The Baldwin Review 2016

The Baldwin Review A collection of individual research papers produced by Upper School students of The Baldwin School

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Foreword The Baldwin School values curiosity and intellectual rigor at the highest level and Baldwin teachers encourage students to delve deeply into realms that captivate their interest. One of the most beneficial lessons that Baldwin has taught me so far is to learn for the sake of understanding more about the world, and for having a genuine interest in becoming a more informed member of society. In the spirit of this philosophy, The Baldwin Review presents independent research papers written

by Baldwin Upper School students who have poured hours into researching and discovering more about a particular facet of the world that has drawn their interest.

The purpose of The Baldwin Review is to provide a tangible platform for students to display their projects and papers that are independent from class assignments.

Because intellectual curiosity is limitless, this journal is inclusive of a wide variety of different topics in different fields. My hope is that this first edition is the beginning of a compilation of Baldwin students’ efforts to expand their intellectual horizons, and that this will be a written record of the power of academic curiosity.

- Eliza Thaler, Class of 2018

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SPECIAL THANKS TO Ms. Laurie Cato, Mrs. Lisa Lopez-Carickhoff, Mrs. Christie Reed and Mr. Eric Benke for their help with this journal.

Table of Contents A1

ELIZA THALER ’18 The Benefits and Threats Posed by the Presence of Activist Investors on Fortune 500 Management Boards: Starboard Value’s Takeover of Darden Restaurants

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CASSANDRA STECKER ’18, CAROLINE BUCHNER ’18 Jane Snowden Crosby, Baldwin Class of 1923: Writer, Traveller, Pioneer

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MADELEINE MARR ’17 They Wanted Something Done, So They Asked a Woman; The Baldwin School’s Defiance of the Sexist Educational Standards of the 1950s

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HALEY MOLLER ’17 An Examination of the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict and Six Scholars’ Proposals to Save Israel from Herself (1977-2016)

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SANJANA DIXIT ’18 Autonomous Vehicle Development

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OLIVIA LANDES ’18 The Effects of Varied Dosages of Methionine on the Proliferation of MDA-MB-231 Breast Cancer Cells

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MADISON SANDERS ’17 The Effect of Sle1 Yaa Gene Loci on Antinuclear Antibody Production in B6 Mice

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BRIA BEAUVAIS ’18 Cellular Interactions of Amygdalar Neuropeptide Y and Corticotropin Releasing Factor

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CARLY MCINTOSH ’18 Stable and Efficient Transfection of siRNA for Mutated K-Ras Silencing Using Novel Hybrid Nanoparticles

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HILARY LIU ’18 The Baldwin School Novel Quantitative Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Emission and Sequestration Model

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ELIZA THALER ’18 Eliza Thaler is a junior from Ardmore, PA, has been at Baldwin since Kindergarten. She is the head of the Abacus Club, which tutors Lower School students in math, and participates in Model Congress, DECA, the yearbook Prism and Lamplighters. She is the junior class treasurer and volunteers for political campaigns in her free time. Eliza also plays lacrosse and field hockey.

The Benefits and Threats Posed by the Presence of Activist Investors on Fortune 500 Management Boards: Starboard Value’s Takeover of Darden Restaurants

By Eliza Thaler

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The Benefits and Threats Posed by the Presence of Activist Investors on Fortune 500 Management Boards | Research by Eliza Thaler

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The Benefits and Threats Posed by the Presence of Activist Investors on Fortune 500 Management Boards | Research by Eliza Thaler

Table of Contents A4

Introduction to Activist Investing

Part 1: Darden Restaurants and Starboard Management Case Study A5

Overview of Starboard Value’s Takeover of Darden Restaurants

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History of Darden Restaurants

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Introduction to Jeffery Smith and Starboard Value LP

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Starboard Value’s Takeover of Darden Restaurants

Part 2: Appendix A13

Profiles of Well-Known Activist Investors

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Description of EBITDA

Part 3: References A17

Works Cited

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Special Thanks

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The Benefits and Threats Posed by the Presence of Activist Investors on Fortune 500 Management Boards | Research by Eliza Thaler

INTRODUCTION TO ACTIVIST INVESTING An activist investor, typically a shareholder trying to gain a seat on a company’s board, has the primary objective of effecting a major change in the management of a company with the underlying goal of significantly increasing the company’s value.1 Mismanaged public companies that have not been profitably run often become the target of activist investors. Activist investors believe that the target company is being undervalued due to poor management, and that the solution to increasing the value of the company is to first get a voice or seat on a board of directors and then to select a fresh crop of individuals to run and improve the company.2 While there can be a multitude of indicators that reveal that a company has become the target for activist investors, one explicit signal is the filing of SEC Form 13D, which is required to be filed when a shareholder purchases 5% or more of a company’s shares. When a shareholder accumulates a stake greater than 5%, it can be reasonably inferred that the shareholder has seen an opportune moment to invest in an undervalued company.3 Types of entities that might decide to act as activist investors include private equity firms, hedge funds, and wealthy individuals. Although many executives view activist investors on their company’s share registry with apprehension, the presence of activist investors can lead to positive, strategic undertakings with resultant long-term growth in the company’s value.4

1 "What is an Activist Investor," Investopedia, accessed August 16, 2016, http://www.investopedia.com/ terms/a/activist-investor.asp.

2 "The 10 Activist Investors You Should Know," Quartz, accessed August 16, 2016, http://qz.com/62431/the10-activist-investors-you-should-know/.

3 "What is an Activist," Investopedia.

4 William D. Cohan, "Starboard Value's Jeff Smith: The investor CEOs fear most," Fortune, accessed August 16, 2016, http://fortune.com/2014/12/03/starboard-capitals-jeff-smith-activist-investor-darden-restaurants/.

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STARBOARD VALUE’S TAKEOVER OF DARDEN RESTAURANTS Overview of Starboard Value’s Takeover of Darden Restaurants On Friday, October 10, 2014, the activist hedge fund Starboard Value accomplished what was at one time seen as unfathomable: they took over the entire 12 seats of the management board of Darden Restaurants, the largest United States operator of full service restaurants with $8.55 billion in 2013 sales and the ownership of several wellknown restaurants such as Olive Garden and Red Lobster. Starboard Value, run by CEO Jeff Smith, was, by the end of the takeover, Darden’s second largest investor with an 8.8% stake.5 This acquisition terminated an 18-month proxy fight between Darden’s board and its shareholders. At the heart of this long-waged battle was the bitter disagreement over whether or not Darden should create a separate company for Red Lobster and Olive Garden chains, both of which, according to Starboard Value, were significantly undervalued at the time.6 Ignoring the shareholder’s wishes to create this separation, the board of Darden sold Red Lobster for $2.1 billion, a price that the shareholders believed was egregiously low. Following this transaction, Jeff Smith of Starboard Value published a 300-page plan outlining how Darden could increase its earnings by $326 million, which deeply resonated with shareholders.7 Ultimately the power of the shareholders was able to surpass that of the management board, and Smith was able to replace the 12-seated board with an entirely new crop of people of his choosing.8

5 Cohan, "Starboard Value's," Fortune.

6 "Darden Restaurants, Inc. and Starboard Value L.P. Chronology of Events Surrounding Proxy Contest for Board Control," n.d., PDF. 7 Cohan, "Starboard Value's," Fortune.

8 Alexandra Stevenson to International New York Times: Deal Book Newsgroup, "Activist Hedge Fund Starboard Succeeds in Replacing Darden Board," accessed August 16, 2016, http://dealbook.nytimes. com/2014/10/10/activist-hedge-fund-starboard-succeeds-in-replacing-darden-board/.

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History of Darden Restaurants In 1938, at the age of 19, William Darden founded Darden Restaurants Incorporated when he opened his first restaurant, The Green Frog, in Georgia. He later opened the Red Lobster Inns of America, which lead to the establishment of the first Red Lobster restaurant in Florida.9 Thirty-two years later, due the restaurants’ profitable locations, Darden sold his company to General Mills, an American manufacturer and marketer of branded foods sold through retail stores. In 1982, the first Olive Garden had a successful opening and quickly expanded to over 145 stores.10 General Mills upgraded the restaurants to a more casual, family oriented dining format, resulting in the growth of the chain of over 400 locations by 1995.11 On May 9, 1995, General Mills wanted to spin off the restaurant chains and focus solely on food production, making a new company called Darden, named after the original restaurant’s founder.12 Darden Restaurants began trading at $9.75 a share and became a separate entity on May 31, 1995 when the shares went on sale on the New York Stock Exchange. The shares opened at $10.75, which was 17% below expectations, but it rose to $11.13 by the end of the day.13 General Mills’ shareholders were given one share of Darden for every common share of General Mills held. At the end of the year, General Mills had a net income of $108 million and operated 1,250 restaurants in 49 states and 73 locations in Canada. Over the next 19 years, Darden Restaurant’s stock price has increased 900%; however, its growth slowed significantly in 2012 after the financial recession. From 2008 to 2012, Darden Restaurant’s stock gave shareholders a total return of 36% as opposed to the 56% for the S&P 500. The overall EBITBA, the measure of earnings key to assessing a company’s value, fell from 1.089 to 1.043 billion.14

9 "Darden Restaurants." Company Profile. Hoover's, Inc., 2013. June 24, 2013. Accessed on June 21, 2016.

10 "Darden Restaurants." Hoover's, Inc. 11 Ibid.

12 Ibid.

13 Ibid.

14 Ibid.

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Introduction to Jeffery Smith and Starboard Value LP Jeffery Smith currently holds the position of Chief Executive Officer, Chief Investment Officer, and Managing Member of Starboard Value LP. Starboard Value was founded in 2002 by Smith and Mark Mitchell, and in 2005, the company hired its third managing member, Peter Feld.15 With a team comprising more than 25 professionals, Starboard Value describes itself as the following: Starboard LP is a New York-based investment adviser with a fundamental approach to investing in publicly traded U.S. companies.

Starboard invests in deeply undervalued companies and actively engages with management teams and boards of directors to identify and execute on opportunities to unlock value for the benefit of all shareholders. Starboard’s principals have managed investments in this manner since 2002. 16 Before developing Starboard Value, Smith worked as a Partner Managing Director of Ramius LLC, a subsidiary of the Cowen Group, Inc, and the Chief Investment Officer for the funds that consisted of the Value and Opportunity investment platform. Additionally, Smith served as a member of Cowen’s Operating Committee and Cowen’s Investment committee.17 Smith embarked on his business career in the Mergers and Acquisitions department at Société Générale. He is currently the Chairman of the Board of Advance Auto Parts Inc. and a member of the board of Yahoo! Inc. Jeff Smith graduated from The Wharton School of The University of Pennsylvania, where he received a B.S. in Economics.18

15 16 17 18

"Jeffery Smith," Starboard Value LP, accessed August 29, 2016, http://www.starboardvalue.com/biographies/.

"Jeffery Smith," Starboard Value LP. Ibid.

Ibid.

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Starboard Value’s Takeover of Darden Restaurants Prior to Starboard Value’s involvement in removing Darden Restaurant’s board, another activist hedge fund, Barington Capital, took notice the company’s poor management.19 In June of 2013, Barington Capital began purchasing large quantities of shares of Darden stock with the underlying goal of effecting change in the company’s management. Barington Capital’s CEO James Mitarotonda wrote a letter to the Darden board outlining the company’s potential growth if it were to split the company into two different restaurant chains: one for Darden’s slower growing chains such as Olive Garden and Red Lobster, and one for its faster growing chains such as Capital Grill, Yard House, and Bahama Breeze.20 Additionally, Barington strongly suggested that Darden sell or lease its real estate or spin off its holdings into publicly traded real estate investment trusts.21 In total, Darden Restaurants owned 1,048 properties and had 802 ground leases.22 Barington Capital argued that this would likely increase Darden’s stock to between $69-76 from $46.

A few weeks following this letter, Barington publicly announced that it had accumulated a 2.8% stake in Darden, and reiterated its ideas to increase Darden’s value in an 85-page paper released to the public.23 Five months later, Darden responded to Barington by announcing the sale of The Red Lobster restaurant, in order to cut capital expenditures by $100 million and reduce cost by $60 million annually.24 This news surprised investors and resulted in the 5% decrease of Darden’s stock. At this point, Starboard Value came into the picture buying 7.25 million shares and accumulating a 5.6% stake in the company. In addition, Starboard Value’s Jeff Smith filed a 13D, believing that “the plan outlined by management falls significantly short of actions required to maximize shareholder value”.25 One member of 19 Cohan, "Starboard Value's," Fortune.

20 Ibid.

21 Ibid.

22 "Darden Restaurants, Inc. and Starboard Value L.P. Chronology of Events Surrounding Proxy Contest for Board Control," n.d., PDF. 23 Cohan, "Starboard Value's," Fortune.

24 Cohan, "Starboard Value's," Fortune.

25 Ibid.

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Darden’s management board, William Lewis, dismissed Smith’s perspective when he said, “We systematically analyzed everything that they suggested and more. Their thoughts about ways to unlock value made the Starboard stuff look like grade-school work.”26 Darden had brought together a team to oversee the selling Red Lobster with the help of Goldman Sachs. Goldman found over 70 potential buyers of Red Lobster and 25 potential buyers of Red Lobster’s real estate. In a letter released to both Darden’s board and the public, Smith detailed his thoughts on why the sale of Red Lobster would significantly decrease Darden’s value, and why making two different restaurant chains would increase Darden’s value.27

After not receiving a response to his concerns, Smith wrote yet another letter, in

which he stated how “surprised and terribly disappointed” he was by the management’s willingness to move forward with the Red Lobster sale. In this letter, Smith expressed his belief that in ignoring both Starboard and Barington Capital’s perspective, the Darden board was proving that they had the intention of ignoring the “serious concerns” of Darden’s shareholders. Smith reiterated his belief that the advancement of the Red Lobster sale would lead to a destruction of shareholder value. Finally, Smith threatened to initiate an effort to replace a majority of the board members at the 2014 annual meeting in the following September.28 On February 24th, 2014, Starboard attempted to persuade the majority of the shareholders to vote to hold a special meeting to derail the sale of Red Lobster.29 Legally, however, the Darden board was able to sell the business without shareholder approval and proceed accordingly. Later, in March, the Darden board met for two days to learn about the potential buyers of Red Lobster. During this meeting, the board also made changes to its bylaws that many viewed as unfavorable to shareholders. Activist and shareholder-rights organizations including Glass Lewis and ISS found Darden’s changes 26 Ibid.

27 "Darden Restaurants."

28 Boyd and Baertlein to Reuters newsgroup, "Darden activist ousts Olive Garden owner's full board."

29 Ibid.

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underhanded. ISS stated, “One has to wonder why the board chose this particular time to ‘modernize’ the bylaws by granting itself powers to obstruct, or otherwise raising defenses against, shareholders who might wish to use the annual meeting to hold directors accountable.”30 Subsequent to this meeting in which Darden’s board proceeded to pursue the Red Lobster sale and change its bylaws, Starboard published a 207-slide PowerPoint presentation on why they felt that a special meeting was necessary. In the presentation, Smith conveyed that Red Lobster was struggling with high seafood prices and low customer volumes. He wanted Darden to develop a comprehensive strategic plan prior to the sale.31 Later the same day, CNBC released a report saying that Starboard has won 54% of the vote of Darden shareholder to hold a special meeting, which Darden was now forced to accommodate within 60 days.32

On May 16, 2014, despite Starboard’s success in calling for the special meeting

against the Red Lobster sale, the Darden management board unanimously voted in favor of selling Red Lobster to Golden Gate for $2.113 billion in cash, a multiple of nine times less than the 12-month EBITDA.33 The management board expressed great satisfaction with the price. Mike Rose, a member of Darden’s board even made public that Golden Gate’s price was $300 million more than the board’s target price.34 Jeff Smith, however, did not match Rose’s enthusiasm when he stated, “The announced sale woefully undervalues Red Lobster and its real estate assets.”35 Smith wrote another letter following the Red Lobster sale in which he stated that the Red Lobster sale was only $100 million more than Starboard had valued Red Lobster’s real estate alone, and implying that “Darden is essentially giving away the Red Lobster operating business, an iconic brand with $2.5 billion in sales, for less than 1x EBITDA.36 30 Ibid.

31 Ibid.

32 Ibid.

33 Ibid.

34 Ibid.

35 Ibid.

36 Ibid.

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On May 22, 2014, Smith announced to his fellow Darden shareholders that Starboard would start a proxy fight to remove the Darden board. He additionally announced that Starboard had increased its ownership of the company to 6.2%. Smith vehemently disagreed with the Darden board’s analysis of the EBITDA and price, and felt that Golden Gate had purchased Red Lobster for a ludicrously low price.37 To ameliorate Darden’s financial state, Smith felt that the entire Darden board should be replaced by individuals selected by himself. He and his partner from Starboard would take two of the board member positions.38 Throughout the summer and fall, the proxy battle waged between Darden and Starboard. On July 24, 2014, Starboard sued Darden in Florida for seeking access to confidential documents related to the Red Lobster sale. Four days after the filing of this lawsuit, Darden completed the sale of Red Lobster to Golden Gate and announced that the CEO and chairman Clarence Otis would step down.39 On Friday, September 13, 2014, Smith presented a nearly 300-page comprehensive report on the nature of Darden’s diminished value and how a newly selected board could increase Darden’s value. The presentation several included controversial slides, such as an attack on Olive Garden’s unlimited bread stick special, lack of putting an adequate amount of salt into the water boiling pasta, and the lack of selling alcohol, that caught the media’s attention. Smith wrote, “Shockingly, Olive Garden no longer salts the water it uses to boil the pasta, merely to get a longer warranty on its pots. We believe this results in a mushy, unappealing product that is well below competitors’ quality despite similar cost.” Furthermore, Smith states that Darden could save between $4 million and $5 million a year on the cost of bread sticks. 40 Even John Oliver of Saturday Night Live referenced Smith’s presentation in one of his Last Week Tonight skits. The views of this video on YouTube surged past 700,000. This potent presentation was enough to convince Darden’s

37 Jeff Smith, "A LETTER TO THE SHAREHOLDERS OF DARDEN RESTAURANTS, INC: It is Time for Substantial Change at Darden," n.d., PDF. 38 Starboard Value, "Transforming Darden Restaurants September 11, 2014," n.d., PDF. 39 Ibid.

40 Starboard Value, "Transforming Darden."

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long-term shareholders that management change was imperative.41 Both ISS and Glass Lewis encouraged investors to vote for Smith, and on October 10, he and his slate of 12 directors were approved. Smith rapidly took over control of Darden. On October 13, he became the interim CEO, making effective immediately Otis’s previously announced departure.42 Through the end of November, Darden’s stock went up about 20%.43 The overarching theme of this case is quite simple: Listen to shareholders’ opinions and calculations. The bottom line question that this case explores is who controls the company: the company’s management or the company’s shareholders represented by their board of directors? This story is a cautionary example for managers and directors who ignore their shareholders’ wishes, especially if the shareholders are activist investors.

It is imperative that boards be as open and transparent to their shareholders as possible.

In the Darden case, the actions of the board that were intended to preserve their management ended up costing them their control over the company.

41 Ibid.

42 Ibid.

43 Ibid.

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APPENDIX Profiles of Well Known Activist Investors William (Bill) Ackman, Pershing Square Harvard Business School, Harvard College $2.6 Billion Net Worth In 2004, William Ackman founded and appointed himself of CEO of Pershing Square Capital Management, a hedge-fund management company. Ackman is known for replacing senior level executives of companies with individuals who promise higher value and better management for the respective company.44 Ackman’s most recent endeavor has involved the Valeant Pharmaceuticals International Incorporation. According to the Wall Street Journal, as of August 2015, Valeant was ranked the as the most valuable holding of Ackman’s hedge fund, with its stake worth about $5 billion. Despite being an “ally” of the company’s former CEO Michael Pearson, Ackman and the company’s board fired Pearson after the drug company’s stock value had plummeted 51% in one day.45 The subsequent morning, Ackman was granted a position on the board. After the announcement that Pearson’s position as CEO had been terminated, the stock’s value increased 15% after two days. Unfortunately, this lucrative success did not continue for Valeant and Ackman. Increasing inquiries regarding the company’s drug prices, growth strategies, debt, and accounting lead to the 90% decrease of stock and the questioning of Ackman’s judgment.46

44 "The 10 Activist Investors You Should Know," Quartz, accessed August 16, 2016, http://qz.com/62431/the-10activist-investors-you-should-know/.

45 "The 10 Activist," Quartz.

46 Ibid.

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David Einhorn, Greenlight Capital Cornell University $1.46 Billion Net Worth David Einhorn founded the hedge fund Greenlight Capital in 1996. The company primarily focuses their investments in publicly traded North American corporate debt offerings and equities and is known for being a “long-short value oriented hedge fund”.

Einhorn started Greenlight Capital with $900,000 and has since generated about a 16.5% annualized return for investors.47 With regard to being an activist investor, Einhorn has been known to nominate directors, write letters to management, and buy companies that he feels are not progressing well. He has recently been noticed for his attempt to persuade Apple to return some of its $137 + billion in cash to investors. Einhorn has stated that Apple is “utterly misvalued at current levels”, and that the company should allocate its $145 billion in cash to shareholders, preferably through a preferred stock that would pay out a 4% dividend. In this particular fight, Einhorn won the lawsuit and received credit for his actions when Apple announced its cash plans.48

Carl Icahn, Icahn Enterprises Princeton University, New York University $17 Billion Net Worth Carl Icahn is an American business magnate, activist shareholder, investor, and philanthropist. He founded Icahn Enterprises, a diversified conglomerate holding company based in New York City, and is currently its majority shareholder. The company has invested in wide variety of industries including auto parts, energy, metals, rail cars, casinos, food packaging, real estate, and home fashion.49 The Wall Street catchphrase, 47 Ibid.

48 Mikey Campbell, "Carl Icahn, David Einhorn cut Apple positions amid hedge fund titration," Apple Insider, accessed August 29, 2016, http://appleinsider.com/articles/16/02/16/carl-icahn-david-einhorn-cut-applepositions-amid-hedge-fund-titration.

49 "Carl’s views on markets, stocks and politics," Carl Icahn, accessed August 29, 2016, http://carlicahn.com/.

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“Icahn Lift” has developed over time to describe the upward bounce in a company’s stock price that typically occurs when Carl Icahn begins to buy the stock of a company that he believes is run poorly.50 For over 30 years, Icahn has had fought with a myriad of U.S. corporations resulting in significant capital gains for those company’s shareholders.

Depending on the judge, Icahn is either one of history’s most callous corporate attackers or a positive force for increased shareholder activism, whose primary goal is to rectify the abuses of mercenary or inept corporate management.

Daniel (Dan) Loeb, Third Point LLC Columbia University, University of California, Berkeley $2.6 Billion Net Worth Daniel Loeb, the founder and CEO of Third Point LLC, A New York-based hedge fund that concentrates on event-driven, value-oriented investing, once stated, “The only thing I care about is making money for my investors.”51 Loeb is famous for outing former Yahoo’s CEO Scott Thompson’s doubtful college degree in order to receive a spot on Yahoo’s board.

Loeb expressed his disapproval of the board hiring Carol Bartz as the new CEO, and also criticized Yahoo for turning down Microsoft’s $31-a –share offer for Yahoo in 2008. In 2012, he was responsible for hiring the high-profile Google Inc. executive Marissa Mayer to run the company.52 Loeb is also known for writing harsh letters to CEO’s and directors that are released to the public. Moreover, there is even an online blog that entitled, “Dan Loeb’s Letters to CEOs” that includes all of his letters in one place.53

50 Ibid.

51 Ibid.

52 "Daniel Loeb," The World's Billionaires, accessed August 29, 2016, http://www.forbes.com/profile/daniel-loeb/.

53 Ibid.

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Nelson Peltz, Trian Fund Management Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania Net Worth $1.35 Billion As the founding partner and CEO of Trian Fund Management, an alternative investment management fund based in New York, Nelson Peltz was formerly known as a corporate marauder with whom a vast number of boards and CEOs do not get along. This notorious reputation has transformed in the last decade, and Peltz is now starting to be a bit more open-minded with regard to working with instead of against companies.54 One example that depicts this change occurred over the last ten years. In 2006, Peltz and Bill Johnson, CEO of Heinz, were bitter adversaries over their proxy fight, which resulted in Peltz accruing a spot on Heinz’s board. Over time, however, Peltz became regarded as a helpful Heinz board member and now is complimentary of Johnson.55

EBITDA EBITDA, which stands for Earnings before interest, tax, deprecation, and amortization, is a calculation that indicates a company’s operating performance. It is a way of analyzing a company’s performance without having to take into account financing decisions, accounting decisions or tax environments. 56

54 Ibid.

55 Ibid.

56 "Earnings Before Interest, Tax, Depreciation and Amortization (EBITDA)," Investing Answers, accessed

August 29, 2016, http://www.investinganswers.com/financial-dictionary/financial-statement-analysis/earningsinterest-tax-depreciation-and-amortizatio.

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REFERENCES: Works Cited

Boyd, Christopher, and Lisa Baertlein. Christopher Boyd and Lisa Baertlein to Reuters newsgroup, “Darden activist ousts Olive Garden owner’s full board.”

Accessed August 16, 2016. http://www.reuters.com/article/us-darden-boardidUSKCN0HZ0U320141010.

Campbell, Mikey. “Carl Icahn, David Einhorn cut Apple positions amid hedge fund titration.”

Apple Insider. Accessed August 29, 2016. http://appleinsider.com/articles/16/02/16/ carl-icahn-david-einhorn-cut-apple-positions-amid-hedge-fund-titration.

“Carl’s views on markets, stocks and politics.” Carl Icahn. Accessed August 29, 2016. http:// carlicahn.com/.

Cohan, William D. “Starboard Value’s Jeff Smith: The investor CEOs fear most.” Fortune.

Accessed August 16, 2016. http://fortune.com/2014/12/03/starboard-capitals-jeffsmith-activist-investor-darden-restaurants/.

“Daniel Loeb.” The World’s Billionaires. Accessed August 29, 2016. http://www.forbes.com/ profile/daniel-loeb/.

“Darden Restaurants, Inc. and Starboard Value L.P. Chronology of Events Surrounding Proxy Contest for Board Control.” N.d. PDF. Published by Morrison Foerster “Earnings Before Interest, Tax, Depreciation and Amortization (EBITDA).” Investing Answers.

Accessed August 29, 2016. http://www.investinganswers.com/financial-dictionary/ financial-statement-analysis/earnings-interest-tax-depreciation-and-amortizatio.

“Darden Restaurants.” Company Profile. Hoover’s, Inc., 2013. June 24, 2013. Accessed on June 21, 2016.

“Darden Restaurants, Form 10-K, Annual Report, Filing Date Jul 20, 2012” (PDF). secdatabase.com. Retrieved Mar 30, 2013.

“Darden 2011 Annual Report” (PDF). Darden Restaurants, Inc. Retrieved April 12, 2012.

“Darden Restaurants.” International Directory of Company Histories. The Gale Group, Inc, 2006. Answers.com 24 Jun. 2013. Accessed November 14, 2007.

Investopedia. “What is an Activist Investor.” Investopedia. Accessed August 16, 2016. http:// www.investopedia.com/terms/a/activist-investor.asp.

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“Jeffery Smith.” Starboard Value LP. Accessed August 27, 2016. http://www.starboardvalue. com/biographies/.

Smith, Jeff. “A LETTER TO THE SHAREHOLDERS OF DARDEN RESTAURANTS, INC: It is Time for Substantial Change at Darden.” N.d. PDF.

Starboard Value. “Transforming Darden Restaurants September 11, 2014.” N.d. PDF. Stevenson, Alexandra. Alexandra Stevenson to International New York Times: Deal Book newsgroup, “Activist Hedge Fund Starboard Succeeds in Replacing Darden Board.”

Accessed August 16, 2016. http://dealbook.nytimes.com/2014/10/10/activist-hedgefund-starboard-succeeds-in-replacing-darden-board/.

“The 10 Activist Investors You Should Know.” Quartz. Accessed August 16, 2016. http:// qz.com/62431/the-10-activist-investors-you-should-know/.

SPECIAL THANKS I would like to thank the following people for their help to me on this paper: Sue Rooks, the Project Coordinator at the Wharton School, Bilge Yilmaz, Wharton Private Equity Professor, Professor of Finance; Director, Wharton Alternative Investments Initiative, and Bulent Gultekin, Associate Professor of Finance at the Wharton School of University of Pennsylvania.

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CAROLINE BUCHNER ’18 Caroline Buchner currently lives in Bryn Mawr but is originally from Albuquerque, New Mexico. She is a junior at Baldwin and participates in Model UN, Modern Science Club, Girls Learn International and the School’s newspaper The Hourglass. She enjoys playing Varsity tennis and rowing for Baldwin as well as volunteering in the hospital at the University of Pennsylvania.

CASSANDRA STECKER ’18 Cassandra Stecker is a junior from Bryn Mawr, PA, and has been a student at Baldwin since Kindergarten. She currently serves as junior head of Model UN, Lamplighters, Baldwin’s French magazine Florilège, and as copy editor of The Hourglass.

Cassandra is also a member of the yearbook Prism, Debate Club, Girls Learn International, Roman Candle and Modern Science Club. Additionally, she is captain of the golf team and volunteers at the Main Line Adult Day Center regularly.

Jane Snowden Crosby, Baldwin Class of 1923: Writer, Traveller, Pioneer

By Caroline Buchner ’18, Cassandra Stecker ’18

THE BALDWIN REVIEW 2016

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Jane Snowden Crosby, Baldwin Class of 1923: Writer, Traveller, Pioneer | Research by Caroline Buchner ’18 & Cassandra Stecker ’18

Jane Snowden Crosby attended Miss Baldwin’s School in Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania as a boarder graduating in the year 1923.11 Crosby was born in 1902 in Bradford, Pennsylvania, to dentist J. Maurice Crosby and his wife Emily Woodburn Crosby. Crosby’s family was active in the community and valued both education and their Christian religion.18 As a child, Jane grew up in a modest home in the heart of Bradford. Despite living in the early 20th century, Jane was raised in a progressive household where her parents instilled in her the notion that being a woman did not justify an uneducated life.9 Jane’s parents encouraged her to pursue her education and sent her to Miss Baldwin’s School in the early 1920’s. There, she spent time writing and developing her affinity for literature. Crosby is remembered by the Baldwin community as active in student leadership, contributing in her school years by serving as one of the lead writers of the class of 1923’s senior play and partaking in many clubs. In her entry in Baldwin’s The Milestone yearbook, Jane included the Andre Brenton quote: “Of all those arts in which the wise men excel, Nature’s chief masterpiece is writing well.”11 Following her time at Baldwin, she attended the Katharine Gibbs Secretarial School, which, like Baldwin, imbued in its students the progressive values of gender equality and opportunity. She later attended Columbia University to further enhance her writing prowess.18 Through the influence of her education, Jane wished to develop into a more cosmopolitan woman and appeared undaunted by the thought of global travel. She embarked on her first journey to Prague in the year 1930, accompanied by her close friends from her hometown of Bradford.3 From then on she was hooked. Enchanted by the awe of the world, Jane realized she was an independent woman free to make her own choices. Her travels influenced her writing, as they offered her a more worldly perspective. This broadened view helped her conceptualize world issues, such as World War II. Later in life, Jane’s experiences and perspectives transcended gender boundaries in a world riddled with barriers for young women.

Jane Crosby was born March 30th, 1902, on Easter Sunday in Bradford. Her parents,

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Jane Snowden Crosby, Baldwin Class of 1923: Writer, Traveller, Pioneer | Research by Caroline Buchner ’18 & Cassandra Stecker ’18

Dr. Maurice and Emily Crosby, gave her the birth name Jane Snowden Crosby. She lived in a comfortable yet modest house throughout her childhood.9 Her father’s family emigrated to America from Canada in the mid-1800’s. There, Jane’s father, Dr. Maurice Crosby, studied in the states to become a prominent dentist in the town of Bradford, where he met Emily Woodburn, whom he married later and started a family with.10 Although stemming from a modest household, Jane was a descendent of many distinguished people in Philadelphia society through her mother’s side.9 Jane Crosby was directly related to James Ross Snowden, deputy attorney general and a prominent figure in Pennsylvania politics, serving as the state treasurer and having been elected colonel in the state militia.5 However, Jane Crosby’s family legacy does not end there. Her ancestor, Nathaniel FitzRandolph, was a war hero who served in the American Revolutionary War. Randolph, also known as “Fighting Nat”, contributed the original four acres of land on which Princeton University’s campus stands on and even has the official entrance to the university named after him, “The FitzRandolph Gate”.12 Through Nathaniel FitzRandolph, Jane Crosby can directly trace her ancestry as far back to the Viking conqueror Rollo in the 900’s A.D., who served as the first ruler of Normandy and conquered much of the European continent.5 As the great-great-great grandfather of William I of England, Rollo is related to the current British royal family as well as all current European monarchs and many former thrones.19 Jane’s early life was comparatively ordinary. She lived a simple middle-class life in Bradford. Throughout her childhood, her family continuously encouraged her to study and educate herself. At Miss Baldwin’s School, along with writing short stories, Crosby was part of the Glee Club, Orchestra, French Club, Service Committee, Drama Club, and the Milestone Board. She graduated from Baldwin in the year 1923.11 After her Baldwin graduation, Jane moved back with her mother and father to their childhood home in Bradford, PA, where she spent her summer completing volunteer work for her church, the Episcopal Church of the Ascension. The following

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Jane Snowden Crosby, Baldwin Class of 1923: Writer, Traveller, Pioneer | Research by Caroline Buchner ’18 & Cassandra Stecker ’18

school year, in September of 1923, Jane enrolled in classes at the Katharine Gibbs School in Boston, Massachusetts, an all-female secretarial college renowned for its progressive teachings and challenging courses. At Katharine Gibbs, Jane was able to partake in classes ranging from religious theory to mathematical derivations, building upon the academic foundations she previously formed at The Baldwin School. During her twoyear tenure at Miss Gibbs’ School, Jane was identified by the school administration as an outstanding writer and was chosen to represent Miss Gibbs’ School at an event held by the Columbia Scholastic Press Association (C.S.P.A) of Columbia University in New York, New York. There, she made the acquaintance of Miss Helen R. Hull, an essayist, author of fiction, and a professor of English and creative writing at Columbia University.20 Inspired

by Miss Hull’s model of writing about current issues through the lens of fictional stories and characters in order to make the subject at hand more easily comprehensible to the reader16, Crosby spent her second year at Katharine Gibbs’ School attempting to imitate this concept. Crosby earned her certificate from Miss Gibbs’ School in 1925, two years after she enrolled, but after taking a secretarial role for a law firm in Boston, Jane realized that she was unsatisfied with this career and resigned after only three days in the position.20 In the fall of 1926, Jane was accepted by Miss Hull to study under her tutelage at Columbia University.21 Under the mentorship of Miss Hull, Jane blossomed into a prolific writer of fictional short stories, most of which were laced with an underlying moral issue or a discussion of current global conflicts. Jane was a vehement supporter of the idea that each writer should not limit oneself to a specific genre or style, but should rather possess the ability to produce a diverse set of work. Because Jane primarily wrote fiction with nonfiction foundations, she was easily able to transition between writing fiction and historicallyfocused, journalistic pieces. In a December 1931 lecture to the Bradford Women’s Literary Club, Crosby said, In considering a writer’s personality there is one point which looms large, and the

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Jane Snowden Crosby, Baldwin Class of 1923: Writer, Traveller, Pioneer | Research by Caroline Buchner ’18 & Cassandra Stecker ’18

degree of variance in context and style in writer’s work and the range of difference in experience and temperament in a writer’s life. We expect a wide difference among people at large. Do we expect as wide a variation among people who write? There is a popular supposition that the artist is easily recognized.15 Desiring to uphold this standard, Jane balanced her course load at Columbia between journalism and creative writing classes, both of which were primarily taught by Miss Hull. Due to Hull’s influence in the literary world, Crosby connected with short stories magazines both in the United States and abroad.21 Jane published the majority of her short story work while she was a student at Columbia, including ‘Balboa and Thunder’ (Frontier Magazine, Nov. 1930), ‘Pink Roses’ (The Tanager, June 1930), ‘She Came with Glamour’ (Scribner’s, Feb. 1930), and ‘Unholy Martyr’ (Plain Talk, March 1929). Jane’s short story ‘Unholy Martyr’ was selected by the Columbia administration to be included in ‘Copy 1930,’ a collection of the best written work of Columbia writing students which was published on April 23, 1930, the same year as Crosby’s Columbia graduation.

After completing her education, Crosby made it her mission to travel the world.

