Page 1) - Line.17QQ.Com". 2010. Line.17Qq.Com. https://line.17qq.com/articles/whwrhatax.html.

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Chapter 3: Scottish Castles and Tower Houses as a visual influence.

After looking into the single-story thatched houses and their progression, domestic housingchose to go vertical than horizontal. This alternative was not a new idea as it had been done for centuries in the form of castles and fortified tower houses across Scotland.31 The earliest fortified sites (before recorded history) consisted merely of hill forts, brochs and duns. Motte and Bailey’s castles came next, along with feudalism- this type of fortification of castles was not used for long as Stone castles started to be used around the 12th Century.32 By the end of the 13th Century, castles were well established as stone and timber construction and introduced an encircling stone wall. This era’s large stone castles were hard to replicate or maintain, given their grandeur and expense. As a result, ‘Keeps’ were erected within the fortified Castle by the late 14th and 15th Century to house and protect the lords in a more manageable form. These ‘Keeps’ were later replicated and evolved into less defensive but more complex and comfortoriented tower houses. The tower house design spread like wildfire all through Scotland, and by the 16th and 17th Century, they had become somewhat of an archetype of luxury living in newly forming burghs. A tower house’s simple rectangular plan was also modified into L- and Z- plan to provide more comfort, accommodation, and safety against fire hazards.33(Figure 3.6) These new noble houses introduced thinner walls, more extensive/spacious floor plans, decorative features, heraldic panels, inscribed lintels, tempera paintings, and modelled plasterwork, showing the influences of the renaissance. (Figure 3.8)

31

Worsdall, F., 1979. The Tenement. 1st ed. Edinburgh: W & R Chambers Ltd. Pg-61.

32

Coventry, Martin. 2001. The Castles Of Scotland. 3rd ed. Musselburgh: Goblinshead. Pg-3

33

Coventry, Martin. 2001. The Castles Of Scotland. 3rd ed. Musselburgh: Goblinshead. Pg-6

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(Figure 3.1) Alloa Tower - now a simple keep ‘Keeps’ were usually a square or rectangular tower with an adjoining courtyard. The walls were thick and had three stories (Hall on the first floor, private chambers for the lord on the second and garret story above on the third floor) with a slate stone roof or a simple keep slab to protect against fire attacks. The courtyard was less protected, with buildings for a kitchen, stables, chapel and a brewhouse.

(Figure 3.2) Plan of a keep

(Figure 3.3) Plan of a tower.

Notice the thinner walls pf the tower house plan.

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(Figure 3.4) Plan of a Z-plan tower

(Figure 3.5) Claypous Castle - A great example of a z-plan tower house

(Figure 3.6) This image is of Napier's family old tower house. In the present day, the Merchiston castle is a central feature of the Napier University campus at the eastern end of Colinton Road.

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(Figure 3.7) The courtyard buildings of the ‘Keep’ house like the kitchen, brewery, and wine cellars were brought into the tower houses’ basement, slowly transforming the building into a free-standing one. 54

(Figure 3.8) This photograph taken in 1938 shows the interior of the building Gladstone’s land in Edinburgh with its tower house inspired tempera paintings and decorative arches.

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Plan of the first floor

Section through the tower

(Figure 3.9) Tower houses from the early 16th century are quite a rare find in Scotland. This group of images show an unusually elaborated townhouse of the Knights of St John of Jerusalem constructed in Linlithgow. It consisted of street frontages and an interior with two courts behind a long, elaborate hall with an open timber roof and a carved fireplace. The tall tower on the southeast had an oriel window. This tower house is an excellent example of vertical housing as part of an evolving Burgh.

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For the following decades, Castles started to lose importance as the nobles chose to move into Burghs like Glasgow, getting away from the opulent living and looking towards an evolved idea of comfort living in vertical housing. (Figure 3.9) On the other hand, the ‘Kings of Scots’ built or refurbished their royal palaces (private residences) with the 15th and 16th Century’s comfort and renaissance style aesthetics.34 After following the evolution of Castle living and analyzing plans and photographs, we can observe that tower houses share some similarities in their height, floor plans, the inclusion of attics and the use of a single staircase connecting the vertically laid out rooms to the Tenements later found in Glasgow’s new town.

