Koreana Winter 2008 (English)

Korean art & Culture

Vo l . 22, No . 4 Win t er 2008

Vol. 22, No. 4 Winter 2008

Kimchi ISSN 1016-0744

BEAUTY OF KOREA

Byeoru (Ink Stone)

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ne of the four precious items mentioned in the ancient term munbang sau (brush, ink stick, paper, and ink stone), byeoru (ink stone) is a stationery implement that is used to make liquid ink, by rubbing an ink stick in water on its surface.

In addition to making the ink needed for the creation of siseohwa (works of poetry, painting, and calligraphy), the byeoru was also appreciated for its refined craftsmanship by members of the literati class, for whom it was an integral element of their daily life.

The ink stick is rubbed on a section of the byeoru known as yeondang , while the liquid ink is held in a carved-out recess called yeonji . Byeoru are created in a variety of shapes, including round and rectangular, as well as forms, such as a turtle, lotus flower, and other good-luck symbols of nature. The byeoru would often be decorated with the designs of a dragon, crane, turtle, phoenix, fish, grapes, apricot, orchid, chrysanthemum, or bamboo, and various Chinese characters. Some byeoru came with a fitted lid or cover.

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While a stone byeoru was typical, other materials for making an ink stone included jade, ceramic, magnetite, and iron. A proper stone for a byeoru required a smooth surface and ability to retain liquid, so that prepared ink could be maintained in the yeonji for 10 days or longer. Koreans have long sought stone from the Nampo area of Chungcheongnam-do Province for the making of byeoru. The excellence of Nampo-stone byeoru, which was known in China and Japan during the Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910), continues to be true even today.

The byeoru seen in the picture above is round in shape and is adorned with grapes and vines that surround the yeondang and yeonji. Grape designs have been frequently used to adorn byeoru.

The choice of such a design was meant to denote the desire of literati scholars to acquire academic knowledge in a manner that was bountiful as grapes. While this masterpiece features grapes and vines detailed in a refined manner, the external shape of the natural stone is particularly outstanding.

Korean Art & Culture

Vol.22, No.4 Winter 2008

A traditional food developed in ancient times, kimchi is today a universal symbol of the food and culture of Korea. While a majority of households in Korea would never consider having a meal without kimchi, recent international attention has been focused on its emergence as one of the world’s top-ranked health foods. A wealth of information about kimchi is readily accessible at www.kimchi.or.kr . Š Topic Photo

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Kimchi 8

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Background and Development of Korean Kimchi Jo Jae-sun

12 Kimchi: Ideal Health Food for a Well-being Lifestyle Park Kun Young

16 Regional Influences Create Wide Varieties of Kimchi

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Han Bokryeo

26 Sharing Kimchi with Consumers Around the World Nam Sang-won

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FOCUS

Seoul Hosts XXII World Congress of Philosophy 2008

Published quarterly by The Korea Foundation 2558 Nambusunhwanno, Seocho-gu, Seoul 137-863, Korea

Lee Myung-hyun

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INTERVIEW Poet Ko Un

“I am my own future!” | Choi Jae-bong 44

ARTISAN Yoo Young-ki

Archery Craftsman Yoo Young-ki Blends Strength with Resiliency Park Hyun Sook

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MASTERPIECES

Elegant Earthenware Figurines Reveal Silla’s Spirituality Song Yi-chung

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ART REVIEW Sohn Young-sil

DISCOVERING KOREA Kevin O’Rourke

Passionate Translator of Korean Literature 64

| Lee Soo Jin

ON THE GLOBAL STAGE Sung Shi-yeon

A Humble yet Forceful Presence at the Podium Anna S. Roh

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ON THE ROAD

Jeongseon’s Natural Beauty Endures the Passage of Time CUISINE

Yaksik Rice Cake: Tasty and Healthy Treat

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Magnum Korea Exhibition: Images of Korean Society’s Diversity 60

PUBLISHER Yim Sung-joon EDITORIAL DIRECTOR Hahn Young-hee EDITOR-IN-CHIEF Park Jeong-yeop PHOTO DIRECTOR Kwon Tae-kyun ART DIRECTOR Kim Ji-yeon DESIGNER Lee Young Bok ASSOCIATE EDITOR Heo Jae-hoon, Yi Jun-sung EDITORIAL BOARD Cho Sung-taek, Han Kyung-koo, Han Myung-hee, Jung Joong-hun, Kim Hwa-young, Kim Moon-hwan, Kim Youngna

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The opinions expressed by the authors do not necessarily represent those of the editors of Koreana or the Korea Foundation.

JOURNEYS IN KOREAN LITERATURE

Koo Hyo-seo Dance of Exorcism at the Fringe of Existence A Bale of Salt | Translated by Brother Anthony of Taizé

| Kim Young-chan

Koreana, registered as a quarterly magazine with the Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism (Registration No. Ba-1033, dated Aug. 8, 1987), is also published in Chinese, French, Spanish, Arabic, Russian, Japanese, and German.

Kimchi Kimchi is the globally recognized symbol of Korea’s cuisine culture and its representative food item.

The most common type of kimchi is made with Chinese cabbage, but countless varieties are prepared from a diverse array of ingredients, including young radish, cucumber, and green onion.

Due to recent studies that have confirmed kimchi to be an exceptional health food, it has attracted growing attention from people the world over. As an integral aspect of everyday life in Korea, an understanding of kimchi can provide unique insight into its people and culture.

In the past, kimchi would be prepared in autumn, stored in large crocks, and consumed during the winter. Within earthenware crocks, the kimchi undergoes a fermentation process that produces its unique taste and rich nutrients, including lactobacilli and various vitamins. Š Eurocreon

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Background and Development of Korean Kimchi Kimchi developed from the practice of preserving vegetables with salt.

Over time, a variety of additional seasonings were included, leading to a decrease in salt content and more effective fermentation, aided by lactic acid, which has resulted in the complex character of today’s kimchi.

Jo Jae-sun Professor Emeritus, Department of Food and Science Technology, Kyung Hee University

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long with a number of other countries, the cold temperatures of winter in Korea severely limit the growth of fresh vegetable produce, which has led to the practice of salting vegetables in autumn, so that they can be preserved and consumed during winter. However, Korea is unique for the inclusion of a wide variety of ingredients in kimchi, which contributes to its distinctive aroma and flavorful taste.

Origin of Kimchi Since prehistoric times, people have used salt as a seasoning and preservative.

Kimchi ingredients are allowed to naturally ferment, through the formation of lactic acid, a process that has been used to preserve vegetables since the dawn of agricultural cultivation. From its origin as a food preserved with salt, kimchi gradually evolved into its current form through the inclusion of such ingredients as red chili pepper, salted seafood, meat, and a variety of seasonings.

The East Asian countries of Korea, China, and Japan all experience cold weather, starting from autumn and into winter. Accordingly, people in the region have long prepared and consumed pickled foods that can be easily stored. In fact, historical documents indicate that pickled foods had become commonplace in the three countries, from about the fifth century to the seventh century.

A fifth-century Chinese text on agriculture contains detailed records of various preserved foods, while an eighth-century Japanese wooden tablet, which specifies a list of foodstuffs, includes references to pickled cucumbers

and pickled rice bran. Interestingly, the recipient of this wooden tablet was a resident of Baekje (18 B.C.-A.D. 660). It might be presumed that pickled foods from China crossed the Chinese border into the Korean kingdom of Goguryeo (37 B.C.-A.D. 668), then made their way south into the kingdoms of Baekje and Silla (57 B.C-A.D. 935), before eventually being introduced into Japan.