She started out by traveling to many European countries including Italy, France, England, and Germany. Her travels lasted months on end, equally dividing her time between America and Europe. Crosby visited many sites throughout her travels and detailed all the history she learned in her diary. For instance, when Crosby traveled to the United Kingdom in 1935, she wrote a detailed account of the Roman supremacy in England and the introduction of Christianity, all of which she had learned from her tours and expeditions.2 In addition, Crosby became acquainted with many well-known authors and publicists during her time in Europe. After the First World War came the period known as the “PostWar Pessimism,” during which American writers ventured to Europe - specifically Paris - to continue their careers. Jane Crosby was among the ranks of these writers. As time passed, Crosby expanded her horizons and set out to explore countries in Africa, the Middle East,

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Jane Snowden Crosby, Baldwin Class of 1923: Writer, Traveller, Pioneer | Research by Caroline Buchner ’18 & Cassandra Stecker ’18

Asia, and South America.1 Her travels surpassed the typical nature of an early 20th-century woman’s adventures. Surrounded by her close friends, Jane Crosby immersed herself in new cultures and experiences. While many of Crosby’s trips were pre-arranged through cruise tour companies, Jane religiously made sure to attain a local flavor in each town the tour stopped in.3 The global and cosmopolitan worldview Crosby attained through her vast journeys left a distinct impact on her writing. A small, black spiral bound notebook of short stories, poems, and newspaper clippings personally compiled by Crosby accompanied her on most of her trips beginning in 1930, the necessity of which is addressed by Crosby in the journal itself, Travels possess certain benefits - educational, spiritual, a multitude of others - yet as so to preserve the sharpness of my thought and the wit of my pen, I look upon this journal to quench my literary craving.2 Especially prevalent in Crosby’s notebook were works of poets A.E. Housman and Emily Dickinson.8 While Crosby preferred to write short stories at home in the comfort of her study, including those in which her travel was the main topic, she preserved the memory of her travels through writing poems while abroad.4 In this way, she was able to refer back to her poems later as tools to revitalize memories and inspire her literary work. During Jane’s first trip abroad- a Mediterranean cruise - she wrote her first travel poem entitled “Sorrento”, after the Southern Italian coastal town:

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When the full fresh wonder is on you

Of beauty so sheer that the sky

Seems to dip in its wish to come nearer

The mountains standing hard by;

The mountains standing smiling

Since the time when Aeneas was young

Jane Snowden Crosby, Baldwin Class of 1923: Writer, Traveller, Pioneer | Research by Caroline Buchner ’18 & Cassandra Stecker ’18

And the winding street of Naples

Were secretly even begun;

While the sea gently swirls in its ripples

Of Mediterranean blue,

And the rock-tipped curve of Amalfi

Paints glory in tones that are new—

Yet old because they have stood long,

But new to my young searching eyes,

Which rise to the glow of Vesuvius,

A legend now crystallized;

While the embers of other legends

Of a long-lost gala day,

Stir in the dust and linger

In the frescoes of Pompeii.

Then a darling pinkish villa,

Casually poised on a ledge—

With the verve that is in all daring

And the trust that is in a pledge—

Turns me again to wonder

At beauty by the way—

From Amalfi to Sorrento—

That can be put in a day!

(It is too close-packed for a day,

But this one thing I know—

That a day is often a life,

Or else it couldn’t be so!)8

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Jane Snowden Crosby, Baldwin Class of 1923: Writer, Traveller, Pioneer | Research by Caroline Buchner ’18 & Cassandra Stecker ’18

Jane and her mother, Emily Woodburn Crosby, during Jane’s christening c. 1902

Baby Jane at home in Bradford c. 1902

Jane’s childhood house at 76 Walker Avenue, Bradford, Pennsylvania Undated

Jane’s entry in her Milestone yearbook upon her graduation from Miss Baldwin’s School in 1923 Jane (top left) and the board of The Milestone c. 1923 B8

Jane Snowden Crosby, Baldwin Class of 1923: Writer, Traveller, Pioneer | Research by Caroline Buchner ’18 & Cassandra Stecker ’18

Jane and her father, Dr. J. Maurice Crosby c. 1950 Jane poses on board the S.S. Constitution in the Mediterranean c. 1953

Jane rows in the Mediterranean c. 1953 Jane during a visit to Tucson, Arizona c. 1967

Jane and a new Spanish acquaintance get their shoes shined in Spain c. 1953

Jane (back left) and T. Edward Hanley (back right) dining Undated

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Jane Snowden Crosby, Baldwin Class of 1923: Writer, Traveller, Pioneer | Research by Caroline Buchner ’18 & Cassandra Stecker ’18

Jane went on to publish a short story, also entitled “Sorrento”, a year later in the Montparnasse Literary Quarterly based out of Paris, France. Crosby’s literary friends coined this pattern of poem followed by the short story as “The Jane”.8 Crosby’s global scope of the world, as well as her interests in politics and history offered her a comprehensive understanding of World War II and its implications.

Naturally, Crosby avoided travel during the war, as venturing abroad was hardly a feasible option and both her family and the greater Bradford community benefitted from her presence. Crosby’s final journey before the war was a tour of the British Isles in 1938, which featured stops in Glasgow, Edinburgh, and London.4 Since Britain and the United States went on to unite as members of the Allied powers during the war, Crosby wrote, My former trip to our dearest allied nation allows me to grasp the greatness of Hitler’s war against mankind.8 Crosby’s father, J. Maurice Crosby, a practicing dentist in his seventies, was far too elderly to be involved with the war in any direct capacity and without any other male family members, the Crosby family remained intact throughout most of the war. To expand her cognizance of world politics as they related to World War II, Crosby attended weekly political lectures at the St. Bonaventure University in Allegheny, New York, from 1940 through 1944. Throughout this period, she was the only woman who attended the lectures regularly. Crosby, who was deeply rooted in her faith, also spent time during the war period assisting with the local war effort sponsored by her church, including helping plant and promote a Victory Garden. Recruited by the Western Union to work in telegraphy and urged by her parents to accept the position, Crosby was actually dismissed after the interview on the basis of being overqualified, which she described as “an extraordinary blessing.”1 In the later months of 1943 and into 1944, Jane Crosby’s mother, Emily Woodburn Crosby, suffered from cancer of the bowel and as her health sharply decreased, she grew

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Jane Snowden Crosby, Baldwin Class of 1923: Writer, Traveller, Pioneer | Research by Caroline Buchner ’18 & Cassandra Stecker ’18

bedridden and required daily visits from a nurse. Thus, Jane Crosby shifted her daily activities from attending lectures and volunteering to concentrating on the well-being and comfort of her mother. Crosby maintained a relative sense of calm throughout her mother’s sickness, and in part was glad to have time to reconnect with her parents and friends without the demands of other responsibilities. On the eve of her mother’s death, Jane wrote in her personal diary: [My mother] tried to talk, but her lips were very dry and her throat must have been, too. She did say some words. She said, “I am going to die,”… She seemed nervous and excited, and did not quiet down for a very long time. Her face was like herself yet she had failed so lovingly in these last days.1 On Friday, February 25, 1944, Jane wrote: “Mother left us today.” After the passing of Emily Woodburn, Crosby took a short break from writing to grieve and was fortunate to be surrounded by close Bradford friends.1

In the months following her mother’s death, Crosby became familiar with T. Edward

Hanley, a Bradford native from an industrial family who stunned the community by excelling at Harvard University.1 Hanley is regarded as a connoisseur of great literary and art pieces, acquiring a collection impressive in both magnitude and quality throughout his life. Many speculate that Hanley is the ‘Bradford millionaire’ referenced in T.S. Elliot’s poem ‘Waste Land.’ Crosby was fortunate enough to see Hanley’s art collection in its original setting at his Bradford home, an exclusive privilege reserved for Hanley’s most intimate friends.13 Crosby likened Hanley’s collection to that of Dr. Albert C. Barnes, founder of the Barnes Foundation, in that the composition of the artwork in the Hanley home was as much a piece of art as were the individual pieces. Crosby felt such an affinity towards the Hanley collection that she started to frequent his home almost as much as her own, and credits being surrounded by his art for rekindling her passion for writing.1 After this renaissance, Crosby wrote a poem, “Little Things,” in 1945, dedicated to Hanley:

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Jane Snowden Crosby, Baldwin Class of 1923: Writer, Traveller, Pioneer | Research by Caroline Buchner ’18 & Cassandra Stecker ’18

It’s such fun to make a poem When there’s something sweet to say, As it’s nice to sniff the air On a sun-drenched summer day.

It’s such fun to notice things, Like the fold of a leaf or a flower, Or the cadence of your voice Dropping magic on an hour That might have been empty and sad, Till it knew that delight that was you, And felt the quick lift of charm In all the things that you do!

When there’s something sweet to head— Like the lovely way you laugh— But I haven’t half told you, my dear!

I can close my eyes and see All the things you bring to me— Lovely things I can’t half say— Still, I fumble for a way: Bright spur of encouragement, Magic in a letter sent, Lifting up a day once cold, Touching it with fine-spun gold; Then the vigor of a word, Makes me smile and think I’ve heard Now again the way you tell

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Jane Snowden Crosby, Baldwin Class of 1923: Writer, Traveller, Pioneer | Research by Caroline Buchner ’18 & Cassandra Stecker ’18

A story; like a silver bell Striking twelve and striking true, Saying in a way that’s new All the warmth of thoughtfulness All the balm of tenderness This and beauty more I see In the things you bring to me.

Ways of saying are so slow, Ways of feeling are so fleet; Let me bring you what I know Of little things…I hope are sweet.8 Jane continued to build her relationship with Hanley throughout her life, as he served as both a valuable asset to her success in the literary world and a considerate friend.1

In 1945, Jane Crosby published her debut book, The Seatons of Western

Pennsylvania, a nonfiction piece on the Seaton family, a dominant family in Bradford and Western Pennsylvania history. Published by the Hobson Book Press in New York, New York, The Seatons of Western Pennsylvania stands as Crosby’s most notable historical work.22 T. Edward Hanley, a benefactor of St. Bonaventure University, praised the book’s “eloquent yet precise” writing style in a letter to Crosby and incorporated it into the curriculum in some of the classes at the university.8

During her later years, Crosby continued to travel, selecting more domestic

destinations rather than international ones. She visited states such as New Mexico, California, and Nevada. Jane continued to write short stories and diaries while traveling and kept photographs and memoirs relating all her experiences in the states during this time period.7 All the while, she kept a house in her hometown of Bradford, PA, at 76 Walker Avenue, located in the same neighborhood as her childhood home. In the last few years

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Jane Snowden Crosby, Baldwin Class of 1923: Writer, Traveller, Pioneer | Research by Caroline Buchner ’18 & Cassandra Stecker ’18

of her life, Crosby retired back to Bradford.18 She continued to be a part of the Baldwin community through donations to the school and her memory lives on in a commissioned collage of remarkable alumnae with global influence.8 Jane passed away October 18, 1974, at the age of 72 in her home of Bradford.18

She retained her independence in her voice and attitude throughout her life. She

was taught to extend her desires into her own life and take control of her future. Jane devoted her life not only to travel and writing but to the greater benefit of the world’s women. Her passion for writing remained steadfast from her very first English class at Miss Baldwin’s School to the last ramblings in her final diary. Jane is quoted in the class of 1923 senior prophecy (or play) as arguing with her Baldwin classmates about poetic rhyme scheme; unsurprising, as she was voted as her class’s “most stubborn” student.11 This adoration of writing sparked by Baldwin is the same spark which produced everything from her global poems to her historical masterpieces. Jane serves as a pioneer for today’s modern woman. By surpassing typical boundaries for a woman of her time, Jane’s legacy stands as a testament to the unbounded ability of women.

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Jane Snowden Crosby, Baldwin Class of 1923: Writer, Traveller, Pioneer | Research by Caroline Buchner ’18 & Cassandra Stecker ’18

ENDNOTES 1. Jane Snowden Crosby, “1944 Year Book, January 1 through December 31 1944”, The Baldwin School Archives, Bryn Mawr, PA. 2. Jane Snowden Crosby, “My Trip Abroad Journal, July 20 through August 31 1935”, The Baldwin School Archives, Bryn Mawr, PA. 3. Jane Snowden Crosby, “Travel Journal, May 1930”, The Baldwin School Archives, Bryn Mawr, PA. 4. Jane Snowden Crosby, “My Trip Abroad Journal, May 1938”, The Baldwin School Archives, Bryn Mawr, PA. 5. Leo R. Snowden, “Family Genealogy Record Book”, May 1868, The Baldwin School Archives, Bryn Mawr, PA. 6. Jane Snowden Crosby, “Monogrammed Travel Journal”, 1953, The Baldwin School Archives, Bryn Mawr, PA. 7. Jane Snowden Crosby, “Mexico Travel Journal”, May 6 through May 20 1955, The Baldwin School Archives, Bryn Mawr, PA. 8. Jane Snowden Crosby, “Writing Travel Inspiration Binder”, The Baldwin School Archives, Bryn Mawr, PA. 9. Dr. J. Maurice Crosby and Emily Woodburn Crosby, “Our Baby’s History”, The Baldwin School Archives, Bryn Mawr, PA. 10. Episcopal Church of the Ascension, “Funerary Book of Dr. J. Maurice Crosby, December 19 1953”, The Baldwin School Archives, Bryn Mawr, PA. 11. Pupils of The Baldwin School, “The Milestone: Book of 1923”, ed. Elizabeth Meade ‘23, and Louise Wilson ‘23, Rosamond Woodbury ‘28, Elizabeth Dyer ‘23, Imogene Kellogg ‘25, Cecilia Chase ‘23, Mary Du Pont ‘25, Jane Crosby ‘23, Caroline Lewis ‘24, Cecile Robinson ‘23, Ruth Taylor ‘25, (Bryn Mawr, PA: The Baldwin School, 1923) 12. Armstrong, April C. “Can Nathaniel FitzRandolph’s Descendants Attend Princeton University for Free?” Mudd Manuscript Library Blog. Entry posted June 10, 2015.

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Jane Snowden Crosby, Baldwin Class of 1923: Writer, Traveller, Pioneer | Research by Caroline Buchner ’18 & Cassandra Stecker ’18

Accessed September 1, 2016. https://blogs.princeton.edu/mudd/2015/06/cannathaniel-fitzrandolphs-descendants-attend-princeton-university-for-free/.

13. Atwood, Ethan. “T. Edward Hanley.” St. Bonaventure University Online. Last modified Fall 2003. Accessed September 1, 2016. http://web.sbu.edu/friedsam/archives/hanley/ TE_Hanley.htm.

14. Bradford Evening Star and Daily Record (Bradford, PA). “’Pink Roses’ by Jane Crosby to be Printed Soon.” April 19, 1930, 4. https://www.newspapers.com/image/?spot=6421913.

15. Bradford Evening Star and Daily Record (Bradford, PA). “Social News.” December 12, 1931, 3. Accessed September 1, 2016. https://www.newspapers.com/image/?spot=6445239.

16. Columbia Daily Spectator (New York, NY). “Miss Hull Lists Three Stages in Creation of Fiction.” March 11, 1933, 1. Accessed September 1, 2016.

17. The Kane Republican (Kane, PA). “Study Club Hears Interesting Lecture of Bradford Writer.” October 19, 1931, Accessed October 19, 1931.https://www.newspapers.com/ clip/6066610/study_club_hears_interesting_lecture_of/.

18. The Oil City Derrick (Oil City, PA). “Jane Crosby Dies; Well Known Author.”October 19, 1974, 16. Accessed September 1, 2016.https://www.newspapers.com/ image/?spot=6066629.

19. “Rollo and the Relatives.” The Gold Scales. Accessed September 1, 2016.http://oaks.nvg. org/rollo.html.

20. Jane Snowden Crosby, “1925 Year Book”, The Baldwin School Archives, Bryn Mawr, PA. 21. Jane Snowden Crosby, “1926 Year Book”, The Baldwin School Archives, Bryn Mawr, PA. 22. “The Seatons of western Pennsylvania, by Jane Snowden Crosby.” Hathi Trust.Accessed September 1, 2016. https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/005756135.

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MADELEINE MARR Madeleine Marr is a senior from Newtown Square, PA, and has attended Baldwin since Pre-Kindergarten. She is the Editor-in-Chief of Baldwin’s yearbook, the Prism, and she is the head of Girls Learn International. She is also involved in Model Congress, Lamplighters, The Hourglass student newspaper and Baldwin’s acapella group, the B-Flats. After school, she plays tennis for Baldwin, volunteers for political campaigns and participates in theater productions.

They Wanted Something Done, So They Asked a Woman; The Baldwin School’s Defiance of the Sexist Educational Standards of the 1950s

By Madeleine Marr ’17

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They Wanted Something Done, So They Asked a Woman; The Baldwin School’s Defiance of the Sexist Educational Standards of the 1950s Research by Madeleine Marr ’17

As American women entered the 1950s, they experienced a dramatic downward shift in status compared to men; although “up until then during this century women had made fairly constant progress in the spheres of politics, education, and employment opportunities,” once again, societal pressures pushed them back into the home.1 2 3 The glorification of the “happy housewife” was encouraged, renewing the popular and allconsuming desire to be a perfect wife and homemaker that had subsided during World War II.4 Television sitcoms placed the new ideal American woman on a pedestal; she was the happy mother of four, who cooked and cleaned for her family with a permanent smile on her face.5 Instead of taking command, she handed any matters relating to the outside world to her husband.6 According to Betty Friedan, who studied the state of women during the fifties, “[girls] learned that truly feminine women do not want careers, higher education, or political rights.”7 Instead, they aspired to motherhood as the pinnacle of (female) human achievement, which posed no threat to the male domination of the workplace.8 9 Women who did attend college received sex-directed educations that taught them only the necessary skills for their futures as housewives.10 Even at college, female role models who defied gender norms were scarce.11 On the contrary, their guidance counselors drove them away from “male” fields that provided mental stimulation and gratification.12 They were taught to desire “what every other American girl wanted - to get married, have four children and live in a nice house in a nice suburb.”13 Thus high school girls abandoned “unfeminine” ambitions, like careers or education, in order to chase husbands and marital fulfillment.

1 David Halberstam, The Fifties (New York, NY: Fawcett Columbine, 1993), 588.

2 Halberstam, The Fifties, 143.

3 Halberstam, The Fifties, 589.

4 Ibid.

5 Halberstam, The Fifties, 590.

6 Gail Collins, When Everything Changed: The Amazing Journey of American Women from 1960 to the Present (New York, NY: Little, Brown and Company, 2009), 11.

7 Betty Friedan, The Feminine Mystique (New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company, 1963), 15-16.

8 Halberstam, The Fifties, 596.

9 Collins, When Everything Changed: The Amazing, 99.

10 Collins, When Everything Changed: The Amazing, 57.

11 Collins, When Everything Changed: The Amazing, 12.

12 Halberstam, The Fifties, 590.

13 Friedan, The Feminine Mystique, 17-18.

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They Wanted Something Done, So They Asked a Woman; The Baldwin School’s Defiance of the Sexist Educational Standards of the 1950s Research by Madeleine Marr ’17

However, during this decade the Baldwin School ignored the sex-directed academic trends and encouraged its students to value their education and future careers without hindrance from societal standards of “femininity.” This is strongly evident in student run publications such as the school yearbook, the Prism, whose purpose was to preserve the typical experiences and ideas of the Baldwin student population. Thanks to these and other sources, it can be shown that Baldwin girls appreciated their education and expected to use it during and after college. The demanding curriculum caused students to view their academic success as a priority, leading them to matriculate and complete college at an abnormally high rate and with atypical dedication to their schoolwork. In their lives after college, more than half of the Baldwin graduates from the fifties fulfilled their high school expectations and pursued careers in typically male-dominated fields. Thanks to the plethora of female role models at Baldwin, the majority of students saw themselves as having the potential to become more than just housewives. The absence of boys at the protective single-sex boarding and day school also guaranteed that students would have a sheltered area in which they could develop without the otherwise omnipresent pressure to conform to male expectations. The abundance of legitimate activities that held real purpose in the school and community life provided situations in which students could affect change, which was an integral step towards gaining the confidence that many of their peers lacked. The Baldwin School’s unique encouragement of its students’ critical thinking skills allowed them to develop the confidence and ambitions to defy the oppressive societal expectations of women in the fifties.

While high school girls in the fifties were taught to crave male attention as their primary source of fulfillment, Baldwin girls were praised for the effort they put into their education. As a result, they developed into adults who weren’t suppressed by male expectations. Miss Rosamond Cross, the head of the Baldwin School from 1941 to 1974, wrote a letter on a specific theme each year to the graduating class for the yearbook. In 1950, she drew attention to the dedication that the seniors gave to all aspects of their

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They Wanted Something Done, So They Asked a Woman; The Baldwin School’s Defiance of the Sexist Educational Standards of the 1950s Research by Madeleine Marr ’17

school life. Her address thanked the Class of 1950 for “what you have done for the school . . . It is because you have cared about the little things, have thought them important, that your leadership has created such a fine spirit in the school.”14 This message was anomalous because women in the fifties were not taught to care about leadership or their educational experience. According to Friedan, the message typical high school girls received was that “truly feminine women do not want careers [or] higher education,” and most girls took this message to heart.15 Many female graduates entered college focused solely on finding a marriageable man.16 However, by allowing their lives to be consumed by the desperation for housewifery, these women never took the time to contemplate their personal ambitions. As a result, they did not take opportunities to lead, and thus never had to make decisions that forced them to grow. In contrast, the Baldwin girls were educated in an atmosphere where caring for the “little things” was an integral part of school life, and this concern prepared them for lives focused on ambitions outside of matrimony.

In the 1950s, adolescent girls were trained to aspire to housewifery and to shy away from ambitions for activity outside the home. Baldwin girls flouted this convention and instead expected to pursue aspirations in traditionally “masculine” fields, demonstrating their disinclination to conform to societal norms. The “Prophecy” and “Senior Data” pages in the Fifties’ yearbooks provide prime examples of this phenomenon.

An immediate indicator of the lack of interest women had in interests outside of the home was the dropping average age of marriage. Fourteen million girls were engaged by seventeen at the end of the 1950s.17 Married women tended to avoid college in order to begin producing children, striving for their idea of feminine fulfillment. The proportion of women who went to college compared to men declined from forty-seven percent to thirty-five percent between 1920 and 1958.18 High school girls could only see futures in 14 The Baldwin School, Prism 1950 Yearbook. Bryn Mawr, PA: Graduating Class of 1950, 1950. The Baldwin School Archives, The Baldwin School, pg. 8, The Third Floor Archives.

15 Friedan, The Feminine Mystique, 15-16.

16 Friedan, The Feminine Mystique, 150.

17 Friedan, The Feminine Mystique, 16.

18 Ibid.

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which they were happily married and pregnant, so they treated jobs and education as a means of biding their time.19 20 Despite evidence to the contrary, most girls genuinely did not anticipate having jobs as adults. In a discussion with high school students in Los Angeles, an interviewer asked how many girls expected to work. “Only one or two girls signified interest,” even though most of the girls’ mothers worked.21 The Baldwin students who graduated in the 1950s displayed dramatically different tendencies; there were numerous girls who declared in the Prism ambitions in fields typically only open to men.

In the 1950 Prism, a page was dedicated to seniors’ fates after graduation. Roughly half of the girls declared that they would become successes in fields such as science, journalism, politics, international relations, and collegiate education.22 For example, “Mary Lyman’s magnificent contributions to science” were predicted to be the cause for the donation of a state-of-the-art facility to her school.23 Furthermore, the students did not see themselves as future secretaries or assistants in their chosen fields, which were typically the only jobs women were afforded.24 Every student at Baldwin who expressed an interest in pursuing a career expected to be prominent and to make a lasting contribution during their lifetimes.25 Even students at top-tier colleges like Vassar did not intend to have that kind of impact.26 The Prism “Prophecy” pages provide concrete proof that Baldwin girls anticipated lofty futures for themselves in areas outside of the home, demonstrating confidence that women in the fifties generally lacked.

The Baldwin School’s intense curriculum required students’ persistence and dedication, causing them to be more likely to pursue legitimate college educations than their discouraged peers. As young women entered college in the fifties, they had to 19 Friedan, The Feminine Mystique, 27.

20 Friedan, The Feminine Mystique, 69.

21 Collins, When Everything Changed: The Amazing, 17.

22 The Baldwin School, Prism 1950 Yearbook. Bryn Mawr, PA: Graduating Class of 1950, 1950. The Baldwin School Archives, The Baldwin School, pg. 38-39, The Third Floor Archives.

23 Ibid.

24 Collins, When Everything Changed: The Amazing, 12.

25 The Baldwin School, Prism 1950 Yearbook. Bryn Mawr, PA: Graduating Class of 1950, 1950. The Baldwin School Archives, The Baldwin School, pg. 38-39, The Third Floor Archives.

26 Friedan, The Feminine Mystique, 151.

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choose between dedicating their time and energy to their studies or to their dating life.

Due to education geared toward teaching young girls that that their sexual functions to precedence over their intellectual abilities, a great majority of girls entering college saw marriage as their appropriate path.27 They knew that their lives after college would be also more uncertain if they held off marriage to pursue an education.28 As a result of these factors, most women escaped to the socially acceptable path of marriage and childbirth.29 Conversely, students who attended the Baldwin School also reached the point where they had to decide if they would seriously pursue a higher education, but they were instructed in a manner that lauded arduous educational pursuits. They were required to dedicate their time and energy to schoolwork at Baldwin in order to even pass, as the classes were not easy and did not allow for diminished effort. A 1950 Prism illustration shows a character overwhelmed by a wave of papers and tests, representing the immense workload with which a Baldwin student struggled.30 However, the 1952 Prism “Dedication” thanked the parents of students who, “When we were discouraged and were tempted to give up . . . patiently encouraged us to continue.”31 Students felt vindicated by their dedication to their studies, which in turn gave them the confidence to continue this perseverance in college. Most college students decided not to actively care about their education, as they had learned to anticipate that their futures as housewives would be free of intellectual obligations.32 The Baldwin style of education, on the other hand, constructed girls who wanted to continue their education and eventually utilize it. This created a group of girls who, come senior year, were prepared to take on an intellectually stimulating college course-load. They looked forward to studying for careers such as “the . . . Diplomatic Service in Spain,” to use Barbara Bockus (‘53) as an example, instead of taking 27 Brett Harvey, The Fifties: A Women's Oral History (New York, NY: HarperCollins, 1993), 54.

28 Ibid.

29 Friedan, The Feminine Mystique, 76.

30 The Baldwin School, Prism 1950 Yearbook. Bryn Mawr, PA: Graduating Class of 1950, 1950. The Baldwin School Archives, The Baldwin School, pg. 11, The Third Floor Archives.

31 The Baldwin School, Prism 1952 Yearbook. Bryn Mawr, PA: Graduating Class of 1952, 1952. The Baldwin School Archives, The Baldwin School, pg. 5, The Third Floor Archives.

32 Friedan, The Feminine Mystique, 71.

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cursory courses until becoming housewives, as was the case with thousands of typical female high school and college graduates in the fifties.33 Thus, Baldwin students pushed past the decision-making process that held so many women back, allowing them to pursue success at a higher level.

Despite the decline in women electing to matriculate in college during the fifties, Baldwin students attended and completed college in record numbers because of the intense curriculum and elevated academic expectations. According to Betty Friedan’s research, the “influence of sex-directed education [the style of educating girls in order to train them for exclusively “feminine” roles in the home and workplace] was perhaps more insidious on the high-school level than it was in the colleges.”34 She pointed to the dropping proportion of women in college in the fifties to prove that assertion. Of the the top forty percent of high school graduates, half did not continue on to college. Of that half, sixty-six percent were female.35 In fact, more women had attended college in 1920 than in 1958 (forty-seven versus thirty-five percent), demonstrating the regression that women experienced in regards to education.36 Women who did begin college were more likely to drop out; Friedan reported that “only thirty-seven percent of the women graduated.”37 The sixty-three percent of women who left college did so in order to get married or because “too much education [was] a ‘marriage bar.’”38 These trends would seem to presuppose that Baldwin graduates also chose marriage over higher education, but in reality nearly every student attended college and received a degree. A survey taken in 1959 by the Alumnae Association asked graduates whether they had graduated from or were attending college. Out of the class of 1951, every alumna who responded answered affirmatively.39 Furthemore, even though “fourteen million girls were engaged 33 The Baldwin School, Prism 1953 Yearbook. Bryn Mawr, PA: Graduating Class of 1953, 1953. The Baldwin School Archives, The Baldwin School, pg. 42-43, The Third Floor Archives.

34 Friedan, The Feminine Mystique, 162-163.

35 Friedan, The Feminine Mystique, 161.

36 Friedan, The Feminine Mystique, 16.

37 Friedan, The Feminine Mystique, 163.

38 Ibid.

39 The Baldwin School Alumnae Office, "Alumnae Survey" (unpublished manuscript, The Baldwin School, Bryn Mawr, PA, 1959), 1.

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by seventeen” by the end of the 1950s, not a single Baldwin graduate from the class of 1958 had dropped out of college to get married.40 41 This irregularity occurred because Baldwin students faced an extremely demanding curriculum, and they had to exert more energy than typically expected of high school girls in order to even graduate and get into college. A poem written for the 1950 Prism wondered “how doth . . . Miss Spring Improve our Latin knowledge; and with the language of the Tiber, She gets us into college.”42 This type of language proves that one goal of the Baldwin tutelage was actually to create students who were prepared for the college experience and wanted to continue their education. Baldwin graduates were far more likely to remain at college, demonstrating that attendance at Baldwin created women who would not gravitate towards the “safety net” of early marriage and away from actual fulfillment through secondary education.

One of the core issues that caused the discouragement of women from considering roles outside of the home was the lack of positive female role models. The predominantly female teaching and administrative staff at the Baldwin School was uniquely able to provide figures for the students as alternatives to the omnipresent and one-dimensional “homemaker” ideal.43 As Gail Collins noted in her book When Everything Changed, women who attended esteemed “institutions of higher education . . . had never once had a female professor.”44 These female students were not exposed to powerful and successful women, so they did not see high-powered careers as available to them. Instead, their male professors largely encouraged them to pursue their “proper paths” as “teacher [but not professor]/nurse/secretary” until marriage.45 However, it was not just educators who failed to provide positive role models to inspire young women. The magazine Mademoiselle could only find one woman, Lorraine Hansberry, to add to a list of seven “headstrong people who have made names for themselves” that supposedly exemplified 40 Friedan, The Feminine Mystique, 16.

41 The Baldwin School Alumnae Office, "Alumnae Survey," 1.

42 The Baldwin School, Prism 1950 Yearbook. Bryn Mawr, PA: Graduating Class of 1950, 1950. The Baldwin School Archives, The Baldwin School, pg. 44, The Third Floor Archives.

43 Halberstam, The Fifties, 590.

44 Collins, When Everything Changed: The Amazing, 12.

45 Ibid.

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what the 1960s had in store.46 The reality was that a young woman growing up in the 1950s did not have an image of a woman who “used her mind [and] played her own part in the world.”47 As a result, women who came of age during this decade could not begin to imagine themselves working and partaking in the realm that they believed belonged to men. Instead, they threw themselves into homemaking, and younger girls, lost without role models to show them what was possible, followed suit. Without women who were breaking the “feminine” stereotype and engaging in mentally stimulating work to help guide other women into their fields, virtually all careers remained dominated by men, and women’s advancement remained at a stand-still.

However, the students at the Baldwin School were guided by a nearly completely

female faculty, and the “Dedications” pages of the Prisms published in the fifties exemplify how instrumental these women were in aiding their wards. The 1952 Prism staff used the “Dedication” to reflect that “We have gained much in maturity from our contacts here at school, and we take this opportunity to thank you for our outstanding preparation for life: a Baldwin education.”48 The staff explicitly cited their “contacts” (i.e. the faculty) as the catalysts for their maturity. Furthermore, the Prism staff declared that their Baldwin education was an exceptional “preparation for life,” elaborating on the idea that, through their attendance at the school, those female students became equipped to handle the decisions they would soon face. Rosamond Cross touched on that point in a “Letter to the Senior Class” published in the 1951 Prism.49 She admitted that the “school [has] tried to develop . . . strengths to guide you in making wise choices and decisions.”50 Essentially, the purpose of the Baldwin education was to aid its students with the assistance of female educators; this diverged from the contemporaneous norm in which female role models were virtually non-existent.

46 Ibid.

47 Friedan, The Feminine Mystique, 75.

48 The Baldwin School, Prism 1952 Yearbook. Bryn Mawr, PA: Graduating Class of 1952, 1952. The Baldwin School Archives, The Baldwin School, pg. 5, The Third Floor Archives.

49 The Baldwin School, Prism 1951 Yearbook. Bryn Mawr, PA: Graduating Class of 1951, 1951. The Baldwin School Archives, The Baldwin School, pg. 7, The Third Floor Archives.

50 Ibid.

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The presence of specifically female role models at Baldwin fostered confidence that prepared students to disregard sexist limitations on their ambitions. Definitive proof of the support the Baldwin faculty provided can be found in the 1955 Prism “Dedication.”51 The staff dedicated the book to the Baldwin School as a whole, instead of an individual member of the community. They argued that the teachers, staff, and students “have all educated us; they have all given of their time and their patience, their wisdom . . . [and] themselves.”52 The Baldwin School gave the students the confidence to lead and to follow good leadership. It has instilled in us high ideals of honesty and integrity, high standards for life, and a spirit of learning. It has made us open-minded. It has let us make mistakes and profit by them. It has never told us what to believe, but has taught us to search for something we can believe.53 In this “Dedication” the Baldwin students state that the women (and the few men) who participated in their education encouraged their confidence and leadership skills, two qualities that were mandatory for young women considering breaking into maledominated fields. The students also thank their teachers for emboldening them to search for something to believe in, a key aspect of critical thinking and independence. Women in this era largely did not gain these skills because of their biased educations. The powerful influence of the Baldwin teachers provided students with female role models who helped them develop the confidence and motivation necessary to pursue careers and higher education.

A significant benefit of attending the Baldwin School was the absence of boys on campus during the school day. While girls attending co-educational high schools felt pressure to appear less intelligent in order to preserve an aura of femininity, Baldwin students were free to focus on their education and the cultivation of their individual 51 The Baldwin School, Prism 1955 Yearbook. Bryn Mawr, PA: Graduating Class of 1955, 1955. The Baldwin School Archives, The Baldwin School, pg. 5, The Third Floor Archives.

52 The Baldwin School, Prism 1955 Yearbook. Bryn Mawr, PA: Graduating Class of 1955, 1955. The Baldwin School Archives, The Baldwin School, pg. 5, The Third Floor Archives.

53 Ibid.

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personalities. The “Horsepoll,” a variation on senior superlatives, provides evidence that the girls attending Baldwin acted naturally among their classmates. There were variegated descriptions of the class, suggesting a lack of conformity in behavior. For example, the 1950 Prism described select seniors as the “most radical” and “most conservative,” indicating that students felt enough freedom to diverge in political views, or even to have the awareness to possess those opinions.54 The 1953 Prism included indications throughout the book that Baldwin students had the freedom to develop their personalities without the hindrance of male judgement. Students were labelled as the “most sarcastic,” the “most frank,” and the “Class politician.”55 The fact that the superlatives were not restricted by standards of “femininity,” like timidity or ignorance, indicates a liberation from the typical expectations for women that required them to sacrifice their interests for the pursuit of a boyfriend.56 Students at the nearby Bryn Mawr College described to Betty Friedan the difference in discourse “when boys are around, compared to the real talk they can permit themselves when they are not afraid to let their intelligence show.” The nearcomplete absence of adolescent boys implies that Baldwin students were always able to speak freely while on campus.57 They matured in an environment where they felt safe to explore their ideas and intelligence, and so their distinctive personalities were respected and cultivated. It is safe to assume that Baldwin graduates remained this confident in their abilities upon entering college and their respective careers. The single-sex Baldwin education helped women who attended the school overcome the idea that they needed to abandon any “unfeminine” interests in order to be well-liked, thus surpassing the powerful influence that caused girls to prematurely conclude their educations in order to focus on their appeal to the opposite sex.58 While women raised during this decade expected to discard any education they 54 The Baldwin School, Prism 1950 Yearbook. Bryn Mawr, PA: Graduating Class of 1950, 1950. The Baldwin School Archives, The Baldwin School, pg. 37, The Third Floor Archives.

55 The Baldwin School, Prism 1953 Yearbook. Bryn Mawr, PA: Graduating Class of 1953, 1953. The Baldwin School Archives, The Baldwin School, pg. 49, The Third Floor Archives.

56 Friedan, The Feminine Mystique, 165.

57 Friedan, The Feminine Mystique, 173-174.

58 Friedan, The Feminine Mystique, 73.

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received and were thus apathetic, alumnae of the Baldwin School were kept motivated through a rigorous curriculum and a multitude of challenging activities. This style of education helped the Baldwin students remain dedicated to their futures outside of the home, preventing them from depending on men for fulfillment. According to a therapist working at a college in the 1950s, female students who had never “committed themselves” to their education or extracurriculars depended their boyfriends for “security” and were not able to complete college, join the workforce, and develop the emotional maturity for a healthy marriage.59 Participation in mentally stimulating activities allowed women to develop confidence in their abilities, elevating their perceived self-worth and preventing them from throwing themselves into relationships in order to gain stability. The Baldwin School administration developed a substantial extracurricular program, as well as a challenging curriculum, with the intention of fostering that self-confidence in their students. This provided them with the tools necessary to evade dependence on men. The course load was reputedly difficult; a poem featured in the 1957 Prism described the pride a Baldwin student felt in the taxing nature of the school. She wrote: “But even so, you are proud (Who couldn’t, at that school?) To be smart enough . . . and tough enough.”60 Not only were the students challenged, but their confidence was bolstered by their triumph, developing higher self-esteem and a desire to continue their educational success.