Furthermore, today’s “continental form of house building typified by the tenement” shares a remarkable resemblance to castles and tower houses as early as the 13th Century.35(Figures 3.13 and 3.14)

34

Coventry, Martin. 2001. The Castles Of Scotland. 3rd ed. Musselburgh: Goblinshead. Pg-7

35

Worsdall, F., 1979. The Tenement. 1st ed. Edinburgh: W & R Chambers Ltd. Pg-61.

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C Ground Floor

(Figure 3.11)

B Ground Floor

A Ground Floor (Figure 3.10) Provand’s Lordship: Plans

High Street/Castel Street area, early 1500s(Showing Cathedral and Provand’s Lordship

(Figure 3.12) Provand’s Lordship in watercolor. The painting is one of a series of fifty-five painted by Simpson between 1893 and 1898.

An example of an early tenement replicating the characteristics of a tower house specifically the townhouse of the Knights of St John of Jerusalem. The Provand’s Lordship in Castle Street was erected circa 1471 by Bishop Andrew Muirhead as the domestic portion of St Nicholas Hospital.

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(Figure 3.13) Haggs Castle: Plans (Reproduced from MacGibbon and Ross, Castellated and Domestic Architecture of Scotland, 1887-92)

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(Figure 3.14) The images above visualize a tenement through the front and back elevations and a plan. These images point out the similarities between Tenements and Tower houses (Figure 3.13), using the circular staircase. Circular staircases were found in several tenements throughout the 18th century. We can also see the aesthetic effects of Castles and Tower houses on the frontage of these tenements.

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(Figure 3.15) Robert Gourlay’s house on the site of the present Melbourne Place in the 19th Century. The crow-stepped gables and the overall frontage was quite influential to the ‘Tenement’ aesthetic. The tenements built by the city improvement trust on the high street of Glasgow first replicated this aesthetic. This reduplication of a tower house characteristic was to give the old medieval city center a grandiose appearance.

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(Figure 3.16) Charing Cross, 1901. The impressive frontage of Charing Cross Mansions can be seen in the background, behind the Grand Hotel. These buildings show Glasgow's characteristic influences of the tower house aesthetics.

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Chapter 3 (Figure 3.1) Coventry, Martin. 2001. The Castles Of Scotland. 3rd ed. Musselburgh: Goblinshead. Pg-6 Text - Pg-6

(Figure 3.2) Coventry, Martin. 2001. The Castles Of Scotland. 3rd ed. Musselburgh: Goblinshead. Pg-6 Text - Pg-6

(Figure 3.3) Coventry, Martin. 2001. The Castles Of Scotland. 3rd ed. Musselburgh: Goblinshead. Pg-6 Text - Pg-6

(Figure 3.4) Coventry, Martin. 2001. The Castles Of Scotland. 3rd ed. Musselburgh: Goblinshead. Pg-7 Text - Pg-7

(Figure 3.5) Coventry, Martin. 2001. The Castles Of Scotland. 3rd ed. Musselburgh: Goblinshead. Pg-7 Text - Pg-7

(Figure 3.6) Coghill, Hamish. 2014. Lost Edinburgh: Edinburgh's Lost Architectural Heritage. 1st ed. Edinburgh: Birlinn Limited. Pg-184 Text - Pg-184

(Figure 3.7) Coventry, Martin. 2001. The Castles Of Scotland. 3rd ed. Musselburgh: Goblinshead. Pg-5,6 Text - Pg-6

(Figure 3.8) "Gladstone's Land Edinburgh, Interiors 1938 | Canmore". 2021. Canmore.Org.Uk. https://canmore.org.uk/collection/2097325.

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(Figure 3.9) MacGibbon, David, and Thomas Ross. 1887. The Castellated And Domestic Architecture Of Scotland. 1st ed. Edinburgh: Edinburgh : D. Douglas. Pg-508, 510, 513 and 514 Text - Pg-508, 510, 513 and 514

(Figure 3.10) Williamson, Elizabeth, Anne Riches, and Malcolm Higgs. 1990. Glasgow. 1st ed. London: The Penguin Group. Pg- 142 Text - 142

(Figure 3.11) "Photographs Of The Cathedral And Precinct In Glasgow: Bishop's Castle, David Livingstone Statue".