Taking into account the contextual elements, it can be inferred that the history of kimchi began during the Three Kingdoms period (1st century B.C.-A.D. 7th century), at the latest. In a section on “Eastern Peoples” of the Chinese historical text, Records of the Three Kingdoms , it mentions: “The people of Goguryeo possess superior technology for brewing liquor, making soy and other sauces, and preparing pickled seafood. Goguryeo plundered the local products of fish and salt from Okjeo [Woju].”

From these accounts, you can see that the people of Goguryeo were already aware of the need for salt, an essential ingredient of kimchi, and familiar with the fermentation process.

Moreover, the Korean historical text Historical Record of the Three Kingdoms (Samguksagi , 1145) notes that: “Unified Silla Kingdom people enjoyed liquor, soy and other sauces, and pickled seafood at wedding ceremonies in 683,” thus confirming the widespread use of foods preserved with salt. Among the relevant relics still around today, there is a stone jar on the grounds of Beopjusa Temple, installed in 720 during the Unified Silla period, which is believed to have been a container for storing kimchi.

Nowadays, kimchi is closely associated with its bright redness, which results from the liberal inclusion of chili pepper. But until quite recently, kimchi was prepared as a basic fermented vegetable dish, with only scant seasonings, like this white Chinese cabbage kimchi. © Kimchi Gyeonmunnok , Designhouse

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This etymology is a reflection of kimchi’s uniqueness among pickled foods, in which the vegetables, along with the liquid produced by the fermentation, are both maintained and consumed.

A historical text from the late 16th century mentions 11 types of kimchi.

Still, aside from explanations of kimchi being made with radish, cabbage, wax gourd, fern bracken, and soy beans, as well as a watery variety made by soaking radish in brine, there is no specific mention of the use of red pepper at that time.

Today’s Kimchi The making of kimchi today calls for the basic ingredients of Chinese cabbage, red pepper, and salted seafood.

Chinese cabbage is the primary component of kimchi, which is seasoned with red pepper and salted seafood. Nonetheless, it was not until the 17th century that Chinese cabbage, red pepper, and salted seafood became the primary ingredients of kimchi. It was during the 200-year period, from the late 17th century to the late 19th century, that a wide variety of vegetables and seasonings, such as red pepper, green onion, garlic,

© Kimchi Gyeonmunnok , Designhouse

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generally involved only limited ingredients, such as a vegetable or two, which were preserved with salt.

There was a kind of literary renaissance during the Joseon period (1392-1910), that led to a proliferation of texts being published across the country, which included publications on agricultural and culinary subjects, such as a detailed overview of kimchi-related developments. The early Joseon literary figure Seo Geo-jeong (1420-1488) was the first to mention the seasonings used in kimchi in one of his poems: “We plant turnips, radishes, lettuce, and dropwort in the back field, along with ginger, garlic, and green onions, and we make kimchi with five seasonings.” In particular, garlic has been a basic food item of Koreans for so long that it even appears in the myth of Dangun, who is said to have descended from heaven to found the kingdom of Gojoseon (Old Joseon) in 2333 B.C. The term “dimchae” was first cited in a 1525 medical text, in reference to a type of pickled vegetable (“chimchae”), in which the vegetables were immersed in liquid, that later became “kimchi.”

© Kimchi Gyeonmunnok , Designhouse

Historical Accounts The first mention of “kimchi” can be found in historical records from the Goryeo period (918-1392). Guidelines on etiquette included a list of kimchi types that should be part of the food offerings prepared for ancestral rituals: dropwort kimchi, bamboo-shoot kimchi, turnip kimchi, and garlic-chive kimchi. The Goryeo literary figure Yi Gyu-bo (1168-1241) included a poem in his anthology, Collected Works of Chancellor Yi of Korea (Donggugisanggukjip ), which described the making of pickled turnips and the preparation and eating of a certain bland kimchi.

The Goryeo period medical journal, Emergency Remedies of Korean Medicine (Hyangyakgugeupbang ), identifies cucumber, wax gourd, garlic chives, curled mallow, lettuce, green onion, and radish as the main ingredients of kimchi. In addition, a number of poems, from the 13th century to the 15th century, include references to pickled foods and kimchi, indicating that kimchi had attained considerable popularity during the Goryeo period. However, it should be noted that the kimchi of this period

ginger, and salted seafood, were used to make kimchi.

Chinese cabbage has been cited in medical texts as a vegetable with medicinal benefits. It appears to have been widely cultivated from the mid-16th century, and was likely used for the making of kimchi. Red pepper is thought to have been introduced from Japan around the time of the Japanese invasions of Korea (1592-1598). A record from 1613 states: “Red pepper has been brought over from Japan and it is poisonous.” However, it not until sometime later that red pepper became an ingredient of kimchi, because of a lack of awareness of its usefulness as a seasoning.

The key factors that led to the inclusion of red pepper in kimchi were related to the development of agricultural technology and occurrence of natural phenomena, such as flood and drought, which resulted in serious food shortages.

Based on a 1765 account, which noted, “these days, red pepper is being cultivated in large amounts, and appearing in the market in large amounts as well,” it seems that red pepper was widely used in the 18th century.

The first reference to the use of cabbage and red pepper in kimchi is found in the Supplement to Forestry Administration (Jeungbosallimgyeongje , 1766), which included the recipes for making some 20 varieties of kimchi, including cabbage kimchi. The Women’s Quarters Series (Gyuhapchongseo , 1809) also explained how to season kimchi with salted seafood. Various types of preserved seafood had been around since the Three Kingdoms period, but it was only in the mid-1700s that it began to be used to make kimchi. It was also found that the addition of preserved seafood allowed the amount of salt to be reduced.

By the early 18th century, the making of kimchi included Chinese cabbage, red pepper, garlic, and salted seafood, resulting in a form similar to the popular varieties of today. Yet, there are countless variations of kimchi, based on the ingredients used and the region of its preparation, along with the continuous adoption of innovative twists. As for kimchi, which remains deeply rooted in Korea’s everyday lifestyle, it might well lead the way of the efforts to globalize Korean food.

It is believed that “kimchi” was derived from two Chinese characters, “chimchae”(沈菜), which together meant pickled vegetables. The pronunciation of the two Chinese characters underwent a series of change, from “chimchae” to “dimchae,” and eventually the current “kimchi.”

1 Collected Works of Chancellor Yi of Korea, an anthology of essays by the Goryeo period writer Yi Gyu-bo (1168-1241), includes information on the preparation of white radish kimchi, which is thought to be the earliest written mention of kimchi.

3 Earthenware crocks, for the fermentation and storage of kimchi, have developed regional characteristics. In the south, kimchi crocks were short and rounded, while narrower forms would be found in northern areas, so that larger volumes could be buried in the ground.

© Kimchi Gyeonmunnok , Designhouse

2 The first cookbook written in the Korean Hangeul alphabet,

by Lady Jang (1598-1680), Understanding the Flavor of Food contains recipes for several varieties of kimchi, including types for everyday meals and those for special occasions that called for high-quality ingredients.

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Kimchi Ideal Health Food for a Well-being Lifestyle Recent research findings, which confirm kimchi’s efficacy for promoting good health, have boosted its popularity as an ideal health food. A rich source of lactobacilli and diverse nutrients, kimchi can help to prevent cancer and arteriosclerosis, and slow the aging process.

Park Kun Young Professor, Department of Food Science & Nutrition, Pusan National University

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n 2006, the American magazine Health designated kimchi as one of the top-five healthiest foods in the world, along with olive oil, soy, lentils, and yogurt. In the Health article, kimchi was praised for being high in fiber, helpful for dieting, and rich in vitamins A, B, and C, as well as healthful lactobacilli, which is effective for preventing cancer.

Moreover, the health benefits of kimchi have been proven in a growing number of scientific studies.