Miss Cross’s letter to the Class of 1952 also indicated the effort made by the faculty to encourage students in their academic pursuits. According to her note, she hoped that the graduating class had learned that “true success and satisfaction in school came because you really invested yourself wholeheartedly,” demonstrating that the Baldwin administration’s goal was to instill drive into its students and to aid their development towards maturity and independence.61 Finally, the Prism publications during the 1950s provide a plentitude of examples of organizations geared towards motivating the Baldwin 59 Ibid.

60 The Baldwin School, Prism 1957 Yearbook. Bryn Mawr, PA: Graduating Class of 1957, 1957. The Baldwin School Archives, The Baldwin School, pg. 5, The Third Floor Archives.

61 The Baldwin School, Prism 1952 Yearbook. Bryn Mawr, PA: Graduating Class of 1952, 1952. The Baldwin School Archives, The Baldwin School, pg. 6, The Third Floor Archives.

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student body. The Student Government at Baldwin, for example, was valued for its ability to broaden each girl’s perspective, providing a catalyst for growth.62 The availability of organizations like the Service League, Advisory Board, and Student Senate offered a multitude of opportunities to reinforce self-esteem through leadership. This helped Baldwin students avoid dependence on male relationships for validation and remain steadfast in their commitment to their education.63 A central encumbrance to gender equality in the fifties was the prevalence of sexdirected curricula designed to focus on developing women’s sexual functions without regard to their critical thinking skills. This program of study bored female students and discouraged any real dedication to a pursuit outside of dating, causing the near-total absence of women in the workplace. According to Friedan’s research, although women were receiving at least some higher education, the number of women to continue on to notable careers after college was actually lower in the fifties than in the years before World War II.64 The cause of this exodus can be traced to the role college educators decided to take in regards to their female charges. Instead of encouraging their intelligence, teachers began to worry solely about their future adjustment to housewifery.65 The women who attended high school and college in the fifties were indoctrinated with the idea that a serious interest in future careers outside of matrimony would ruin their chances to be normal and, more importantly, feminine.66 Educators were indicted with the charge their teaching had made the women who had graduated from college before 1950 “unfeminine” and unprepared for the roles (wife, mother, and homemaker) designated for them.67 Teachers responded to these accusations by drastically altering their approach to education. Instead of training women to be intelligent thinkers, they emphasized

62 The Baldwin School, Prism 1952 Yearbook. Bryn Mawr, PA: Graduating Class of 1952, 1952. The Baldwin School Archives, The Baldwin School, pg. 56, The Third Floor Archives.

63 The Baldwin School, Prism 1950 Yearbook. Bryn Mawr, PA: Graduating Class of 1950, 1950. The Baldwin School Archives, The Baldwin School, pg. 56-60, The Third Floor Archives.

64 Friedan, The Feminine Mystique, 150.

65 Friedan, The Feminine Mystique, 156.

66 Ibid.

67 Friedan, The Feminine Mystique, 157.

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“adjustment within the world of home and children.”68 The courses instituted in nearly every school in the United States were essentially geared toward coaching girls (for these classes were instituted for girls as young as eleven) how to “play the role of a woman.”69 70

This meant that pure science and fine art were no longer perceived to be necessary,

because “femininity” was equated to “an aversion for statistics and quantities” and other activities requiring mental exertion.71 72 At the collegiate level, courses in “advanced cooking” were suggested as replacements to chemistry, and high schools offered instruction on the “do’s and dont’s of dating.” The overall effect was that women learned to value themselves exclusively for their sexual function and for their ability to assist men.73 74 This was not a covert initiative; a woman’s college changed their slogan to the line: “We are not educating women to be scholars; we are educating them to be wives and mothers.”75 High school girls gave up on the idea of education because they were encouraged to take easy, boring classes in order to preserve their “femininity.” Without a real education that stretched their minds, women remained largely constrained to biological interests.76 As a result, women had few opportunities to develop the ambition and drive necessary to work toward careers that required more than trivial dedication, and this explains the lack of female doctors, lawyers, and other professionals during this decade.

Despite this overwhelming trend, the Baldwin School remained dedicated to an education that was unrestrained by gender and encouraged critical awareness and active participation in curricular activities. The Baldwin Prism publications again provide insight into the studious nature of the graduates from the 1950s. The “Senior Favorites” pages specifically demonstrate that the students had interests besides dating that testified to 68 Ibid.

69 Friedan, The Feminine Mystique, 162.

70 Friedan, The Feminine Mystique, 156.

71 Friedan, The Feminine Mystique, 160.

72 Friedan, The Feminine Mystique, 159.

73 Friedan, The Feminine Mystique, 159.

74 Friedan, The Feminine Mystique, 162.

75 Friedan, The Feminine Mystique, 158-159.

76 Friedan, The Feminine Mystique, 163.

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their genuine awareness, a quality many women lacked.7778 The page included categories like favorite book (Of Human Bondage, 1951), favorite world figure (Bonnie Prince Charlie, 1950), and favorite college (the electoral, 1953).79 80 81 The presence of this page in the yearbook indicates the real interest students had in their subjects. The thought and creativity the favorites reveal on the part of the graduating class were deeper than the cursory attention that high school and college girls paid in deference to “femininity.” The intellectuality demonstrated in the yearbook publications from this decade reveal the introspection that differentiated Baldwin girls in an era characterized by the apathy of high school girls.

Baldwin students were conditioned to pursue academic success, which astonished the faculty at schools like Smith College who were used to the products of the sexdirected educational system. Jane Sehmann, the Director of Admissions for Smith College, wrote Rosamond Cross in 1963 to commend her for the “relatively large number” of Baldwin graduates who had made the Dean’s List at various universities and colleges that year.82 A total of 236 Baldwin graduates from the class of 1959 onward had been given the accolade, and the fact that Miss Cross had received congratulations indicates that it was atypical for a single school to have this many alumnae on the Dean’s List.83 Furthemore, Sehmann applauded Cross for the academic records of her former students, as they gave “tangible evidence that you are giving your students not only rigorous training in disciplined habits of thought . . . but, in addition, a genuine love of learning and 77 The Baldwin School, Prism 1950 Yearbook. Bryn Mawr, PA: Graduating Class of 1950, 1950. The Baldwin School Archives, The Baldwin School, pg. 36, The Third Floor Archives.

78 Friedan, The Feminine Mystique, 150.

79 The Baldwin School, Prism 1951 Yearbook. Bryn Mawr, PA: Graduating Class of 1951, 1951. The Baldwin School Archives, The Baldwin School, pg. 42, The Third Floor Archives.

80 The Baldwin School, Prism 1950 Yearbook. Bryn Mawr, PA: Graduating Class of 1950, 1950. The Baldwin School Archives, The Baldwin School, pg. 36, The Third Floor Archives.

81 The Baldwin School, Prism 1953 Yearbook. Bryn Mawr, PA: Graduating Class of 1953, 1953. The Baldwin School Archives, The Baldwin School, pg. 48, The Third Floor Archives.

82 Jane Sehmann to Rosamond Cross, "Baldwin Bulletin - 1959," May 1959, The Baldwin School Archives, The Baldwin School, Bryn Mawr, PA, accessed November 29, 2015, http://contentdm1.accesspa.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/kthbsarch/id/424/rec/1.

83 Sehmann to Cross, "Baldwin Bulletin - 1959."

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delight in the pleasures of the mind.”84 Obviously the Baldwin graduates were displaying commitment to their educations that exceeded their peers. Their consistent excellence, especially in their “genuine love of learning,” proves that the Baldwin academics defied the scholastic trends that suppressed women’s critical thinking skills and denied preparation for stringent courses in order to encourage biological functions.

Baldwin girls were groomed to expect success outside of the realm of the home, so they were steered away from the idea that their chief purpose in life was childbearing.

The 1951 Prism Staff designated a column in the “Senior Data” pages for girls to record their ambitions, and the majority of the class (63.3%) submitted serious and futurespecific goals.85 This rebelled from the overwhelming societal expectations that the only ideas high school girls would have about their futures would involve placeholder jobs until inevitable marriages.86 87 Granted, seventeen of the sixty girls in that graduating class submitted ambitions that conformed to the “feminine” ideals of the time; they aspired to “change my last name and be a good wife,” and “to hear the pater [sic] of little feet.” However, nearly three times as many girls defied traditional expectations and wrote that they hoped to become “a successful career woman in Paris,” an “Ambassadress extraordinaire,” “a psychologist,” and the “First woman manager of baseball,” for example.88 The ratio of girls who expected to work to those who did not in other schools around the country was antipodal to the ratio at Baldwin. For example, when an assembly of middle class high school girls was asked if they planned to work, “only one or two girls signified interest.”89 The same group was then asked how many expected to have “a home and kids and a family,” and nearly every girl raised her hand.90 The attitude of Baldwin students demonstrated an anomalous trend: more students than not expected and anticipated 84 Ibid.

85 The Baldwin School, Prism 1951 Yearbook. Bryn Mawr, PA: Graduating Class of 1951, 1951. The Baldwin School Archives, The Baldwin School, pg. 44-47, The Third Floor Archives.

86 Friedan, The Feminine Mystique, 27.

87 Friedan, The Feminine Mystique, 69.

88 The Baldwin School, Prism 1951 Yearbook. Bryn Mawr, PA: Graduating Class of 1951, 1951. The Baldwin School Archives, The Baldwin School, pg. 44-47, The Third Floor Archives.

89 Collins, When Everything Changed: The Amazing, 17.

90 Ibid.

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success in “male” realms. They obviously did not view their lofty ambitions as catastrophic detractors to their femininity. Instead, through their positive and perhaps sex-blind education, they were able to aspire to greater successes than their peers, whose education was geared towards molding them into “competent and happy housewives.”91

Baldwin students had sometimes heterodox opinions, but they were free to

express those judgements in school-sponsored publications like the Prism. This proves that the Baldwin administration did not subscribe to the popular method of teaching through indoctrination, and instead fostered critical thinking. In a poem written about the high school experiences of the Class of 1952, a student noted that “On many issues the class split up, The radical and the reserved.”92 Not only were the students political, which was rare for women at the time, but they held opposing views that they expressed and debated.93 Since educators at other schools felt pressure to guarantee that educated women would not be “unfeminine” or unprepared for housewifery, they geared their curricula towards teaching women how to fit the role society had created for them.94 They taught “a sophisticated soup of uncritical prescriptions and presentiments,” which hindered the development of critical thinking that would enable female college graduates to defy gender standards and pursue careers.95 Baldwin students, on the other hand, were encouraged to debate ideas with their teachers and with each other, which was evidently one reason why they were able to evade societal expectations that would have otherwise restricted them to the home.96 In fact, arguments about “various moral issues” with “parents, roommates and friends” were so common to the Baldwin experience that they were listed with “waiting for telephone calls” and “agonizing over . . . college” as the typical events of the Class of 1958’s senior year. In reality, this was far from normal. Betty Friedan 91 Collins, When Everything Changed: The Amazing, 57.

92 The Baldwin School, Prism 1952 Yearbook. Bryn Mawr, PA: Graduating Class of 1952, 1952. The Baldwin School Archives, The Baldwin School, pg. 41, The Third Floor Archives.

93 Friedan, The Feminine Mystique, 151.

94 Friedan, The Feminine Mystique, 156.

95 Ibid.

96 The Baldwin School, Prism 1958 Yearbook. Bryn Mawr, PA: Graduating Class of 1958, 1958. The Baldwin School Archives, The Baldwin School, pg. 9, The Third Floor Archives.

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explicitly bemoaned the lack of “bull sessions” about the topics of class discussion when she visited Vassar in 1959.97 When she asked a senior what courses girls were stimulated by, the disinterested girl replied, Girls don’t get excited about things like that anymore. We don’t want careers. Our parents expect us to go to college . . . You’re a social outcast at home if you don’t. But a girl who got serious about anything she studied - like wanting to go on and do research - would be peculiar, unfeminine.98 The Baldwin administration encouraged critical thinking and debate skills in its students throughout the 1950s, as shown by evidence in the Prism publications from this decade.

This style of teaching differed drastically from the totalitarian trend accepted at nearly every other institution, which enforced the idea of “feminine” conformity. As a result of the education that allowed students to express their opinions, the Baldwin graduates were more independent from men and marriage for fulfillment.

After graduation, Baldwin girls remained largely dedicated to their educations and potential careers. In 1959, the Baldwin Alumnae Office surveyed the previous eight years of graduates and asked them about their lives post-graduation. Out of the sixtythree alumnae who graduated between 1950 and 1957 and who reported their activity, thirty-one described their main focus as a career or an education.99 The remaining women only mentioned familial activities, but there is the possibility that these women were working and the only change in their lives between publishings of alumnae surveys was childbirth or marriage.100 Taking this into account, approximately fifty percent of these graduates were working at or toward careers.101 This defied the “feminine mystique” of the era, which dictated that women could only work to support their husbands or families, 97 Friedan, The Feminine Mystique, 153.

98 Ibid.

99 The Baldwin School Alumnae Office, "Alumnae Survey," 1.

100 Ibid.

101 Ibid.

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and not at jobs that could possibly provide fulfillment.102 Furthermore, participation in life outside of the home increased in alumnae who graduated closer to 1957, showing a positive development at a more rapid pace than in the rest of the country.103 Despite the massive dropout rate and low age of marriage among college women in the fifties, nearly every Baldwin girl graduated college and a large majority did not immediately marry.104 Every alumnae from the Class of 1951 had or was completing a college degree, and only four girls of the Class of 1956 were married two years out of high school.105 This information strongly indicates the trend of continued dedication among Baldwin girls to their education; they did not sacrifice their futures for the safety of early marriage, and they were not pressured by the prevailing ideas that education would ruin a girl’s dating appeal.

Baldwin had strong connections with Bryn Mawr College, and this relationship allowed Bryn Mawr’s Head of School Katherine McBride to provide an academic example, especially in regard to education and the sciences. McBride corresponded frequently with Rosamond Cross, and the former often traveled to Baldwin to speak about women’s education. Her influence specifically provided guidance as to how to introduce girls to fields that women in the fifties were typically excluded from.106 One example of this instruction was McBride’s attendance at a panel at Baldwin on March 5, 1957.107 The topic for the meeting was “the content of basic college preparatory courses in the sciences and mathematics,” and McBride was the only female expert on the panel of collegiate educators.108 Her inclusion indicates that, without her relationship with the school, the Baldwin faculty would have struggled to find the female role models that were necessary to convince their students that typically “masculine” fields were viable career paths.

102 Friedan, The Feminine Mystique, 195.

103 The Baldwin School Alumnae Office, "Alumnae Survey," 1.

104 Ibid.

105 Ibid.

106 Harvey, The Fifties: A Woman's, 46.

107 Letter to Katherine McBride, "Renewed Invitation; Panel Discussion," March 5, 1957, Box 6, Bryn Mawr College, Bryn Mawr, PA. 108 Ibid.

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McBride’s presence also indicates the propensity for the school to include Bryn Mawr faculty in its discussions about education, showing their influence in the structure of Baldwin educational practices. Cross’s letter thanking McBride for her participation in the panel also expressed her gratitude “for giving all your [McBride’s] time and interest so generously to the Baldwin School.”109 McBride frequently concerned herself with the instruction at Baldwin, so her example must have been incorporated into Baldwin’s ideas about women’s education. She also had a close personal relationship with Rosamond Cross; in letters, they referred to each other as “Roz” and “Kathy,” demonstrating their intimacy.110 Their friendship allowed them to support each other at a time when the necessity of their careers as educators of women was being questioned.111 Thus, McBride was able to impart a scholarly example for Baldwin that diverged from the sexist educational standards of the time.

Not only did Bryn Mawr’s faculty frequently offer direction to Cross and her staff for the empowerment of students, but the administrators at Baldwin also sought advice from their peers on how to find and train competent teachers. In a letter to McBride from January 1956, Cross requested her assistance in reviewing a letter to be sent to “various vocational offices in the women’s colleges.”112 The attached draft outlined Cross’s plan to entice more women to pursue teaching careers in math and science, with the additional goal of providing “good science and mathematics teachers for the Baldwin School.”113 Her plan included offering women teaching experience at Baldwin and graduate seminars at Bryn Mawr. Cross’s desire to have McBride approve of the proposal indicates that she considered McBride to be knowledgeable on the subject and worthy of advising the endeavor. Further letters from teachers at Baldwin reveal that this plan to produce more female science and math teachers was in fact instituted.114 They sent McBride the 109 Rosamond Cross to Katherine McBride, March 12, 1957, Box 6, Bryn Mawr College, Bryn Mawr, PA. 110 Ibid.

111 Harvey, The Fifties: A Woman's, 48.

112 Rosamond Cross to Katharine McBride, January 3, 1956, Box 6, Bryn Mawr College, Bryn Mawr, PA. 113 Ibid.

114 Lillian Wyckoff and Charlotte Main to Katharine McBride, March 21, 1957, Box 6, Bryn Mawr College, Bryn Mawr, PA. C20

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report for the “Teacher Training Program,” demonstrating McBride’s involvement with the supplementation of the faculty at Baldwin.115 In this letter the Baldwin teachers also thanked the offices and departments at Bryn Mawr.116 Many of the educators at the college avidly participated in Cross’s scheme to supply more female science and math teachers for her school, and the frequent application to them for guidance shows that Baldwin desired their involvement. The educators at Baldwin drew inspiration and counsel from those at Bryn Mawr for their undertakings, helping them produce intelligent teachers that would provide a real education for the Baldwin students.

Bryn Mawr had high academic standards for its female charges and did not allow the sexist ideology of the fifties to affect its instruction. While many colleges were proposing undemanding curricula with courses in “advanced cooking” and child-rearing, Bryn Mawr was the only college that “never retreated . . . from its rigorous standards for women.”117 118 Students had to complete courses as intellectually challenging as Greek, Latin, and premed level chemistry in order to graduate.119 This attitude towards course requirements was divergent from that of other colleges and was more aligned with Baldwin’s mindset. The singular nature of the two schools hints that they may have influenced or guided each other towards the same conclusion about women’s educational standards. Admission at Bryn Mawr was also more stringent than at other all girls colleges.

In the “Minutes of the Committee on Admissions” from December 1950, it was recorded that Bryn Mawr had a lower record of acceptances than at the other Sister Schools; however, their applicants and accepted students retained high verbal aptitude scores.120 It was also reported that of the freshman class, only two of the “doubtful candidates” who had been accepted were struggling in three or more subjects.121 This evidence 115 Ibid.

116 Ibid.

117 Friedan, The Feminine Mystique, 159.

118 Harvey, The Fifties: A Women's, 62.

119 Ibid.

120 Memorandum by The Committee on Admissions, "Minutes of the Committee on Admissions, December 6, 1950," December 6, 1950, Box 1, Bryn Mawr College, Bryn Mawr, PA. 121 Ibid.

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corroborates the fact that the expectations for incoming students at the college were high, and the admissions officers were not hesitant to deny acceptance to those who they felt could not handle the academic rigor. Bryn Mawr did not conform to the idea that a woman’s college education should only prepare her for marriage, and instead continued to demand excellence from its applicants and its students.

Bryn Mawr’s connection with Baldwin showed the school how to preserve academic intensity for women’s education, explaining in part why the Baldwin School did not succumb to the harmful educational trends of the fifties. Cross and McBride’s close relationship, both as educators and as friends, allowed the two to guide each other in matters of women’s education. McBride’s history in scientific study helped her provide Baldwin students with a female role model who had succeeded in a “male” field, which was integral to their empowerment.122 She was also frequently included in discussions about education at Baldwin, and Bryn Mawr’s determined tendency to ignore the societal pressure to educate future housewives indicates that McBride would have passed this conviction to the educators at Baldwin. Faculty at Bryn Mawr guided their peers at Baldwin in their quest to produce more female science and math teachers, showing how their dedication to education women equally was well-received and incorporated into the Baldwin mindset. Overall, Bryn Mawr’s resolve to create intelligent and career-minded women influenced the ideology at Baldwin, explaining in part why the school did not yield to the sex-biased educational trends of the decade.

As a result of the increased prevalence of sex-directed education, the standards

for women’s tutelage in the fifties experienced a dramatic downward shift. Teachers and professors pushed their female students to value male approval above their own ambitions and interests, causing an increased apathy towards academic success. Fewer women attended or finished college and instead escaped through early marriages.

They learned through societal pressures that matrimony and childbearing were the only means for “feminine” fulfillment, thus causing a decrease in female leadership. However, 122 Letter to McBride, "Renewed Invitation; Panel Discussion."

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throughout the fifties The Baldwin School subscribed to a radical educational ideology that encouraged students to surpass the sexist limitations imposed on other high school girls and demand entrance into male-dominated fields. The Prism publications of this decade show the zeitgeist of the school and indicate that Baldwin girls were not inundated with restrictive “feminine” standards. They reveal that most graduates anticipated future success, attributing these expectations to their teachers and courses.

Students had the confidence to dedicate their efforts to their education and careers over marriage because of the demanding curriculum instituted at Baldwin. The plethora of female role models available at the school provided archetypes of women who found satisfaction outside of the home, and the single-sex environment freed students from the pressure to diminish their intelligence in order to remain attractive. By providing unbiased schooling, Baldwin gave its students the tools to combat harmful societal limitations.

Baldwin girls’ defiance of oppressive gender norms demonstrates the immense power of education. Thanks to that tutelage, those students developed the emerging feminist ideals that would eventually lead American women into the twenty-first century.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY The Baldwin School Alumnae Office. “Alumnae Survey.” Unpublished manuscript, The Baldwin School, Bryn Mawr, PA, 1959.

Collins, Gail. When Everything Changed: The Amazing Journey of American Women from 1960 to the Present. New York, NY: Little, Brown and Company, 2009.

The Committee on Admissions. Memorandum, “Minutes of the Committee on Admissions, December 6, 1950,” December 6, 1950. Box 1. Bryn Mawr College, Bryn Mawr, PA. Cross, Rosamond. Rosamond Cross to Katharine McBride, January 3, 1956. Box 6.

Bryn Mawr College, Bryn Mawr, PA. ———Rosamond Cross to Katherine McBride, March 12, 1957. Box 6. Bryn Mawr College, Bryn Mawr, PA. Friedan, Betty. The Feminine Mystique. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company, 1963.

Halberstam, David. The Fifties. New York, NY: Fawcett Columbine, 1993.

Harvey, Brett. The Fifties: A Women’s Oral History. New York, NY: HarperCollins, 1993.

Letter to Katherine McBride, “Renewed Invitation; Panel Discussion,” March 5, 1957.

Box 6. Bryn Mawr College, Bryn Mawr, PA.

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Sehmann, Jane. Jane Sehmann to Rosamond Cross, 1963. The Baldwin School Archives.

The Baldwin School, Bryn Mawr, PA. ———Jane Sehmann to Rosamond Cross, “Baldwin Bulletin - 1959,” May 1959. The Baldwin School Archives. The Baldwin School, Bryn Mawr, PA. Accessed November 29, 2015. http://contentdm1.accesspa.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/kthbs-arch/ id/424/rec/1.

The Baldwin School, Prism 1950 Yearbook. Bryn Mawr, PA: Graduating Class of 1950, 1950. The Baldwin School Archives, The Baldwin School, pg. 8, The Third Floor Archives.

The Baldwin School, Prism 1952 Yearbook. Bryn Mawr, PA: Graduating Class of 1952, 1952. The Baldwin School Archives, The Baldwin School, pg. 5, The Third Floor Archives.

The Baldwin School, Prism 1953 Yearbook. Bryn Mawr, PA: Graduating Class of 1953, 1953. The Baldwin School Archives, The Baldwin School, pg. 42-43, The Third Floor Archives.

The Baldwin School, Prism 1955 Yearbook. Bryn Mawr, PA: Graduating Class of 1955, 1955. The Baldwin School Archives, The Baldwin School, pg. 5, The Third Floor Archives.

The Baldwin School, Prism 1957 Yearbook. Bryn Mawr, PA: Graduating Class of 1957, 1957. The Baldwin School Archives, The Baldwin School, pg. 5, The Third Floor Archives.

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They Wanted Something Done, So They Asked a Woman; The Baldwin School’s Defiance of the Sexist Educational Standards of the 1950s Research by Madeleine Marr ’17

The Baldwin School, Prism 1958 Yearbook. Bryn Mawr, PA: Graduating Class of 1958, 1958. The Baldwin School Archives, The Baldwin School, pg. 9, The Third Floor Archives.

Wyckoff, Lillian, and Charlotte Main. Lillian Wyckoff and Charlotte Main to Katharine McBride, March 21, 1957. Box 6. Bryn Mawr College, Bryn Mawr, PA.’

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HALEY MOLLER ’17 Haley Moller is a senior from Newtown Square, PA. She participates in three organizations at Baldwin: Model Congress, the Rotary Interact Club and Service League. Haley enjoys volunteering with her co-head and club members of the Interact club. She also plays squash and runs in her free time.

An Examination of the Israelipalestinian Conflict and Six Scholars’ Proposals to “Save Israel From Herself” (1977-2016)

By Haley Moller ’17

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An Examination of the Israelipalestinian Conflict and Six Scholars’ Proposals to “Save Israel From Herself ” (1977-2016) Research by Haley Moller ’17

In the past forty years, Israel’s critics have headlined their critiques with a variation

of the same assertion: Israel must be saved from herself. Since 1977, different critics of Israel have published six articles bearing nearly identical titles that make this claim. Israel presents a unique conflict; a country founded to fulfill a Zionist vision whose citizens and allies hold different opinions on how this vision should be realized and what risks should be taken in the process. Each of the six authors asserts that Israel must be saved from herself (specifically from her government). Some authors’ vision for Israel differs from that of the Israeli government of the time. Other authors, while sharing the same vision for Israel as its government, propose taking risks that its government is not willing to take.

In his 1977 article, “The Middle East: How to Save Israel in Spite of Herself,”

diplomat George W. Ball suggests that America has the power to “save Israel from herself” by pushing for a Middle East settlement. He argues that America should not go on “subsidizing a stalemate,” but work with the Israelis and Palestinians to peacefully establish two separate states.1 Ball suggests that the barrier along the road to a two-state solution is a fear of compromise. American politicians (he mentions President Carter specifically) fear that pushing for a settlement between Israelis and Palestinians would damage their reputation with a good portion of U.S. voters. Ball claims that American voters who are sympathetic to Israel but do not live there are unwilling to compromise because they do not recognize the desperate need for peace. Furthermore, some Israelis are afraid of losing the Zionist vision that Israel represents for them should Israel engage in a settlement with Palestinians and forfeit some of her territories. Ball argues that this fear is allowing “Israeli paranoia” to determine American policy. 2 In short, Ball suggests that America must let go of its emotional attachment to Israel, as the best interests of the two countries will not always coincide, and facilitate a two-state settlement between Palestinians and Israelis.3 1 George W. Ball, “The Middle East: How to Save Israel in Spite of Herself,” Foreign Affairs, April 1977, Page 464, accessed July 13, 2016, https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/israel/1977-04-01/middle-east-how-save-israel-spiteherself.

2 Ibid, 467.

3 Ibid, 453-471.

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Others agree with Ball. In his 2009 article, “Saving Israel from Itself,” political

scientist John J. Mearsheimer suggests that it is in both Israel’s and the United States’ best interest to put pressure on Israel to create a two-state agreement with the Palestinians.

He criticizes the United States’ “special relationship” with Israel deeming it a “liability” for both countries.4 Mearsheimer suggests that the United States and Israel would be better off terminating their current relationship.5 He also warns that if an Israeli-Palestinian agreement is not achieved, the U.S. would be a target for terrorists. Mearsheimer claims that “there is little hope of ending America’s terrorism problem and improving its standing in the Middle East if the Israeli-Palestinian conflict is not resolved. That will only happen if there is a two-state solution, and that will only occur if the United States puts pressure on Israel.”6 He is wary that “a democratic binational state in which Palestinians and Jews enjoy equal political rights” could exist because he does not believe that Jews in Israel and in America would ever agree to it. Instead, Mearsheimer suggests that America should “save Israel from itself” by putting pressure on Israel to agree to a two-state solution.7

In his 2010 New York Times Column, “Saving Israel from Itself,” Journalist Nicholas

Kristof asserts that the United States should “save Israel from itself” by guiding its policy makers to make decisions which are aligned with Israel’s (and the United States’) best interests.8 Kristof observes that both Palestinians and Israelis “feel misunderstood” and “lash out” in ways that “undermine their own interests.”9 While he acknowledges that an Israeli-Palestinian deal may not be possible at the moment, he suggests that Israel’s current actions are self-destructive and are thus not conducive to a solution. Kristof recommends that the United States encourage Israel to freeze its settlements and “take 4 John J. Mearsheimer, “Saving Israel from Itself,” The American Conservative, May 2009, Page 3, accessed July 13, 2016, http://www.theamericanconservative.com/articles/saving-israel-from-itself/.

5 Ibid 6 Ibid 7 Ibid, 4.

8 Nicholas Kristof, “Saving Israel from Itself,” The New York Times (New York, NY), June 2010, Page 1, accessed July 13, 2016, http://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/03/opinion/03kristof.html.

9 Ibid, 2.

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other steps that would make a deal more likely.”10 He also suggests that the United States encourage Israel, along with Egypt, to end the blockade on Gaza. Like Ball and Mearsheimer, Kristof believes that the United States must “change [Israel’s] dynamic” by insisting that Israel make decisions that are aligned with the best interests of both the United States and herself.11

Unlike Ball, Mearsheimer and Kristof, Historian Mark Levine does not lay out a

plan for saving Israel. However, he does warn of the international consequences if Israel is not saved. In his 2011 article, “Who Will Save Israel from Itself?,” Levine condemns Israel for her occupation of Gaza and warns that the violence inflicted gives others a motive to offer threatening stereotypes against Jews. He suggests that Israel must be saved from herself in order to protect the international Jewish community. Levine warns that “the mainstream Jewish leadership” and Washington do not recognize that Israel has led herself into a “devastating trap.”12 He quotes Israeli commentators and scholars who deem Israel a “rogue” and “gangster” state led by “completely unscrupulous leaders.”13 Levine doubts that the Palestinians could save Israel because they have “fallen prey to a similar condition.”14 He has little hope for the UN and EU either, deeming them “utterly powerless to influence Israeli policy.”15 Similarly, Levine finds no promise in the Jewish leadership in America and Europe because he claims they are blind to the level of violence and desperate need for peace. Finally, he finds little potential in the senior American policymakers’ will to save Israel from herself, since they are tied to their personal reputations among voters.

Author and professor Bernard Avishai takes a more idealist approach than the

previous authors, suggesting in his 2005 article, “Saving Israel from Itself: A secular future for the Jewish state,” that a secular state where Palestinians and Arabs coexist under a 10 Ibid 11 Ibid, 3.

12 Mark Levine, “Who Will Save Israel from Itself?,” The World Post, May 2011, Page 4, accessed July 13, 2016, http://www.huffingtonpost.com/mark-levine/who-will-save-israel-from-b_156943.html.

13 Levine, “Who Will Save Israel,” Page 3.

14 Ibid, 5.

15 Ibid

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democratic government would offer the best future for both Palestinians and Israelis.

Avishai suggests that the Jewish majority has lost touch with Zionism’s true meaning, “the power and grace of Hebrew culture.”16 He claims that even Israel’s first prime minister, David BenGurion, knew that “ultimately it would be folly to preserve the Zionist movement’s improvisations and institutions in a democratic state.”17 Avishai suggests that a “revolutionary Zionist logic” was “right for its time” in the 1930’s and 1940’s but “terribly wrong once the state was firmly established.”18 He cites the argument which asserts that a Jewish state cannot be democratic because a state which favors the Jewish religion is inherently discriminatory against non-Jewish citizens. He writes that Israeli Jews’ skewed vision of Zionism causes them to underestimate the Arab population’s potential and their ability to assimilate into Hebrew culture. Avishai suggests that a democratic state which honored Jewish culture, but treated all cultures equally (Arab included) would benefit everyone. He argues that if Arab school children, who make up one fourth of the schoolchildren in Israel, were given the same opportunities as their Jewish counterparts, as would happen in a secular democratic state, they would assimilate into Hebrew culture and contribute to the economy and to Israel’s army.19

In her article, “The Power Couple of American Literature wants to Save Israel from

Itself,” Gili Izikovich interviews Israeli-American author and activist, Ayelet Waldman.

Waldman suggests that the Israeli government can save itself by promoting organizations that seek to expose the suffering in occupied territories, thus affirming its democratic values. Waldman claims that these organizations are the best “weapon against antiSemitism” because they are “proof of Israeli democracy.”20 She expresses disappointment in the Israeli government officials for not “using those organizations” to promote peace and 16 Bernard Avishai, “Saving Israel from Itself: A secular future for the Jewish state,” Harper’s Magazine, January 2005, Page 41, accessed July 13, 2016, http://harpers.org/archive/2005/01/saving-israel-from-itself/.

17 Ibid, 37.

18 Ibid 19 Avishai, “Saving Israel from Itself,” Pages 37-39 20 Gili Izikovich, “The Power Couple of American Literature wants to Save Israel from Itself,” Haaretz, June 3, 2016, Page 3, accessed July 13, 2016, http://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/culture/leisure/.premium1.722818?date=1468423799229.

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to render Israel’s actions congruent with its democratic values.21

COMMENTARY:

American scholars and politicians have grappled with the question of how to

save Israel from herself since the 1970s. They criticize the United States for “subsidizing a stalemate” instead of guiding Israel toward an agreement with the Palestinians.22 Many of these scholars and politicians suggest that in order to save Israel from herself, the United States must use a stronger hand in forging a peace agreement between the Israelis and the Palestinians. While they analyze the Israeli government and its motives closely, they rarely examine the role that the Palestinian situation plays in forming a peace agreement, instead assuming that the Palestinians are ready and able to do so. For a lasting peace agreement to be negotiated, both sides must produce leaders who have firm control over the extremists, and who are prepared and capable of taking the risks that accompany the realization of such an agreement.

America’s diplomatic opportunity is not likely to be through exerting pressure on

the Israeli government as these authors suggest, but rather through assuming a mediator role. As Harvey Sicherman proposes in his article, “American Diplomacy and the Arab-Israeli Conflict,” the United States should facilitate negotiations between able Israeli and Palestinian leaders by absorbing risks and providing economic support to render these negotiations less daunting.23 When the United States assumed this role at the Camp David Accords in 1978, it guided Egypt and Israel to a successful peace agreement. In this case, Sadat and Begin were both willing to and capable of negotiating and the United States intervened to minimize the risks involved.24 As soon as Israeli and Palestinian leaders come about who fulfill these requirements, the United States will have a clear and effective role to play.

The Israeli government has shown signs that it is willing to compromise and sign a

22 Ball, “The Middle East: How to Save,” Page 464 23 Harvey Sicherman, “American Diplomacy and the Arab-Israeli Conflict,” Orbis 55, no. 3 (Summer 2011).

24 Adam Garfinkle, “The Next Arab-Israeli Peace Process,” The American Interest, July 15, 2016, accessed August 26, 2016, http://www.the-american-interest.com/2016/07/15/the-next-arab-israeli-peace-process/.

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peace agreement with the Palestinians, but will not do so if it feels it is putting its citizens at risk. At the 2000 Camp David Summit, Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Barak showed a willingness to negotiate with president of the Palestinian National Authority Yasser Arafat.

However, Arafat did not accept the terms proposed by the United States and Israel and thus the negotiations ended without an agreement. Soon afterwards, Arafat changed the policy of the Palestinian National Authority such that it provided freedom to extremist groups such as Hamas, PFLP and Islamic Jihad, leading to the second Intifada.25 In 2007, Israel put a military blockade on Gaza in an effort to contain the violence directed towards their citizens by extremist political groups such as Hamas.26 Israel cannot be expected to release her territories to an unstable state, where terrorists have a strong potential to seize power. As Garfinkel writes in his article, “The Next Arab-Israeli Peace Process,” that Palestine’s lack of an “Altalena incident” is a “showstopper.”27 Until it occurs, no amount of U.S. persuasion will be effective. The U.S. must be there to absorb risks and ensure economic support on both the Palestinian and Israeli sides; both sides must be willing to compromise in exchange for peace; and finally, the Palestinians must provide, as Garfinkel wrote, a leader who is both “able” and “willing” to sign the agreement.28 Only when all of these elements are present, as they were in 1978 with Begin and Sadat, can the United States assume an effective mediator position.