2021. Caingram.Info. https://www.caingram.info/Scotland/Pic_htm/cathedral_2.htm.

(Figure 3.12) ABACUS, Scott. 2004. "Theglasgowstory: Around The Castle". Theglasgowstory.Com. https://www.theglasgowstory.com/image/?inum=TGSE00525

(Figure 3.13) Williamson, Elizabeth, Anne Riches, and Malcolm Higgs. 1990. Glasgow. 1st ed. London: The Penguin Group. Pg-573 Text - Pg-573

(Figure 3.14) Worsdall, F., 1979. The Tenement. 1st ed. Edinburgh: W & R Chambers Ltd. Plate 24,29 and Figure 2

(Figure 3.15) Coghill, Hamish. 2014. Lost Edinburgh: Edinburgh's Lost Architectural Heritage. 1st ed. Edinburgh: Birlinn Limited. Pg-119 Text - Pg-119

(Figure 3.16) Worsdall, F., 1979. The Tenement. 1st ed. Edinburgh: W & R Chambers Ltd. Plate 40 Text - Plate 40

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Chapter 4: Two cities and their Tenements.

At the beginning of the 16th Century, Edinburgh was recognized by its "little altered Medieval fishbone street pattern of narrow closes, leading off the spine formed by the Royal Mile".36 These congested domestic houses were, without exception, built with wood and clay. Standing at a maximum of two stories high, sometimes with an attic and mostly topped with a thatched roof.37(Figure 4.1) "A typical 16th-century house in Edinburgh, had, on the ground floor, cellar, stables or shops; on the first floor, a hall and a chamber, the latter being in almost every case ensuite with the former and either at one end or behind it; and in the roof space, a loft or

attic."38

In the 1544 invasion of Edinburgh, these houses were burnt down quickly, leaving only parts of the Castle, St. Giles and Holyrood, standing today.39 After the reconstruction, the newly built houses were not much different from the ones before. The only modification was that the wooden galleries that accessed the stories above and connected various main streets were replaced with more substantial structures of stone and lime.40(Figure 4.2)

36

Pre -1750 Buildings In Edinburgh Old Town Conservation Area. 2021. Ebook. 1st ed. Edinburgh: The City of Edinburgh Council. Accessed April 10. Pg-3

37

Pre -1750 Buildings In Edinburgh Old Town Conservation Area. 2021. Ebook. 1st ed. Edinburgh: The City of Edinburgh Council. Accessed April 10. Pg-4

38

Coghill, Hamish. 2014. Lost Edinburgh: Edinburgh's Lost Architectural Heritage. 1st ed. Edinburgh: Birlinn Limited. Pg-43

39

Pre -1750 Buildings In Edinburgh Old Town Conservation Area. 2021. Ebook. 1st ed. Edinburgh: The City of Edinburgh Council. Accessed April 10. Pg-4

40

Coghill, Hamish. 2014. Lost Edinburgh: Edinburgh's Lost Architectural Heritage. 1st ed. Edinburgh: Birlinn Limited. Pg-43

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(Figure 4.1) Houses in 16th and 17th century Edinburgh featured timber frontage over arched galleries. These houses were frequently the place of business, with workshops or brewhouses taking up the ground floor and living quarters taking the upper floors.

(Figure 4.2) The illustration above shows houses in Cowgate. This street was quite profitable, and many distinguished citizens lived and gained access to the High Street by climbing the step closes and wynds which linked the two streets.

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Nobility and Merchants started to dwell in the city by the end of the 16th Century. Most of the nobility settled around the royal court, building some of the first houses with stone.

Soon after, the old town was starting to get denser with substantial original townhouses now not only limited to the nobles but also the Merchants, traders, and specialized artisans.41 The steady increase in the commoners' population meant that buildings were beginning to be built on other buildings' garden spaces standing on the street front. The buildings on the primary frontages were rebuilt as Tenements, and their heights were mounting higher and higher. By the 17th Century, Tenements reached up to eight, ten or twelve stories and were made of the characteristic stone and slate roof. These tall and cramped tenements came with their own set of problems, comparable to the narrow, dingy lanes and closes of Glasgow's high street.42(Figures 4.4 and 4.5) The appearance of the 17th Century buildings of Glasgow and Edinburgh were distinctive. On the one hand, Glasgow's high street featured stone-built projections with an open arcade at street level, offering a practical and attractive roofed shopping area. These were designed specifically for the commercial frontages on the ground floor.43(Figure 4.6)