Nutritional Benefits There are numerous types of kimchi, depending on the ingredients used, but when Koreans mention “kimchi,” they are usually referring to Chinese cabbage kimchi, the most common type. With only 18 kcal per 100 grams, kimchi is a low-calorie food, and a plentiful source of dietary fiber. Regular intake of dietary fiber helps to prevent constipation, reduce bad cholesterol, and cleanse the body’s systems. Kimchi is also a rich source of vitamins and minerals, including vitamin C and beta-carotene, while various B vitamins are synthesized during the fermentation process. It is also high in calcium, iron, and phosphorus, which contribute to strengthened bones and reduced anemia.

As for garlic, an essential ingredient of kimchi, it contains allicin, a compound with potent antibacterial properties. The global media began to take keen notice when kimchi was cited as

one of the factors behind Korea’s ability to largely escape the impact of the SARS (severe acute respiratory syndrome) and avian flu outbreaks, which had afflicted certain countries in Asia in recent years. Garlic enables the body to retain vitamin B1 (thiamine) for a longer time, which helps to boost energy and create a sense of calm.

Red chili pepper, which is essential for seasoning kimchi, has a higher content of vitamin C than any vegetable, and helps to inhibit the growth of harmful microorganisms, thereby aiding in the production of lactobacilli during fermentation. In fact, the inclusion of red chili pepper significantly bolsters the overall nutritional value of kimchi. And, in conjunction with garlic, these two ingredients help to maximize kimchi’s anti-cancer effects.

Kimchi is also ideal for weight control, because it is made primarily from vegetables that are low in calories and high in dietary fiber. Of particular note, capsaicin, the active component of red chili pepper, helps to speed up the body’s metabolism and burn off fat. The addition of red chili pepper to kimchi produces optimal benefits for weight loss, according to an experiment that found, when white mice were fed a high-fat diet, together with kimchi, they experienced only minimal weight gain. Moreover, a number of the various microorganisms created during the fermentation process have yet to be care-

The varieties of kimchi are endless, based on the particular ingredients and region of origin; however, the most common type of kimchi is made with Chinese cabbage. © Imageclick

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Miraculous Fermentation Kimchi is the result of a natural fermentation process that accounts for its pungent aroma and savory taste, which are enhanced at the peak of its maturity. In addition to the nutritional value of the original kimchi ingredients, the fermentation produces lactobacilli and other nutrients as a result of the interaction of microorganisms. Through a seemingly miraculous fermentation process, which includes the synthesis of lactobacilli, the presence of vitamins B and C, and nutrients such as organic acids and amino acids, are increased to far higher levels than that of the original ingredients. A single gram of kimchi can contain up to 100 million lactobacilli, a content level four times higher than that of yogurt.

The lactobacilli, lactic acid, acetic acid, and other organic acids produced during the fermentation of kimchi are

especially beneficial for your digestive system, in regard to relieving constipation as well as inhibiting the growth of mutated cells and the development of tumors in the intestinal tract, thus helping to prevent colon cancer. Also, lactobacilli and organic acids revitalize the skin and create collagen, for a healthier looking skin, along with functioning as an antioxidant to retard the effects of aging. These nutrients also help to strengthen the immune system and the body’s resistance to toxic elements. Of note, the lactobacilli and nutrients of kimchi, as well as its savory taste, reach a peak at the time of its proper fermentation (not under-fermented or overfermented).

Kimchi and Rice For Koreans, kimchi and rice go hand and hand. Because steamed white rice is most often served plain, kimchi makes a perfect side dish, thanks to its unique aroma, zesty spiciness, and bright color. With the pungent yet refreshing taste of a properly fermented

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Health Benefits of Kimchi’s Key Ingredients Chinese cabbage - The most commonly used ingredient in kimchi, Chinese cabbage is about 95 percent water and low in calories. In addition to being rich in vitamins and minerals, it contains various other beneficial components, including methylmethionine, an activated form of methionine, which helps to mitigate ar teriosclerosis, and

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methylsysteinsulfoxid, that reduces cholesterol.

R a d i s h - D u e to i t s a l k a l i n e content, radish helps to maintain a proper alkaline balance of body fluids.

Radish is primarily water, along with various nutrients, such as vitamin C and enzymes that aid in digestion, when eaten raw. The vitamin C of radish is concentrated in its outer surface, so its nutritional value can be maintained by washing, but not peeling off, the skin.

Red Chili Pepper - This essential seasoning, which gives kimchi its trademark spiciness, is a vital source of capsaicin that contributes to the elimination of harmful bacteria and improvement of the digestive process, through the increased secretion of saliva and gastric juices. It is also helpful for accelerating the body’s various metabolic processes.

© Imagekorea

fully studied, which could result in the discovery of new kimchi-related health and dietary benefits.

© Kimchi Gyeonmunnok , Designhouse

1 Ideally, kimchi should be stored at a temperature of about 5ºC for optimal flavor and nutrition.

In order to maintain this temperature throughout the winter, the kimchi crocks would be wrapped with straw.

2 A traditional Korean home would maintain a storage area for kimchi, where the kimchi crocks were buried in the ground and covered with straw mats.

Garlic - The primary active ingredient of garlic, allylsulfide, is said to be 15 times more effective as a sterilizing agent than carbonic acid. Garlic also promotes proper metabolism, alleviates pain, prevents constipation, and helps to draw out toxins. It is known to fend off various afflictions, such as tuberculosis, food poisoning, staphylococcus, and typhus, along with reducing the risk of arteriosclerosis and various cancers.

Green Onion - Although about 80 percent water, green onion is rich in calcium, phosphorus, iron, and vitamins. The green stalks are a source of

kimchi, older-generation Koreans can thoroughly enjoy a satisfying meal of simply fresh-cooked rice and their favorite kimchi.

Salted seafood, the animal ingredient used to make kimchi, provides a source of protein. As kimchi ferments, the protein of the seafood breaks down into amino acids and calcium. In addition, the vegetables, which are the primary ingredient of kimchi, are rich in minerals, such as calcium, copper, phosphorus, iron, and salt, that aid in the body’s absorption of vitamin C and vitamin B1 (thiamine), which is particularly important for people whose diets are centered on rice as a staple.

Wondrous Health Food The organic acids, lactobacilli, and dietary fiber of kimchi make it effective for the prevention of constipation and colon cancer, and its anti-cancer benefits are maximized when properly fermented. The consumption of kimchi restricts the production of carcinogens in the intestines, lowers the colon’s

vitamins A and C. The allyl sulfur compound, which gives green onion its characteristic tanginess, is capable of eradicating bacteria.

Ginger - Along with being 80 percent water, ginger contains various minerals. The distinctive aroma and spiciness of ginger are derived from its gingerol compounds, which aid in proper maintenance of the stomach, the body’s perspiration, and weight control.

acidity level, and helps to prevent colon cancer. Having regular servings of kimchi can increase the lactobacilli level of the colon by 100 to 1,000 times. The lactobacilli in the dietary fiber of kimchi serve to boost apoptosis (targeted elimination) of cancer cells. Various studies of kimchi extracts have shown that they can inhibit the propagation of cancer cells and revitalize the body’s defensive cells. And, the capsaicin of red chili pepper has been found to enhance the immune system, inhibit cancer, and relieve inflammation.

Kimchi is also known to help prevent the contraction of virus-related diseases, such as SARS and avian flu.

Cultured solutions of kimchi lactobacilli have been found to effectively prevent infection from the avian flu virus. Various studies are currently underway to determine the efficacy of kimchi’s lactobacilli to resist virus-borne illnesses.

Kimchi also helps to lower cholesterol levels and break down fibrin, which causes blood clots, along with impeding arteriosclerosis.