In his 1977 article, George Ball suggested that the United States take a “strong

hand” in saving Israel from herself by pushing for an Israeli-Palestinian settlement; however, during the time in which his article was published, there was not a stable Palestinian government with which to negotiate. Ball’s article was published three years after the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) had been recognized by the UN as 25 Garfinkle, “The Next:”.; Gabriel Tabarani, G, Israeli-Palestinian Conflict: From Balfour Promise to Bush Declaration (Bloomington, IN: AuthorHouse, 2008), 217.

26 David Poort, “History of Israeli Blockade on Gaza,” Al Jazeera, accessed August 26, 2016, http://www.aljazeera. com/indepth/features/2011/10/20111030172356990380.html.

27 Garfinkle, “The Next,”.

28 Garfinkle, “The Next,”.

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representative of the Palestinian people. The PLO had not yet recognized Israel’s right to exist (it would do so in 1993) and until 1991, America and Israel still thought of the PLO as primarily a terrorist group. Between the time of the PLO’s establishment in 1964 and the time that Ball wrote his article, factions of the PLO had carried out a series of attacks on Israel including the 1970 Avivim School Bus Massacre, the Dawson’s Field Hijackings, the 1974 Ma’alot Massacre, and the 1975 Savoy hostage situation. On November 13, 1977, Yasser Arafat spoke to the UN justifying the attacks by saying that the Palestinians had “lost faith in the international community.”29

The Israeli government had an interest in negotiating a peace treaty with the

Palestinians, but had no one with which they could productively negotiate. Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin signed the Sinai Interim Agreement, an important step toward the IsraeliEgyptian peace treaty, finalized in 1979.30 Thus Rabin was willing to sign peace treaties and likely would have negotiated with Palestine had they produced a leader who could keep extremists under control and did not pose a major threat to Israel. Therefore, Ball’s suggestion that the United States take a “strong hand” in saving Israel from herself by pushing for a settlement was futile because there was not a reliable Palestinian leader at the time.

Thirty-five years after Ball’s article, John Mearsheimer published an article arguing

essentially the same thing: that Washington should “use its considerable leverage to change Israeli behavior” and promote a two-state agreement. Since Ball’s article in 1977, Israel had signed a peace treaty with both Egypt (1979) and Jordan (1994). There had also been an attempt at a peace treaty between the Palestinian Authority (PA) and the Israelis at the Camp David Summit in 2000, but an agreement was never reached. As Garfinkel suggests, Arafat was “able but not willing” to sign a peace treaty with the Israelis. Right after this summit, Arafat started the second intifada, further straining Israeli-Palestinian 29 Adam Howard, M, ed., Arab-Israeli Dispute, January 1977 to August 1978, vol. 8, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1977-1980 (Washington, DC: Unites States Government Printing Office, 2013), 920-921, accessed August 29, 2016, https://books.google.com/books?id=UFROurOt-sC&pg=PA921&lpg=PA921&dq=israel+1977+arafat& source=bl&ots=OiLxtlEpw1&sig=y31CRCxvluKiinfjWRMt2W53OoQ&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiSoovZ2bOAhXMLyYKHWngCMsQ6AEIUTAK#v=onepage&q=israel%201977%20arafat&f=false.

30 Garfinkle, “The Next,”.

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An Examination of the Israelipalestinian Conflict and Six Scholars’ Proposals to “Save Israel From Herself ” (1977-2016) Research by Haley Moller ’17

relations. In 2007, Hamas took control of Gaza and consequently Israel put Gaza under a military blockade. Hamas continued to fire rockets into Israel, Israel retaliated and both Israelis and Palestinians feared for their lives.31 The Palestinians still lacked a government powerful enough to keep violent extremists (in this case, Hamas) under control.

Mearsheimer’s suggestion that Washington “use its considerable leverage to change Israeli behavior” assumed that a mere increase in the force of Israeli government action could have fostered a peace treaty, but the lack of an able and willing Palestinian leader rendered this notion improbable.

Like Ball, Mearsheimer assumed that the Israeli government was not willing to

push for a two-state solution and thus needed persuasion from the U.S. government.

However, the problem was not a lack of will on the Israeli side, but a lack of stability on the Palestinian side. The Israeli government was simply unwilling to negotiate until they were certain that the Palestinian government could keep Hamas under control.

Kristof asserted in his 2008 article that Israel’s actions were “self-destructive” and

criticized its blockade on Gaza. Unlike Mearsheimer, he suggested that a peace treaty in the near future was not possible. Kristof’s suggestion that Israel terminate its blockade on Gaza was a risk that the Israeli government was not willing to take. The blockade on Gaza was Israel’s only way of containing Hamas and the Israeli government thought it too great a risk to release the chaos in Gaza to an underdeveloped and divided Palestinian government. The Israeli government recognized that the blockade on Gaza could only be a temporary solution. However, as Garfinkel suggests, they were awaiting a Palestinian government who could provide an “Altalena incident.”32 Kristof also suggested that the United States “change [Israel’s] dynamic” by insisting that Israel make decisions in the best interests of both Israel and the United States.33 The unstated premise that America has a right to “change [Israel’s] dynamic” was passed over in silence as was the right to decide what “dynamic” Israel should embrace.

31 Garfinkle, “The Next,”.

32 Garfinkle, “The Next,”.

33 Kristof, “Saving Israel from Itself.”

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An Examination of the Israelipalestinian Conflict and Six Scholars’ Proposals to “Save Israel From Herself ” (1977-2016) Research by Haley Moller ’17

Writing in 2016, Waldman also criticizes Israel’s blockade on Gaza, asserting that it

does not reflect Israel’s democratic values. She suggests that the only way for the Israeli government to reach an agreement with the Palestinians is to halt the expansion of their settlements and pull out of Gaza. However, like Ball, Mearsheimer and Kristof, Waldman does not factor into her suggestion the risk that Israel would be assuming if it were to withdraw from Gaza in the absence of a unified Palestinian government.

Although Levine reiterated throughout his essay that Israel must be saved, he did

not answer the question posed in the title of his article “Who Will Save Israel from Itself ?” While his article offers a thoughtful analysis of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict in 2011, it does not propose a solution. Like the others, Levine assumed that Israel must be saved from her own government. He condemned the Israeli government for its blockade in Gaza and warned that the violence inflicted gives others a motive to offer threatening stereotypes against Jews. Levine did not, however, discuss how Israeli citizens were to be protected from Hamas.

Avishai outlined an entirely different vision for the state of Israel: a secular,

binational state. While Avishai’s suggestion of an Israeli-Palestinian democracy is certainly worth consideration, it does not bring about a solution to the problem of containing Hamas and other extremist political groups. The idea of a secular, binational state would likely provoke both Palestinian and Israeli extremists who wish for an exclusive nation for their people in a land that both groups feel was bestowed upon them by God.

PROPOSED SOLUTIONS:

Does Israel really need to be saved from herself as her critics claim? More likely,

Israel needs to be saved from extremists. In order to accomplish this, a stable twostate solution–where each state possesses a government stable enough to restrain the extremists–is the most promising plan.

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One could make the argument that since several Arab countries show interest

An Examination of the Israelipalestinian Conflict and Six Scholars’ Proposals to “Save Israel From Herself ” (1977-2016) Research by Haley Moller ’17

in supporting Israel, now is a prime time for negotiation.34 If countries in the Arab League come together to support a PA leader and help combat Hamas, then all of the requirements would at last be fulfilled and the U.S. could help to align them. However, it is important to note that many of these countries are facing turmoil of their own.

Furthermore, the United States has higher priorities in the region, such as dealing with Syria’s collapse. As Garfinkel suggested, now is likely not the best time for the U.S. to facilitate a negotiation between the Palestinians and the Israelis.35 However, that does not mean that the United States, Israel, Palestine and its Arab neighbors cannot start building a foundation upon which the agreement will one day be fostered.

Some argue that the Palestinians are facing so much turmoil that they are

incapable of producing their own “Altalena incident” and therefore Israel, along with supporters of the cause, should provide it for them. In his article, Garfinkel proposes a plan whereby the IDF would seize Hamas and hand over the territory to a prepared PA leader supported by Arab League forces.36 This plan has merit because, if successful, it would provide the region with all the necessary political components needed for U.S. support and ultimately, the signing of a peace treaty. Of course this plan has risks. If Hamas is not successfully contained, a devastating war could break out, costing Palestinian and Israeli resources and lives. Furthermore, if the plan were successful, it would undoubtedly leave angry and devastated Hamas members, who, even if cleared of their weapons and power, would not be cleared of their hatred. These risks make it unlikely that the Israeli government would support this plan, at least at the moment.

A two-state solution, similar to the one proposed in the Arab Peace initiative of

2002, is likely the best way to save both Israel and Palestine from extremists.37 In order to promote this solution, Israel, Palestine and the U.S. will need the resolution of their leaders 34 Garfinkle, “The Next,”.

35 Ibid 36 Ibid 37 “Arab peace initiative: Full text,” The Guardian, March 28, 2002, accessed August 26, 2016, https://www. theguardian.com/world/2002/mar/28/israel7.

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An Examination of the Israelipalestinian Conflict and Six Scholars’ Proposals to “Save Israel From Herself ” (1977-2016) Research by Haley Moller ’17

to negotiate peace and to quell extremist factions. Until this time comes, the United States, Israel and the Palestinian National Authority should continue to build a foundation which will make future negotiations possible.

CONCLUSION:

The six critics of Israel assert that Israel must be saved from herself, and in doing

so, they mention very little of the Palestinians’ role in this conflict. Collectively, they criticize the Israeli government for the blockade on Gaza yet they do not examine the Israeli government’s reasons for doing so and how they are intertwined with the situation in Palestine. They mistake the Israeli government’s (in all time periods) unwillingness to risk its citizens’ lives with an unwillingness to compromise. The Israeli government has made mistakes in the last forty years, but they have generally shown a willingness to compromise when the time is right and the risks are low, as was the case when they signed peace treaties with Egypt (1979) and Jordan (1993).38 Therefore, asserting that Israel must be saved from herself is one-sided– it does not take into account all of the participants and their individual narratives.

The most substantial barrier along the road to an Israeli-Palestinian peace treaty

is fear, which is perpetuated by the extremists. Both Israel and the Palestinian Authority are afraid of Hamas, Hamas is afraid that their dream of an exclusive homeland will not be realized if they compromise, and Israel is afraid that its citizens will lose peace if Hamas seizes power. The extremists, along with the fear and violence that they perpetuate, must be contained or else any step towards compromise will collapse. Saving Israel and Palestine from extremism will take careful analysis, planning and negotiations. Only when both sides provide willing and able leaders who represent their people’s wishes will the United States be able to pursue its role as mediator and work towards the harmonization of two visions which had previously been so markedly polar as to appear insoluble.

38 Garfinkle, “The Next,”.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY Avishai, Bernard. “Saving Israel from Itself: A secular future for the Jewish state.” Harper’s Magazine, January 2005. Accessed July 13, 2016. http://harpers.org/archive/2005/01/saving-israel-from-itself/.

Ball, George W. “The Middle East: How to Save Israel in Spite of Herself.” Foreign Affairs, April 1977, 45371.

Accessed July 13, 2016. https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/israel/1977-04-01/middle-east-how-saveisrael-spite-herself.

Beinin, Joel, and Lisa Hajjar. “Palestine, Israel and the Arab-Israeli Conflict A Primer.” Last modified February 2014. PDF. Berry, Mike, and Greg Philo. “The Balfour Declaration and the British Mandate.” In Israel and Palestine: Competing Histories, 6-19. London, UK: Pluto Press, 2006. Accessed July 13, 2016. http://www.jstor.org/ stable/j.ctt18fsc8f.8.

———“The First Arab-Israeli War.” In Israel and Palestine: Competing Histories, 30-36. London, UK: Pluto Press, 2006. Accessed July 13, 2016. http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt18fsc8f.13.

———“The Second Wave of Jewish Immigration into Palestine.” In Israel and Palestine: Competing Histories, 5-6. London, UK: Pluto Press, 2006. Accessed July 13, 2016. http://www.jstor.org/stable/j. ctt18fsc8f.7.

———“The Six-Day War.” In Israel and Palestine: Competing Histories, 43-52. London, UK: Pluto Press, 2006.

Accessed July 13, 2016. http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt18fsc8f.16.

———“The United Nations Debates the Future of Palestine.” In Israel and Palestine: Competing Histories, 2428. London, UK: Pluto Press, 2006. Accessed July 13, 2016. http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt18fsc8f.11. “facts about History: Israel.” Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Last modified 2010. Accessed July 13, 2016. http://mfa.gov.il/MFA/AboutIsrael/History/Pages/Facts%20about%20Israel-%20History. aspx.

Garfinkle, Adam. “The Next Arab-Israeli Peace Process.” The American Interest, July 15, 2016. Accessed August 26, 2016. http://www.the-american-interest.com/2016/07/15/the-next-arab-israeli-peace-process/.

Goldmann, Nahum. “The Psychology of Middle East Peace.” Foreign Affairs, October 1975, 114-26. Accessed July 13, 2016. https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/egypt/1975-10-01/psychology-middle-eastpeace?destination=/articles/egypt/1975-10-01/psychology-middle-east-peace.

The Guardian. “Arab peace initiative: Full text.” March 28, 2002. Accessed August 26, 2016. https://www. theguardian.com/world/2002/mar/28/israel7.

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An Examination of the Israelipalestinian Conflict and Six Scholars’ Proposals to “Save Israel From Herself ” (1977-2016) Research by Haley Moller ’17

Howard, Adam, M, ed. Arab-Israeli Dispute, January 1977 to August 1978. Vol. 8 of Foreign Relations of the United States, 1977-1980. Washington DC: United States Government Printing Office, 2013. Accessed August 29, 2016. https://books.google.com/books?id=UFROu4fOt-sC&pg=PA921&lpg=PA921&dq=israel+1977+araf at&source=bl&ots=OiLxtIEpw1&sig=y3ICRCxvIuKiinfjWRMt2W53OoQ&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiSoovZ2 OAhXMLyYKHWngCMsQ6AEIUTAK#v=onepage&q=israel%201977%20arafat&f=false.

Izikovich, Gili. “The Power Couple of American Literature wants to Save Israel from Itself.” Haaretz, June 3, 2016. Accessed July 13, 2016. http://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/culture/leisure/.premium1.722818?da te=1468423799229.

Karmi, Ghada. “Introduction.” Introduction to Married to Another Man: Israel’s Dilemma in Palestine, 1-9.

London, UK: Pluto Books, 2007. Accessed July 13, 2016. http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt18dzv0w.5.

Kershner, Isabel. “New West Bank Violence as Palestinian Boys Stab 2 Israelis.” The New York Times (New York, NY), February 18, 2016. Accessed July 13, 2016. http://www.nytimes.com/2016/02/19/world/middleeast/ new-west-bank-violence-as-palestinian-boys-stab-2-israelis.html.

Kershner, Isabel, and Fares Akram. “Israeli Airstrike Kills Palestinian in Gaza.” The New York Times (New York, NY), April 30, 2013.

Kristof, Nicholas. “Saving Israel from Itself.” The New York Times (New York, NY), June 2010, 1-4. Accessed July 13, 2016. http://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/03/opinion/03kristof.html.

Levine, Mark. “Who Will Save Israel from Itself?” The World Post, May 2011, 17. Accessed July 13, 2016. http:// www.huffingtonpost.com/mark-levine/who-will-save-israelfrom_b_156943.html.

Lubell, Maayan. “Palestinians Kill Four in Jerusalem Synagogue Attack.” Reuters. Last modified November 18, 2014. Accessed July 13, 2016. http://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-palestinians-israelidUSKCN0J20E220141118 Mearsheimer, John J. “Saving Israel from Itself.” The American Conservative, May 2009, 17. Accessed July 13, 2016. http://www.theamericanconservative.com/articles/saving-israel-from-itself/.

Poort, David. “History of Israeli Blockade on Gaza.” Al Jazeera. Accessed August 26, 2016. http://www. aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2011/10/20111030172356990380.html.

Sicherman, Harvey. “American Diplomacy and the Arab-Israeli Conflict.” Orbis 55, no. 3 (Summer 2011).

Tabarani, Gabriel, G. Israeli-Palestinian Conflict: From Balfour Promise to Bush Declaration. Bloomington, IN: AuthorHouse, 2008.

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SANJANA DIXIT ’18 Sanjana Dixit is a junior who lives in Wynnewood, PA. She is a member of both the tennis and rowing teams, and she participates in Girls Learn International, Model UN and Modern Science Club. Sanjana is a junior editor of Baldwin’s French magazine Florilège and a staff writer for The Hourglass student newspaper. She is also a member of Service League and an active peer tutor in the writing center.

Autonomous Vehicle Development: Formula 1/10 Tenth or F1/10 Racing League

By Sanjana Dixit ’18

THE BALDWIN REVIEW 2016

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Autonomous Vehicle Development | Research by Sanjana Dixit ’18

The ability to commute is essential in modern day living, which is why driving is considered essential to a person’s ability to function. Although public transport has mitigated some amount of personal driving, the majority of travel still requires the use of vehicles and a human driver. Over the last century there have been significant advances in the development of automobiles, which have tremendously improved vehicle performance and safety. Despite these improvements, automobile accidents are not uncommon and have been attributed largely to driver errors like being distracted, driving under the influence, etc. Also, the time that a driver spends behind the wheel during commutes may be utilized more productively. For these and other reasons, there is tremendous interest in the development of autonomous or self-driven vehicles.

The autonomous vehicle is controlled by computerized systems that use strict algorithms to calculate appropriate speed, stopping distance, vehicle placement, etc. for any given scenario. But in reality, even the best of computerized algorithms are far from perfect.

Besides, at the present time the complexities of the hardware, software, and programming required to achieve autonomous vehicle functioning require tremendous effort which makes the vehicle quite expensive to build. Also, a self-driving car is not accident proof.

There are additional social and ethical challenges such as establishing driving tests to license autonomous vehicles, etc., that will need to be dealt with before autonomous vehicles can become mainstream. One of the major challenges with autonomous vehicles is that they will need to interact with vehicles driven by human drivers. Are robotic cars to be trusted in sharing the road with humans, solely because they are programmed to obey the law and avoid collisions? The current debate is that human drivers will be capable of bending rules in order to avoid accidents in unpredictable scenarios such as briefly moving into the opposite lane during a time where there is no opposing traffic in order to avoid a protruding tree branch on the side of the road. It is quite challenging to program autonomous vehicles for such unusual scenarios even if it has passed a standard driving test. There is also an ongoing

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Autonomous Vehicle Development | Research by Sanjana Dixit ’18

debate within the scientific community on what should be the performance standard for autonomous vehicles in the public environment – will their performance be acceptable at par with human drivers or should the performance exceed that?

All these issues notwithstanding, there continues to be tremendous excitement in the field of robotic autonomy about developing the perfect autonomous vehicle. The Formula 1/10 tenth or F1/10 racing league is one such venue where the engineers of tomorrow can build, design, program, and race autonomous robotic vehicles without the constraints of the aforementioned social and ethical issues. Formula 1/10th league is an autonomous racing car model that has been developed by Dr. Rahul Mangharam and his team of undergraduate students and post doctor scientists in the University of Pennsylvania Engineering School. The autonomous vehicles are small-scale versions of Formula 1 racing cars, hence the name Formula 1/10th. The engineers in this program are able to focus solely on the technical and mechanical aspects of the autonomous robot. The objective of this program is to design, build, and test autonomous Formula 1 racecar models. The cars have computers with programmable artificial intelligence (AI) so that during each drive the vehicle learns the environment in which it is navigating (typically this environment is the hallways in the engineering school where obstacles are set up).

The F1/10 autonomous robot racing competition requires its participants to design, program and build each autonomous robot or model car. The car itself is 1/10th the size of a standard Formula 1 racecar and is capable of speeds over forty miles per hour. The robot comprises of the chassis, Teensy, IMU, structure camera, Wi-Fi module, LIDAR and the Nvidia board. Each one of these components is able to function individually, but together they form the miniature autonomous racecar. The chassis of this car, which is the base frame of the autonomous robot on which all of the other components are attached to, is a four-wheel drive Traxxas 74076 Brushless Rally Racer. The Teensy is a complete

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Autonomous Vehicle Development | Research by Sanjana Dixit ’18

USB-based microcontroller development system that houses the programs designed for the individual robot. The Razor IMU provides velocity and acceleration readings and estimates. The structure camera allows video documentation of the driving methods of the autonomous car; the Wi-Fi module enables a live stream of the car’s global positioning and driving course. The Nvidia Jetson TK1 sporting 192 CUDA cores in the center of the chassis handles all computations. Finally, the laser imaging, detection and ranging module (LIDAR) scans the surrounding areas as the car is moving. In addition to the physical components, the autonomous robot also contains a very advanced Robot Operating System (ROS) that provides the engineers with the appropriate tools and software to create robot applications. These applications contain the perception algorithms, planning motion algorithms and control algorithms to achieve the desired performance of the autonomous vehicle. Shown below is the chassis complete with the Teensy, IMU, structure camera, Wi-Fi module, LIDAR and Nvidia board.

Although the autonomous robots are small scale, their impact on the world of robotic autonomy is anything but small. The F1/10 program allows the engineers to improve performance, efficiency and safety of the autonomous car model using artificial intelligence. This may be critical in developing the future generation of autonomous vehicles for the public domain.

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Autonomous Vehicle Development | Research by Sanjana Dixit ’18

REFERENCES: • F1/tenth autonomous race cars (http://mlab-upenn.github.io/f110/index.html) • F1/tenth commercial website (http://f1tenth.org.html) • MLab and XLab (Penn Engineering Department)

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OLIVIA LANDES ’18 Olivia Landes is a junior and lives in Bryn Mawr, PA. She is involved in many clubs including Model Congress, SADD, Jewish Cultural Alliance and the Abacus Club, which tutors Lower School students in math. Olivia also sings in the Baldwin acapella group the Baldwin B-Flats, volunteers at Bryn Mawr Hospital and plays on the field hockey team.

The Effects of Varied Dosages of Methionine on the Proliferation of MDA-MB-231 Breast Cancer Cells

By Olivia Landes ’18

THE BALDWIN REVIEW 2016

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The Effects of Varied Dosages of Methionine on the Proliferation of MDA-MB-231 Breast Cancer Cells | Research by Olivia Landes ’18

ABSTRACT:

Methionine is an essential amino acid that plays a key role in processes such as

protein synthesis, polyamine synthesis, and many methylation reactions (Kim, Hyung H., and Chung S. Park, 2003). It is a dietary methyl donor, which links it to many studies regarding the relationship between diet and the proliferation of cancer cells (Benavides, 2007). This study examines the effect of varying doses of methionine on in vitro MDSMB-231 breast cancer cells. Doses of 0uM, 50uM, 100uM and 150uM of methionine were added to the cells and observed for proliferation. Higher concentrations of methionine were associated with decreased tumor cell proliferation. Because of some areas in the data with a large standard deviation, further studies are required.

INTRODUCTION:

Many vitamins and natural supplements have been tested to see if they have the

ability to affect cell proliferation of cancer cells. Among these supplements is the amino acid methionine. While some studies suggest that increased levels of dietary methionine may promote cancer cell survival, there have been others suggesting that increasing concentrations may potentially block further proliferation of tumor cells (Kim, Hyung H., and Chung S. Park, 2003). Experiments have demonstrated that high concentrations of methionine slowed the proliferation of tumor cells in cells expressing native p53 (Benavides, 2007). In this study, we looked for a dose-response of methionine in MDAMB-231 breast cancer cells, and hypothesize that increased exposure and concentration of methionine will inhibit proliferation of the tumor cells. The cells will all be treated with three increasing dosages of the methionine and left for periods of 24, 48, and 72 hours respectively, as well as the control group only containing PBS and no treatment, for 48 and 72 hours. The cells will then be counted in order to determine the progression of the cancer’s growth.

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The Effects of Varied Dosages of Methionine on the Proliferation of MDA-MB-231 Breast Cancer Cells | Research by Olivia Landes ’18

MATERIALS AND METHODS:

On day one of the experiment all of the cells were dosed. The experiment began

by diluting the methionine with a 1:4 ratio, in which 750 uM of PBS and 250 uM of methionine was added. Cells from the MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cell line were added to three sets of 12-well plates at varying concentrations. Each set of 3 wells was dosed with 0, 50, 100 and 150uM of methionine, respectively. The wells with 0uM were treated with PBS only. Each plate was incubated for 24, 48, and 72 hours respectively. On day two of the experiment the cells from the 24 hour plate, with samples containing dosages of 50, 100, and 150 uM of methionine, were counted using Trypan blue. On day three of the experiment, cells from the 48 hour plate were counted with dosages of 0, 50, 100, and 150 uM of methionine. On the final day of the experiment, day four, cells from the 72 hour plate were counted which contained wells with dosages of 0, 50, 100 and 150 uM of methionine.

RESULTS:

On the first day of counting, which was the 24-hour group of wells, the results

correlated with the expected results of the hypothesis - cell proliferation decreased with increasing dosages of methionine. The cell count for the dosage of 50uM is much higher than for the 100uM and 150uM dosage. The 150uM dosage count is slightly lower than the 100uM and there is a large overlap in the error bar on the graph, caused by the large standard deviation. On day two the 48-hour group of wells was counted and the results followed a similar pattern, the only difference being a greater number of cells considering the extra day of growth. However in this set of cells, the error bar overlapped more between the 50uM and 100uM, and the 150uM was much lower and differed much more from the 50uM and 100uM. There was also a count from the control group in this set of cells, which was similar to the value from the 100uM and overlapped with the 50uM and 100uM in terms of the error bars. On the final day of counting, in which the 72 hour

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The Effects of Varied Dosages of Methionine on the Proliferation of MDA-MB-231 Breast Cancer Cells | Research by Olivia Landes ’18

wells were counted, the results once again followed a similar pattern of 50uM having the most growth, followed by 100uM and finally by 150uM. However, in this trial, the overlap of error bars and value of standard deviation was much smaller and the three groups of dosages each differed more significantly. The control group was very similar in numbers to the 100uM dosed cells.

Figure 1: 24-hour trial

Figure 2: 48-hour trial

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The Effects of Varied Dosages of Methionine on the Proliferation of MDA-MB-231 Breast Cancer Cells | Research by Olivia Landes ’18

Figure 3: 72-hour trial

DISCUSSION:

This experiment indicated that there was a dose-response to methionine showing

a decrease in growth of the treated breast cancer cells. While the methionine did not completely reduce the growth of the cells when compared to the control group, when the three dosages are compared in terms of cell proliferation, the higher the dosage of the methionine, the less the overall average of number of cells. On day one, there were some issues with debris on the slides, which made counting difficult, so a 24-hour trial would have to be repeated in order to gather more accurate results. Overall, the standard deviation was quite high for certain trials, and a repeat of the experiment in an attempt to avoid this would be effective and prove to provide much more sufficient results for comparison. However, increasing methionine dosage on the cells seemed to be an effective method of slowing their growth rate. Especially with the 150uM dose, the numbers of cells were much lower than all other trials including the control group.

There is controversy as to whether methionine restriction may be an effective tumor growth inhibitor, based on methionine’s role in normal cell proliferation (Kaczor, 2015).

However, the results of this experiment show that a very high dosage of methionine

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The Effects of Varied Dosages of Methionine on the Proliferation of MDA-MB-231 Breast Cancer Cells | Research by Olivia Landes ’18

results in less cell growth than no treatment at all. This experiment could be continued for longer periods of time with greater focus on the control group and the increased value of 150uM of methionine in order to get more accurate results for how methionine deprivation compares to a significant increase of the dosage, which would compare the two approaches of methionine treatment side by side.

BIBLIOGRAPHY Kaczor, Tina. “The Role of Methionine in Cancer Growth and Control.” Natural Medicine Journal 7, no. 12 (December 2015). http://www.naturalmedicinejournal.com/ journal/2015-12/role-methionine-cancer-growth-and-control.

Kim, Hyung H., and Chung S. Park. “Methionine cytotoxicity in the human breast cancer cell line MCF-7.” In Vitro Cellular & Developmental Biology. Accessed July 30, 2016. http:// www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14505437.

Maximo, Benavides A. “Methionine inhibits cellular growth dependent on the p53 status of cells.” The American Journal of Surgery 193, no. 2 (February 2007): 274-83. Accessed July 30, 2016. doi:10.1016/j.amjsurg.2006.07.016.

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MADISON SANDERS ’17 Madison Sanders is a senior from Bryn Mawr, PA. She serves as head of Baldwin’s Diversity Club and its Black Student Union. She studies classical ballet and serves as the Teen President of the Montgomery County Chapter of Jack and Jill of America Inc.

The Effect of Sle1 Yaa Gene Loci on Antinuclear Antibody Production in B6 Mice

By Madison Sanders ’17 Terri Laufer, MD, James Kaprielian, Tom Stephan, PhD., University of Pennsylvania, Division of Rheumatology, Philadelphia PA Stem Prep Program Summer 2015

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The Effect of Sle1 Yaa Gene Loci on Antinuclear Antibody Production in B6 Mice | Research by Madison Sanders ’17

BACKGROUND

Lupus Erythematous is a chronic autoimmune disease currently affecting more

than 5 million people worldwide. There are many types of autoimmune disorders such as rheumatoid arthritis, vitiligo, hematologic autoimmunity, diabetes, Addison disease, pulmonary fibrosis, lupus, and more. Lupus is most commonly found in individuals between the ages of 15 and 45. Lupus can affect both men and women, however 90% of lupus patients are females[1]. People of African American, Hispanic, and Asian descent are two to three times more likely to develop lupus than Caucasian people[2]. The cause of lupus erythematous is yet unascertained, but is speculated to be a combination of hereditary and environmental factors[2]. Lupus is known to cause chronic inflammation in various parts of the body in periods of wellness and flares. Lupus can affect the skin, joints, blood vessels, kidneys, heart, lungs, and the brain. It is characterized by a butterfly shaped facial rash, as shown below. Lupus, meaning wolf in Latin, got its name because of the skin rashes’ resemblance of wolf bites[4]. Furthermore, people with lupus may suffer extreme fatigue, arthritis, unexplained fevers, skin rashes, kidney problems, and more [1]. The symptoms of lupus are ambiguous and varying.

Moreover, most of them are symptoms of other conditions, so lupus diagnosis is a slow and meticulous process so as to prevent incorrect diagnosis and treatment.

Review of medical history, complete body exams, skin and kidney biopsies, and blood tests are some of the current methods used to diagnose lupus[1]. There are several different types of lupus including cutaneous, drug induced, neonatal, and childhood, which all resolve naturally[3]. Yet, the most common form of lupus is called systemic lupus erythematous(SLE), for which there is no cure [1]. Although, there is no cure for

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The Effect of Sle1 Yaa Gene Loci on Antinuclear Antibody Production in B6 Mice | Research by Madison Sanders ’17

lupus, research is being done while drugs are used to effectively relieve symptoms.

Current treatment primarily consists of preventing and treating inflammatory flares while minimizing organ damage with medication[2]

Autoimmune diseases like lupus result when the body’s immune system does not

function properly. A healthy immune system functions to protect the body from infection and disease by neutralizing harmful foreign substances called pathogens as they enter the body. The immune system does this through two defense mechanisms called the innate and adaptive immune responses.

Innate immunity is the body’s initial protection response. This response is the

immediate, nonspecific, fast acting defense that is always present and prepared to fight pathogens in healthy individuals. However, pathogens can evolve to resist the innate immune response [7] The body’s second defense is the adaptive immune response, also known as acquired or specific immunity. This response is stimulated by pathogens that surpass the barriers of the innate immune response and invade tissues and organs. The adaptive immune response develops more slowly than innate immunity, as it must adapt to the presence of microbial invaders, yet it provides the host with long-term immunity to specific pathogens[7].

.

Adaptive immunity utilizes the leukocytes, or white blood cells, called T and B

lymphocytes in its cell-mediated and humoral immune responses respectively. CellMediated immunity is mediated by T lymphocytes, also referred to as T cells. T cells are created in the bone marrow, but mature in the thymus, which is why they are called T cells. They circulate in the lymph organs and blood stream until presented with an antigen presenting cell. When this occurs, the naive T cells differentiate into cytotoxic, regulatory, memory, and helper T cells [1] Memory T cells are WBCs acquainted with the antigen that live beyond the primary encounter. They remain dormant in the body, prepared to proliferate with increased efficiency upon the future encounters with that antigen. Helper T cells have numerous functions. Specifically, T follicular helper (TfH)

T H E B. A L D W I N R E V I E W 2 0 1 6

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The Effect of Sle1 Yaa Gene Loci on Antinuclear Antibody Production in B6 Mice | Research by Madison Sanders ’17

cells are antigen-specified cells that mediate the B cell the maturation process in the germinal center from naĂŻve B cells into antigen-specific plasma cells and memory B cells.

This initiates the second element of the adaptive immune response. This component is referred to as humoral immunity and is mediated by B lymphocytes. B cells mature in the bone marrow, which is why they are called B cells. Plasma B cells secrete antibodies called immunogobulin (Ig), which act as the antigen receptors for the B cells. The immunoglobulin on the B cell surface binds to its specified antigen, marking it for phagocytosis which is cell death by ingestion. These antibodies circulate through the bloodstream, or the humor. The image below depicts the structure of an antibody. It is composed of a heavy chain which determines the class of the antibody, and two light chains on opposite sides which are connected by disulphide bonds [1b] As shown to the left, the lower areas of the antibody compose the constant region while the uppermost and exposed sections of the antibody are called the variable region. The variable region is where antibodies bind to antigen binding sites, called epitopes. It is called the variable region, because it is the area which morphs into the shape necessary to bind the epitope of the specified antigen[7].

As B cells mature, the variable regions of their antibodies increase in specificity to the indicated epitope. When an antibody’s variable region is extremely specific to an epitope, it is referred to as high affinity, because it forms very strong and powerful bonds with antigen. Comparably, antibodies with less unique variable regions have lower affinities towards their specific antigen, forming weaker bonds upon contact.

All B cells produce different immunoglobulin isotypes of different antigen

specificities. There are five main heavy-chain classes of immunogobulin: IgM, IgA, IgD, IgE,

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and IgG. IgG is the most abundant isotype and has several subclasses in humans: Ig1, Ig2, Ig3, and Ig4 [7]. IgG1 will be the focus of this study.

As previously stated, T Helper cells signal B cells to mature into antigen-

specific memory B cells and plasma cells, which secrete large amounts of the specified antibody until signaled to stop. In the case of autoimmunity however, the body fails at distinguishing between self antigen and foreign antigen. Mistaking healthy cells and tissue for harmful organisms, the immune system produces substances against self antigen, to the detriment of the body’s healthy cells, tissue, and organs. Therefore, instead of producing antibodies to fight foreign pathogens, B lymphocytes are signaled to produce antibodies called autoantibodies or antinuclear antibodies (ANAs), which combat the body’s self-antigen[7]. In SLE, CD4+ T follicular helper cells stimulate B cells to produce the antibody IgG1 [7]. This results in inflammation and damage of healthy parts as the body reacts [2]. Hence, autoantibodies are a source of the severe and widespread symptoms of SLE.

ANAs are found in almost all individuals diagnosed with SLE [2]. The active ANAs

in SLE include anti-double stranded DNA (anti- dsDNA) and anti-Smith (anti-Sm)[5].

Unfortunately, the nature of these anti-nuclear antibodies has yet to be fully understood.

Sle1 is a susceptibility locus, or gene mutation which increases a mouse’s

predisposition to systemic lupus erythematous. Thus, when isolated on B6 mice, the Sle1 gene locus makes the development of lupus symptoms more probable, yet not certain. Yaa is the Y chromosome-linked autoimmune acceleration gene. It accelerates the development of disease in mice, but is only effectual in the presence of the Sle1 gene mutation. Therefore, the particular combination of the Sle1 and Yaa gene loci will present a mouse model of lupus erythematous. Accordingly, this permits the study of the immunological mechanisms - ANAs - active in lupus erythematous.

Therefore, in B6 mice, the particular combination of the Sle1 and Yaa gene loci permits the

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observation of the immunological mechanisms of the ANAs active in lupus erythematous.

RESEARCH DESIGN

The purpose of this experiment was to determine the antibodies present in

B6 homozygous Sle1 Yaa mice. It was hypothesized that if B6 mice express the Sle1 and Yaa gene loci, their blood will contain both anti-dsDNA antibodies and elevated levels of IgG antibodies.

The methodology used to conduct this experiment consisted of serum

collection followed by two enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA). One ELISA was conducted to detect anti- dsDNA antibodies and the second was to measure the total immunoglobulin - gamma concentration.