41

Pre -1750 Buildings In Edinburgh Old Town Conservation Area. 2021. Ebook. 1st ed. Edinburgh: The City of Edinburgh Council. Accessed April 10. Pg-4

42

Coghill, Hamish. 2014. Lost Edinburgh: Edinburgh's Lost Architectural Heritage. 1st ed. Edinburgh: Birlinn Limited. Pg-61

43

Worsdall, F., 1979. The Tenement. 1st ed. Edinburgh: W & R Chambers Ltd. Pg-65

44

Worsdall, F., 1979. The Tenement. 1st ed. Edinburgh: W & R Chambers Ltd. Pg-62

45

Worsdall, F., 1979. The Tenement. 1st ed. Edinburgh: W & R Chambers Ltd. Pg-63

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(Figure 4.3) These three images show the progression in Tenements' height through the years between the late 16th and 17th century. The old town's state made it prone to fire hazards, spontaneous buckling, and unhygienic living situations.

(Figure 4.4)

(Figure 4.5)

These two images compare the state of closes around a similar time between Edinburgh and Glasgow.

Figure 4.4: This image taken by Thomas Annan in 1868 shows a narrow close off the High Street.

Figure 4.5: This image is of Advocate’s Close in Edinburgh, which runs from the High Street northwards down the slope. The close still has some of the oldest houses of the city in its upper reaches.

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(Figure 4.6) The numbers 17-27 in High Street of the early seventeenth century are an excellent example of observing the commercial frontages on the ground floor and the living quarters up above.

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(Figure 4.7) On the high street, John Knox House is an excellent example of Edinburgh’s solution for the overly dense living that the old city experienced. The original structure dates back to 1545, but it has been continuously added over as there was no space for demolition, giving it a ‘Frankenstein’ aesthetic.

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(Figure 4. 8) The overpopulation forced the Tenements to protrude out the facade as they went taller.

Image 1: On the right-hand side, we can see a timber structure extending out of a Tenements top floor.

Image 2: We can see how the tenements on the left-hand side extended each floor level outwards.

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(Figure 4.9) Gladstone's Land 481& 483 Lawnmarket is one of the oldest tenements in Edinburgh. The original frontage dates back to the 17th century but was remodeled and extended to create opulently decorated apartments. Once home to wealthy tenements and high end grocers on the ground floor by mid-18th Century was engulfed by poor inhabitants and a decrepit aesthetic. This was due to the wealthy moving out of the old town and leaving it for the cities impoverished inhabitants.

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On the other hand, the stone-built projections were not very popular in the narrow, congested Edinburgh's old town. Alternatively, The John Knox House, 45 High Street, one of Edinburgh's oldest, dating back to 1545, protruded onto the street and had a flat frontage.44(Figure 4.7) This opposition between the two burghs stands true to a group of aesthetic differences; the height (Tenements in Edinburgh were built higher due to the congested old town), the gable design ( the crow-stepped gables were a popular choice of the Tenements on Glasgow's High Street) and the building material (Ashlar freestone was not always used in Edinburgh).45 Edinburgh's old town by mid-17th Century had reached a tipping point; there was no available ground left to build, it was not sustainable and was highly polluted due to overpopulation. The walls were very restrictive as well, as we see in the Bird's Eye view of Edinburgh made by James Gordon of Rothiemay in 1647.46(Figure 2.10) Consequently, moving out from a medieval city plan was necessary for Edinburgh; furthermore, Glasgowwas facing the same situation around the same time.

Edinburgh's New Town came first as the construction began in 1767, and the majority of the area was built no later than 1850.47 This transit in Edinburgh's case was due to the city council's fear of losing the working population and the nobility to London, Glasgow, and other popular burghs. The city also dreaded the loss of wealth because of the demanding maintenance of the old town.

46

Worsdall, F., 1979. The Tenement. 1st ed. Edinburgh: W & R Chambers Ltd. Pg-66

47

Coghill, Hamish. 2014. Lost Edinburgh: Edinburgh's Lost Architectural Heritage. 1st ed. Edinburgh: Birlinn Limited. Pg-10

48 "New Town | Edinburgh World Heritage". 2021. Edinburgh World Heritage. Accessed April 10. https://ewh.org.uk/world-heritage-sites/new-town/.