Salt - As for its nutritional and physiological function, there is no substitute for salt. Upon entering the body, salt breaks down into sodium and chlorine, which are needed for your blood, digestive fluids, and tissue fluids to properly regulate osmotic pressure, acidity, and the nervous system. To maximize kimchi’s anti-cancer function, roasted salt should be used for making kimchi.

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Regional Influences Create Wide Varieties of Kimchi Although a basic fermentation process is central to kimchi, a countless variety of ingredients and seasonings can be included in its preparation. With the Korean Peninsula lying along a lengthy north-south axis, its wide range of climatic conditions have contributed to a diverse array of cultural characteristics, including distinctive variations of kimchi.

Han Bokryeo President, Institute of Korean Royal Cuisine

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Kimchi varieties differ according to the particular vegetable ingredient, seasonings, and region of origin. Š Timespace

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he diverse regional influences of the Korean Peninsula, as a result of notable variances in climatic and geographical conditions, have contributed to the creation of a wide variety of unique types of kimchi. In general, kimchi in the southern regions is characterized by its bright redness, sharp taste, and minimal liquid, while that of the central regions is associated with types with a lighter red color, due to the use of less red pepper, which is served with a considerable amount of liquid. Farther north, the kimchi is immersed in liquid, mild in taste, and crisp in texture.

The southern areas of the Korean Peninsula are relatively warmer, so additional salt is needed to prevent the kimchi from fermenting too quickly.

In contrast, in the north, people will prepare kimchi with less salt and lighter seasoning, which serves to accentuate the natural vegetable flavors. Meanwhile, the kimchi of the central regions covers a broad spectrum of diversity, with more moderate and subtle tastes.

Regional Characteristics In addition to the salt that is needed to preserve the vegetable ingredients, and red chili pepper, which gives kimchi its distinctive spiciness and redness, there are several other ingredients that factor into its savory taste. In particular, the salted seafood items, which are produced by a lengthy maturation process, vary widely based on regional and cultural influences.

The regional characteristics of kimchi can be identified from the type of salted seafood ingredient used in its preparation: in the southern regions, people favor salted anchovies; along the eastern coast, salted large-head hairtail fish and salted chub mackerel; and in the central regions, salted yellow corvina and salted shrimp.

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Salted anchovies are made from fresh anchovies caught off the southern coast, which are salted and left to mature. Anchovies preserved for two to three months are known as “salted anchovies,” while those aged for six months or more are referred to as “salted anchovy brine.” Large-head hairtail are preserved by salting the entire fish, which are allowed to ferment for a year or so, until the flesh acquires a deep chestnut brown color.

Different types of seafood ingredients are included in the preparation of kimchi because of the fact that, above all, it is a staple of common people, which necessitates the use of readily available products from local areas. The inclusion of salted seafood helps to prevent the kimchi from over-fermenting, and turning rotten, along with adding to its complex and zesty flavorfulness.

However, the seafood ingredients need to be used in moderation, so as to not produce a fishy odor.

The garlic, ginger, and red chili pepper added to kimchi can serve to neutralize any fishy smell of the salted seafood, which aids in the proper fermentation. Another kimchi ingredient is an alga gathered from the rocky shorelines of shallow coastal waters, commonly known as “dead man’s fingers” or “sea staghorn.” It helps the kimchi to maintain a firmer texture, while also increasing its nutritional value, in terms of calcium and phosphorus content.

In Goheung, Jeollanam-do Province, the local specialties of oysters and ark clams are often added in large amounts, which results in a unique kimchi, with a distinctive seafood taste. Also, citron might be added at times to offset the kimchi’s spiciness with a subtle citrus fragrance. As for the City of Donghae, Gangwon-do Province, along the east coast, a cuttlefish kimchi is prepared during the cuttlefish season, which

Essential kimchi seasonings include salt and various salted seafood, such as fermented anchovy, large-head hairtail, yellow corvina, and shrimp. The salted seafood helps to enhance the kimchi’s savory taste and provides the protein, calcium, and fat that are lacking in the vegetable ingredients.

© Kimchi Gyeonmunnok , Designhouse

features cuttlefish and shredded white radish that offer a delightful contrast of chewy and crunchy textures.

Gaeseong is known for combining kimchi with a variety of 35 or so ingredients, such as apple, pear, pine nuts, jujube fruit, gingko nuts, octopus, and abalone, within a cabbage-leaf wrapping. Pyeongyang-style Chinese cabbage kimchi includes various types of nutritious mushrooms, such as shiitake and rock mushrooms. It is lightly salted and served immersed in liquid.

However, the development of mod-

ern transportation and the mobility of today’s society have tended to diminish the uniqueness of regional characteristics, as ever more people end up moving away from their hometown.

For example, in the capital district and City of Seoul, which is home to about one-quarter of Korea’s population, its residents include people from across the country, who might continue their regional kimchi-making practices, but also adopt new variations due to interaction with neighbors and the availability of ingredients. As such, this convergence of

influences has contributed to a kind of standardization of today’s kimchi.

Furthermore, the various types of salted seafood ingredients are increasingly being used in combination with each other, thereby reducing the distinctiveness of kimchi varieties previously associated with a particular region.

Nevertheless, any number of regional kimchi specialties is still available in outlying locations, such as the variety with salted sand eel, which is offered in the Chungcheong-do and Gyeonggi-do provinces.

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Dongji kimchi

Jejudo Jejudo, the southernmost island of Korea, enjoys a warm climate that makes it unnecessary for residents to prepare preserved vegetables for the winter season. Due to its natural environment, Jeju is associated with only a limited number of kimchi variations, which are not intended to be kept for long.

Still, dongji kimchi is unique to Jejudo, which is traditionally prepared on the first full moon of the lunar New Year, with Chinese cabbage that has survived the winter. When pale yellow flowers bloom on the cabbage plants, they are gathered up and soaked in brine, drained and combined with salted anchovies, garlic, and red pepper, then briefly fermented, resulting in a refreshing taste.

ous Jeolla-do kimchi. Preserved yellow corvina and shrimp are popular choices, although salted anchovies is the most common seafood ingredient for making kimchi.

Red pepper is liberally added to kimchi, along with sesame seeds and pieces of chestnuts as garnish. Rather than red pepper powder, coarsely ground red pepper, which has been combined with salted seafood in advance, is used for seasoning. The region is well-known for the spiciness of its savory kimchi,

which includes varieties made with the bitter roots of Korean lettuce, as well as a watery radish kimchi, of Naju, and a mustard-leaf variation, of Haenam.

Š Institute of Korean Royal Cuisine

Jeolla-do Jeolla-do kimchi is characterized by a taste that is said to be spicy and salty, as well as rich and savory. Due to its full-bodied flavor, some people will add glutinous rice paste in order to create a more refined taste.

From its southern and western coasts, there is a wealth of diverse seafood for the making of vari-

Oyster and white radish kimchi Š Institute of Korean Royal Cuisine

Gyeongsang-do People along the southern coastal region of Gyeongsang-do favor generous amounts of garlic and red pepper, but little ginger. After Chinese cabbage is soaked in salty brine, it is pressed to remove excess liquid, seasoned with a large amount of salted seafood, and then crammed tightly into storage containers.

The kimchi here is characterized by its heavy use of salted seafood, which is typically salted anchovies. As compared to the heavier salted anchovies that are found in Seoul, the local version is allowed to ferment longer, resulting in a reddish extract, which looks such as soy sauce. This anchovy extract, which is known by a number of names, such as aekjeot, myeoljang, and eoja, can also be used as a general seasoning. Raw ingredients, such as large-head hairtail, are also included to make kimchi, after being finely sliced and combined with red pepper powder and salt.