The materials required for this experiment included: 96 Well Plates (2), Parafilm,

Refrigerator, Tubes, Micro Pipettes, Pipette Tips, Pasteur Pipettes, Syringes, 0.45 Micron Filters, Distilled Water, Salmon Sperm dsDNA, goat-anti mouse IgG, Male B6 Sle1- Yaa mice (2), B6 WT mouse, Rag K/O mouse serum, Concentrated IgG, Coating Buffer (4.2 g NaHC3, 1.78 Na2CO3, 500ml dH20), 2% BSA Blocking Buffer (2g BSA per 100mL PBS), PBS-Tween Washing Buffer (.1% tween diluted in PBS 1mL per 1L PBS), goat anti-mouse IgG-HRP antibody, TMB (tetramethylbenzidine) Substrate Kit, stop Solution (2M H2SO4), ELISA Plate Reader (courtesy of the Cancro Lab).

For the serum collection process, one B6 WT mouse and two Sle1 Yaa mice were

bled retro-orbitally under anesthesia. A pasteur pipette was inserted behind an eyeball of each mouse and twisted in until blood was collected.

The blood samples were centrifuged for 15 minutes to isolate the serum. Finally, the

supernatant was pipetted from the top of the clotted blood samples to retrieve the serum.

Once the serum had been collected, it was tested to detect antinuclear antibodies

and measure total immunoglobulin antibodies present.

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To begin the ELISA, two plates were prepared. One was coated with salmon sperm

The Effect of Sle1 Yaa Gene Loci on Antinuclear Antibody Production in B6 Mice | Research by Madison Sanders ’17

dsDNA in a concentration of 100μL of 100μg/mL. The dsDNA plate was coated using a 10mL syringe through a 0.45-meet micron filter to remove the single stranded DNA. Then the plate was coated with the filtered dsDNA at a final concentration of 100 μg/mL. The second plate was coated with rat-anti mouse IgG antibodies. Then, coating buffer was added to every well to promote molecular - plate binding. The plates were wrapped in parafilm and incubated overnight at 37ºC to allow the dsDNA and IgG molecules to sink and bind to the bottoms of the wells of their respective plates.

The next day, the plates were inverted. 150μl of dH20 was added to each well,

before the plates were incubated at room temperature (RT) for 3-5 minutes. The plates were inverted once more to remove any molecules that had not bound to the bottoms of the wells.

The plates then incubated at RT for one hour in 250 μl of blocking buffer to

prevent non- specific binding once the samples were added. The plates were inverted to discard the blocking buffer.

After blocking, the plates were washed with PBS-Tween, then inverted, slapped,

and dried. This washing process was repeated three times to remove unbound DNA or IgG antibodies from the wells.

Then, each serum sample was diluted in blocking buffer in a 1:1000 dilution. This

was done by adding 200μL of diluted sample to to column 1, then 100μl of serum free blocking buffer to columns 2-12. This was done in 1:1 serial dilutions across the plate from right to left so that all wells ultimately contained 100 μl diluted sample in blocking buffer.

The plates were incubated for 2 hours at 37ºC. This allowed the anti-dsDNA antibodies and the IgG antibodies in the serum to bind to the dsDNA and IgG antibodies at the bottoms of the wells respectively.

Again, the plates were washed with PBS- Tween, then inverted, slapped, and

dried. This washing process was repeated three times to ensure the removal of unbound molecules from the wells.

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Once the plates were washed, 100μl of the secondary antibody, goat anti-mouse

IgG, conjugated with the enzyme HRP (horse radish peroxidase) was added to each well diluted 1:1000 in blocking buffer. The plates were then incubated at 37 ºC for one hour to allow the detection antibodies to bind to all of the IgG antibodies and the dsDNA-specific IgG antibodies that had bound to the Ig and dsDNA molecules at the bottoms of the wells.

The enzymes on the detection antibodies would act as markers so that once the substrate was added to the plates, the concentration of total Ig antibodies and anti- sDNA-specific IgG1 antibodies would be detectable.

The washing steps were repeated five times to remove all unbound detection

antibodies from the wells.

Next, a TMB substrate reagent kit was used to retrieve 5 mL of Reagent A and

5 mL of Reagent B, making a total of 10 mL of substrate reagent as the two volumes were mixed. 100μL of this solution was added to every well. The development of color in the wells was observed as the substrates reacted with the HRP enzymes on the IgG detection antibodies in the wells, causing them to fluoresce.

As soon as there was a visible gradience in the plates, the reaction was stopped

by adding 50 μl of stop solution to every well. This solution changed the color of the plates from blue to yellow.

Finally, the optical density (OD) was measured at 450 nM on an ELISA plate reader,

which converted the visible gradience in the plates into quantitative data values.

RESULTS IgG ELISA

To the right is a graph of the total

IgG antibody concentrations as measured in nanometers of optical density. The positive control NZB mouse is represented by circles

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and displays IgG concentrations consistently higher than those of most other samples as expected. A blank, represented by triangles, served as a negative control, containing no serum at all. As expected, it displays a static concentration of zero. The second negative control is represented in red. This is an antibody deficient mouse, therefore it should display negative antibody concentrations. Contrarily, it displays a starting concentration higher than that of the positive control. This reveals the presence of a background issue in the plate. This can be attributed to the use of a highly non-specific coating antibody.

Therefore, it bound to and caused the detection of impertinent serum components.

As represented by the blue and green data points, both Sle1 Yaa mice display antibody concentrations above those of the negative control, yet below those of the positive control. Moreover, they are comparable to those of the B6 WT healthy control, all with starting concentrations between 0.1 and 0.2. Yet, due to the detected background issue, the conclusion remains questionable.

Anti-dsDNA ELISA

This is a graph of the concentration of

anti- dsDNA antibodies as measured in nanometers of OD. The positive control, NZB mouse serum is represented in purple and displays the highest starting concentration. The black data points represent the negative control, which displays a static antibody concentration of zero. The success of the control, indicates that the assay was conducted successfully. Again, the levels of anti-dsDNA antibodies in both Sle1 Yaa mice are significantly lower than the positive control, falling closer to the negative control. They are comparable to those of the healthy B6 mouse sharing starting concentrations between 0.2 and 0.15 nm. The B6 WT

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mouse served as a second negative control for this assay, as a healthy B6 mouse does not contain any ANAs. This overlap indicates that the two Sle1 Yaa mice did not produce any Anti- dsDNa antibodies.

DISCUSSION

In conclusion, the hypothesis was rejected because neither set of results shows

the presence of ANAs and neither ELISA detected increased IgG antibody concentrations.

This suggests that the Sle1-Yaa gene locus combination was incapable of inducing or accelerating lupus symptoms in mice.

The amount of future research that can be conducted based on the results from

this experiment is extensive nonetheless. I would like to repeat this experiment at least twice to ensure accuracy of the results from this trial. This entails further exploring possible reasons for the outcome of this trial.

Primarily, I would like address the high background issue by using a different,

perhaps more specific IgG coating antibody. A second solution to this challenge may be to incubate the coating antibody with a serum that does not contain any Immunoglobulin, to allow it to bind to all other serum components. This should prevent nonspecific binding in serum samples when it is used in the experiment.

Then, I would like to test the effectiveness of the Sle1 and Yaa gene loci

independently of each other to asses the potency of the Sle1 gene locus. Sle1 mice sans Yaa are not currently available in the lab, so I used Sle1- Yaa mice and compared them to B6 WT mice. But the next question to be asked is whether or not the Sle1 locus alone is capable of accelerating or inducing Lupus symptoms in mice.

Ultimately, this procedure can be used to determine which mice are best to use

in future SLE studies to enhance the current comprehension of the nature of Lupus symptoms.

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CITATIONS: [1] Lupus Erythematous. (2015). In Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved from http://www. britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/ 351725/lupus-erythematous [2] Statistics on Lupus Retrieved from http://www.lupus.org/about/statistics-on-lupus [3] Systemic Lupus Erythematous. (2012) NIH National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin diseases. Retrieved from http://www.niams.nih.gov/ Health_ Info/ Lupus/do_i_have_lupus.asp [4] History of Lupus. (2015) St. Thomas’ Lupus Trust. Retrieved from http:// www.lupus.org. uk/what-is-lupus/history-of- lupus [5] Abbas, A. K., & Lichtman, A. H. (2006). Function and Disorders of the Immune System: Basic Immunology (2nd ed.) (D. L. Baker & A. Baker, Illustrator). Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier Saunders.

[6] Cluster of Differentiation. Stedman’s Medical Dictionary, Medilexicon. (2006).

Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. Retrieved from http://www.medilexicon.com/ medicaldictionary.php?t=18317 [7] Janeway CA Jr, Travers P, Walport M, et al. Immunobiology: The Immune System in Health and Disease. 5th edition. New York: Garland Science; 2001. Available from: http:// www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK10757/

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IMAGES: [1a] Lupus Butterfly Rash: http://images.medicinenet.com/images/ image_collection/ skin/systemic-lupus-erythematous.jpgx [1b] Antibody Structure: http://0.tqn.com/d/lymphoma/1/S/7/-/-/-/Antibody_je2.png

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BRIA BEAUVAIS ’18 Bria Beauvais is a junior from Philadelphia and has been at The Baldwin School since Kindergarten. She participates in Diversity Club, Black Student Union, volleyball, basketball, track and is the junior class president. Over the past four summers, Bria has participated in the Physicians Science Training Program led by Dr. Moses Williams, and this has been the basis for her research. Her experience at Drexel School of Medicine last summer allowed her to do background research of a ground-breaking experiment conducted by Dr. Elizabeth VanBockstale and Dr. Beverly Reyes who guided her work.

Cellular Interactions of Amygdalar Neuropeptide Y and Corticotropin Releasing Factor

By Bria Beauvais ’18 Elisabeth J. Van Bockstaele, PhD Beverley A.S. Reyes, DVM, PhD Drexel University College of Medicine Pharmacology and Physiology STEMPREP PROJECT 2015

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Cellular Interactions of Amygdalar Neuropeptide Y and Corticotropin Releasing Factor | Research by Bria Beauvais ’18

BACKGROUND

Stress is a common obstacle that all organisms undergo at various points in their

lives. The body and brains natural response to any demand will result in stress. Physical and emotional discomforts are reasons why stress is triggered. It is seen as a normal response to any event, which can create discomfort and affects ones balance.

There are two main categories of stress, acute and chronic stress. Acute stress is

most commonly known as the “good stress”. Due to this type of stress being associated with everyday life, it comes from the pressures of recent past and near future. When experiencing acute stress it can sometimes be exhilarating and exciting. However, this most common type of stress can result into short-term effects such as headache and upset stomach if activated often.

The opposing stress category is chronic stress known as the “bad stress”. The

occurrence of this specific stress category is due to the repetitive exposure to the same stressor, which then causes the releasing of stress hormones. Chronic stress is more difficult to get rid of, which then can result in other illnesses, such as anxiety, depression, increasing heart rate, and decreasing immune responses. When a patient experiences chronic stress the stress response system is automatically activated and adrenaline and hormones are released. When these hormones are released they activate the stress response system.

The stress response system activates the nervous system and in particular the

brain of the body. When a patient experiences chronic stress the stress response system is automatically activated and adrenaline and hormones are released. These hormones then activate a region in the brain called the locus coeruleus or also know as the LC. When in mental or emotional strain, the body will release hormones into the brain.

The nucleus inside of the pons of the brainstem is called the locus coeruleus (LC). This nucleus is involved with all of the physiological responses to stress. Aside from connecting with the sensory information section of the brain, the LC’s primary responsibility is to

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associate with panic and stress mental activities. The LC is stationed in the fourth ventricle within the brainstem, below the cerebellum. Here depicts the location of the LC.

When it integrates to multiple regions

of the brain, those regions project back to the LC which activate hormones within the frontal cortex of the brain, called the amygdala.

The amygdala is one large mass of

nuclei, which functions as processing the emotions and stress responses in the brain.

It helps to store memories of events and emotions so that an individual may be able to recognize similar events in the future. When the LC integrates to multiple regions of the brain, those regions project back to the LC. The amygdala is an almond shaped section of nervous tissue, which contains neurons. These neurons make a special peptide hormone called Corticotropin Releasing Factor (CRF). This image here shows the almond shaped tissue called the amygdala.

CRF is responsible for releasing certain hormones when stressed. It is a neuropeptide which is a small molecule made up of many proteins to communicate with one another. These molecules carry information through neurons or the specialized cells that transmit nerve impulses in the brain (The McGraw Hill Companies, Inc). The CRF tends to release the stress hormones into the amygdala of the brain and to the LC to respond. Here is an image of a CRF protein.

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Subsequently the LC is activated to send signals back to the amygdala to produce more CRF. This cycle is considered a feed forward mechanism due to its constant cycle of these stress-producing hormones.

Due to the feed forward mechanism that continuously rotates throughout the brain in response to stress, there is not an efficient way to decrease the stress rotation in the body. Since this constant stress cycle occurs, it results in higher risk factors in addition to stress such as panic, depression, and anxiety. Here is a better explanation of a feed forward mechanism using illustrations.

Another peptide hormone like CRF, which is implicated in stress, is Neuropeptide Y (NPY). This peptide is a thirty-six amino acid long neuropeptide. When presented in the same region as the CRF within the amygdala, NPY could minimize and mediate the resilience of stress in the body. There are many different neuropeptides that are involved with different brain functions such as memory, learning, and social behavior.

The most common neuropeptide seen in the brain is particularly associated with stress is NPY (Henriette Husum MSc1, 2 and Aleksander A MathĂŠ MD, Ph.D1). As a protein that is synthesized in the hypothalamus, NPY serves as a chemical messenger of the brain, which plays a role in the stress resiliency of the brain. The NPY belongs to the group of pancreatic peptides (Erickson JC, Clegg KE, Palmiter RD). The NPY is a neuroprotective peptide (Erickson JC, Clegg KE, Palmiter RD). It can play a crucial role in mediating near

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protection in the cerebellum of the brain. This suggests that this protein is able to preserve the functions and presence of the neurons in the cell. Despite the cellular stress and inflammation that is placed on the cell, the neuroprotective peptides such as NPY are able to help the neurons cope with these circumstances. When presented in the same region as the CRF within the amygdala, NPY could likely minimize and mediate the resilience of stress in the body by potentially inhibiting the CRF from releasing these stress hormones.

The NPY has six different types of receptors. A receptor is protein that gets produced by a cell and transported to the cell membrane that binds or reacts to a messenger molecule to initiate a biological response to trigger reactions within the cell.

These receptors consist of Y1, Y2, Y3, Y4, Y5, and Y6. Both Y1 and Y2 are the abundant receptors used in the specific experiment conducted throughout this study. These two receptors trigger neuroprotective pathways able to constrain excitotoxicity or cell death. NPY has appeared as an important role in mediating functioning Image by: VanBockstale Lab

interactions between the nervous and immune system (Thorsel). Due to the NPY ability to crosstalk

or communicate between cell channels it allows communication between sympathetic neurons and immune cells.

RESEARCH DESIGN Purpose and Hypothesis The essential purpose of this experiment was to determine the interactions between the Neuropeptide Y and Corticotropin Releasing Factor in the amygdala. Before conducting this experiment it was hypothesized that Corticotropin releasing factor,

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Neuropeptide Y, Y1 and Y2, will interact in the central nucleus of the amygdala. Interactions between NPY and CRF in the amygdala will decrease the stress resilience in the brain.

Materials Many materials were involved in the success of this experiment. However, there were a few major materials that contributed to the completion of this study. During the beginning of this experiment euthanized via perfusion was performed on rats.

For this process paraformaldehyde was used to filter out and replace the rat’s blood.

After removing the brain, the brain tissues were sectioned on the vibratome for light microscopy and confocal, and cryostat for electron microscopy. Towards the end of the study imaging and quantification took place in order to determine the location of the proteins present in the amygdala. The microscopes used were the light, confocal, and electron microscopes. Here is a list of most materials used; Bovine serum albumin, cryopertectant, agar, ethanol, tris buffered saline, sodium borohydride, gelantin-coated slides, washing incubation buffer, and Propylene Oxide. When incubating the tissues in antibodies the dilutions used consisted of, NPY rabbit 1:8000, CRF guinea pig 1:2000, Y1 rabbit 1:1000, Y2 rabbit 1:3000, donkey anti-rabbit 1:400, and goat anti-rabbit conjugated with gold 1:50. The last set of materials that were involved in this experiment consisted of the following; deionized water, coor wells, coor plates, ultramicrotome, Glutaraldehyde, osminum tetroxide, epon, gelatin, IgGs, and phosphate buffers. (More materials mentioned in the methodology section this document)

Methodology In order to determine the interactions between both neuropeptides, NPY and CRF in the amygdala, many steps were performed in order to gain the research needed. This specific experiment consisted of a four-step process. We began with euthanasia of the rats via perfusion, followed by the brain tissues, which were sectioned and collected, in

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order to undergo the immunohistochemistry staining process. After we concluded the experiment with imaging of the tissues we collected.

To begin this study male Sprague Dawley rats were euthanized via perfusion. This consisted of the rats being placed into a sleep. While sleeping the rats were cut open far enough to see the heart. A needle with a tube connected to the end, was injected into the left ventricle of the rat’s heart and the right atrium was severed after inserting the needle, as depicted in Image by: Bria Beauvais

the following image.

Soon after, the blood then was filtered out and replaced with formaldehyde and heparinized saline for light microscopy (LM) and confocal, and formaldehyde and acrolin for electron microscopy (EM). This results in the hardening of the rat’s body.

After surgically removing the perfused

Image by: Bria Beauvais

brain from the rat body, it was then cut in half and

mounted onto a block. When preparing for sectioning two methods are used depending on the microscope that will be used for viewing the tissues at the end of the experiment. When preparing for electron microscopy or EM, the brains were coated in agarose gel and cut using the vibratome at a 40µm thickness. After, each tissue was separated by section and placed in wells with cryoprotectant. This image to the right is the machine used to cut the tissues also known as the vibratome.

When preparing for light microscopy or LM, the brains were coated in a tissue-freezing medium with Image by: Bria Beauvais

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polyvinyl alcohol and then cut using the cryostat at a 40Âľm thickness. Lastly each tissue was then separated by section and also placed into wells with cryopertectant.

The tissues sectioned on the vibratome were submerged in phosphate buffer (PB) and soaked in an ice bath around the stage and brain tissue.

However the tissues that were cut on the cryostat for EM were not submerged in PB but were placed on a screw on stage in a closed-in structure being -27/-28 degrees Celsius. After the tissues were sectioned they were placed in wells by designated brain section and submerged in PB. Before the tissues were placed in the refrigerator for storage purposes they were placed in cryopertectant in replacement of the PB. The following process, called immunohistochemistry, consisted of four different protocols, (immunoflourence, immunoperoxidase, dule immunoperoxidase, and immunoelectron microscopy) which repeated through 3 groups of antibodies staining for 2 specific proteins within each group, to identify the proteins within the amygdala of the rat brain. These groups were as followed, NPY+CRF, NPY Y1+CRF, NPY Y2+CRF. This staining process consisted of using the immunohistochemistry techniques. Each antibody group went through each protocol (immunoflourence, immunoperoxidase, dule immunoperoxidase, and immunoelectron microscopy) for assurance that the specific proteins (NPY and CRF) were present. All protocols consisted of the steps to send the primary antibody in to bind to the protein and the secondary antibody to find the primary.

After, each protocol had an individual stain either through DAB, gold enhancement, or silver encasement.

First was the immunoperoxidase protocol. It consisted of incubating a primary antibody of rabbit with these dilutions being rabbit NPY 1:8000, Y1 1:1000, and Y2 1:3000.

Then a Secondary antibody, biotinylated donkey anti-rabbit, was incubated in order to

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find and bind to the primary antibody. Lastly the secondary antibody is the one that was labeled with dye and in this case purple dye. Within the same tissue another primary antibody of another animal, in this case a guinea pig, begin the dilution of 1:2000 was incubated to bind to the CRF protein. After, a secondary antibody was then incubated to bind to the primary and then labeled with an opposing dye staining pink as shown in the image below.

Next was the immunoflourecence protocol. It consisted of incubating the same primary antibody of rabbit with the dilutions as stated before in the tissue to bind to the protein. Then a Secondary antibody, biotinylated donkey anti rabbit, was sent in to find and bind to the primary antibody. Lastly the secondary antibody was the one that was labeled with dye FITC staining green. As stated before within the same region, the incubation of the primary antibody being guinea pig 1:2000 dilution bind to the CRF protein. Then a Secondary antibody, biotinylated donkey anti guinea pig, was also incubated and sent in to find and bind to the primary antibody. Lastly the secondary antibody was the one that was labeled with dye TRITC staining red. This process is further explained in the image below.

Finally was the immunoelectron protocol. It consisted of incubating a primary antibody of rabbit with these dilutions (rabbit NPY 1:8000, Y1 1:1000, and Y2 1:3000) in the tissue to bind to the protein. Following this, a Secondary antibody, goat anti rabbit conjugated

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with gold, was sent in to find and bind to the primary antibody. Lastly the secondary antibody was the one that was labeled with a gold enhancement in this case. Within the same tissues the process repeated for the last time and instead of staining gold, the CRF protein was stained using an ABC or avdem biotin complex with a DAB or dye amino bensitin reaction. Depicted in the image below is the immunoelectron microscopy protocol further explained through illustrations.

After the immunohistochemistry process was complete the tissues were either viewed on the light microscope as depicted in the image above, to the left or the electron microscope as depicted above, to the right. The tissues that used the immunoflourece protocol and cut using the cryostat were viewed on the light microscope. The tissues that went through the immunoperoxidase protocol were viewed under another specific type of light microscope called the confocal microscope. Lastly the tissues that had undergone the immunoelectron microscopy and were cut using the vibratome were viewed using the electron microscope.

Results In light microscopy as shown here in the figure below, immuno labeled fibers of NPY are present in boxes B and C (purple staining) and CRF cell bodies are present in boxes D and E (darker pink). The arrows show the NPY fibers and the arrowheads show the CRF cell bodies. This suggests that they are co -ocalizing in the same

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region because they are shown together.

When viewing these on the confocal microscope the NPY fibers imunoactivity is shown in green and in red indicated CRF immunoactivity and the last image in the first row indicated the NPY and CRF interactions in green and red. This pattern followed through with the Y1 receptor shown in green in the second row and CRF shown in red and both proteins co-localizing in the same region shown in green and red. Lastly was the Y2 receptor that showed the same pattern of co-localization in green and red. It was concluded in this observation using the confocal microscope that the NPY and CRF proteins had the most co-localization with more of the NPY protein than Y1 and Y2.

Our light microscopy data and confocal data are supported by our electron microscopy data for assurance that the proteins are present. CRF is indicated by the dark staining which is immunoperoxidase. NPY is indicated by immunogold silver particles indicated by the arrows. This pattern also goes forth with the Y1 and Y2 being indicated by arrows and the CRF protein indicated by the dark staining. This now proves the co-localization of the NPY protein and its receptors in the same region as the CRF protein.

Discussion

To reiterate my hypothesis

it states, Corticotropin Releasing Factor, Neuropeptide Y, Y1 and Y2, will interact in the central nucleus of the amygdala. This hypothesis was accepted. Corticotropin

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Releasing Factor, and Y1 and Y2 co-localize within the amygdala and Neuropeptide Y directly targets the Corticotropin Releasing Factor containing dendrites in the amygdala.

In the future to thoroughly complete this study we would like to analyze

how much percentage of CRF neurons are targeted by NPY. In addition we would also like to analyze the percentage of Y1 and Y2 co-localization in the studied region and to identify the synapses that are formed. This experimental research will be prominent for finding more successful research on the stress causes within the brain and how to maximize the resiliency of stress in the brain.

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Cellular Interactions of Amygdalar Neuropeptide Y and Corticotropin Releasing Factor | Research by Bria Beauvais ’18

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The completion of my study would not have been possible without these people for support. God, Family, Dr. Moses Williams, Dr. Beverly Reyes, Dr. Elisabeth Van Bockstaele, Michael Warner, Ryan Wyrofsky, Jenn Ross, Deja Snaders, Dhruv Prasad, Jalen Jean-Baptiste, Alex Hawkins, Alexis McLemore, Madison Sanders, Judah Wilson and Ayanna Fourte.

REFERENCES Figure 1: Drugs in health and disease. In: Integrated Pharmacology. Page, Curtis, Sutter et al. London, UK: Mosby International, 1997: 92–151.

Figure 2: Sedative-hypnotic drugs. In: Basic and clinical pharmacology, 8th edition.

Katzung BG. Figure 3: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corticotropin-releasing_hormone Figure 4: http://syntheticdaisies.blogspot.com/2013/10/modeling-processes-with-nobeginning.html Figure 5: Courtesy of EVB Lab Figure 6: – Figure 12: Images taken from my phone Figure 13: – Figure 15: Courtesy of EVB lab (Most resources came from the information of my lab and my mentors.)

The McGraw Hill Companies, Inc, 2001:364–381.Bloom FE. Neurohumoral

transmission and the central nervous system. In: Goodman and Gilman’s the pharmacological basis of therapeutics, volume 1, 8th edition. Gilman et al. Singapore.

McGraw-Hill Inc, 1992:244–268.

Erickson JC, Clegg KE, Palmiter RD: Sensitivity to leptin and susceptibility to

seizures of mice lacking neuropeptide Y. Nature 381:415, 1996.

Exp Biol Med (Maywood). 2010 Oct;235(10):1163-7. doi: 10.1258/ebm.2010.009331.

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Cellular Interactions of Amygdalar Neuropeptide Y and Corticotropin Releasing Factor | Research by Bria Beauvais ’18

Brain neuropeptide Y and corticotropin-releasing hormone in mediating stress and

anxiety., Thorsell A1.

Neurobiol Stress. 2015 Jan 1;1:33-43.

Targeting the Neuropeptide Y System in Stress-related Psychiatric Disorders.

Enman NM1, Sabban EL2, McGonigle P1, Van Bockstaele EJ1.

Neuropsychopharmacology (2002) 27, 756–764. doi:10.1016/S0893-

133X(02)00363-9 Early Life Stress Changes Concentrations of Neuropeptide Y and Corticotropin-releasing Hormone in Adult Rat Brain. Lithium Treatment Modifies These Changes; Henriette Husum MSc1,2 and Aleksander A Mathé MD, Ph.D1

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CARLY MCINTOSH ’18 Carly McIntosh is a junior from Ardmore, PA. She serves as a junior head for the Black Student Union and also participates in organizations such as Spectrum, Diversity Inclusion Group, Student Senate, Mock Trial, Kiva and DECA. Carly’s other passions include soccer, diversity work and the creation of safe spaces, as well as music.

Stable and Efficient Transfection of siRNA for Mutated K-Ras Silencing Using Novel Hybrid Nanoparticles

By Carly McIntosh ’18 Dr. Maryna Perepelyuk, Dr. Sunday Shoyele Pharmaceutical Science, Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA STEMPREP Project 2015

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Stable and Efficient Transfection of siRNA for Mutated K-Ras Silencing Using Novel Hybrid Nanoparticles | Research by Carly McIntosh ’18

BACKGROUND Cancer is the name given to a range of diseases characterized by the development of abnormal cells. These cells have the ability to control their cell division, and infiltrate and destroy healthy body tissue. Cancer is used to describe over one hundred diseases, one of which is Lung Cancer (Mayo Clinic Staff ). Lung Cancer is a strain of cancer which originates in the lungs. The lungs are a pair of spongy filled organs located on each side of the thorax or chest. Connected to the Lungs, is the Trachea, commonly known as the windpipe.

When air is inhaled into the body it travels through the Trachea to reach the lungs. As the Trachea draws near the lungs, it separates into two tubular branches called bronchi. Once the bronchi enter the lungs they diverge into several microscopic lanes, which are referred to as bronchioles. The bronchioles end in Alveoli, which are microscopic sa cs of air. In the alveoli, oxygen from the air is broken down and sent into the bloodstream (Lung Disease & Respiratory Health Center). While the causes of some Lung Cancer cases are unknown, Lung Cancer often occurs when the cell linings to the bronchi, and parts of the lungs such as the bronchioles and alveoli are negatively affected by the chemicals they encounter (Mayo Clinic Staff ).

Lung Cancer is broken

down into two major types, Small Figure one- reproduced from http://www.webmd.com/ lung/picture-of-the-lungs

Cell Lung Cancer (SCLC) and Non Small Cell Lung Cancer (NSCLC).

While SCLC is found almost exclusively in heavy smokers, NSCLC is used as a general term for several cancer strains that can be diagnosed and prognosed in a similar manner. NSCLC is a more common form of Lung Cancer, because it has a wider variety of causes (“Lung

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Stable and Efficient Transfection of siRNA for Mutated K-Ras Silencing Using Novel Hybrid Nanoparticles | Research by Carly McIntosh ’18

Cancer (Non-Small Cell)”). Though it is not as associated with smoking as SCLC, smoking is still the primary cause of NSCLC. Smoking leads to NSCLC through the process of an acquired gene change.

An acquired gene change is developed by one’s exposure to certain chemicals

and gases known as carcinogens. A carcinogen is any substance involved with the development of cancer. The Tobacco in cigarettes contains over seven hundred carcinogens. When one smokes a cigarette, any of these carcinogens have the ability to enter a lung cell and alter its DNA structure, leading to cancerous mutation. Along with the carcinogens in Tobacco, are Radon, Asbestos, and Diesel Exhaust, which can also cause acquired gene changes. Acquired gene changes are separate from inherited gene changes, which occur when one receives a hereditary gene change that then leads to a cancerous mutation. NSCLC can be caused by a number of different acquired and inherited gene changes. Several treatments have been developed to repair the damage done by the gene changes.

Surgical procedures, Chemotherapy Treatments, Radiation, and Targeted Drug

Therapies, have all been designed to terminate cancer caused by gene changes. In surgery, the cancer tissue is located and removed from the body. Chemotherapy utilizes a combination of drugs, taken orally or administered into the veins, to kill cancer cells.

In some cases Chemotherapy and surgery can be used together, to treat one’s cancer. In this case, Chemotherapy shrinks cancer cells prior to surgery, which makes them easier to remove. Or, Chemotherapy is used after surgery to kill any remaining cancer cells.

Radiation uses high-powered energy beams, like x-rays, to kill the cancer cells. Lastly, there is Targeted Drug Therapy. Targeted Drug Therapy is the name given to drug treatments that target specific abnormalities within certain cell types and aim to fix those defects to stop the spread and growth of one’s cancer (Mayo Clinic Staff ).

RNA Interference (RNAi) is a highly investigated form of Targeted Drug Therapy

(Lakshmikuttyamma et al. 4415). Small interfering RNA or, siRNA, is currently the most

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Stable and Efficient Transfection of siRNA for Mutated K-Ras Silencing Using Novel Hybrid Nanoparticles | Research by Carly McIntosh ’18

studied form of RNAi. siRNA is a synthetic, double stranded molecule, which silences cancer genes through the destruction of mRNA molecules. While siRNA shows promise in its ability to silence genes and prevent cancer growth, it lacks a successful delivery system. Like most drugs, naked siRNA is susceptible to numerous antibodies and enzymes, when injected into the bloodstream. It then faces the danger of being destroyed or rejected by one’s immune system before it can encounter the cancer cells it is designed to repair. This causes problems such as difficulty concerning transfection, susceptibility to enzyme degradation in the bloodstream, and the tendency to be cleared by one’s Reticuloendothelial System (RES). siRNA’s most pressing issue is its ability to be efficiently transmitted to its specific cell type, without being destroyed or detected by one’s immune system (Lakshmikuttyamma et al. 4415).

In order to create an effective delivery system for the siRNA, there are four key

characteristics the system needs. First, the delivery system should be able to protect the siRNA from nuclease degradation during transfection. Secondly, the system should ensure minimal RES intake, allowing the siRNA to stay in the blood for longer amounts of time. The system must be able to escape endosomes after endocytosis. Lastly, the system should not elicit immunological and inflammatory reaction (Lakshmikuttyamma et al. 4415). After taking into account these requirements, the nanoparticles used for this experiment were created.

The Nanoparticles tested in this

experiment use a siRNA model directed against G12S mutation in K-Ras gene (siG12S), loaded into a human immunoglobulin capsule, coated with a poloxamer-188 (Lakshmikuttyamma et al. 4416). siG12S is created for the sole purpose of destroying the K-Ras mutation found in A549 Cells. The aforementioned K-Ras mutation

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Figure Two –reproduced from http://pubs.acs.org/ doi/abs/10.1021/mp500525p

Stable and Efficient Transfection of siRNA for Mutated K-Ras Silencing Using Novel Hybrid Nanoparticles | Research by Carly McIntosh ’18

is a cancerous mutation found at the binding site G12S. The siG12S is loaded inside a human immunoglobulin. For this experiment type IgG was used. IgG is one of the most common antibodies found in the blood. By putting the siG12S in a naturally occurring immunoglobulin, immunological and inflammatory responses are both reduced.The IgG is coated with a poloxamer-188. Poloxamer-188 is a non-ionic carbon molecule, which prevents the macrophageal intake of nanoparticles. This circumvents the RES during circulation. In addition, the double-layered nature of the nanoparticle protects the siG12S from the endonuclease; enabling a safe and efficient delivery of the siRNA, model siG12S, to the A549 cells (Lakshmikuttyamma et al. 4416).

RESEARCH DESIGN Purpose and Hypothesis

While problems with the nanoparticles delivery were addressed, it still must be

proven that there is a need for nanoparticles containing the siG12S. As previously stated, the siG12S is made to treat the K-Ras mutation found in A549 Cells. It was discovered that cells holding K-Ras treatment often reject the Chemotherapy, thus calling for a new drug that can treat cancer cells with the K-Ras mutation. The purpose of this lab is to demonstrate the efficiency of the siG12S model in silencing the K-Ras mutation found in lung tissue, while proving that the Chemotherapy is unable to do that same.

It is hypothesized that the nanoparticles, carrying the siG12S, will be more effective in knocking down the K-Ras mutation than the Chemotherapy treatment.

Methodology

In order to test the efficiency of the siG12S in silencing the K-Ras mutation, it

first needed to be loaded into the nanoparticles. This required the formation of the nanoparticles. First, 20 mb of Poloxamer-188 was dissolved in 0.01 N HCI. This was followed by 50 mg of human immunoglobulin IgG, and 45 Âľg of siG12S. Because the nanoparticle ingredients were dissolved in HCI, an acidic solution, they acquired an

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Stable and Efficient Transfection of siRNA for Mutated K-Ras Silencing Using Novel Hybrid Nanoparticles | Research by Carly McIntosh ’18

acidic pH around two. While the acidity created an ideal environment for the ingredients to dissolve in, the condition was not ideal for the actual formation of the particles.

Consequently, the solution was slowly titrated with Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) using a transfer pipette. During this process several drops of NaOH were transferred to the nanoparticle solution, while a pH meter was used to monitor the solution’s pH. This continued until the solution reached its optimal pH of 7. The pH 7 was chosen because it was IgG’s isoelectric point. An isoelectric point is a protein’s pH where it is no longer soluble in a solution. Because IgG’s isoelectric point was 7, the pH of the solution needed to be acidic, in order for the immunoglobulin to be able to dissolve in the solution.

Only 0.01 mL of HCI was used in order to ensure that the acidity would not destroy the ingredients. Once the solution reached the pH of 7, the nanoparticles were spontaneously formed. Because the process occurred naturally, not all ingredients were able to form complete particles with siRNA. To rid the solution of these lose ingredients, the suspension was centrifuged at 2000 rpm for five minutes. Next, the supernatant, made up by the extra ingredients, was discarded. The newly formed particles were then rinsed once in double distilled water. After the rinse, the particles were dispersed in water and snap frozen in liquid nitrogen. Once the particles were completely frozen, they were loaded into a freeze dryer, where Lyophilization was performed. This process continued for the duration of 48 hours. Lyophilization is a process used to dry biological materials, which stabilizes products and prepares them for storage or distribution. While drying these materials can often cause loss of activity or damage in one’s materials, Lyophilization significantly reduces these damages. In this process, all solvents, such as water, are removed from the frozen substance using a vacuum pump. For the purpose of this experiment, the Lyophilization was used to rid the solution of its solvent and any contents that were separate from the particles thus leaving behind all of the fully formed particles in solid form. Once the nanoparticles were completed, they were ready for mouse treatment.

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Each treatment group was assigned five SCID (immunodeficient) female mice.

Stable and Efficient Transfection of siRNA for Mutated K-Ras Silencing Using Novel Hybrid Nanoparticles | Research by Carly McIntosh ’18

This included a nanoparticle group, a Chemotherapy group, a PBS group, which was the control for the experiment, and a combination group, which received both nanoparticles and Chemotherapy. Each treatment group received 0.1 mL of their assigned treatment.

The Chemotherapy group received treatment every day, Monday through Friday, in the form of oral gavage. The nanoparticle treatment group received injections of the particles twice a week on Mondays and Fridays. The combination group had oral gavage each day in addition to injections each Monday and Friday. Lastly the PBS control group received injections twice a week. All treatments occurred for the duration of 4 weeks. Once the mice were treated, it was time to extract the lungs and observe the nanoparticles effect.