49

Carol Foreman, Lost Glasgow: Glasgow's Lost Architectural Heritage, 1st edn (Edinburgh: Birlinn Limited, 2002) Pg-80

50 Carol Foreman, Lost Glasgow: Glasgow's Lost Architectural Heritage, 1st edn (Edinburgh: Birlinn Limited, 2002) Pg-87 to 93 51

Worsdall, F., 1979. The Tenement. 1st ed. Edinburgh: W & R Chambers Ltd. Pg-4

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"The Edinburgh new town is the largest complete example of town planning from the Georgian period anywhere in the world."48 The Georgian new town was a mix of classical architecture, grand squares, secluded lanes, gardens, and terraces. The new town's gridiron pattern was quite influential to Glasgow's several attempts at creating a new town.49(Figure 4.11) The Georgian houses of Edinburgh heavily inspired the industrialist, nobles, merchants, and bourgeois in Glasgow. This influence led to the creation of detached townhouses and luxury tenements like those around the Blythswood square west of the medieval city.50 The luxury Tenements coupled with Glasgow's city improvement trust and helped rectify Tenements' image, which by the late 19th Century was associated with housing in the slums (the old, ragged Tenements of the High Street).

After seeing Edinburgh and Glasgow burghs' evolution, we can see how strong Edinburgh's new town's Neoclassical architecture extended inside the home with grandiose pillars at the entrance, high ceilings, decorated intricate plaster boarding and tall windows.51 These elements could be seen even now in Glasgow if one happened to walk around the west end, especially along the Clairmont gardens and Royal Terrace.

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(Figure 4.10) The illustration presents a residential area around George Square in Edinburgh. The new town’s grid pattern was home to the wealthy society who lived in Georgian style luxurious new tenements.

(Figure 4.11) Map of the City of Glasgow and Suburbs from the survey made by P. Fleming in 1808.

Thisdocument is part of the collection of Strathclyde Regional Archives.

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(Figure 4.12) These photographs taken by Peter Reed show Edinburgh’s new town - neoclassical architecture influencing several buildings in the 19th century’s Glasgow.

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(Figure 4.13)

(Figure 4.14) Figure 4.13: Shows the facade with Corinthian columns of one of James Adam’s tenements on High Street around the beginning of the twentieth century.

Figure 4.14: In this Plan of the upper floors of another tenement designed by James Adam in the number 4 of College Street, we can see in detail the Corinthian columns on the street front.

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Chapter 4 (Figure 4.1) Coghill, Hamish. 2014. Lost Edinburgh: Edinburgh's Lost Architectural Heritage. 1st ed. Edinburgh: Birlinn Limited. Pg-12 Text - Pg-12

(Figure 4.2) Coghill, Hamish. 2014. Lost Edinburgh: Edinburgh's Lost Architectural Heritage. 1st ed. Edinburgh: Birlinn Limited. Pg-44 Text - Pg-44

(Figure 4.3) Coghill, Hamish. 2014. Lost Edinburgh: Edinburgh's Lost Architectural Heritage. 1st ed. Edinburgh: Birlinn Limited. Pg-21, 122 and 164

(Figure 4.4) "Close No. 101 High Street, Glasgow". 2021. National Galleries Of Scotland. Accessed April 12. https://www.nationalgalleries.org/art-and-artists/9026/close-no-101-high-street-glasgow

(Figure 4.5) Coghill, Hamish. 2014. Lost Edinburgh: Edinburgh's Lost Architectural Heritage. 1st ed. Edinburgh: Birlinn Limited. Pg-73 Text - Pg-73

(Figure 4.6) Worsdall, F., 1979. The Tenement. 1st ed. Edinburgh: W & R Chambers Ltd. Figure 1, Pg-64 Text - Pg-64

(Figure 4.7) Pre -1750 Buildings In Edinburgh Old Town Conservation Area. 2021. Ebook. 1st ed. Edinburgh: The City of Edinburgh Council. Accessed April 10. Pg-1

Text - Worsdall, F., 1979. The Tenement. 1st ed. Edinburgh: W & R Chambers Ltd. Pg-62

(Figure 4.8) Coghill, Hamish. 2014. Lost Edinburgh: Edinburgh's Lost Architectural Heritage. 1st ed. Edinburgh: Birlinn Limited. Pg-22 and 150

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(Figure 4.9) "Gladstone's Land Edinburgh,Photographic copy of floor plans | Canmore". 2021. Canmore.Org.Uk. https://canmore.org.uk/collection/426591.