Young radish kimchi Š Pulmuone Kimchi Museum

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In general, kimchi in the southern regions is characterized by its bright redness, sharp taste, and minimal liquid, while that of the central regions is associated with types with a lighter red color, due to the use of less red pepper, and served with a considerable amount of liquid.

Farther north, the kimchi is immersed in liquid, mild in taste, and crisp in texture.

Mustard-leaf kimchi is a popular side dish of the Jeolla-do region.

Generous seasoning with chili pepper powder gives it a noticeable spiciness, while the distinctive aroma and mild bitterness of the mustard leaf is said to stimulate your appetite. Š Topic Photo

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White radish kimchi is an everyday version made by chopping a large radish into cubes.

Autumn radish is especially sweet and firm, making it ideal for a flavorful white radish kimchi.

In coastal regions, this kimchi is often combined with oysters. Š Topic Photo

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Chungcheong-do The kimchi of Chungcheong-do is often not as salty as in other regions, and also simpler to prepare than that of the Seoul/Gyeonggi-do area. Basic ingredients include mustard leaf, dropwort, green onions, fermented red pepper, and dead man’s fingers.

Chinese cabbage and white radish

are also salted and seasoned whole, and then packed into separate jars, according to their salt content. There is also a mixed cabbage and white radish kimchi, in which the ingredients are chopped into large chunks and mixed together, then seasoned with the extract of salted seafood, such as yellow corvina or shrimp. Young radish kimchi is often made, but unlike the white radish kimchi of Seoul, it is only lightly seasoned to enhance its refreshing taste.

Combination of cabbage and radish kimchi © Pulmuone Kimchi Museum

Wrapped kimchi

Seoul / Gyeonggi-do In the densely populated areas of Seoul and Gyeonggi-do, the kimchi does not lend itself to clear characterization. However, it could be described as being less distinctive, in terms of regional traits, which can be attributed to a desire to appeal to a wider range of taste preferences. Typical kimchi types are made with Chinese cabbage, young radish, and white radish, along with wrapped kimchi.

Other popular varieties of Seoul include palace-style soy kimchi, boiled white radish kimchi, cucumber kimchi, and “scale” kimchi, in which the radish surface is sliced into scalelike pieces. The seafood seasonings are usually salted shrimp, salted anchovies, or salted yellow corvina, which are readily available, in addition to a variety of raw ingredients, such shrimp, pollack, and large-head hairtail.

© Timespace

Gangwon-do With Gangwon-do Province being situated alongside the East Sea, its kimchi specialties include those prepared with fresh pollack and cuttlefish, which uniquely feature the fragrance and rich taste of fresh seafood. Chinese cabbage kimchi is generally similar to that of the central regions, but can be distinguished by the addition of slices of raw cuttlefish and dried pollack, which bolster the calcium content and nutritional value. White radish is chopped into large chunks, mixed with red pepper powder, and added to the cabbage layers.

Bonnet bellflower root kimchi prepared with fermented lancefish sauce © Kimchi Gyeonmunnok , Designhouse

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Hwanghae-do The kimchi here is relatively similar to that found in Seoul, Gyeonggi-do, and Chungcheong-do; however, it is distinctive in regard to the use of particular spices, such as cilantro for Chinese cabbage kimchi, and fruit of the prickly ash for squash kimchi. Squash kimchi, as in Chungcheong-do, is made from a mixture of squash and brine-soaked Chinese cabbage cut into large pieces, salted, and allowed to mature. It is often boiled and served in kimchi stew dishes.

Squash kimchi © Institute of Korean Royal Cuisine

Pyeongan-do As for Pyeongando, the region’s kimchi is notable for its light seasoning and large volume of liquid. Chinese cabbage and white radish kimchi are made separately, and also in a combination, with both being packed together in the same container. The seasoning consists of shredded white radish, green onions, garlic, ginger, red pepper powder, and thinly sliced red chili pepper, along with

raw pollack, large-head hairtail, clams, and shrimp. This can be supplemented with salted young large-head hairtail, yellow corvina, and shrimp, combined with a small amount of red pepper powder.

Of note, the liquid, unlike that of Hamgyeong-do Province, is not a brine solution, but a beef broth seasoned with salt, from which the fat has been skimmed off. In addition to being savored for its refreshing zest, the tangy liquid is also served as a broth for cold noodle dishes. Pyeongan-do is especially known for its watery white radish kim-

chi and white radish kimchi served with cold noodles.

Chinese cabbage water kimchi with light seasoning © Korea Agro-Fisheries Trade Corporation

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White radish water kimchi © Institute of Korean Royal Cuisine

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© KnJ Entertainment

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Hamgyeong-do The regional kimchi of Hamgyeongdo is known for its spiciness, but is typically less salty and served with a large amount of liquid. When properly fermented, the kimchi is enjoyed for its refreshing taste and distinctive tanginess.

Chinese cabbage kimchi is much like that of other regions, but is made with a spicy seasoning sauce, which is splashed 5onto areas here and

there, rather than being spread throughout ingredients, creating splotches of red on the cabbage sections.

In place of salted seafood, raw pollack and flatfish are sliced, mixed with red pepp e r p o w d e r, a n d inserted between the Chinese cabbage leaves.

White radish water kimchi is prepared with whole radishes or radish chunks that are immersed in liquid, which results in a milder flavor.

It is buried in the ground during the winter and allowed to ferment for at least one month. Š Timespace

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Sharing Kimchi with Consumers Around the World In line with the recent research findings about the numerous health benefits of fermented foods, kimchi has received worldwide attention as an ideal health food.

Indeed, this unassuming staple of Korea’s food culture, which has now been thrust into the international spotlight, is steadily finding its way to the dinner tables of people living far beyond the borders of Korea.

Nam Sang-won Korea Agro-Fisheries Trade Corporation Export Strategy Team

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oday, there is no doubt that people around the world recognize kimchi as the representative food of Korea.

Even if they might not have actually tasted kimchi, it is the first thing they think at the mention of Korean food.

Nowadays, kimchi is regularly consumed in 40 or so countries worldwide.

And in line with the fast-growing interest in kimchi from around the world, Korea has been pursuing the international standardization of kimchi since 1994.

This effort has led to the adoption of standards for Chinese cabbage-based kimchi, in July 2001, by the Codex Alimentarius Commission, an international organization which oversees the establishment of international standards for specified foods. Kimchi is thus the first traditional Korean food to formally acquire such international recognition, which includes an acknowledgement that Korea is the originator of kimchi.

More recent milestones in the globalization of kimchi include the designation of kimchi by the U.S. magazine Health as one of the world’s top-five healthiest foods (March 2006), and the launch of Korea’s first-ever astronaut into space, along with kimchi provisions (February 2008).

Global Kimchi Market In Korea, about 150,000 tons of kimchi are produced and consumed annually. Of this amount, 70 percent, or some 100,000 tons, is Chinese cabbage kimchi, confirming its status as the favorite variety in Korea, and the bestknown type among foreigners as well.

Fusion dishes, which combine kimchi with French cuisine, such as wafers, pudding, and cheese, on display at the Global Food Marketplace (SIAL) in Paris, France. Š Korea Agro-Fisheries Trade Corporation

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The remaining 30 percent is made from a variety of vegetables, such as white radish, young radish, and mustard leaf.

Based on retail sales, the Korean kimchi market is valued at about 5 trillion won (about $5 billion) on an annual basis, involving the production of some 600 kimchi manufacturers.

According to a survey by the Korea Agro-Fisheries Trade Corporation, the kimchi market outside of Korea is valued at an estimated $1 billion per year.