To begin, all mice were sacrificed by the method of Euthanasia. Euthanasia is a

method used to humanely sacrifice animals using CO2 in a contained area. The lungs were then removed from each mouse. One lung was saved for histology; while the other was separated into three parts. One piece was saved for PCR, the next - for ELISA, and the last one was used for Western Blot. Each section was frozen in liquid nitrogen in order to prevent degradation and stored at -80 ˚C. Once the samples were ready to be examined in Western Blot, they were heated up to 70 ˚C with LDS Buffer.

Western blot was used to test the effects of the siG12S on the cells in comparison

to the Chemotherapy treatments. Western blot is a method used to detect the expression of protein levels. For this experiment Western Blot was used to examine the efficiency of knocking down the K-Ras protein. Western Blot was separated into a two-day experiment.

Day One began with Gel Electrophoresis. To begin, the MES buffer was prepared. This buffer consisted of 50 mL of pure MES SDS running buffer, diluted in 1000 mL of distilled water. After the buffer was ready, the gels were assembled into the NuPage Western Blot kit. The newly made MES Buffer was then poured into both sides of the apparatus.

Next, the samples were loaded into the wells of the gel. One sample was taken from each treatment group. Next, 37 microliters of each sample was loaded into the gel. The NuPage Western Blot kit was put in a tub of ice to prevent overheating during gel electrophoresis.

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Stable and Efficient Transfection of siRNA for Mutated K-Ras Silencing Using Novel Hybrid Nanoparticles | Research by Carly McIntosh ’18

The gel was run for one hour and ten minutes, with a voltage of 200, and a mA of 108.

Once the gel electrophoresis procedure was complete, blotting was able to begin. First, the transfer buffer for blotting was prepared. This consisted of 50 mL of pure transfer buffer, diluted in 1000 mL of distilled water, and 100 mL of methanol. The transfer buffer was then poured into a tray containing a nitrocellulose membrane. The membrane was soaked in the buffer for several minutes, while the gel, from the gel electrophoresis procedure, was retrieved. A filter paper was briefly soaked then placed on top of the gel, leaving the foot of the gel uncovered. Any bubbles created between the gel and filter paper were smoothed out. Next, the foot off the gel was cut of using a gel knife.

The surface of the Gel was then soaked in with transfer buffer and a pre-soaked transfer nitrocellulose membrane was placed on top. Once again any bubbles were removed from the surface. Another pre-soaked filter paper was placed on top of the membrane. Next, two blotting pads were soaked and placed in the cathode core of the blot module. The gel assembly was then moved into the cathode with the pads, so that the gel side of the “sandwich” was closest to the cathode core. Next the anode core was placed on top of the pads. The gel membrane “sandwich” was then positioned so that the cathode core fit horizontally across the bottom of the unit. A 1 cm gap was left at the top of the electrodes.

The blot module was put into the lower buffer chamber then filled with transfer buffer until the “sandwich” was completely covered in buffer. The outer chamber was filled with the remaining buffer. The transfer was then run for 120 minutes at 25 volts. Once the blot was finished, the membranes were removed from the chambers and soaked in water.

They were blocked for 1 hour from unspecific binding and left on a stirrer with primary antibody solutions in the cold room overnight. The next morning the membranes were retrieved from the cold room and returned to standard, room temperature, settings. The primary antibody solution was discarded and replaced with Antibody wash. This wash consisted of 20mL of antibody wash concentrate, diluted in 300 mL of distilled water. The membranes were then placed on the stirrer for 5 minutes. Once the five minutes passed,

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Stable and Efficient Transfection of siRNA for Mutated K-Ras Silencing Using Novel Hybrid Nanoparticles | Research by Carly McIntosh ’18

the Antibody wash was discarded and replaced with new wash. This occurred three times at five-minute intervals. After the third wash, the containers were filled with Secondary Antibody solution, and left on the stirrer for one hour. After the hour, the containers were again filled with antibody wash and left on the stirrer. The wash was replaced every five minutes three times. After the third wash the membranes were ready for processing.

Once the membranes were processed they were analyzed for the chemiluminescence and results on the siG12S’s ability to knock down the K-Ras protein.

Results

Before looking at the siG12S’s ability to silence the K-Ras gene, the overall effect

of the lung cancer development was observed. To do this, all mice from all treatment groups were injected with a luminol substrate during the treatment process. The substrate illustrated the intensity of the cancer in the lungs, through the expression of colors.

Colors such as red, orange, and yellow represented a higher intensity of cancer; colors such as blue and purple expressed a lower intensity of cancer.

The nanoparticle mouse showed the lowest cancer intensity. This mouse only expressed blue and purple colors throughout the five-week process, and never showed any signs of metastasis. Metastasis occurs when cells from a primary tumor disconnect and flow

Figure Three

through the bloodstream to another part of the body, where they develop into a cancer.

Metastasis is much harder to treat because it can end up in sensitive places such as the bone, liver, and brain. For this reason, the lack of metastasis development within the nanoparticle mice was highly important. The combination group was the second lowest in cancer intensity. This began showing small signs of high intensity cancer within the first week of mouse treatment. In the third week of treatment the mice began showing

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Stable and Efficient Transfection of siRNA for Mutated K-Ras Silencing Using Novel Hybrid Nanoparticles | Research by Carly McIntosh ’18

signs of metastasis at the base of the tail. Next in intensity was the Chemotherapy group Similar to the combination group; the Chemotherapy mouse began showing signs of high intensity cancer around week 1 of treatment. However, the mice also began showing signs of metastasis at this time. In addition, the higher intensity cancer continued to develop in the Chemotherapy mouse for the four weeks. As expected, the PBS group showed the highest intensity of cancer. While the PBS mice did not show signs of high intensity cancer until the third week, the mouse expressed the most metastasis, proving that its cancer was the most dangerous. The information from the in vivo imaging was then quantified in the form of a graph.

The graph reiterated the information

found in the imagery. The line marked by the “right side up” triangles represented the nanoparticle mouse’s bioluminescent expression. The nanoparticle line remained low throughout treatment, while the others experienced an increase of intensity throughout the four weeks. This increase Figure Four

was demonstrated in the steep incline of

the lines representing the other treatment methods. After looking at the overall effect of the siRNA on the lung cancer, its effects of the K-Ras protein was closely observed.

The Western Blot membrane showed

weaker bands in the nanoparticles and combination groups, while the PBS and Chemotherapy samples gave stronger signals.

Each signal was justified by the consistency of

Figure Five

the “housekeeping gene”, Beta-actin. This consistency ensured that an equal amount of each sample was loaded into the wells. This meant that the lack of signal provided by the

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Stable and Efficient Transfection of siRNA for Mutated K-Ras Silencing Using Novel Hybrid Nanoparticles | Research by Carly McIntosh ’18

nanoparticle sample was due to the silencing of the K-Ras gene.

Discussion

Before the results were generated, it was hypothesized that the nanoparticles

carrying the siG12S would be more effective in knocking down the K-Ras protein than the Chemotherapy treatment. This hypothesis was supported by the results. The in vivo imaging demonstrated the overall ability of the siG12S to successfully treat the lung cancer, when loaded inside the nanoparticles. This was proven by the lack of metastasis development, as well as the blue and purple signals given by the luminal substrate. In addition, the metastasis development, as well as the higher cancer intensity found in the Chemotherapy mouse contributed to the verification of the hypothesis. In Western Blot, the stronger signal from the Chemotherapy sample confirmed the Chemotherapy’s inability to silence the K-Ras mutation. Furthermore, the weak signal from the nanoparticle sample demonstrated the ability of the siG12S to knock down the K-Ras mutation.

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REFERENCES “Do we know what causes non-small cell lung cancer?” American Cancer Society.

Independent Publisher’s Group, 15 Aug. 2014. Web. 10 July 2015. <http://www.cancer. org/cancer/lungcancer-non-smallcell/detailedguide/non-small-cell-lung-cancer-whatcauses>.

Lakshmikuttyamma, A., et al. “Stable and Efficient Transfection of siRNA for Mutated KRAS Silencing Using Novel Hybrid Nanoparticles.” PubMed: 4415-24. Print.

“Lung Cancer (Non-Small Cell).” American Cancer Society. Independent Publisher’s Group, 15 Aug. 2014. Web. 10 July 2015. <http://www.cancer.org/cancer/lungcancer-nonsmallcell/detailedguide/non-small-cell-lung-cancer-what-is-non-small-cell-lung-cancer>.

Lung Disease & Respiratory Health Center. “Image Collection: Human Anatomy.” Web MD. Medscape, 2014. Web. 10 July 2015. <http://www.webmd.com/lung/picture-of-the-lungs>.

Mayo Clinic Staff. “Definition.” Mayo Clinic. Elsevier, 23 May 2015. Web. 10 July 2015. <http:// www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/cancer/basics/definition/con-20032378>.

“Treatments and Drugs.” Mayo Clinic. Elsevier, 19 Mar. 2014. Web. 10 July 2015. <http:// www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/lung-cancer/basics/treatment/con-20025531>.

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HILARY LIU ’18 Hilary Liu is a junior from Wayne, PA, and has been a student at The Baldwin School since the 5th grade. She is the junior head of the BETA Math Club, and she participates in Modern Science Club, Lamplighters, Model Congress, Girls Learn International and the School’s yearbook Prism. She enjoys painting and drawing, and likes dancing and reading when she has time.

The Baldwin School Novel Quantitative Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Emission and Sequestration Model

By Hilary Liu ’18

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The Baldwin School Novel Quantitative Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Emission and Sequestration Model | Research by Hilary Liu â&#x20AC;&#x2122;18

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank the following contributors for their generous support and assistance with The Baldwin School Novel Quantitative Greenhouse Gas Emission and Sequestration Model, as they have been there every step of the way.

University of Pennsylvania Earth and Environmental Science Chao Qi

Postdoctoral Researcher

Alain F. Plante

Undergraduate Chair/Associate Professor

Baldwin School Facilities and Operations Michael Locurcio

Director of Facilities and Operations

Jim Piechule

Maintenance Supervisor

Baldwin School Human Resources Sherri Farenwald

Director of Human Resources

Baldwin School Transportation Crystal Johnson

Transportation Coordinator/Receptionist

Baldwin School Science Department Jeffrey Goldader

Science Department Operations/Physics Teacher

Christie Reed

Science Department Chair/Biology Teacher

Lindsay Davis

Chemistry Teacher

Baldwin School Heads

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Sally Powell

Head of School

Eric Benke

Director of Upper School

Raphaelina Loke

Upper School Dean of Students

The Baldwin School Novel Quantitative Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Emission and Sequestration Model | Research by Hilary Liu â&#x20AC;&#x2122;18

Table of Contents Introduction Part I: Background and Significance 1 GHG Impacts 1.1 What are GHGs? 1.2 What are the Effects of GHGs on the Environment?

1.3 What are the Types of GHGs? 1.3.1 Carbon Dioxide 1.3.2 Methane 1.3.3 Nitrous Oxide 1.3.4 Others 1.4 What is GHG Sequestration?

1.5 What are GHG Models?

2 GHG Model Rational 3 Significance and Novelty of Baldwin School GHG Model 3.1 History of Baldwin 3.2 Baldwin Environmental Awareness 3.3 Quantitative GHG Model 3.4 Transportation GHG Emissions 3.5 GHG Sequestration 3.6 GHG Baseline 3.7 Baldwin Proposals Part II: Methodology and Data Collection 1 Model Process Overview 2 Model Scope 2.1 Geographical Overview 2.2 Organizational Overview 2.3 Operational Overview 2.4 Emission Categories and Considerations 2.4.1 Scope 1 2.4.2 Scope 2 2.4.3 Scope 3 2.5 Sequestration Categories 2.5.1 Vegetation Classification 2.5.2 Tree Classification 2.6 Gases Included 2.7 GHG Global Warming Potentials 3 GHG Emission Methodology 3.1 Data Collection 3.1.1 Natural Gas, Electricity, and Water 3.1.2 Transportation 3.2 GHG Emission Calculations 3.2.1Natural Gas 3.2.2 Electricity THE BALDWIN REVIEW 2016

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The Baldwin School Novel Quantitative Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Emission and Sequestration Model | Research by Hilary Liu â&#x20AC;&#x2122;18

3.2.3 Water 3.2.4 Transportation 4 GHG Sequestration Methodology 4.1 Data Collection 4.2 Measurements and Calculations 4.2.1 Tree Measurement Methods 4.2.2 Tree Sequestration Calculations Part III: GHG Emission Results 1 Baldwin School Campus Emission Overview 2 Baldwin School Source GHG Emissions 2.1 Natural Gas 2.2 Electricity 2.3 Water 2.4 Transportation 3 Baldwin School Total GHG Emissions Part IV: GHG Sequestration Results 1 Baldwin School Campus Vegetation Overview 2 Baldwin School Tree GHG Sequestration Part V: Model Further Considerations 1 Further Considerations in Baldwin GHG Emission Estimates 1.1 Data Inaccuracies 1.2 Emission Factors 1.3 Calculation Methods 2 Further Considerations in Baldwin GHG Sequestration Estimates 2.1 Data Inaccuracies 2.2 Sequestration Parameters 2.3 Calculation Methods Part VI: Baldwin School Comparisons Part VII: Baldwin School Next Steps 1 Reflection on GHG Emission and Sequestration Model 2 Baldwin Stance on Environmental Issues 2.1 Director of Facilities and Operations and Maintenance Supervisor Insight 3 Effective Proposals for Future Improvement 3.1 Natural Gas 3.2 Electricity 3.3 Water 3.4 Solid Waste 3.5 Transportation 3.6 Vegetation Growth 3.7 Education Conclusion References Citations

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The Baldwin School Novel Quantitative Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Emission and Sequestration Model | Research by Hilary Liu â&#x20AC;&#x2122;18

INTRODUCTION As our world continues to advance, we face various problems threatening our environment and sustainable development. Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions contributing to climate change is one of them. As GHG emissions from human activities increase, it is therefore imperative to quantify the magnitude of the emissions from various sources, determine the role vegetation plays in absorbing GHG, and make recommendations on how to reduce overall GHG emissions using such values. Some esteemed institutions, such as Harvard University in 2011 and University of Pennsylvania in 2013, have created GHG inventories in response to these objectives. However, these models considered GHG emissions from electricity, natural gas, and water usage, but did not consider several other important factors, such as emissions from schoolassociated transportation and GHG sequestration through natural processes. However, it is hypothesized that GHG emissions from transportation and GHG sequestration from vegetation are significant. Therefore, initiative was taken to develop a comprehensive Baldwin School Quantitative GHG Novel Emission and Sequestration Model.

The Baldwin School Novel Quantitative GHG Emission and Sequestration Model considers not only emissions from purchased natural gas, electricity, and water usage, but also schoolassociated emissions from individual transportation as well as GHG sequestration by vegetation. This interdisciplinary model develops a baseline of GHG emission and removal for the school, creating an in-depth understanding of environmental issues. From a representation that outlines these values in a distinctive numerical approach, we can reach a deeper comprehension of GHG emissions and absorption, and determine how to reduce our negative impact on the environment.

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The Baldwin School Novel Quantitative Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Emission and Sequestration Model | Research by Hilary Liu â&#x20AC;&#x2122;18

PART I: BACKGROUND AND SIGNIFICANCE GHG Impacts What are GHGs? GHGs are gases in the atmosphere that absorb and trap heat, creating what is otherwise known as the greenhouse effect. Although this effect can be beneficial in establishing a consistent and warm environment for living organisms, when human activities release an excess of GHGs into the atmosphere, problems could arise.

What are the Effects of GHGs on the Environment?

Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution have produced a 40% increase in atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide, a GHG. Anthropogenic emissions, or emissions produced by human activities, come from combustion of carbonbased fuels, principally coal, oil, and natural gas.

The primary effect of GHG emissions is global warming. There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring because of excess GHGs, and that human activities are the primary cause of this. Many impacts of climate change have already been observed, such as glacier melting, changes in the timing of seasonal events, and changes in agricultural productivity.

It has been estimated that if GHG emissions continue at the present rate, Earthâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047, with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems, biodiversity, and the livelihoods of people worldwide.

What are the Types of GHGs? There are three primary types of GHGs, which are carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O). Fluorinated gases also serve as GHGs, though these fluorinated gases are not as significant as the aforementioned ones.

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The Baldwin School Novel Quantitative Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Emission and Sequestration Model | Research by Hilary Liu ’18

Figure 1: Distribution of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions 2013 [1]

Carbon Dioxide Carbon dioxide (CO2) is the primary greenhouse gas emitted through human activities.

In 2013, CO2 accounted for about 82% of all U.S. greenhouse gas emissions from human activities. CO2 is naturally present in the atmosphere as part of the Earth’s carbon cycle (the natural circulation of carbon among the atmosphere, oceans, soil, plants, and animals).

However, human activities are altering the carbon cycle—both by adding more CO2 to the atmosphere, and by influencing the ability of natural sinks to remove CO2 from the atmosphere. While CO2 emissions come from a variety of natural sources, human-related emissions are responsible for the increase that has occurred in the atmosphere recently.

The main human activity that emits CO2 is the combustion of fossil fuels (coal, natural gas, and oil) for energy and transportation, although CO2 emissions can also come as a result of solid waste and certain chemical reactions and industrial processes, as well as land-use changes that also emit CO2.

CO2 is constantly being exchanged among the atmosphere, ocean, and land as it is both produced and absorbed by many organisms. CO2 is removed, or sequestered, from the atmosphere when it is absorbed by plants as part of the biological carbon cycle. Emissions and removal of CO2 by these natural processes tend to balance in a natural state. However, since the Industrial Revolution, human activities have contributed substantially to climate

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change by adding CO2 and other heat-trapping gases to the atmosphere. Going forward, CO2 emissions in the United States are projected to grow by about 1.5% between 2005 and 2020. These CO2 emission trends are shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2: U.S. CO2 Emission Trends, 1990-2013 [2]

Methane Methane (CH4) is the second most prevalent greenhouse gas emitted from human activities. In 2013, CH4 emissions accounted for about 10% of all U.S. GHG emissions from human activities.

Globally, over 60% of total CH4 emissions come from human activities. CH4 is emitted during the production and transport of coal, natural gas, and oil. CH4 emissions also result from livestock and other agricultural practices and by the decay of organic waste in municipal solid waste landfills. Natural processes in soil and chemical reactions in the atmosphere help remove CH4 from the atmosphere. Methaneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s lifetime in the atmosphere is much shorter than carbon dioxide (CO2), but CH4 is more efficient at trapping radiation than CO2.

Nitrous Oxide Nitrous oxide (N2O) accounted for about 5% of all GHG emissions from human activities in 2013. N2O is naturally present in the atmosphere as part of the natural nitrogen cycle, and J8

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has a variety of natural sources. However, about 40% of total N2O emissions come from human activities. N2O is emitted during human activities such as agriculture, fossil fuel combustion, wastewater management, and industrial processes that are increasing the amount of N2O in the atmosphere.

Others Unlike many other GHGs, other fluorinated gases have no natural sources and only come from human-related activities. Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), sulfur hexafluoride (SF6), and nitrogen trifluoride (NF3) are the four main types of these synthetic, powerful greenhouse gases. These gases are emitted through a variety of industrial processes, especially product manufacturing. Although these gases are typically emitted in smaller quantities, because they are so potent relative to other GHGs, small atmospheric concentrations can have large effects on global temperatures. In general, because of their high global warming potentials (GWPs) and long atmospheric lifetimes, fluorinated gases are the most potent and longest lasting type of greenhouse gases emitted by human activities.

What is GHG Sequestration?

Carbon sequestration is the process involved in carbon capture the long-term storage of atmospheric CO2. Carbon sequestration describes long-term storage of CO2 or other forms of carbon to reduce global warming effects and avoid dangerous climate change. It has been proposed as a way to slow the accumulation of GHGs. Sequestration occurs naturally through various physical, chemical, and biological processes. These processes include sequestration through vegetation, subsurface saline sources, reservoirs, and other carbon sinks which accumulate and store carbon-containing compounds for indefinite periods of time.

What are GHG Models?

GHG models are a type of model that create a representation of the GHG emissions and sequestration of an organization or institution considering all relevant emission sources and carbon sequestration sinks. GHG models typically use GWP values to combine emissions and sequestration of different GHGs into a single weighted value of emissions.

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These types of models are developed for a variety of reasons. As global climate change becomes ever more a growing problem, it becomes imperative that it be possible to quantify the magnitude of emissions from various sources, determine the role vegetation plays in absorbing GHG, and make recommendations about how to reduce overall GHG emissions using such values. GHG models do exactly this, proving useful tools in the efforts to reduce GHG emissions. Policy makers use GHG models to develop strategies and policies for emission reductions and to track the process of these policies. These models can be used to encourage a better understanding of the sources and trends in emissions and sequestration. Some leading efforts in utilizing GHG models in these ways include: 1

2)

Mandatory annual national GHG emission and sequestration reports under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the Kyoto Protocol Kyoto Protocol established on December 11, 1997 in Kyoto, Japan, which commits nations to reduce GHG emissions, based on the premise that global warming exists and that human-related CO2 emissions have caused it 3) Organizations preparing GHG models to track process towards meeting an emission reduction goal

GHG Model Rational As our world continues to advance, we face various problems threatening our environment and sustainable development. Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions contributing to climate change is one of them. As GHG emissions from human activities increase, it is imperative to quantify the magnitude of the emissions from various sources, determine the role vegetation plays in absorbing GHGs, and make recommendations on how to reduce overall GHG emissions using such values.

International environmental sustainability principles established in The Kyoto Protocol in 1997 by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) implemented the objective to fight global warming by reducing GHG concentrations in the atmosphere. This objective is based on the premise that global warming exists and that man-made emissions have caused it, and petitions the obligations for institutions to establish ways to reach environmental sustainability and improvement.

Some esteemed institutions have created GHG models, such as Harvard University in 2011 and University of Pennsylvania in 2013. These models considered GHG emissions from electricity, natural gas, and water usage, but did not consider several other important

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factors, such as emissions from school-associated individual transportation and GHG sequestration through natural processes. Therefore, initiative was taken to develop a novel and comprehensive Baldwin School Quantitative GHG Emission and Sequestration Model.

The Baldwin School Novel Quantitative GHG Emission and Sequestration Model is an important part in this environmental sustainability effort. The model allows us to assess our impact on the atmosphere and our contribution to global climate change on a schoolwide level.

Significance and Novelty of Baldwin School GHG Model The Baldwin School Novel Quantitative GHG Emission and Sequestration Model considers not only emissions from purchased natural gas, electricity, and water usage, but also school- associated emissions from individual transportation as well as GHG sequestration by campus vegetation. This interdisciplinary model develops a baseline of GHG emission and removal for the school, creating an in-depth understanding of environmental issues.

From a representation that outlines these values in a distinctive numerical approach, we can reach a deeper comprehension of GHG emissions and absorption, and determine how to reduce our negative impact on the environment.

History of Baldwin

Since it was established in 1888 by Miss Florence Baldwin, The Baldwin School, an independent college preparatory school for girls, has been dedicated to educating young women. For more than 125 years, the school has helped girls learn, thrive, and succeed.

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The Baldwin School develops talented girls who seek a dynamic, globally focused curriculum within a supportive and encouraging community into confident young women with vision, global understanding, and the competency to make significant and enduring contributions to the world. The school nurtures passion for intellectual rigor in academics, creativity in the arts and competition in athletics, forming women capable of leading their generation while living balanced lives.

Baldwin Environmental Awareness Environmental sustainability is a very important issue, and education can play a large role in addressing global climate change. The Baldwin School abounds with opportunities for students to research, learn, advocate for, and implement sustainability practices both in the classroom and beyond.

Through the research, teaching, and operational practices taken to create The Baldwin School Novel Quantitative GHG Emission and Sequestration Model, The Baldwin School shows its dedication to promoting an environmentally sustainable intuition and implementing environmentally conscious policies.

Quantitative GHG Model Quantitative research is the systematic investigation of observable occurrences through numerical techniques to create quantitative models, theories, or hypotheses. The process of measurement is central to quantitative research because it provides a fundamental connection between qualitative observation and mathematic expression of quantitative values. Through a quantitative analysis using statistics, a quantitative model creates a reliable and objective result that can be used to generalize and compare results.

The Baldwin School Novel Quantitative GHG Emission and Sequestration Model was developed as a model that can create such a numerical representation of GHG emission, an important issue that causes global climate change and affects sustainable development. From a representation that outlines these values in a distinctive numerical approach, we can reach a deeper comprehension of GHG emission and absorption, and determine how to reduce our negative impact on the environment on a global as well as an institutional scale.

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Transportation GHG Emissions According the EPA, about 27% of all human-related GHG emissions are from transportation, making it the second largest contributor to GHG emissions after electricity.

GHG emissions from transportation have increased by about 16% since 1990, with the number of vehicles driven increasing about 35%, proving to be the most increasingly significant GHG emission sources.

However, despite the significance of transportation GHG emissions, they are often disregarded in GHG models because of the difficulty of quantifying them. Some esteemed institutions have created GHG models, such as Harvard University in 2011 and University of Pennsylvania in 2013. Although these models considered GHG emissions from electricity, natural gas, and water usage, transportation GHG emissions were not considered. Therefore, initiative was taken to develop a novel and comprehensive Baldwin School Novel Quantitative GHG Emission and Sequestration Model that considers transportation as well.

GHG Sequestration In the natural GHG cycle, carbon sequestration occurs naturally through physical, chemical, and biological processes. One of the processes that absorbs the greatest amounts of GHGs is CO2 sequestration by vegetation. As a way to reduce global warming effects and climate change, sequestration by vegetation is proposed as a way to slow the accumulation of GHGs. However, despite the importance of GHG sequestration in the natural GHG cycle, it is often disregarded in GHG models because of the difficulty in measuring and quantifying it. Institutions that have created GHG models such as Harvard University and University of Pennsylvania did not consider GHG sequestration. Nevertheless, it is imperative to include every aspect of the GHG cycle in these models, including sequestration by vegetation, which might prove quite significant in the model.

GHG Baseline The Baldwin School GHG Emission and Sequestration Model creates a baseline for emissions for The Baldwin School that can be used to reduce GHG emissions and reach a standard of environmental sustainability.

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The comprehensive and novel model developed by this study can also be used by institutions to evaluate their GHG emissions and sequestration each year, serving as technical guidance in further GHG reduction initiatives.

Baldwin Proposals When it comes to GHG emissions, few dispute the importance of reducing our emissions, and many can list numerous methods of doing so. Especially as global climate change becomes an increasingly hot topic, institutions have been making efforts to decrease GHG emissions through conserving energy by decreasing energy consumption, reducing transportation emissions by using more environmentally sustainable commuting options, minimizing waste by “reducing, reusing, and recycling”, and increasing GHG sequestration by planting trees. There are also small ways that people reduce GHG emissions in their daily lives, such as using energy-efficient light bulbs, turning off the lights when not in use, and using less water by not “letting the water run.”

However, not all GHG emission reduction methods are created equal, and some methods are more effective than others. In light of all the methods proposed by environmental groups and associations to reduce GHG emissions, many are overwhelmed by the options and can only commit to doing some. When it comes to institutions trying to reduce their GHG emissions, often funding limits the ways that they can switch to energy-efficient appliances and implement environmentally sustainable practices. Also, some ways that are known to reduce GHG emissions simply cannot be put into action because of limitations on the control that institutions have on energy consumption, waste production, and policies.

So how does one choose which methods to implement when resources and control can be limited? One would expect that environmental organizations would have the answers, but even when one looks to these organizations for guidance on which methods are most effective in reducing GHG emissions, many cannot produce a definitive response.

The Baldwin School Novel Quantitative GHG Emission and Sequestration Model tries to counter this issue by proposing methods to reduce GHG emissions and increase GHG sequestration through numerical calculations. The research creates a model that proposes the most effective methods to reduce our emissions using quantitative values of the distribution and magnitude of GHG emission sources, as well as the extent of the

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effectiveness of some GHG emission reduction methods. The findings of this project are important so that we can learn how to effectively do our part in countering global climate change and working towards an environmentally sustainable world.

PART II: METHODOLOGY AND DATA COLLECTION Model Process Overview The Baldwin School GHG Model encompasses direct and indirect emission sources as well as sequestration through vegetation. The model is created through a four-step process: 1) Collect data on the emission sources and sequestration sinks, such as: a) Natural gas used b) Electricity used c) water consumed d) Transportation miles for the faculty, students, and staff to school and home e) Transportation gasoline usage for school-owned vehicles f ) Vegetation classification g) Vegetation measurements 2) Produce “conversion factors” which convert the emission data into metric tons carbon dioxide (MT CO2).

3) Calculate the GHG sequestration (MT CO2) by vegetation using the vegetation classification and measurements, as well as biomass and biomass growth equations.

4) Aggregate and analyze the results in a GHG emission and sequestration model.

Model Scope Geographical Overview The Baldwin School GHG Model includes facilities and spaces for which the school has operational control. This includes the school campus, as well as three premises managed by the Baldwin School.

The Baldwin School’s campus is in Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania, with an average annual temperature of about 55-56 oF (13-14 oC) and an average annual precipitation of 48.6 inches (123 cm). Temperature and precipitation trends are illustrated in the Figures 1 and 2.

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Figure 1: Baldwin School Campus Average Temperatures [3]

Figure 2: Baldwin School Campus Average Precipitation [4]

The Baldwin School campus has a total area of 25 acres (1,089,000 ft2), with eight buildings accommodating the Lower, Middle, and Upper School divisions as well as a variety of halls, libraries, offices, performance centers, and athletic facilities.

Baldwin is centrally located in Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania, in the heart of the Main Line. The School is only a one mile drive from Haverford, five miles from Wayne and Bala Cynwyd and 10 miles from Paoli and Center City, Philadelphia. The Baldwin School is conveniently located across the street from SEPTAâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Bryn Mawr train station, and near bus stops at the corner of Lancaster Avenue and Bryn Mawr Avenue, a three block walk to the Baldwin campus. Below is an outlined map of The Baldwin School illustrating the school and its surrounding areas.

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Figure 3: Outlined Map of The Baldwin School Campus with Surrounding Areas

Organizational Overview During the 2015-2016 school year, there were 572 students, 103 faculty, 60 staff, and 15 coaches at the school with a total school population of 750 people, as illustrated in Figure 4. The enrollment rates at the school were: Lower School (Pre-K-Grade 5): 195 Middle School (Grades 6-8): 127 Upper School (Grades 9-12): 250 Total Enrollment: 572 Girls The Baldwin School has an average class size 14 students, with a student-to-faculty ratio 7:1.

School Population

Figure 4: Distribution of the School Population, 2015-2016 THE BALDWIN REVIEW 2016

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Operational Overview The Baldwin School GHG Model includes emission and sequestration results and analysis for which the school has operational control and there is available data which can be calculated using conversion factors into GHG emissions and sequestration. The data which proves relevant and available are further explicated below.

Emission Categories and Considerations The Baldwin School GHG Model follows the World Resources Institute (WRI) recommendation by dividing its institutional sources of GHG emissions into different scopes. These emission scopes can be divided into direct and indirect emission sources from different origins. These distinctions determine operational boundaries for institutions to â&#x20AC;&#x153;scopeâ&#x20AC;? their sources of emissions and create accurate representations of GHG emissions.

These three scopes are: Scope 1: includes direct sources of GHG emissions owned or controlled by the institution, such as solid waste, school-owned vehicles, and fugitive emissions from unintentional leaks Scope 2: includes indirect GHG emissions from imported energy sources generally associated with purchased energy, such as purchased electricity and water Scope 3: includes indirect emissions related to the institution but not owned or controlled by the institution, such as emissions from school-related commutes To create The Baldwin School GHG Model, data gathering focused on the following categories. Where data was not immediately or completely available, conservative approximations were used to complete the model.

Scope 1 1) emissions from transportation through school-owned vehicles Refrigerants emissions were not considered in The Baldwin School GHG Model because the emissions from these refrigerants are difficult to exactly quantify, and even reports from highly esteemed universities could create only an estimation, which does not accurately reflect the emissions of the school.

Solid garbage disposal emissions were also not considered because of the following reasons. There are two main ways that garbage is disposed of after the company has collected the garbage from the school: J18

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1) incineration: The garbage is burned and the heat can possibly be used to generate electricity and steam for heating. Although CO2, N2O, and other GHGs would be emitted during the process of garbage incineration, the incineration also converts the garbage into energy which can reduce coal or natural gas consumption to generate electricity, thus decreasing GHG emissions. Therefore the net GHG emission using garbage incineration would be a more complicated thing than some other reports consider it.

2) landfill: In the landfill, the organic components in the garbage go through anaerobic digestion and slowly are converted to landfill gases, which are mainly CO2, CH4, and and can contain small amounts of N2O. Traditionally, people consider landfill gases to be a source of GHG emissions. However, modern technologies have been developed to collect the landfill gases and burn them in a similar way to the burning of natural gases. Therefore, during the landfill gas burning, the CH4 is converted to CO2, but also releases energy that can generate electricity, creating an overall reduced GHG emission. Similarly, the garbage disposal by landfill may or may not be a strong source of GHG emissions.

Based on those two analyses, The Baldwin School GHG Model does not include GHG emissions from garbage disposal. Although the data concerning garbage disposal was obtained and analyzed in other reports, these reports do not accurately reflect the new technologies of garbage disposal.

Scope 2 1) energy consumption through natural gas usage 2) energy consumption through electricity usage 3) energy consumption through water usage Scope 3 1) emissions from school-associated commuting by personal automobile Emissions from public transportation were not considered in this model because it is assumed that these methods of transportation would continue running even without students, faculty, or staff from The Baldwin School riding them, and would continue producing emissions regardless of association with the school.

School district bus transportation emissions were also not included because many of the school buses operating in association with The Baldwin School also send students

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from other surrounding schools. It is difficult to determine exactly how much of school bus emissions come from Baldwin School affiliated bus transportation, so these emissions were not considered. It can also be assumed that, since many operate for other schools as well, that these school buses would continue running even without students from The Baldwin School riding them, as with public transportation.

While the Baldwin School GHG Model has gathered data for all three scopes, scopes 1 and 2 represent the sources of emission most directly affected by school action.

Scope 3 emissions are significantly more difficult to assess precisely or propose methods of reduction. Also, one institution’s indirect emissions are another entity’s direct emissions, which could lead to double counting. The WRI considers scope 3 emissions to be not required when creating an overall GHG model, as do similar protocols such as the U.S. EPA’s Climate Leaders program. Nevertheless, it remains important to take into consideration all sources, keeping in mind that scope 3 emissions like commuting require different courses of action which will be described in the subsequent methodology sections.

Sequestration Categories There are many types of vegetation on the campus, which were categorized into a systematic plant classification system.

Vegetation Classification Vegetation could be classified into three categories: grass, shrubs or bushes, and trees.

Although vegetation sequesters GHGs, GHGs are sequestered by vegetation only when there exists a carbon biomass change and CO2 was sequestered in the increase in biomass.

Because grass and shrubs maintained by The Baldwin School facilities are often mowed and trimmed so that carbon biomass change is reversed, it is considered that these types of vegetation do not sequester GHGs. On the other hand, the school does not maintain campus trees, which are permitted to grow unaffected and increase in biomass, therefore contributing to GHG sequestration.

Tree Classification Trees that were considered were classified into two classes: semi-natural communities which grew with the assistance of school irrigation and maintenance, and natural communities J20

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which grew naturally without school intervention. However, when considered, all trees on The Baldwin School campus were in the semi-natural communities.

These trees were even further categorized by species as data concerning the trees was obtained. The trees were divided by species because different tree species have different sequestration factors used to calculate biomass, biomass growth, and GHG sequestration.

Gases Included The Baldwin GHG Model strived to include the six major GHGs, which are CO2, CH4, N2O, HFCs, PFCs, and SF6. However, HFCs, PFCs, and SF6 emissions remain negligible, so only CO2, N2O, and CH4 emissions were considered. The following table details which gases are considered for which emissions sources.

Table 1: GHGs included in the Baldwin School GHG Model

The Baldwin School GHG Model also considers the GHG sequestration by vegetation as well.

However, vegetation only absorbs CO2, so this was the only GHG sequestration considered.

GHG Global Warming Potentials In order to express different GHGs in a common unit, we convert GHG emissions into metric tons of carbon dioxide (MT CO2). To convert a non-CO2 GHG into MT CO2, a global warming potential (GWP), which is a measure of how much heat a GHG traps in the atmosphere, is applied. The non-CO2 GHGs are multiplied by GWPs to be converted into CO2 equivalents.

The GWPs utilized in the Baldwin School GHG Model are issued in the Emission Factors for Greenhouse Gas Inventories issued by the EPA. Each new report lists new GWPs, which can cause some variations between institutions that report GHG emissions. The GWPs from the Emission Factors for Greenhouse Gas Inventories are listed below.