"View of Gladstone's Land, Edinburgh | Canmore". 2021. Canmore.Org.Uk. https://canmore.org.uk/collection/679851 "Gladstone's Land, Edinburgh, Section | Canmore". 2021. Canmore.Org.Uk. https://canmore.org.uk/collection/679851

(Figure 4.10) Coghill, Hamish. 2014. Lost Edinburgh: Edinburgh's Lost Architectural Heritage. 1st ed. Edinburgh: Birlinn Limited. Pg-246

(Figure 4.11) Carol Foreman, Lost Glasgow: Glasgow's Lost Architectural Heritage, 1st edn (Edinburgh: Birlinn Limited, 2002) Pg-36

(Figure 4.12) Carol Foreman, Lost Glasgow: Glasgow's Lost Architectural Heritage, 1st edn (Edinburgh: Birlinn Limited, 2002) Pg-68 and 69

(Figure 4.12) Carol Foreman, Lost Glasgow: Glasgow's Lost Architectural Heritage, 1st edn (Edinburgh: Birlinn Limited, 2002) Pg-118 Worsdall, F., 1979. The Tenement. 1st ed. Edinburgh: W & R Chambers Ltd. Figure 4, Pg-75

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Conclusion

The research opens a conversation about The Tenements but does not restrict itself from diving deep into the origins of vertical housing as an archetype for living.

In chapter one, we saw the similarities between Rome and Glasgow's domestic architecture. Furthermore, through looking into "Insulas" and the History of Glasgow, we concluded with Tenements being an archetype fueled by the middle class, which tried to differentiate itself from the lower class and familiarize itself with the higher class creating these grand vertical houses with glamorous facades bringing in a new age of urban architecture.

This part of research is the one that got me interested in knowing more about all the correlations and connections that the concept "Tenement" brought with it.

In chapter two and three, my inquiry took me to two extremes of domestic living: Thatch houses and Castles. On the one hand, Thatch houses concluded that overpopulation and urban living force a Burgh to densify and go vertical in every case. In the Castles' instance, we see the upward evolution by introducing keeps and several Tower houses' iterations. The High Class/Nobility saw an opportunity to find their status in the new Burghs through the loss of fortification and growth in comfortability.

In chapter four, Edinburgh displays its solutions to overpopulation by introducing tenements. However, this negatively impacts the restrictive boundaries of the old town. Edinburgh and Glasgow are presented with similar overcrowded city center problems, poor hygiene, and hazardous consequences like fire. Both cities looked forward to creating New Towns using to their advantage Tenements modularity and adaptability. Hence, coupled with wealth, helped create "luxury islands", symbolic greatness of urban living, segregate communities and perpetuate a façade of prosperous, utopian societies in Scotland.

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After writing my dissertation, I had a few questions that I wanted to discuss with an expert in the subject to understand the Tenements place in Scotland and further my research, knowing that they are not just a housing type, but they represent an ever-growing city over centuries. They imprint several social and economic changes on Glasgow, whose people still fantasize about a life within the Tenement.

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A screenshot of the chat I got to have with Architect JOHN JOSEPH BURNS. I had prepared Six questions that relate to my analysis's specific topics concerning the origin of Tenements. Each question, as well as my research, tries to judge the identity of tenements. Some questions shine a light on Glasgow's aesthetic choices through the ages. Others open a conversation about Glasgow's social decisions of the past and the present.

The link to this chat is down below on Youtube: https://youtu.be/w8IrPCmP5No

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Bibliography Books

Worsdall, F., 1979. The Tenement. 1st ed. Edinburgh: W & R Chambers Ltd.

Robinson, P. and Ritchie, W., 1990. The Tenement House. 1st ed. Edinburgh: Marketing Services Division of the National Trust for Scotland.

Foreman, Carol. 2002. Lost Glasgow: Glasgow's Lost Architectural Heritage. 1st ed. Edinburgh: Birlinn Limited.