Of this amount, about 10 percent, or $100 million, is produced in Korea, with Japan being the No. 1 importer of Korean-made kimchi. Japan’s kimchi market in 2008 is expected to reach some 66 billion yen (about $700 million), indicating that Korean-produced kimchi accounts for only a 20 percent share of the Japanese market. It is estimated that about 300 kimchi makers currently operate in Japan, of which about 50 firms market their products through

large-scale distribution companies. This clearly verifies that kimchi making, after being introduced from Korea, has become a thriving industry in Japan.

In addition to Japan, countries in which kimchi is readily available include Taiwan, the United States, and China, and each of them maintain an annual kimchi market of about $100 million.

The current share of Korean-made kimchi in the Taiwanese market is about 10 percent, while that in the U.S. market is a mere 5 percent. On the other hand, China exports about 95 percent of the kimchi it produces, primarily to Korea and Japan. In recent years, the global kimchi market has been enjoying steady annual growth. However, the global market share of Korean-produced kimchi is quite insignificant, even though Korea is the originator of kimchi.

Promotional Efforts Kimchi festivals, both large and

Commercial kimchi-making process

Cabbage heads are trimmed, washed, and soaked in a low-salt solution for 20 hours.

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The salted cabbage is rinsed with water several times.

small, are regularly held in Korea, with the best-known being the Kimchi Love Festival, in Seoul, and the Gwangju Kimchi Festival, in Gwangju. Moreover, these events offer an overview of the historical evolution of kimchi from the Three Kingdoms period (1st century B.C.-A.D. 7th century) through the Joseon period (1392-1910), and provide samples of rare kimchi varieties that many people are unfamiliar with, such as the kimchi specially prepared for temple life, ancestral rituals, and ancient palaces. In addition, there are also fusion dishes that combine kimchi with foods from around the world in a bid to peak the interest of foreigners. As for various international food exhibitions held in Korea, kimchi tasting and product displays are supplemented by a variety of hands-on activities, such as kimchi-making sessions and demonstrations of preparing kimchi-related dishes, which provide Koreans and visitors

Š Hansung Food Coporation

Each leaf of the cabbages is carefully examined.

A seasoning mixture, which includes salted seafood, red chili pepper powder, garlic, and other ingredients, is applied to the cabbage leaves.

Š Kimchi Love Festival

Kimchi, a fermented food made with vegetables and seasonings, can adeptly harmonize and complement a vast array of foods enjoyed around the world. Due to this versatility, kimchi can easily be integrated into the food cultures of other countries, and can even spawn new food businesses, as has been the case in Japan.

from abroad with firsthand experiences of the preparation and uses of kimchi.

The government is actively pursuing a number of efforts to promote the globalization of kimchi, including the implementation of public relations activities and marketing initiatives focused on boosting kimchi exports. For example, the Ministry of Food, Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries launched a comprehensive publicity program in 2007 for the purpose of introducing the world to the delectable foods of Korea, which included the publication of 300 Beautiful Korean Foods that contains standardized recipes of favorite Korean dishes. In particular, it provides 14 recipes for various types of kimchi, which include step-by-step instructions that can be easily followed by people with little or no familiarity with Korean food.

Utilization of the Internet to disseminate information about kimchi includes the www.kimchi.or.kr website of the Korea Agro-Fisheries Trade Corporation, where you can find clear explanations of the techniques involved

with making kimchi, such as a recipe for the glutinous rice paste used for young radish kimchi (three cups of water combined with four tablespoons of glutinous rice powder), and also learn that the salted vegetables should be allowed to sit for three to four hours. There are also several recipes for preparing dishes with kimchi, such as kimchi shabu-shabu and kimchi tortillas.

Promotional efforts involving the traditional media, such as TV specials in targeted countries, are underway as well, which have reaped huge dividends, in terms of expanding the market share of Korean kimchi products. In Japan, where Korean kimchi has enjoyed tremendous success, Japanese TV broadcasts have publicized the health and stamina benefits of kimchi, which have contributed significantly to its consumer popularity. Meanwhile, concerted efforts are being exerted to expand this kimchi boom to additional Koreanmade fermented products, such as soy bean paste and red pepper paste. Strategies have also been devised to identify

The wives of foreign ambassadors in Korea present their kimchi-fusion dishes at the 2008 Kimchi Love Festival, held at the Namsangol Hanok Village.

new markets for kimchi exports, which currently are heavily concentrated in Japan, Russia and Southeast Asia, by sponsoring publicity events in conjunction with leading distribution companies in the local markets.

Standardization of Kimchi Of course, there are countless variations of noncommercial kimchi, which vary according to the ingredients and seasonings, and the fermentation process, as well as the personal preferences of a family or residents of a particular region. For commercially produced kimchi as well, the variety of factors that are involved with the making of kimchi can result in certain variations in taste and appearance. However, to gain wider consumer acceptance, it is necessary for kimchi manufacturers to offer a product with a consistent quality and taste, for which the standardization of kimchi is essential.

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© Kimchi Love Festival © Kimchi Love Festival

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resulted in a standardization proposal for assessing the spiciness and extent of fermentation of kimchi. In this regard, spiciness is defined by five levels, depending on the amount of capsaicin (the active component of red chili pepper), and Scoville ratings to measure hotness: mild, slightly hot, moderately hot, very hot, and extra hot. The extent of fermentation, which depends on the length of time of the maturation period, can now be regulated better as a result of recent advances in temperature-control during the distribution process.

Based on the pH level and overall acidity, three levels of fermentation have been established to measure sourness: non-fermented, moderately fermented, and highly fermented. Under this system, consumers can select from among 15 combinations of kimchi spiciness and fermentation, based on their individual tastes. Standardization of the spiciness and fermentation of kimchi products will help to bolster appeal among a broader range of consumers, both at home and abroad. In this way, the standardization of kimchi will help to pave the way for the globalization of kimchi and the continued development of the kimchi-making industry.

Path to Globalization The development of kimchi fusion dishes and the availability of a wide variety of kimchi products will be instrumental for attracting a broad base of consumers who are not well acquainted with Korean food. Fortunately, the combination of kimchi with Western cuisine has already gained considerable popularity. In particular, kimchi is an ideal complement to dishes that include cheese, the best-known fermented food of Western cultures, such as spaghetti, gratin, and tortillas, due to the fact that it provides an added crispness to the overall flavor and serves to offset any greasiness.

Other fusion dish creations include kimchi with rice croquettes, spring rolls, and tofu burgers, while there are

numerous dishes that feature a kimchipuree sauce. In addition, food researchers are continuously devising kimchi with new flavors, appearances, and colors, in order to change existing attitudes toward kimchi. Examples of specialty kimchi types include good-health kimchi, such as versions made with broccoli, fruit extract, and ginseng, along with novel kimchi products, such as kimchi essence-infused chocolate, cake, and pudding.

Kimchi is undergoing rapid change in and out of Korea. In Japan, where kimchi is firmly rooted in the local food culture, the combination of kimchi and Japanese foods has led to the creation of many new dishes. In fact, a growing number of Japanese restaurants now offer such kimchi-based items as norimaki, sushi, soba, misoshiru, nabe, and broiled-eel rice.

Also noteworthy is the integration of kimchi into French cuisine at France’s Le Cordon Bleu, one of the world’s foremost culinary institutes, where 20 French-style kimchi dishes have been developed, including fried kimchi and Camembert, kimchi-salmon cannelloni, and kimchi-cauliflower soup. The recipes for these dishes have been published and are taught at the 26 Le Cordon Bleu affiliate institutes in 15 countries.

Meanwhile, active research efforts are being undertaken to develop specialty kimchi products that are effective for the treatment of various diseases.

The Korea Food Research Institute has joined forces with university research teams to pursue a variety of research initiatives in this regard. In November 2007, they developed a high-function kimchi with an S-Adenosyl methionine (SAM) content that is three times higher than regular kimchi.