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Table 2: GWPs used in the Baldwin School GHG Model [5]

GHG EMISSION METHODOLOGY Data Collection Natural Gas, Electricity, and Water Data concerning GHG emissions came from a variety of sources. Emission data from scopes 1 and 2 were provided in account bills and statements by the extremely supportive Baldwin School Facilities and Operations department. These sources included purchased natural gas from PECO Energy and UGI Energy Services, electricity from PECO Energy, and water from AQUA Water companies. The data provided by The Baldwin School contained records from the year 2014.

Transportation Transportation emissions from scope 1 were obtained through information provided

by The Baldwin School. The school provided gasoline usage of two school-owned trucks and five vans.

Scope 3 emissions, however, were significantly more difficult to acquire, but in an effort to precisely model the emissions of the school, this data was obtained through a schoolwide survey about transportation associated with the school. The specifics of the survey and how the data was used to calculate GHG emissions are further explicated in the Transportation Calculations section further below.

GHG EMISSION CALCULATIONS GHG emissions were calculated from natural gas, electricity, and water usage, as well as transportation miles and gasoline usage, using a variety of conversion factors.

While there are well established protocols governing the scope and reporting of GHG emissions data, there is less clarity on how to select or create these conversion factors.

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Selection of inconsistent conversion factors can lead to an unfair comparison between institutions — two institutions with the same usage but different conversion factors could derive two different estimations of their GHG emissions. The Baldwin School model looked to the EPA Emission Factors for Greenhouse Gas Inventories and other sources for guidance on selecting conversion factors and as a way to standardize emissions reporting among institutions to allow for meaningful cross-institutional comparison.

For more information on conversion factors, see the Model Considerations section.

Natural Gas Using the EPA’s guidance for emissions from natural gas, The Baldwin School model developed conversion factors to convert the natural gas usage (ccf or DTH) into GHG emissions (MT CO2).

The natural gas usage, provided in the common units of natural gas usage, either ccf or DTH, depending on the information from PECO Energy or UGI Energy Services, had to be converted into scf to calculate using EPA conversion factors. To become scf, DTH was divided by a factor of 0.1028 DTH/ccf, which was then multiplied by 100 scf/ccf to become scf.

This scf value was multiplied by 0.001026 mmBtu/scf to produce an mmBtu value which could be multiplied by separate CO2, CH4, and N2O emission factors from the EPA in Table 3.

Because these values are kg and g, there would also have to be another conversion factor applied to change these units to MT. kg were converted by multiplying by 0.001 MT/kg, while g were converted by multiplying by 0.000001 MT/g.

Although the CO2 emissions are in MT CO2, the CH4 and N2O emissions are in MT CH4 and MT N2O. Because the model strives for a common unit to measure these emissions, CH4 and N2O values were converted into common CO2 values using global warming potentials described in the GHG Global Warming Potentials section.

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The values for CO2, CH4, and N2O emissions, once in this common unit, were added together to calculate total natural gas emissions. The complete creation of the previously described conversion factors are further illustrated in Figure 5.

Figure 5: Converting Natural Gas Usage Units into GHG Emission Units

The final calculated conversion factors for natural gas emissions from CO2, CH4, and N2O were 0.00545 MT CO2/ccf and 0.053 MT CO2/DTH, depending on the usage of natural gas usage provided by the energy companies.

Electricity Using the EPAâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s guidance for emissions from natural gas, The Baldwin School model developed conversion factors to convert the electricity usage (kWh) into GHG emissions (MT CO2).

The electricity usage, provided by PECO Energy in the common unit of electricity usage, kWh, had to be converted into MWh to calculate using EPA conversion factors. To become MWh, kWh was multiplied by a factor of 0.001 MWh/kWh. This MWh value was then multiplied by separate CO2, CH4, and N2O emission factors from the EPA. Each subregion in The United States, as illustrated in Figure 6, has separate individual electricity emission factors. The Baldwin School, located in the Philadelphia

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region, is in the RFCE (RFC East) region. The emission factors for this subregion are shown in Table 4 below.

Figure 6: Map United States Electricity Subregions [8]

Because these values are lb, there would also have to be another conversion factor applied to change these units to MT. lb units were converted by multiplying by a factor 0.00045 MT/lb.

Although the CO2 emissions are in MT CO2, the CH4 and N2O emissions are in MT CH4 and MT N2O. Because the model strives for a common unit to measure these emissions, CH4 and N2O values were converted into common CO2 values using global warming potentials described in the GHG Global Warming Potentials section.

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The values for CO2, CH4, and N2O emissions, once in this common unit, were added together to calculate total electricity emissions. The complete creation of the previously described conversion factors are further illustrated in Figure 7.

Figure 7: Converting Electricity Usage Units into GHG Emission Units

The final calculated conversion factor for electricity emissions from CO2, CH4, and N2O was 0.000454 MT CO2/kWh. Water The Baldwin School model developed conversion factors to convert the water usage (gal) into GHG emissions (MT CO2). However, because there were no conversion factors concerning water emissions provided by the EPA, information regarding this conversion factor was obtained from an accomplished water technology manager who has been working in water treatment for over 10 years.

Water emissions are produced and emitted from two sources associated with water usage: emissions from water treatment before usage, and emissions from cleaning wastewater after it has been used. This model considers the emissions from both instances.

The water usage, provided by AQUA Water in the common unit of water usage, gal, had to be converted into m3 to calculate using the conversion factors provided by the water treatment expert. To become m3, gal was multiplied by a factor of 0.0038 m3/gal.

The information provided by the water treatment expert was a conversion factor of about 0.5 kWh of electricity necessary to clean every m3 water, both before usage and afterwards in the form of wastewater. Therefore, the m3 value was multiplied by 0.5 kWh/ m3 to obtain the electricity needed to clean water. This was then added again to account

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for the emissions coming from cleaning the water both before usage and after usage.

Finally, the kWh electricity was converted using the conversion factor created in the Electricity Calculations section above into GHG emissions by being multiplied by the factor 0.00045 MT CO2/kWh. Because this conversion factor accounts for emissions from CO2, CH4, and N2O all in the common unit MT CO2, the calculated value did not need to be converted using global warming potentials or unit conversions. The complete creation of the previously described conversion factors are further illustrated in Figure 8.

Figure 8: Converting Water Usage Units into GHG Emission Units

The final calculated conversion factor for electricity emissions when the emissions from water treatment before and after usage was 8.64 x 10-7 MT CO2/gal.

Transportation Transportation emissions come from two sources: scope 1 emissions from schoolowned vehicles and scope 3 emissions from school-associated commuting by personal automobile. The former emissions could be calculated using gasoline usage for the vehicles provided by The Baldwin School, but the latter emissions prove significantly more difficult to quantify. The procedures to calculate emissions from each of these transportation sources are described in detail below.

Emissions from school-owned vehicles were quantified much more easily than schoolassociated transportation emissions. Using the EPAâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s guidance for emissions from gasoline, The Baldwin School model developed conversion factors to convert the gasoline usage of the school-owned vehicles (gal) into GHG emissions (MT CO2).

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The gasoline usage, although not provided in exact gallon usage, was provided through bills which described the price of the gasoline used. These prices had to be converted into gallons gasoline usage to calculate using EPA conversion factors. To become gal, price was divided by specific factors for average price per gallon of gasoline per month for the time period the bills covered. The price per gallon factors used are illustrated in Figure 9 and Table 5.

Figure 9: East Coast Regular All Formations Retail Gasoline Prices [9]

Table 5: East Coast Regular All Formations Retail Gasoline Prices (Dollars per Gallon)[10]

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To calculate the school-owned vehicle CO2 emissions, the gallons gasoline usage was then multiplied by a CO2 emission factor from the EPA. Every fuel type has a different CO2 emission factor, as illustrated in Table 6, but because the school-owned vehicles use motor gasoline, the gallons of gasoline was multiplied by a factor 8.78 kg CO2/gal.

Table 6: Mobile Combustion CO2 Factors [11]

Because this value is in kg, there would also have to be another conversion factor applied to change this unit to MT. kg was converted by multiplying by 0.001 MT/kg.

CH4 and N2O emissions were slightly more difficult to calculate, especially because the conversion factors provided by the EPA converted miles driven, not gallons gasoline used, into emissions. Therefore, the gasoline usage, provided in gal, had to be converted into mi to calculate using EPA conversion factors. To become mi, gal was multiplied by different factors mpg, depending on type of vehicle and year the vehicle was manufactured, to produce the miles driven. The conversion factors used in this stepare illustrated in Table 7.

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The Baldwin School Novel Quantitative Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Emission and Sequestration Model | Research by Hilary Liu â&#x20AC;&#x2122;18

Table 7: Vehicle Type Adjusted Fuel Economy by Model Year [12]

These mile values were multiplied by separate CH4 and N2O emission factors, based on type of vehicle and year manufactured, from the EPA in Table 8.

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The Baldwin School Novel Quantitative Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Emission and Sequestration Model | Research by Hilary Liu â&#x20AC;&#x2122;18

Table 8: Mobile Combustion CH4 and N2O Emission Factors of On-road Gasoline Vehicles [13]

Because these values are g, there would also have to be another conversion factor applied to change these units to MT. g were converted by multiplying by 0.000001 MT/g.

Although the CO2 emissions are in MT CO2, the CH4 and N2O emissions are in MT CH4 and MT N2O. Because the model strives for a common unit to measure these emissions, CH4 and N2O

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values were converted into common CO2 values using global warming potentials described in the GHG Global Warming Potentials section.

The values for CO2, CH4, and N2O emissions, once in this common unit, were added together to calculate total school-owned vehicle emissions. There were no specific conversion factor for all school-owned vehicle emissions as in natural gas, electricity, and water emissions, because the different types of vehicles were manufactured in different years, and thus every individual vehicle had its own separate conversion factors. The creation of the previously described conversion factors, using only using constant units that are not dependent on vehicle type or year manufactured, are illustrated in Figure 10. Variables are used to represent values which would need to be based on different factors.

Figure 10: Converting School-Owned Vehicle Units into GHG Emission Units

While the creation of conversion factors for school-owned vehicles may have seemed difficult, the calculations for school-associated transportation emissions were even more difficult to quantify. Types of school-associated transportation come primarily from five sources: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5)

personal vehicles school district buses school-owned vans public transportation, such as train and bus walking or riding a bicycle

However, some of these five transportation emission sources are considered to not produce GHG emissions in this model. School-owned vehicle emissions were already calculated above using the data provided by The Baldwin School, and walking and riding bicycles are green ways of transportation that do not require burning of fuels and therefore do not produce GHG emissions.

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The Baldwin School Model also did not consider public transportation, such as trains and buses, to produce GHG emissions. This is because, even without the addition of Baldwin students, faculty, and staff riding public transportation, these services would run anyways.

Therefore, public transportation emissions are not associated with The Baldwin School.

However, if a Baldwin School person had to be driven to or from a public transportation stop, these emissions from personal vehicle would be considered and calculated, because these are associated with The Baldwin School. These personal automobile emissions associated with public transportation were calculated in the same way that the personal automobile emissions associated with the school were calculated, only using the public transportation stop as the destination instead of the school.

School district bus emissions, although certainly undeniable, were not considered because many of the school district buses that run for The Baldwin School also run for surrounding schools on the same route, such as The Haverford School and The Shipley School. It would be difficult to estimate how much of the distances the school buses drove would be considered to be associated with Baldwin School emissions, and how much would be associated with other schools. Also, because the school district buses run for other schools as well, it could be assumed that even without Baldwin students riding the buses, the school district buses would operate anyways and produce GHG emissions, like public transportation.

The primary source of emissions considered in school-associated transportation emissions were those from personal vehicle being driven to or from school. However, although the calculations once the data was obtained were simple, the collection of data necessary to accurately quantify the emissions was more difficult and required many various factors which would affect emissions. Some of these factors only apply to the morning when the student, faculty, or staff members are sent to school, and some only apply to the afternoon when they are picked up. All the factors were: 1) type of automobile 2) year the automobile was manufactured 3) carpooling 4) miles between home and the school 5) where the person sending the student, faculty, or staff member goes after sending them to school in the morning 6) where the person picking up the Baldwin School person in the afternoon came from 7) where the Baldwin School person was sent after being picked up from school

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These factors were important for the following reasons: The type of automobile (e.g. standard car, SUV, etc.) affects the GHG emission values because of the different conversion factors that are applied to different types of automobiles. Standard cars generally have a higher mpg than SUVs, as well as fewer GHG emissions.

The year the automobile was manufactured also affects the GHG emission values because of the different conversion factors that are applied to vehicles manufactured in different years.

More recently manufactured cars generally have a higher mpg than those manufactured longer ago, as well as fewer GHG emissions.

Carpooling is an important factor to consider because when people are carpooling, the GHG emissions per person are significantly less than if they were not.

Miles between home and the school is important because this value is the primary one, affected by the other factors, that is calculated to produce GHG emissions.

Where the person sending the student, faculty, or staff member goes after sending them to school in the morning, specific only to the commute to school, affects how many times the miles between the home of the Baldwin School person and the school are counted.

In the morning, it is assumed that the Baldwin School person goes to school from home, so the miles are definitely counted at least once. If the person sending the Baldwin School person returns home, for instance, the miles would be counted once again because of the round trip required to send the Baldwin School person to school. However, if the sending person goes elsewhere afterwards, such as to work or on errands, the miles would not be counted again, as the distance from the school to the other place would be considered as emissions associated with the other place, and not the school. If the sending person stays at the school after sending the Baldwin School person (for instance when the sending person is a Baldwin School legal driver who stays the day and returns home in the afternoon with the same vehicle), the miles also would not be counted again. Because the calculations for GHG emissions from personal vehicle transportation are divided into emissions in the morning and emissions in the afternoon, it is assumed that the emissions to leave the school in the afternoon if one stays at school after being sent in the morning would be accounted for in the afternoon section of the emissions calculations.

The number of times the miles should be counted in the afternoon is slightly more complicated than in the morning because it cannot be assumed that the person picking up J34

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the student, faculty, or staff member came from home. Therefore, it would be required to ask where the person picking up the Baldwin School person in the afternoon came from. If the person came from home, the number of miles would be counted once, for the trip to the school. If the person came from another place, these miles were not considered because the school might be on the way elsewhere that needed to be gone to or extremely out of the way to go to. Either way, it would not be possible to determine exactly whether the emissions to go to the school from another place are associated with the school or the other place, which is why this model did not consider this. Finally, where the Baldwin School person was sent after being picked up from school also affected how many times the miles between the home and the school should be counted. If the person picking up the Baldwin School person returns home, for instance, the miles would be counted once because of the distance required to return the Baldwin School person home. However, if the Baldwin School person goes elsewhere after being picked up, such as to an extracurricular activity the miles would not be counted again, as the distance from the school to the other place would be considered as emissions associated with the other place, and not the school.

In order to obtain this information, a schoolwide survey was sent to all students in the Middle School and Upper School, faculty, staff, and parents on behalf of Lower School students who do not have Baldwin School emails. The survey asked the students, faculty, and staff of Baldwin their methods of transportation and all associated information required for both morning and afternoon commutes. The general layout of the survey, which brought the surveyed to linked pages based on their answers, is illustrated in Figures 11 and 12.

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Figure 11 : Layout of Survey About Morning Commute To School and General Effects

The Baldwin School Novel Quantitative Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Emission and Sequestration Model | Research by Hilary Liu â&#x20AC;&#x2122;18

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Figure 12: Layout of Survey About Afternoon Commute From School and General Effects

The Baldwin School Novel Quantitative Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Emission and Sequestration Model | Research by Hilary Liu â&#x20AC;&#x2122;18

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The Baldwin School Novel Quantitative Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Emission and Sequestration Model | Research by Hilary Liu â&#x20AC;&#x2122;18

Once this data was obtained, GHG emission calculations were quite similar to those done for school-owned vehicles, except with miles driven as a starting factor instead of price of gasoline used. Using the EPAâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s guidance for emissions from gasoline, The Baldwin School model developed conversion factors to convert the school-associated miles driven by personal vehicles into GHG emissions (MT CO2).

CO2 emissions were slightly more difficult to calculate than CH4 and N2O, especially because the conversion factors provided by the EPA converted gasoline usage, not miles driven, into emissions. Therefore, the miles driven, provided in mal, had to be converted into gal to calculate using EPA conversion factors. To become gal, mi was divided by different factors mpg, depending on type of vehicle and year the vehicle was manufactured, to produce the miles driven. The conversion factors used in this step are illustrated in Table 7. The gallons gasoline usage was then multiplied by a CO2 emission factor from the EPA. Every fuel type has a different CO2 emission factor, as illustrated in Table 6, but because personal vehicles generally use motor gasoline, the gallons of gasoline was multiplied by a factor 8.78 kg CO2/gal.

Because these value are in kg, there would also have to be another conversion factor applied to change these units to MT. kg was converted by multiplying by 0.001 MT/kg.

In order to calculate CH4 and N2O emissions, these same mile values were multiplied by separate CH4 and N2O emission factors, based on type of vehicle and year manufactured, from the EPA in Table 8.

Because these values are in g, there would also have to be another conversion factor applied to change these units to MT. g were converted by being multiplied by 0.000001 MT/g.

Although the CO2 emissions are in MT CO2, the CH4 and N2O emissions are in MT CH4 and MT N2O. Because the model strives for a common unit to measure these emissions, CH4 and N2O values were converted into common CO2 values using global warming potentials described in the GHG Global Warming Potentials section.

The values for CO2, CH4, and N2O emissions, once in this common unit, were added together to calculate total school-associated personal vehicle emissions. There were no specific conversion factor for all school-associated personal vehicle emissions as in natural gas, electricity, and water emissions, because of the factors mentioned

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previously, and thus every individual vehicle had its own separate conversion factors. The creation of the previously described conversion factors, using only using constant units that are not dependent on aforementioned factors, are illustrated in Figure 13. Variables are used to represent values which would need to be based on different factors.

Figure 13: Converting School-Associated Personal Vehicle Units into GHG Emission Units

SEQUESTRATION METHODOLOGY Data Collection Because grass and shrubs do not have overall biomass growth because of frequent maintenance, GHG sequestration which comes only as a result of biomass growth, was not considered. Therefore, data was collected for only trees.

Measurements and specifications for 405 trees on The Baldwin School campus was obtained. This data included: 1) diameter at breast height (DBH) 2) tree species

Measurements and Calculations Tree Measurement Methods DBH and tree species data for The Baldwin School campus trees was obtained.

DBH is the standard method of expressing the diameter of the trunk or bole of a standing tree, and is one of the most common dendrometric measurements. Tree trunks were measured at the height of the average humanâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s breast. However, this is defined differently in different countries and situations. In some nations, the diameter is

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measured at 1.3 meters above the ground, while in others, the diameter is measured at a height of 1.4 meters. In The Baldwin School Model, about 1.37 (4.5 ft) meters above the ground was the height at which DBH was measured. Nevertheless, in many cases the exact height made little difference to the measured diameter.

On sloping ground, the â&#x20AC;&#x153;above groundâ&#x20AC;? reference point was taken at the highest point on the ground touching the trunk, although some use the average between the highest and lowest points on the ground. If the DBH point fell on a swelling in the trunk it is customary to measure the girth below the swelling at the point where the diameter is smallest. Also, if the DBH point fell on a division into branches, the girths of the individual largest branches above the specified DBH height were measured and counted as separate trees DBH. Trees with DBH below 5 in (12.7 cm) were not considered, as these trees are too small to have any significant impact on GHG sequestration.

The instrument used to measure DBH was girthing tape. A girthing tape actually measures the girth (circumference) of the tree. The girthing tape is also calibrated in divisions of !!cm, giving a directly converted reading of the diameter of the tree at the specific measured height.

DBH was used in utilizing the allometric correlation between tree girth, tree height and tree volume, which was then used in subsequent calculations for biomass, biomass change, and GHG sequestration. The previously mentioned tree measurement and instrument usage methods while gathering data for The Baldwin School Model are illustrated in the following images.

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The Baldwin School Novel Quantitative Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Emission and Sequestration Model | Research by Hilary Liu â&#x20AC;&#x2122;18

Tree species were also considered because different tree species have different calculation parameters for biomass, biomass change, and GHG sequestration.

Trees were categorized into two types: hardwood (angiosperms) and softwood (coniferous) varieties. Within these varieties, different species were divided into nine species groups with different biomass parameters. The different parameters are further described in the Tree Sequestration Calculations section below. The categorization of the species are as follows: hardwood: 1) aspen/alder/cottonwood/willow 2) soft maple/birch 3) mixed hardwood 4) hard maple/oak/hickory/beech softwood: 1) cedar/larch 2) douglas-fir 3) true fir/hemlock 4) pine 5) spruce Trees were divided into species based on guidelines established in Identifying Pennsylvania Trees written by the Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources for the Pennsylvania Forest Stewardship Program in association with Pennsylvania State University. As with all species, there are different subspecies, but all the subspecies were considered to be part of the same species category. Following are the reference images used by The Baldwin School Model from the tree identification report for the aforementioned tree species.

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Figure 14: Identifying Maple Trees [14]

The Baldwin School Novel Quantitative Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Emission and Sequestration Model | Research by Hilary Liu â&#x20AC;&#x2122;18

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Figure 16: Identifying Oak Trees [16]

Figure 15: Identifying Birch Trees [15]

The Baldwin School Novel Quantitative Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Emission and Sequestration Model | Research by Hilary Liu â&#x20AC;&#x2122;18

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Figure 19: Identifying Cedar Trees [19]

Figure 18: Identifying Beech Trees [18]

Figure 17: Identifying Hickory Trees [17]

The Baldwin School Novel Quantitative Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Emission and Sequestration Model | Research by Hilary Liu â&#x20AC;&#x2122;18

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Figure 21: Identifying Fir Trees [21]

Figure 20: Identifying Larch Trees [20]

The Baldwin School Novel Quantitative Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Emission and Sequestration Model | Research by Hilary Liu â&#x20AC;&#x2122;18

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Figure 23: Identifying Pine Trees [23]

Figure 22: Identifying Hemlock Trees [22]

The Baldwin School Novel Quantitative Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Emission and Sequestration Model | Research by Hilary Liu â&#x20AC;&#x2122;18

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Figure 24: Identifying Spruce Trees [24]

Figure 23 continued: Identifying Pine Trees [23]

The Baldwin School Novel Quantitative Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Emission and Sequestration Model | Research by Hilary Liu â&#x20AC;&#x2122;18

Tree Sequestration Calculations Tree GHG sequestration was calculated using the aforementioned tree DBH and species, using biomass and sequestration parameters. The tree component biomass terms used in this model are defined in Figure 25.

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Figure 25: Tree Component Biomass Definitions [25]

Tree sequestration was calculated through a process of calculations: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5)

Determine the total aboveground biomass of the tree.

Determine the dry biomass of the tree.

Determine the carbon biomass in the tree.

Determine the biomass change of carbon sequestered in the tree per year.

Determine the biomass change of carbon dioxide sequestered in the tree per year.

The Baldwin School model looked to the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) and Forestry Services Comprehensive Database of Diameter-based Biomass Regressions for North American Tree Species and University of Pennsylvania Decadal Change of Forest Biomass Carbon Stocks and Tree Demography in the Delaware River Basin for calculation parameters. For more information on conversion factors, see the Model Considerations section.

Dimensional analysis as described by Whitaker and Woodwell (1968) is the method most used by foresters and and ecologists to predict tree biomass. This method is based on the

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allometry theory, which shows that the specific growth rate of parts of any same species is constant. Allometry often studies shape differences in terms of ratios of the objects’ dimensions. Two objects of different size but common shape will have their dimensions in the same ratio. The theory of allometry is described in the following equation:

This dimensional analysis method relies on the consistency of an allometric relationship between plant dimensions—usually diameter at breast height (DBH) and biomass for a given species, group of species, or growth form. Using the dimensional analysis approach, a researcher samples many stems spanning the diameter and/or height range of interest, and then uses a regression model to estimate the relationship between one or more tree dimensions (as independent variables) and tree-component weights (as dependent variables).

The Baldwin School Model used a developed set of generalized allometric differential equations for application to the gathered tree data. These equations predict aboveground biomass for trees based on tree DBH alone. These generalized regressions and parameters for aboveground biomass prediction that are applicable to hardwood and softwood tree species are illustrated in Table 9.

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The equation following these parameters to calculate total aboveground biomass for hardwood and softwood species was: bm = exp [β0 + β1 ln (DBH)] where bm = total aboveground biomass (kg) for trees 2.5 cm and larger in DBH DBH = diameter at breast height (cm) Exp = exponential function ln = natural log base “e” (2.718282) The gathered tree data of DBH in inches had to be converted into cm for the tree biomass to be calculated using the previous equation. To become cm, in was multiplied by a factor of 2.53 cm/in. The converted DBH in cm and the separate parameters for different tree species were then substituted into the previous equation to calculate the aboveground

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biomass for all the Baldwin School campus trees.

The dry biomass of the trees was calculated using average tree dry matter and moisture concentrations. Taking all species into account, the average tree is about 72.5% dry matter and 27.5% moisture. Therefore, to determine the dry biomass of the trees, the total biomass of the trees were multiplied by 72.5%.

The average carbon content is generally 50% of the tree’s dry biomass. Therefore, to determine the carbon biomass in the trees, the dry biomass of the trees were multiplied by 50%.

The growth rate and biomass change of carbon sequestered in the tree per year was calculated using a database from the University of Pennsylvania Department of Earth and Environmental Science called Decadal Change of Forest Biomass Carbon Stocks and Tree Demography in the Delaware River Basin.

In 2001-2003, The Delaware River Basin Collaborative Environmental Monitoring and Research Initiative established 61 forest plots in three research sites, using Forest Service inventory protocols and enhanced measurements. These plots were revisited and re-measured in 2012-2014 using the same protocol. By comparing forest biomass carbon stocks, it was concluded that biomass carbon stocks increased. The biomass C stock of the trees were calculated using allometric equations. The changes of biomass C stock (Kg C/yr) between the two measurements are linearly correlated with the biomass C stocks (kg C) in the second measurement (y = 0.0259x + 0.5725, R² = 0.6601, n = 1256).

The three sites selected in this project are representative to the species composition and growth rate of forests in the Delaware River Basin. Therefore the regression equation established in this project could be used to estimate biomass C sequestration based on the current biomass C stock within the same region. Because The Baldwin School as shown in Figure 26, the results gathered by the University of Pennsylvania Department of Earth and Environmental Science is the most relevant database to estimate biomass increase in The Baldwin School campus trees.

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Figure 26: Delaware River Basin Map Showing The Baldwin School Location

Based on the biomass growth equation found in the University of Pennsylvania study, the biomass change of The Baldwin School trees could be calculated. The biomass carbon change equation found in the Delaware River Basin database that The Baldwin School GHG Model used is illustrated in Figure 27.

Figure 27: Tree Biomass Change Trends [27] THE BALDWIN REVIEW 2016

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The calculated carbon biomass in kg was then substituted into this equation to calculate the annual biomass carbon change for all the Baldwin School campus trees.

CO2 is composed of one molecule of carbon and two molecules of oxygen. Given that the atomic mass of carbon is 12.0107 and the atomic mass of oxygen is 15.9994, the mass of CO2, obtained by summing the masses of the component atoms, is calculated as: C + 2O = 12.0107 g + 2 (15.9994 g) = 44.0095 g The ratio of CO2 to C is 44.0095 to 12.0107, which is equal to 3.6642. Therefore, to determine the change in biomass of carbon dioxide sequestered in the trees per year, the change in biomass of carbon in the trees was multiplied by by 3.6642.

Because these values are in kg, there would have to be a conversion factor applied to change these units to MT. kg were converted by being multiplied by 0.001 MT/kg. This final calculated change in carbon dioxide biomass (MT CO2) for the trees is the amount of GHG sequestered by vegetation.

PART III: GHG EMISSION RESULTS Baldwin School Campus Emission Overview The school campus includes eight main buildings which might produce GHG emissions.

These buildings are: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8)

Residence Schoolhouse Lower School Athletic Center Art Wing Science Building Red Gym Simpson Center

Also included in school campus are also three school-owned premises which also might produce GHG emissions. These premises are:

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1) “The Cottage” Baldwin-owned house at 150 Radnor Street 2) “Krumrine House” Baldwin-owned house at 160 Radnor Street

3) Baldwin-owned house at 136 Radnor Street

Figure 27: School Campus Map Showing Facilities and Spaces Included in the GHG Model [27]

The Residence, Schoolhouse, Lower School, Art Wing, and Science Building shared a common emission account in the majority of the data gathered concerning GHG emissions.

The Athletic Center, as it was constructed after the aforementioned buildings, has its own considerations in the GHG emission data. The Simpson Center, an recent addition to the Baldwin premises in February 2016, has not been in use long enough to produce sufficient emission data.

The school-owned premises also each have individual emission accounts taken into consideration in The Baldwin School GHG Model.

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BALDWIN SCHOOL SOURCE GHG EMISSIONS

Natural Gas Natural gas GHG emissions were calculated to be about 1671.2 MT CO2 in 2014, with an average monthly emission of about 139.3 MT CO2 and an average daily emission of about 4.6 MT CO2. There is a noticeable trend in natural gas GHG emissions, with significantly higher emissions during cold months and lower emissions during warm months. GHG emissions reached a peak in February, with about 316.5 MT CO2, and a low in July, with about 22.3 MT CO2. This is expected, because natural gas is primarily used in The Baldwin School for heating purposes, and natural gas usage is expected to be higher when it is cold and lower when it is cold. Therefore,

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GHG emissions are expected to follow this same trend also. The total natural gas GHG emission values in 2014 are shown in Figure 28.

The Baldwin School natural gas usage was divided between two energy service companies: PECO Energy and UGI Energy Services, which are used for different purposes.

The GHG emissions from PECO Energy amounted to about 825.2 MT CO2 in 2014, with an average monthly emission of about 68.8 MT CO2 and an average daily emission of about 2.3 MT CO2. The GHG emissions from UGI Energy Services amounted to about 845.9 MT CO2 in 2014, with an average monthly emission of about 70.9 MT CO2 and an average daily emission of about 2.3 MT CO2. The highest PECO Energy emissions were during February, with about 175.7 MT CO2, and the lowest were during July, with about 11.0 MT CO2. The highest UGI Energy Services emissions were during January, with about 174.3 MT CO2, and the lowest was during June, with about 11.3 MT CO2. The natural gas GHG emission values in 2014 for the different energy companies are shown in Figure 29.

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The Baldwin School natural gas usage was also divided between three main sources: the school campus buildings including the Residence building, Schoolhouse building, Lower School building, and Science Building, the Athletics building and operations, and alternative school- owned premises such as The Cottage and “Krumrine” House. GHG emissions from the school campus amounted to about 1097.3 MT CO2 in 2014, with an average monthly emission of about 91.4 MT CO2 and an average daily emission of about 3.0 MT CO2. The GHG emissions from athletic services amounted to about 510.8 MT CO2 in 2014, with an average monthly emission of about 42.6 MT CO2 and an average daily emission of about 1.4 MT CO2. The GHG emissions from alternative school-owned premises amounted to about 63.0 MT CO2 in 2014, with an average monthly emission of about 5.3 MT CO2 and an average daily emission of about 0.2 MT CO2. The highest school campus emissions were during February, with about 227.2 MT CO2, and the lowest were during August, with about 7.6 MT CO2. The highest athletics emissions were during January, with about 105.0 MT CO2, and the lowest was during June, with about 4.3 MT CO2. The highest alternative school-owned emissions were during January, with about 15.8 MT CO2, and the lowest was during July, with about 0.3 MT CO2. School campus emissions accounted for about 65.7% of all GHG emissions in 2014, and athletics accounted for about 30.6%, while alternative sources accounted for only about 3.8%.

Although it is expected that the school campus emissions would be the greatest, it is

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quite incredible the amount of GHG emissions coming from athletics services, which produces almost half as much emissions as the entire campus. The natural gas GHG emission values in 2014 for the different school emission sources are shown in Figure 30.

Natural gas GHG emissions come from CO2, CH4, and N2O. CO2 emissions amounted to about 1669.4 MT CO2 in 2014, with an average monthly emission of about 139.1 MT CO2 and an average daily emission of about 4.6 MT CO2. CH4 emissions amounted to about 0.79 MT CO2 in 2014, and N2O emissions amounted to about 0.94 MT CO2 in 2014.

CO2 emissions accounted for about 99.9% of all GHG emissions in 2014, while CH4 and N2O emissions accounted for only about 0.05% and 0.06%, respectively. CH4 and N2O emissions are considered negligible. The different natural gas GHG emission values in 2014 for the different school emission sources are shown in Figure 31.

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Electricity As expected for electricity emissions, there were no significant emissions trends highs or lows, because electricity usage throughout the year generally remains constant, and thus GHG emissions from electricity usage would remain constant as well. Electricity GHG emissions were calculated to be about 1076.0 MT CO2 in 2014, with an average monthly emission of about 89.7 MT CO2 and an average daily emission of about 2.9 MT CO2. The total electricity GHG emission values in 2014 are shown in Figure 32.

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The Baldwin School electricity usage was also divided between three main sources: the school campus buildings including the Residence building, Schoolhouse building, Lower School building, and Science Building, the Athletics building and operations, and alternative school- owned premises such as The Cottage and “Krumrine” House. GHG emissions from the school campus amounted to about 531.8 MT CO2 in 2014, with an average monthly emission of about 44.3 MT CO2 and an average daily emission of about 1.5 MT CO2. The GHG emissions from athletic services amounted to about 523.6 MT CO2 in 2014, with an average monthly emission of about 43.6 MT CO2 and an average daily emission of about 1.6 MT CO2. The GHG emissions from alternative school-owned premises amounted to about 15.0 MT CO2 in 2014, with an average monthly emission of about 1.3 MT CO2 and an average daily emission of about 0.04 MT CO2. School campus emissions accounted for about 49.7% of all GHG emissions in 2014, and athletics accounted for about 48.9%, while alternative sources accounted for only about 1.4%.

Although it is expected that the school campus emissions would be the greatest, it is quite incredible the amount of GHG emissions coming from athletics services, which produces almost as much emissions as the entire campus. The electricity GHG emission values in 2014 for the different school emission sources are shown in Figure 33.

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Electricity GHG emissions come from CO2, CH4, and N2O. CO2 emissions amounted to about 1070.4 MT CO2 in 2014, with an average monthly emission of about 89.2 MT CO2 and an average daily emission of about 2.9 MT CO2. CH4 emissions amounted to about 0.72 MT CO2 in 2014, and N2O emissions amounted to about 4.9 MT CO2 in 2014.

CO2 emissions accounted for about 99.5% of all GHG emissions in 2014, while CH4 and N2O emissions accounted for only about 0.07% and 0.45%, respectively. CH4 and N2O emissions are considered negligible. The different electricity GHG emission values in 2014 for the different school emission sources are shown in Figure 34.

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Water Water GHG emissions were calculated to be about 7.8 MT CO2 in 2014, with an average monthly emission of about 0.65 MT CO2 and an average daily emission of about 0.02 MT CO2. There is a slight trend in water GHG emissions, in which emissions were slightly higher during the warm, dry summer months than during rainy seasons. GHG emissions reached a peak in July, with about 0.91 MT CO2, and a low in May with about 0.58 MT CO2. This is expected, because water is partially used in The Baldwin School for irrigation purposes, and water usage is expected to be higher when it is warm and arid, and athletic fields and vegetation requires more irrigation than when it rains more often. Therefore, GHG emissions are expected to follow this same trend also. The total water GHG emission values in 2014 are shown in Figure 35.

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The Baldwin School water usage was also divided between three main sources: the school campus buildings including the Residence building, Schoolhouse building, Lower School building, and Science Building, the Athletics building and operations, and alternative schoolowned premises such as The Cottage and “Krumrine” House. GHG emissions from the school campus amounted to about 6.4 MT CO2 in 2014, with an average monthly emission of about 0.53 MT CO2. The GHG emissions from athletic services amounted to about 0.91 MT CO2 in 2014, with an average monthly emission of about 0.08 MT CO2.

The GHG emissions from alternative school-owned premises amounted to about 0.33 MT CO2 in 2014, with an average monthly emission of about 0.03 MT CO2. The highest school campus emissions were during July, with about 0.68 MT CO2, and the lowest were during May, with about 0.47 MT CO2. The highest athletics emissions were during June, with about 0.14 MT CO2, and the lowest was during May, with about 0.05 MT CO2. The highest alternative school-owned emissions were during July, with about 0.13 MT CO2, and the lowest was during April, with about 0.01 MT CO2. School campus emissions accounted for about 83.6% of all GHG emissions in 2014, and athletics accounted for about 12.0%, while alternative sources accounted for only about 4.4%. The natural gas GHG emission values in 2014 for the different school emission sources are shown in Figure 36.