Reed, Peter. 2006. Glasgow. 1st ed. Edinburgh: Edinburgh Univ. Press.

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Coventry, Martin. 2001. The Castles Of Scotland. 3rd ed. Musselburgh: Goblinshead.

MacGibbon, David, and Thomas Ross. 1887. The Castellated And Domestic Architecture Of Scotland. 1st ed. Edinburgh: Edinburgh : D. Douglas.

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1st ed. Edinburgh: Birlinn Limited.

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Dissertations/Journals

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Storey, Glenn R. 2001. "Regionaries-Type Insulae 1: Architectural/Residential Units At Ostia". American Journal Of Archaeology 105 (3). doi:10.2307/507362.

Crawford, Katherine. (2019). Visualising Ostia's Processional Landscape Through a Multi-Layered Computational Approach: Case Study of the Cult of the Magna Mater. Open Archaeology. 5. 10.1515/opar-2019-0028.

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Articles/Websites DR. BECKER, JEFFREY A. 2016. "Roman Domestic Architecture: The Insula – Smarthistory". Smarthistory.Org. https://smarthistory.org/roman-domestic-architecture-insula/.

Bakker, Jan Theo. 1999. "Regio I - Insula III - Caseggiato Di Diana (I,III,3-4)". Ostia-Antica.Org. https://www.ostia-antica.org/regio1/3/3-3.htm.

ABACUS, Scott. 2004. "The Glasgow Story". Theglasgowstory.Com. https://www.theglasgowstory.com/.

R.Consoli), MM (. B. "Ostia." Ancient History Encyclopedia. Last modified May 10, 2013. https://www.ancient.eu/image/1208/.

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Accessed January 10. http://calameo.download/00089986955030948f485

"Saltmarket From Bridgegate". 2021. National Galleries Of Scotland. Accessed April 12. https://www.nationalgalleries.org/art-and-artists/9035/saltmarket-bridgegate

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Agostini, De. 2019. "Plan And Facade Of Daniel Campbell's Shawfield Mansion, Glasgow,...". Getty Images. https://www.gettyimages.co.uk/detail/news-photo/plan-and-facade-of-daniel-ca mpbells-shawfield-mansion-news-photo/1150976145

Hunnisett-Snow, Jessica. 2018. "Thatch In Scotland''. Buildingconservation.Com. https://www.buildingconservation.com/articles/thatch-scotland/thatch-scotland. html.

"The Hidden Glasgow Forums • View Topic - Past Present | Glasgow, Glasgow Scotland, Scottish Heritage". 2021. Pinterest. Accessed April 12. https://www.pinterest.de/pin/546976317230724244/ "Bird's Eye View Of Edinburgh From The South, 1647 - James Gordon BRITTON-IMAGES". 2021. BRITTON-IMAGES. https://britton-images.com/product/birds-eye-view-of-edinburgh-from-the-south1647-james-gordon/ "Scottish Croft House Design (Page 1) - Line.17QQ.Com". 2010. Line.17Qq.Com. https://line.17qq.com/articles/whwrhatax.html.

"Gladstone's Land Edinburgh, Interiors 1938 | Canmore". 2021. Canmore.Org.Uk. https://canmore.org.uk/collection/2097325.

"Photographs Of The Cathedral And Precinct In Glasgow: Bishop's Castle, David Livingstone Statue". 2021. Caingram.Info. https://www.caingram.info/Scotland/Pic_htm/cathedral_2.htm.

"New Town | Edinburgh World Heritage". 2021. Edinburgh World Heritage.

Accessed April 10. https://ewh.org.uk/world-heritage-sites/new-town/.

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"Close No. 101 High Street, Glasgow". 2021. National Galleries Of Scotland.

Accessed April 12. https://www.nationalgalleries.org/art-and-artists/9026/close-no-101-high-street-g lasgow

"Gladstone's Land Edinburgh,Photographic copy of floor plans | Canmore".

2021. Canmore.Org.Uk. https://canmore.org.uk/collection/426591.

"View of Gladstone's Land, Edinburgh | Canmore". 2021. Canmore.Org.Uk. https://canmore.org.uk/collection/679851

"Gladstone's Land, Edinburgh, Section | Canmore". 2021. Canmore.Org.Uk. https://canmore.org.uk/collection/679851

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