SAM, a natural biological element, is known to be helpful for mitigating the effects of liver toxicity, depression, neurological disease, dementia, arthritis, and high cholesterol. In March 2008, another high-function kimchi

© Korea Agro-Fisheries Trade Corporation

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was developed that increased the level of Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), a neurotransmitter amino acid that has been shown to be effective in improving blood flow to the brain, relieving stress, improving memory, reducing blood pressure, alleviating depression, and relieving insomnia.

Future Development of Kimchi The future appears bright for kimchi’s continued advancement into new world markets; however, it will also be necessary to satisfy the growing expectations of global consumers. In particular, a wider variety of kimchi products and kimchi applications need to be developed so as to keep pace with the diverse preferences of foreign customers. Although it will be essential to maintain

the traditional characteristics of the kimchi-making process, concerted efforts are required to boldly evolve and refine kimchi into a food with a truly global appeal.

As such, R&D activities need to be stepped up to develop new varieties of kimchi, including products with reduced spiciness, refreshing tastes, and more tangy and savory flavors, for those consumers who are not receptive to the spicy taste and fermented smell of regular kimchi. This kind of product enhancement will help to open the door to a broader cross-section of customers in global markets. As the recognized originator of kimchi, it is incumbent upon Korea to assume the leading role in the efforts to globalize kimchi’s products and the kimchi-making process.

1 New kimchi-fusion foods include this cake made with kimchi.

2 Pudding with kimchi extract 3 Kimchi-flavored chocolate is a favorite with visitors at duty-free shops.

4 Broccoli kimchi, developed by Hansung Food Corporation, received two awards at the 35th International Exhibition of Inventions, New Techniques and Products, in Geneva in April 2007.

5 Various kimchi-fusion dishes prepared at a kimchi publicity event, held in conjunction with France’s Le Cordon Bleu, one of the world’s most prestigious culinary institutes.

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FOCUS

Seoul Hosts XXII World Congress of Philosophy 2008 The XXII World Congress of Philosophy 2008 was held at Seoul National University July 30-August 5. Some 2,600 scholars of philosophy from 100 countries presented 1,700 academic papers and discussed a variety of topics during 479 sessions.

Lee Myung-hyun Professor Emeritus Philosophy Department, Seoul National University, Director, WCP 2008 Organizing Committee Photographs Korea Philosophical Association

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he XXII World Congress of Philosophy (WCP 2008), often referred to as the “Olympics of Philosophy,” was presented at Seoul National University July 30-August 5. The largest gathering of its kind, this event has been held once every five years since its inauguration in Paris in 1900. Due to the prevalence of Western thought on the philosophical world thus far, a majority of the previous sessions were hosted by European countries. As such, the Seoul gathering was the first foray of this group in the Asian region.

K o re a wa s s e l e c te d a s t h e h o s t country of the XXII World Congress of Philosophy in a vote held during the XXI World Congress of Philosophy, in Istanbul, Turkey in 2003, when it edged out Greece,

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which is recognized as the cradle of Western philosophy. The holding of this event in Seoul thus symbolized a shift in the focus of the World Congress of Philosophy from the West to the East. The Seoul organizers selected a primary theme of “World Philosophy” to bring together Western and Eastern philosophies.

Until only recently, a notion that “philosophy is equated with Western Philosophy” was generally accepted. However, the proceedings of the WCP 2008 made it clear to the global participants that Eastern Thought deserved to be recognized as a fundamental component of world philosophy. This was evident from the papers presented at the event, which for the first time featured sections on Asian Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism.

1~2 Opening ceremony of the XXII World Congress of Philosophy, on July 30, 2008, included the participation of Lee Myung-hyun, director of the Korea Organizing Committee, and Peter Kemp, president of the International Federation of Philosophical Societies.

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1 A leading authority in the field of phenomenology, Professor Cho Kah Kyung of the State University of New York participated in the XXII World Congress of Philosophy.

2 Professor Allan Gibbard of the University of Michigan is regarded as today’s preeminent ethicist.

3 Professor Vittorio Hosle of the University of Notre Dame stressed the need for a renewed emphasis on critical philosophy.

Most Western universities offer few, if any, courses related to Eastern Thought in the curriculum of their philosophy departments. In this regard, the XXII World Congress of Philosophy provided a venue for a direct encounter between Eastern and Western thought. In particular, the event served as a turning point for the direction of mainstream philosophy, which shifted toward a more balanced perspective of Eastern and Western philosophies.

Love of Wisdom The WCP 2008 participants included notable delegations of representatives from the United States (174), Russia (166), Japan (134), China (126), India (64), and Germany (53), along with a large number of Eastern philosophers from Korea and other regions.

The term “philosophy” is derived from the ancient Greek term “philosophia,” meaning “love of wisdom.” Philosophia was originally used as a general term

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4 Professor Tim Scanlon of Harvard University,

to include all theoretical disciplines. The separation of disciplines only occurred during the modern era, while the individual spheres of learning evident in today’s universities emerged from this division of disciplines. Although the field of philosophy has undergone various transformations during the departmentalization of disciplines, philosophical inquiry remains rooted in an exploration of the nature of man and the universe, based on comprehensive, fundamental, and critical methodology.

Human civilization is currently in the midst of a profound transition. Thus far, humans have established various relations with nature that has enabled people to alter their basic life structure, whenever deemed necessary. The relationships between people and nature underwent repeated change during the agricultural and industrial eras, which opened a door for the advent of a variety of philosophies.

A secondary theme of the WCP 2008,

an ethicist and political philosopher, has focused on the exploration of interpersonal relationships.

5 Peter Kemp, President of the International Federation of Philosophical Societies

“Rethinking Philosophy Today,” focused on a fundamental reconsideration of the need for a new blueprint to provide a future direction for civilization, while also reviewing our past philosophical heritage during this dramatic period of transition for humankind. The discussions might not have immediately resulted in the creation of a detailed road map, but they did serve as a timely opportunity to adjust the basic framework of human thought and to prepare for the dawn of a new civilization.

Distinguished Participants The WCP 2008 featured four plenary sessions: “Rethinking Moral, Social, and Political Philosophy,” “Rethinking Metaphysics and Aesthetics,” “Rethinking Epistemology, Philosophy of Science and Technology,” and “Rethinking the History of Philosophy and Comparative Philosophy.” In addition, five symposiums were presented: “Conflict and Tolerance,” “Globalization and Cosmopolitanism,” “Bio-

ethics, Environmental Ethics, and Future Generations,” “Tradition, Modernity, and Post-Modernity,” and “Philosophy in Korea.” During the various symposiums, lectures, and roundtable discussions, prominent scholars introduced and discussed recent academic trends.

The participants included Vittorio Hosle, the world-renowned German philosopher and professor of the University of Notre Dame; Timothy Williamson, an illustrious figure of British and American literature; Judith Butler, a foremost theorist and contributor to the development of modern feminist theory, and professor of the University of California, Berkeley; Kim Jae-gwon, professor of Brown University and renowned author of metaphysics; and Tanella Boni, professor of the University of Cocody, in the Republic of Cote d’Ivoire, and avid promoter of African arts and culture on the international stage. Overall, some 2,600 scholars from 100 countries participated in this event that included

the presentation of some 1,700 academic papers.

Alain Badiou, who presented a lecture on the subject of “rethinking the history of philosophy and comparative philosophy— tradition, criticism, and conversation,” is perhaps the most influential figure of modern French philosophy. Slavoj Zizek regards him as the greatest French philosopher after Jacques Derrida and Gilles Deleuze. As for Alain Badiou, who has a PhD in mathematics, he has earned the respect of his colleagues in the field of philosophy because of the broad spectrum of his thought, which covers a wide range of disciplines, such as art, mathematics, politics, and religion.