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Transportation The Baldwin School controls some school-owned transportation. The school owns a dump truck, a pick-up truck, and five vans, which produce GHG emissions. The trucks produced about 12.1 MT CO2 in 2014, with about 6.2 MT CO2 for the dump truck and 5.9 MT CO2 for the pick-up truck. The Baldwin vans produced about 21.1 MT CO2 in 2014, with about 4.2 MT CO2 per van. This amounts to about 33.2 MT CO2 emitted by Baldwin-owned vehicles in 2014. The schoolwide survey concerning individual transportation received an astounding outcome. 309 out of 750 people at the school (41.2%) responded to provide accurate data and results. The results of the survey are shown below.

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Using the data gathered from the schoolwide survey, it was found that about 315 Baldwin School persons are driven to school every morning, while about 290 are driven home in the afternoon. In the morning, these 315 people drive about 2506 total miles, with about 8.0 miles driven per person. This amounts to about 501,120 total miles per year, with about 1591 miles driven per person per year. In the afternoon, the 290 people drive about 1991 total miles, with about 6.9 miles driven per person. This amounts to about 398,110 total miles per year, with about 1566 miles driven per person per year. Added together, this means that about 4496 total miles are driven per year, which is about 14.8 miles per person, 899,230 total miles per year, and about 3157 miles per person per year.

These miles were then converted into GHG emissions. It was found that using the previously mentioned data, a total 162.9 MT CO2 was produced going to school, with an average annual emission of about 0.49 MT CO2 per person. In the afternoon going home, a total 120.8 MT CO2 was produced, with an average annual emission of about 0.42 MT CO2 per person. Added together, this means that a total of 283.7 MT CO2 was emitted, with an average annual emission of about 0.91 MT CO2 per person.

However, these results accounted for only the 309 people who responded to the survey.

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In order to quantify the GHG emissions from transportation for the entire school, a ratio of the number of people who took the schoolwide survey and the number of people who take some kind of transportation associated with the school was used on the GHG emissions as well. Because 41.2% of the people in the school took the schoolwide survey, it was assumed that the total annual emission of 283.7 MT CO2 in 2014 accounted for only 41.2% of GHG emissions as well. Therefore, a ratio of 309 students to 750 students was used.

Once this ratio was used, it was found that the total annual GHG emissions for the school from transportation would be 577.5 MT CO2. Of this 577.5 MT CO2 emitted by transportation, 305.0 MT CO2 (52.8%) was from transportation going to school in the morning, and 260.4 MT CO2 (45.1%) was from transportation going home in the afternoon.

BALDWIN SCHOOL TOTAL GHG EMISSIONS Total GHG emissions were calculated to be about 3351.3 MT CO2 in 2014, with an average monthly emission of about 277.5 MT CO2 and an average daily emission of about 9.1 MT CO2. There is a noticeable trend in natural gas GHG emissions, with slightly higher emissions during cold months and lower emissions during warm months. GHG emissions reached a peak in February, with about 463.3 MT CO2, and a low in May, with about 159.9 MT CO2. This is expected, because of the significant trend in GHG emissions from natural gas. The total GHG emission values in 2014 are shown in Figure 46.

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In 2014, water GHG emissions amounted to about 7.8 MT CO2, natural gas GHG emissions amounted to about 1671.1 MT CO2, electricity GHG emissions amounted to about 1070.4 MT CO2, school-associated individual transportation GHG emissions amounted to about 563.1 MT CO2, and school-owned transportation GHG emissions amounted to about 32.2 MT CO2.

The distribution of these source emissions are shown in Table 11 and Figures 47 and 48.

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These results show that, as expected, the most significant source of GHG emissions was natural gas usage, followed by electricity usage emissions, then transportation emissions, which in total account for almost all school emissions. Water usage GHG emissions contributed to the total emissions the least. Therefore, it is concluded that GHG emissions from transportation are indeed significant and important in the GHG model, even though it is not considered by other institutions.

PART IV: GHG SEQUESTRATION RESULTS Baldwin School Campus Vegetation Overview The Baldwin School campus also includes much vegetation which absorb GHG emissions.

Grass and shrubs were not considered in GHG sequestration, so GHG sequestration from 405 trees on The Baldwin School campus was considered. The vegetation included in The Baldwin School Model is shown in Figure 49.

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The Baldwin School Campus has a total area of 25 acres (1,089,000 ft2), with a green area of 752,600 ft2, a green area coverage of 69.1% with 405 trees on the school campus.

The school campus had sixteen species of trees. This shows an important feature of The Baldwin School campus of a high vegetation coverage area, rich in plant species and communities. Figure 50 illustrates the distribution of the campus area coverage.

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BALDWIN SCHOOL TREE GHG SEQUESTRATION GHG sequestration by trees was calculated using the individual measurements for each tree which were then added together to equal the total GHG sequestration for The Baldwin School campus. GHG sequestration was calculated to be about 21.3 MT CO2 in 2016. Although there are no monthly trends because the sequestration was calculated per year, it is expected that GHG sequestration would increase exponentially in the following years. GHG sequestration can be written two ways: average GHG sequestration and total GHG sequestration. Writing an average for different species allows for optimal crosscomparisons between species in The Baldwin School, such as which species absorb GHGs the most effectively. In 2016, the average DBH of The Baldwin School campus trees was 39.2 cm, with the hard maple species having the highest average at 71.0 cm, and the birch species having the lowest average at 18.4 cm. Willow had the greatest GHG sequestration (0.09 MT CO2), and birch had the smallest (0.01 MT CO2), with the average annual GHG sequestration per tree being about 0.05 MT CO2. The average GHG sequestration values are shown in Table 12.

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Meanwhile, total GHG sequestration values written in total values can be used to determine the specific GHG sequestration of different species on The Baldwin School campus and to determine the total GHG sequestration for the school vegetation. In 2016, the total DBH of The Baldwin School campus trees was 15,878.6 cm, with the hard maple species having the highest total at 3125.0 cm, and the cyprus species having the lowest average at 28.7 cm. Consequently, hard maple had the greatest GHG sequestration (7.57 MT CO2), and cyprus had the smallest (0.01 MT CO2), with the total annual GHG sequestration per tree being about 21.3 MT CO2. The total GHG sequestration values are shown in Table 13.

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In 2014, The Baldwin School vegetation sequestered about only 21.3 MT CO2, which is significantly less than the GHG emissions by the school. The GHG sequestration would be about 1.8 MT CO2 per month, or about 0.1 MT CO2 daily. This is about 0.03 MT CO2 sequestered per person per year.

PART V: MODEL FURTHER CONSIDERATIONS In quantitative models, there is often uncertainty present in calculated values, especially in numerical analysis. For this reason, The Baldwin School Novel Quantitative GHG Emission and Sequestration Model should be considered an estimate of the schoolâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s GHG emissions, and not an unchanged, absolute figure. In models of real systems, inaccuracies are often concerned with inaccuracies in data and calculation parameters, which are described below.

Further Considerations in Baldwin GHG Emission Estimates In The Baldwin School GHG Model, the GHG emissions from utility consumption such as natural gas, electricity, and water usage, as well as school-owned transportation were all quite straightforward and without significant error. However, GHG emission

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estimates from schoolassociated transportation posed the most potential error because the subjectivity of many assumptions made in the Baldwin School model about transportation.

Data Inaccuracies The Baldwin School Novel Quantitative GHG Emission and Sequestration Model was completed in 2016, but much of the GHG emission analysis was retrospective to 2014 emission data, while school-associated individual transportation emissions data was obtained for 2016. Data inaccuracies are possible, especially in transportation emissions, because school-related transportation often varies for individuals on different days, and the schoolwide survey used to collect this data did not account for various methods of transportation used throughout the school year. For instance, although some people might walk to school most days, they may also come with a personal automobile on some.

However, because they answered that they come to school by walking, the times they were driven would not be considered in the model, even though they should to achieve the most accurate results. There is certainly room to improve the quality of the data that the model is based on.

Emission Factors All GHG emission conversion factors were obtained from reliable sources, although many of these factors were generalized values for energy sources, regions, and vehicle types.

These factors did not take into account variations in emissions from slight factors such as exact fuel types, specific regions, and individual vehicle types.

Also, the GHG emission factor for water usage, although obtained from an accomplished water technology manager who has been working in water treatment for over 10 years, was an approximate value. This value might have been slightly inaccurate, which would have affected GHG emission values from water usage.

Calculation Methods Calculations methods for GHG emissions were for the most part straightforward conversions from natural gas, electricity, and water usage into emissions. The part of the model that encompasses the most potential source of error is the calculations for GHG emissions from school-associated individual transportation. The number of times that

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the miles between the place the Baldwin person comes or goes to and the school is quite a subjective factor to base calculations off of, as these miles could be considered to be associated with the school or not. The choice to not include school bus emissions in the model could also be considered subjective, as some school buses indeed run only for The Baldwin School, in which case GHG emissions would definitely be associated with The Baldwin School, but not considered in this model.

Further Considerations in Baldwin GHG Sequestration Estimates The Baldwin School GHG Model possessed some of the most potential for error in GHG sequestration calculations. Although the calculations were rather straightforward, the methodology in gathering accurate data proved to have many potential sources of error.

Also, calculation methodology was utilized from various sources, which might have caused slight inaccuracies in numerical values.

Data Inaccuracies Measurements generally have a small amount of error, with slight differences in readings, especially in tree measurements and classification. Some maintain that the term DBH should be abolished because the height at which diameter is measured is extremely variable and might strongly influence forestry calculations such as biomass and GHG sequestration. In some nations, DBH is measured at 1.3 meters above the ground, while in others, the diameter is measured at a height of 1.4 meters. In The Baldwin School Model, about 1.37 (4.5 ft) meters above the ground was the height at which DBH was measured.

Although in many cases the exact height made little difference to the measured diameter, the slight difference might have still caused inaccuracies in DBH measurements and accordingly, biomass and GHG sequestration calculations.

Tree classification into species may have also contained some inaccuracies. Although the Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources Identifying Pennsylvania Trees source was followed closely, some trees may have been classified incorrectly.

Nevertheless, the differences between species in biomass and sequestration parameters were slight, and even if some trees were classified wrong, the differences in calculated GHG sequestration values would have been slight as well.

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Sequestration Parameters All GHG sequestration parameters were obtained from reliable sources, although biomass parameters were from the Forestry Services Comprehensive Database of Diameter-based Biomass Regressions for North American Tree Species, while the biomass CO2 change equation was from University of Pennsylvania Decadal Change of Forest Biomass Carbon Stocks and Tree Demography in the Delaware River Basin. The Comprehensive Database of Diameterbased Biomass Regressions for North American Tree Species also contained an equation to calculate biomass change, but because the equation produced in Decadal Change of Forest Biomass Carbon Stocks and Tree Demography in the Delaware River Basin is particular to tree biomass change specifically in the Delaware River Basin, the equation from this source was chosen over the equation from the Comprehensive Database of Diameter-based Biomass Regressions for North American Tree Species, which covered all North American tree species, and was not particular to this specific Baldwin School GHG Model.

Even though the biomass CO2 change equation from the University of Pennsylvania was chosen over that from the Forestry Services, the equation was formulated for all tree species in the Delaware River Basin with the assumption that tree growth for all tree species followed the same trend. However, it is known that different tree species grow at different rates, so encompassing all tree biomass growth for different species under a single equation would have produced very generalized values for GHG sequestration.

Also, the usage of sequestration parameters and equations from various sources might have caused slight differences in parameters as well as calculated numerical values.

Calculation Methods Calculations methods for GHG emissions were largely based on allometric differential equations. Allometric equations are generally accepted as reliable calculation methods, although there exist some potential sources of error in using allometry as the basis for tree GHG sequestration calculations.

Many factors go into the determination of biomass and size for any given tree species.

These factors often affect biomass on an evolutionary scale, but conditions such as temperature, precipitation, and tree location can also affect tree species. In these cases, the theory of allometry, although applicable, would not be completely accurate, and subsequent calculations of biomass and biomass CO2 change based on allometric equations would have been affected.

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PART VI: BALDWIN SCHOOL COMPARISONS Some esteemed institutions have created GHG models, such as Harvard University in 2011 and University of Pennsylvania in 2013 which have also taken the incentive to work towards an environmentally sustainable institution. The Baldwin School Novel Quantitative GHG Emission and Sequestration Model results can be compared to the results of these models in a way to determine exactly how well institutions are in becoming environmentally sustainable compared to other institutions, as well as creating meaningful cross-institutional comparisons. As the standards for calculating GHG comparisons are more refined, more meaningful comparisons will be developed. The two commonly reported carbon performance measures are emissions per total community member, meaning faculty, staff, and students, and emissions per square foot of campus area. The compared results are shown in Table 14.

It is to be noted, however, that these comparisons do not encompass the same GHG emission and sequestration sources. The sources and values considered in each of the models are further described below.

While both Harvard University and the University of Pennsylvania included GHG emissions from solid waste and refrigerants, The Baldwin School Novel Quantitative GHG Emission and Sequestration Model did not consider these emission sources. Emissions from refrigerants are difficult to exactly quantify, and even reports from highly esteemed universities could create only an estimation, which does not accurately reflect the emissions of the school. Solid garbage disposal emissions were also not considered because although data concerning garbage disposal was obtained and analyzed in other reports, these reports did not accurately reflect the new technologies of garbage disposal.

The reasoning behind the exclusion of these values are further explicated in the Emission Categories and Considerations section.

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The Baldwin School Novel Quantitative GHG Emission and Sequestration Model considered, like Harvard University and the University of Pennsylvania, emissions from school-owned vehicles. However, unlike the universities, The Baldwin School controls no air travel, and thus transportation through air travel was not considered in The Baldwin School model, although emissions from school-owned vans were considered.

However, unlike the Harvard University and University of Pennsylvania models, The Baldwin School GHG Model also considered GHG emissions from school-associated individual transportation. Although often considered too difficult to quantify, emissions from school- associated individual transportation contribute greatly to GHG emissions, comprising of 16.8% of all Baldwin School emissions, and should not be neglected.

Institutions that have created GHG models such as Harvard University and University of Pennsylvania did not consider GHG sequestration. Nevertheless, it is imperative to include every aspect of the GHG cycle in these models, including sequestration by vegetation, which might prove quite significant in the model. Therefore, The Baldwin School GHG Model considered GHG sequestration as well.

Therefore, when comparing the emissions between institutions, it is important to keep in mind how what was considered and disregarded in the different models may have affected compared values. The Baldwin School GHG Emission and Sequestration Model shows that the net GHG emissions for the school in 2014 was 3,330.0 MT CO2/year, which was about 4.4 MT CO2/person/year. This number is lower than those of Harvard University (13 MT CO2/person/year in 2011) and University of Pennsylvania (7.8 MT CO2/person/year in 2013).

The real difference, however, could be even greater, because of the magnitude of the GHG emissions by school-associated individual transportation that The Baldwin School GHG Model considered and other institution models did not. It is likely that the GHG emissions from school- associated individual transportation are greater than the GHG emissions from solid waste and refrigerants that were considered in the models created by other institutions but not the Baldwin School model. Because the GHG emissions from individual transportation accounted for such a large portion of The Baldwin School emissions, if considered in the Harvard University and University of Pennsylvania models, the GHG emissions for these institutions could be even greater than now. This large difference in GHG emissions between The Baldwin School and other institutions shows the environmental friendliness that the school strives towards.

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PART VII: BALDWIN SCHOOL NEXT STEPS Baldwin Stance on Environmental Issues The Baldwin School is dedicated to promoting environmental sustainability, and abounds with opportunities for students to research, learn, advocate for, and implement sustainability practices both in the classroom and beyond. Through the research, teaching, and operational practices taken to create The Baldwin School Novel Quantitative GHG Emission and Sequestration Model, The Baldwin School shows its dedication to promoting an environmentally sustainable intuition and implementing environmentally conscious policies.

Concerned with its environmental impact, the Baldwin School buildings incorporate several eco- friendly design and construction initiatives, including solar reflectance roofing, the use of regionally extracted materials, the installation of Energy Star equipment and appliances, and an indoor air quality management system.

Director of Facilities and Operations and Maintenance Supervisor Insight With the research, teaching, and operational practices taken to create The Baldwin School Novel Quantitative GHG Emission and Sequestration Model, The Baldwin School is taking steps to become an environmentally sustainable school. Leaders in operational efforts to reducing GHG emissions and amazing supporters of The Baldwin School GHG Model are the Director of Facilities and Operations and the Maintenance Supervisor at The Baldwin School. When the results of The Baldwin School GHG Model were analyzed, Michael Locurcio and Jim Piechule were asked for their insight on operational policies and actions being taken to reduce Baldwin School GHG emissions. The following are their responses to these questions.

1) Are you satisfied that Baldwin is a relatively green school? Or do you think there is more room for the school to improve our GHG emissions?

There is always more we can do, and we strive to constantly make ourselves better. We meet regularly with other institutions as a group and discuss topics such as campus safety, expense reduction through approved vendors, energy conservation, and more. We will embrace any opportunity that we feel will help us with environmental stewardship.

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2) Do you have some thoughts about taking our green global initiative a step further by proposing what you think would be effective methods of reducing GHG emissions? What do you think The Baldwin School should do? Plant more trees? Renovate our buildings and appliances to more energy efficient ones?

We look at all aspects of how we can conserve natural resources for future generations through environmental stewardship. There are ongoing plans to convert traditional lighting throughout our campus to LED. This was already completed for Middle School on the third floor of the school house and we hope to complete the entire building this coming summer.

We are also in the process of working with the Morris Arboretum and they are currently on our campus mapping, tagging and identifying all of our trees. At a later date, they will also assess the health of every tree and provide a budget to maintain our property as well as develop a plan for future plantings. As far as the buildings are concerned, we are installing low flow toilets when possible, any new appliances that we purchase are Energy Star rated and we recently started adding sensor activated faucets in bathrooms (check out the ladies room in the art wing, 1st floor). There may also be some opportunity to add sensor activated light switches.

3) What actions are Baldwin taking to be more environmentally friendly in ways that students can see (like recycling) and behind the scenes? (in order to reduce CO2 emissions and waste) Baldwin currently recycles and has one trash dumpster and two recycling dumpsters. In addition, Baldwin recently converted both of their main steam boilers from oil to natural gas.

4) Are there any other long-term energy/resource saving projects in store for Baldwin?

This past summer, we upgraded the Middle School hallway with LED lights and we hope to upgrade the remaining schoolhouse lights in the near future. We are also looking at other opportunities to replace conventional lighting with LED lighting throughout the campus. Finally, we are considering low flow toilets and sensor faucets for water conservation as well as sensor light switches in appropriate areas for energy conservation.

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Effective Proposals for Future Improvement As The Baldwin School Novel Quantitative GHG Emission and Sequestration Model Conclusion indicates, the principle sources of GHG emissions are the purchased utility usage of natural gas and electricity, followed by transportation. Although The Baldwin School shows its dedication to environmental sustainability by changing to energyefficient appliances such as LED lights, and water and energy-conserving sensor faucets and light switches, there is always more we can do.

When it comes to GHG emissions, few dispute the importance of reducing our emissions, and many are trying to reduce their GHG emissions. Especially as global climate change becomes an increasingly hot topic, institutions have been making efforts to decrease GHG emissions through conserving energy by decreasing energy consumption, reducing transportation emissions by using more environmentally sustainable commuting options, minimizing waste by “reducing, reusing, and recycling”, and increasing GHG sequestration by planting trees. There are also small ways that people reduce GHG emissions in their daily lives, such as using energy-efficient light bulbs, turning off the lights when not in use, and using less water by not “letting the water run.”

However, as concluded in The Baldwin School Novel Quantitative GHG Emission and Sequestration Model, GHG emissions coming from different sources can have significantly different values, and some GHG reduction methods are more effective than others. The Baldwin School model proposes the most effective methods to reduce GHG emissions and increase GHG sequestration using numerical calculations and quantitative values of the distribution and magnitude of GHG emission sources, as well as the extent of the effectiveness of some GHG emission reduction methods. The most effective ways that The Baldwin School contribution to global climate change can be reduced are described below.

Natural Gas Especially because natural gas usage contributed significantly to GHG emissions encompassing about 49.9% of all emissions, reducing GHG emissions from natural gas usage would prove the most effective way to reduce emissions. However, reducing GHG emissions from natural gas usage, although the most effective method to GHG reduction, is often more difficult than reducing GHG emissions from other sources.

Nevertheless, the following are methods in which natural gas GHG emissions can be reduced.

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1) Adjust the temperature to use less heat and air conditioning Heating and cooling accounts for about half of all energy consumed by the school.

Installing a programmable thermostat and setting it just 2 degrees lower in the winter and 2 degrees higher in the summer could reduce GHG emissions by about 2 MT CO2 every year. By using a programmable thermostat, monthly energy would not only be lowered, but GHG emissions would also decrease.

2) Heat and cool smartly Simple steps like changing air filters regularly, properly using a programmable thermostat, and having heating and cooling maintained annually by a licensed contractor can save energy and help to protect the environment. Adding insulation to walls, and reducing air leaks and stopping drafts by installing weather stripping and caulk can lower the amount of energy needed to heat and cool the school by up to 25 percent with knowledgeable heating and cooling practices.

3) Install Energy Star rated heating appliances When installing new appliances, the EPA Energy Star label can help make the most energy-efficient decisions. The Energy Star label can be found on over 60 kinds of products, including appliances, lighting, heating and cooling equipment, and electronics.

These items may cost more initially, but energy savings compensate within a few years.

Over their lifetime, products that have earned the Energy Star label can reduce greenhouse gas emissions by about 130 MT CO2. If each household in the United States replaced its existing appliances with the most efficient models available, we would eliminate 175 million metric tons of GHGs. 4) Change to renewable energy sources Although it is one of the more difficult methods to implement, using renewable energy sources instead of boilers or natural gas can have an enormous impact on GHG emissions. Much of the GHG emission in the United States come from the burning of fossil fuels. Fortunately, the use of alternative energy sources, such as solar, wind, geothermal, and hydro energy, is gaining increased support worldwide. These methods of energy production emit no greenhouse gases once they are up and running.

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Electricity As the the second most significant contributor to GHG emissions encompassing about 32.0% of all emissions, reducing GHG emissions from electricity usage would also prove effective in reducing emissions. The following are methods in which electricity GHG emissions can be reduced.

1) Install Energy Star rated heating appliances Like the methods to reduce GHG emissions from natural gas usage, emissions from electricity can also be reduced by installing EPA Energy Star label that can help make the most energy-efficient decisions. The Energy Star label can be found on over 60 kinds of products, including appliances, lighting, heating and cooling equipment, and electronics.

These items may cost more initially, but energy savings compensate within a few years.

Over their lifetime, products that have earned the Energy Star label can reduce greenhouse gas emissions by about 130 MT CO2. If each household in the United States replaced its existing appliances with the most efficient models available, we would eliminate 175 million metric tons of GHGs. 2) Using green power Also like the methods to reduce natural gas usage GHG emissions, electricity GHG emission can be reduced by using renewable energy sources. Instead of the burning of fossil fuels to generate electricity, green power is produced using renewable energy sources such as solar, wind, geothermal, and hydro energy. Green power, although slightly more difficult to implement at first, lowers GHG emissions and increases clean energy supply as a long-term investment.

3) Change to energy-efficient appliances Wherever practical, regular light bulbs should be replaced with compact florescent light (CFL) blubs. CFLs last about ten to fifty times longer than incandescent bulbs, use twothirds less energy. If every house hold in the United States replaced one regular light bulb with a CFL, it would eliminate 90 million MT GHGs, the same as taking 7.5 million cars off the road.

4) Use the “off” switch

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The Baldwin School Novel Quantitative Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Emission and Sequestration Model | Research by Hilary Liu ’18

One of the easiest and practical methods to saving electricity and reducing global warming is by turning off the lights when one leaves a room, and using only as much light as one needs. Also, it is beneficial to remember to turn off the television, stereo and computer when not in use.

Water Although its emissions are not that significant, accounting for only about 0.2% of all GHG emission in The Baldwin School Novel Quantitative GHG Emission and Sequestration Model, reducing water usage can reduce GHG emissions. However, it should be noted that, because water usage cannot be reduced by much, that reducing GHG emissions from other sources, such as natural gas and electricity usage, as well as transportation, might be more effective in reducing our contribution to global climate change.

Nevertheless, the following are methods in which water GHG emissions can be reduced.

1) Use the “off” switch As with electricity, it is a good idea to turn off the water when not in use. It takes energy to pump, treat, and heat water, so saving water reduces GHG emissions. This is one of the simplest ways to reduce water usage emissions.

2) Install energy-efficient appliances Also like electricity, switching to energy-efficient appliances such as sensor-activated faucets and water-efficient toilets can make a difference.

Solid Waste Although not considered in The Baldwin School GHG Emission and Sequestration Model because of the subjectivity of the production of emissions, GHG emissions from solid waste are not negligible. In other models, solid waste GHG emissions were not very significant, so reducing solid waste production might not be the most effective way to reduce GHG emissions. While waste might not be the largest contributor to GHG emissions, it is certainly the most visible. Therefore, the following are methods in which water GHG emissions can be reduced.

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The Baldwin School Novel Quantitative Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Emission and Sequestration Model | Research by Hilary Liu â&#x20AC;&#x2122;18

1) Reduce, reuse, recycle Reducing, reusing, and recycling helps conserve energy and reduces pollution and GHG emissions from resource extraction, manufacturing, and disposal. There are many benefits of recycle, rather than disposing of, common waste products. By recycling half of an average household waste, one could save 2.4 MT CO2 annually.

Transportation One of the biggest contributors to GHG emissions in The Baldwin School Novel Quantitative Model was individual transportation, accounting for about 16.8%, reducing GHG emissions from transportation is one of the most effective and easy ways to reduce our contribution to global climate change. The following are ways in which transportation GHG emissions can be reduced.

1) Drive less and drive smart Less driving means fewer GHG emissions. Besides saving gasoline, walking and biking are great forms of exercise. Other options for driving less include carpooling to work or school, which unfortunately, many people do not do, as shown in The Baldwin School GHG Model.

Also, taking more environmentally friendly methods of transportation such as public transportation, can decrease GHG emissions from transportation as well. When driving, it is important to make sure that the car is running efficiently. For instance, keeping tires properly inflated can improve gas mileage by about 3 percent. Every gallon of gas saved keeps about 20 lb CO2 out of the atmosphere. Furthermore, if changing cars, often newer models are more energy efficient than old models. Standard passenger cars are also much more environmentally friendly than SUVs and large vehicles.

Vegetation Growth In The Baldwin School Novel Quantitative GHG Emission and Sequestration Model, it was believed that vegetation would help significantly in GHG removal. However, absorbing only about 21.3 MT CO2 annually, school campus vegetation sequestration of CO2 was proven to be quite insignificant. Therefore, although vegetation sequestration of

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The Baldwin School Novel Quantitative Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Emission and Sequestration Model | Research by Hilary Liu â&#x20AC;&#x2122;18

GHGs is important, planting trees might not be the most effective way to increase GHG sequestration and lessen our contribution to global climate change. Nevertheless, trees still absorb CO2 and give off O2, and planting trees is important. A single tree will absorb approximately one MT CO2 during its lifetime, which although little, still helps.

Education One of the most effective ways to reduce GHG emissions is by being educated about environmental issues. It is important to spread the word about how peopleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s actions can cause or reduce global climate change. Even if one cannot implement some of the previously mentioned proposals to reduce GHG emissions, sharing information about ways to reduce GHG emissions with friends, family, and co-workers, as well as taking opportunities to encourage public officials to establish programs and policies that are good for the environment, can make a difference.

Students should learn more about the science and impacts of climate change, as well as about solutions and the actions they can take to reduce GHG emissions. It is also encouraged to track the climate impact of institutions, estimate institutional GHG emissions, and identify ways to mitigate climate impact.

This is what a quantitative GHG model such as The Baldwin School GHG Emission and Sequestration Model can achieve. Students gain detailed understandings of climate change, impacts, and science. The findings of this project are important so that we can learn how to effectively do our part in countering global climate change and working towards an environmentally sustainable world. The comprehensive and novel model developed by this study can be used by institutions to evaluate their GHG emissions and sequestration each year, serving as technical guidance in further GHG reduction initiatives. It is my strong wish that this model can be used not only as a method of quantitative calculations, but also as an implement to promote GHG awareness and reduction, which is important in making our only earth a sustainable place to live!

CONCLUSION The Baldwin School GHG Emission and Sequestration Model shows that the net GHG emissions for the school in 2014 was 3,330.0 MT CO2/year, which was about 4.4 MT CO2/person/year. This number is lower than those of Harvard University (13 MT CO2/ person/year in 2011) and University of Pennsylvania (7.8 MT CO2/person/year in 2013),

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The Baldwin School Novel Quantitative Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Emission and Sequestration Model | Research by Hilary Liu â&#x20AC;&#x2122;18

showing the environmental friendliness that the school strives towards. However, GHG emissions can always be decreased even more. Because a large portion of emissions were from natural gas, electricity, and transportation, emissions could be reduced by switching to energy-efficient appliances and encouraging more environmentally friendly modes of transportation, such as walking, riding a bicycle, carpooling, or taking public transportation. It was believed that vegetation would help significantly in GHG removal.

However, absorbing only about 21.3 MT CO2 annually, school campus vegetation sequestration of CO2 was proven to be quite insignificant.

The comprehensive and novel model developed by this study can be used by institutions to evaluate their GHG emissions and sequestration each year, serving as technical guidance in further GHG reduction initiatives. It is my strong wish that this model can be used not only as a method of quantitative calculations, but also as an implement to promote GHG awareness and reduction, which is important in making our only earth a sustainable place to live!

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REFERENCES 1 Unites States Environmental Protection Agency. “Overview of Greenhouse Gases.” EPA. Accessed November 22, 2015. http://www3.epa.gov/climatechange/ghgemissions/gases.html.

2 Unites States Environmental Protection Agency. “Overview of Greenhouse Gases.” EPA. 3 “Monthly Average/Record Temperatures.” Chart. The Weather Channel. Accessed March 10, 2016. https://weather.com/weather/monthly/l/Bryn+Mawr+PA+19010:4:US. 4 “Average Precipitation.” Chart. The Weather Channel. Accessed March 10, 2016. https:// weather.com/weather/monthly/l/Bryn+Mawr+PA+19010:4:US. 5 United States Environmental Protection Agency. Emission Factors for Greenhouse Gas Inventories. N.p.: n.p., 2014. Accessed March 10, 2016. http://www2.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2015-07/documents/ emission- factors_2014.pdf.

6 United States Environmental Protection Agency. Emission Factors for Greenhouse Gas Inventories.

7 United States Environmental Protection Agency. Emission Factors for Greenhouse Gas Inventories.

8 United States Environmental Protection Agency. Emission Factors for Greenhouse Gas Inventories.

9 U.S. Energy Information Administration. “East Coast All Regular Formations Retail Gasoline Prices.” EIA. Accessed March 10, 2016. https://www.eia.gov/dnav/pet/hist/LeafHandler.ashx?n=pet&s=emm_epmr_pte_ r10_dpg &f=m.

10 U.S. Energy Information Administration. “East Coast All Regular Formations Retail Gasoline Prices.”

11 United States Environmental Protection Agency. Emission Factors for Greenhouse Gas Inventories.

12 United States Environmental Protection Agency. Light-Duty Automotive Technology, Carbon Dioxide Emissions, and Fuel Economy Trends: 1975 Through 2015. N.p.: n.p., 2015. Accessed March 10, 2016. http:// www3.epa.gov/ fueleconomy/fetrends/1975-2015/420r15016.pdf.

13 United States Environmental Protection Agency. Emission Factors for Greenhouse Gas Inventories.

14 Paul Roth and Rance Harmon, Identifying Pennsylvania Trees (n.p.: Pennsylvania State University, 2002). Accessed March 10, 2016, http://www.dcnr.state.pa.us/cs/groups/public/documents/document/ dcnr_002216.pdf.

15 Roth and Harmon, Identifying Pennsylvania Trees.

16 Roth and Harmon, Identifying Pennsylvania Trees.

17 Roth and Harmon, Identifying Pennsylvania Trees.

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18 Roth and Harmon, Identifying Pennsylvania Trees.

19 Roth and Harmon, Identifying Pennsylvania Trees.

20 Roth and Harmon, Identifying Pennsylvania Trees.

21 Roth and Harmon, Identifying Pennsylvania Trees.

22 Roth and Harmon, Identifying Pennsylvania Trees.

23 Roth and Harmon, Identifying Pennsylvania Trees.

24 Roth and Harmon, Identifying Pennsylvania Trees.

25 Jenkins, Jennifer C., David C. Chojnacky, Linda S. Heath, and Richard A. Birdsey.

Comprehensive Database of Diameter-based Biomass Regressions for North American Tree Species. N.p.: USDA Forest Service, 2003. Accessed March 10, 2016. http://www.fs.fed.us/ne/durham/4104/papers/ne_ gtr319_jenkins_and_others.pdf.

26 Jenkins, Jennifer C., David C. Chojnacky, Linda S. Heath, and Richard A. Birdsey.

Comprehensive Database of Diameter-based Biomass Regressions for North American Tree Species.

27 Xu, Bing, Alain F. Plante, Arthur H. Johnson, Jason A. Cole, and Richard Birdsey. Decadal Change of Forest Biomass Carbon Stocks and Tree Demography in the Delaware River Basin. Unpublished manuscript, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, 2016.

28 “Campus Map.” Map. The Baldwin School. Accessed March 10, 2016. http://www.baldwinschool.org/page. cfm?p=1091.

CITATIONS “Average Precipitation.” Chart. The Weather Channel. Accessed March 10, 2016. https:// weather.com/weather/monthly/lBryn+Mawr+PA+19010:4:US. “Campus Map.” Map. The Baldwin School. Accessed March 10, 2016. http://www.baldwinschool.org/page. cfm?p=1091.

“Carbon Sequestration.” In Wikipedia. Accessed March 10, 2016. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_ sequestration.

“Diameter at Breast Height.” In Wikipedia. Accessed March 10, 2016. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diameter_ at_breast_height.

“Effects of Global Warming.” In Wikipedia. Accessed March 10, 2016. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effects_of_ global_warming.

“Greenhouse Gas.” In Wikipedia. Accessed March 10, 2016. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse_gas.

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The Baldwin School Novel Quantitative Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Emission and Sequestration Model | Research by Hilary Liu ’18

How to Calculate the Amount of CO2 Sequestered in a Tree per Year. Accessed March 10, 2016. https://www. broward.org/NaturalResources/ClimateChange/Documents/Calculating%20CO2%20Sequestration%20 by%20Trees.pdf.

Jenkins, Jennifer C., David C. Chojnacky, Linda S. Heath, and Richard A. Birdsey.

Comprehensive Database of Diameter-based Biomass Regressions for North American Tree Species. N.p.: USDA Forest Service, 2003. Accessed March 10, 2016. http://www.fs.fed.us/ne/durham/4104/papers/ne_ gtr319_jenkins_and_others.pdf.

Michel, Christopher. Polar Bears on Thin Ice. July 5, 2015. Photograph. North Pole Keep. special permission was obtained from the photographer to use his photo as the cover image to the report “Monthly Average/Record Temperatures.” Chart. The Weather Channel. Accessed March 10, 2016. https://weather.com/weather/monthly/l/Bryn+Mawr+PA+19010:4:US. Roth, Paul, and Rance Harmon. Identifying Pennsylvania Trees. N.p.: Pennsylvania State Unniversity, 2002. Accessed March 10, 2016. http://www.dcnr.state.pa.us/cs/groups/public/documents/document/ dcnr_002216.pdf.

United States Environmental Protection Agency. “Carbon Dioxide Capture and Sequestration.” Accessed March 10, 2016. http://www3.epa.gov/climatechange/ccs/.

———. Emission Factors for Greenhouse Gas Inventories. N.p.: n.p., 2014. Accessed March 10, 2016. http:// www2.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2015-07/documents/emission-factors_2014.pdf.

———. Light-Duty Automotive Technology, Carbon Dioxide Emissions, and Fuel Economy Trends: 1975 Through 2015. N.p.: n.p., 2015. Accessed March 10, 2016. http://www3.epa.gov/ fueleconomy/fetrends/19752015/420r15016.pdf.

Unites States Environmental Protection Agency. “Overview of Greenhouse Gases.” EPA. Accessed November 22, 2015. http://www3.epa.gov/climatechange/ghgemissions/gases.html.

University of Pennsylvania. University of Pennsylvania Carbon Footprint. Philadelphia, PA: n.p., 2007. Accessed November 22, 2015. https://www.design.upenn.edu/sites/default/files/ GreenhouseGasReport_110507.pdf.

U.S. Energy Information Administration. “East Coast All Regular Formations Retail Gasoline Prices.” EIA. Accessed March 10, 2016. https://www.eia.gov/dnav/pet/hist/LeafHandler.ashx?n=pet&s=emm_epmr_pte_ r10_dpg&f=m.

Xu, Bing, Alain F. Plante, Arthur H. Johnson, Jason A. Cole, and Richard Birdsey. Decadal Change of Forest Biomass Carbon Stocks and Tree Demography in the Delaware River Basin. Unpublished manuscript, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, 2016.

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