Known as a “Nietzsche of the 21st Century,” Peter Sloterdijk is a philosopher who has attracted much attention because of his ability to develop bold theories that effectively challenge existing philosophical icons. His Kritik der zynischen Vernunft (Critique of Cynical

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Reason ), published in 1983, is the bestselling German-language philosophy book since World War II. The substantive quality of the philosophical discussions was further enhanced by the presence of the acclaimed French philosopher Luc Ferry, who served as Minister of Education under Jacques Chirac, and Kim Jaegwon, a world-famous professor of Brown University.

Guidance for Humanity Over the last 2,500 years, philosophy, and Western thought in particular, has focused on the presence of a certain “absolute.” However, a growing perception that humans are incapable of maintaining such an “absolute,” has led to the emergence of wallows of despair and a descent into nihilism. As such, human thought has been dominated by the psychological extremes of “absolutism” and “nihilism.” In this regard, the World Congress of Philosophy serves as a venue for

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1 In conjunction with the World Congress gathering, publishers sponsored an exhibition of recent books on philosophy.

2 Professor Tim Scanlon made a presentation during an event dinner.

3 Closing ceremony of the XXII World Congress of Philosophy in Seoul.

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addressing the political tasks assigned to those who are concerned about the current and future state of humankind. This requires a critical assessment of humankind’s place within the universe and the search for a framework for human life.

Humankind currently faces a fundamental challenge in the form of a question of whether people can continue to live on this earth for much longer. That is to say, because of man’s failure to engage in productive communication with nature and the allowing of obstacles to exist within different cultural spheres, which serve to impede dialogue and interaction among the members of various cultural spheres, the very existence of humankind is now being threatened.

It is thus incumbent upon humankind to reconcile with nature, and search for methods to promote an integrated perspective and open mindedness that are required to bring about reconcilia-

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tion between those trapped behind such cultural obstacles. As for the XXII World Congress of Philosophy in Seoul, its most valuable contribution to the posterity of humankind would be the efforts to awaken people to the serious problems that require our attention and to sow the seeds of reconsideration needed to bring about a new thought and behavioral framework.

A new, sustainable civilization cannot be realized without a mind that is free from arrogance and greed. Accordingly, contemporary philosophers should seriously contemplate what they can do to help bring about a new civilization, in which we can all effectively communicate with one another. A new civilization requires a new world philosophy. In this regard, the WCP 2008 can be appreciated as a vital turning point in the process of reconsidering how we should face up to today’s challenges.

The XXII World Congress of Philosophy provided a venue for a direct encounter between Eastern and Western thought. In particular, the event served as a turning point for the direction of mainstream philosophy, which shifted toward a more balanced perspective of Eastern and Western philosophies.

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INTERVIEW

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Poet Ko Un “I am my own future!”

Ko Un, one of Korea’s most distinguished poets and a two-time nominee for the Nobel Prize in Literature, is a consummate literary figure who has earned high acclaim around the world. Though well into his seventies, his writing is animated by themes of resistance and struggle, as he seeks to defy time through his passion for re-creation.

Choi Jae-bong Literature Reporter, The Hankyoreh Ahn Hong-beom Photographer

The poet Ko Un spends much of his time in the library of his home, situated in the quiet village of Anseong, Gyeonggi-do Province.

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n the afternoon of September 10, 2008, an especially meaningful event was held at the Korea Foundation Cultural Center. Organized by the Seoul Literary Society, led by the Ambassador of Sweden Lars Vargo, the gathering featured the reading of Ko Un’s poetry by the ambassadors of Colombia, the Czech Republic, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Mexico, Qatar, Switzerland, and Turkey, in their native language.

Beloved the World Over During the welcoming remarks of the president of the Seoul Literary Society, Ambassador Lars Vargo, who had also previously invited Ko Un to participate in a poetry-reading event to celebrate the society’s founding in 2006, he noted: “Although Ko Un’s poems have already been translated into English, his poems will today be recited in ten different languages. This exercise is being carried out in order to demonstrate the extent to which Ko Un’s poems have touched people the world over.” The ambassadors of Colombia and Mexico recited their selected poems in Spanish, while the ambassador of Switzerland presented his selections in French and German. The ambassador of Ireland’s reading of Ko Un’s “In the Woods” and “Su-dong and the Swallows,” in his native Gaelic, was particularly impressive, eliciting hearty applause.

An exhibition of Ko Un’s paintings was on display as well.

The exhibition, entitled “Drawing of the Verbs,” celebrated the 50th anniversary of his debut and illustrious career as a man of letters. On this occasion, Ko Un recited a new poem, “The Void,” for the guests. During a subsequent media session, Ko admitted that whenever he published a new poem he would always have the same feeling as when he made his literary debut. He also added: “I have always regarded myself as being outside of the 100-year-old tradition of Korea’s modern poetry; so much so in fact that I almost feel as if my own mother tongue, in which I was predestined to express myself, is a foreign language.”

Endless Quest for Newness Ko Un’s philosophical outlook, which can be characterized by a willingness to abandon the familiar and comfortable as part of an endless quest for newness, is the dynamic force that has vaulted him to the lofty heights of his artistic renown. Starting with a focus on nihilistic estheticism during his early years, to a fascination with political activism during a middle period, and then dedication to a Seon (Korean form of Zen) Buddhism-based reconciliation of the world in the latter years of his career, Ko Un’s literature has undergone a continuous cycle of change and evolution.

In the preface of his book, Poetry Left Behind , published in 2002, Ko Un proclaimed: “I am my own future!” This might be understood as a declaration of his commitment to cease40 Koreana | Winter 2008

lessly march toward a future “me,” rather than contemplating the present “me.” Ko Un’s earlier and equally famous saying, “I contribute more to extinction than creation,” is generally perceived as a representation of his early nihilistic worldview. However, this thought should also be understood as an expression of his willingness to discard his achievements and to create something new from this void.

Cut off parents! Cut off children!

This and that, and this not that, and anything else as well – cut off and dispatch by the sharp blade of night.

Every morning, heaven and earth are heaped with all that’s dead.

Our job is to bury that all day long and establish a new world there.

“Destruction of Life” Translated by Brother Anthony of Taize, Young-Moo Kim, and Gary G. Gach

This poem, “Destruction of Life,” is included in his poetry collection, At Munui Village , published in 1974. Therein, Ko Un reveals the origins and orientation of his nihilism. To insulate himself from the secular world and the serious psychological trauma he suffered during the Korean War, Ko Un embarked on a path to become a monk in 1952. The first line of the poem, “Cut off parents! Cut off children!” brings to mind the unique teachings of Korean Seon Buddhism, to the effect that one must kill a monk and even Buddha himself, if you should meet them. Nevertheless, the final line, “and establish a new world there,” which was intentionally set apart from the previous seven lines with an added space, serves to highlight that this nihilism and extinction are intertwined with a conscious effort to establish a new world.

It is clear that the 1970 self-immolation of Jeon Tae-il, a labor activist who had struggled to protest the establishment’s exploitation of workers, fundamentally altered Ko Un’s perception of the world and attitude toward literature.

Still, it remains unclear what the term “new world” means in this poem. The new world that Ko Un sought to bring about is articulated in a clearer and more aggressive manner in Early Morning Road , which was published in 1978. In this regard, “Arrows” can be appreciated as a representative example of Ko Un’s poetry during this period.

Body and soul, let’s all go transformed into arrows!

Piercing the air body and soul, let’s go with no turning back transfixed

© Committee in Charge of Organizing the Celebration to Commemorate Ko Un’s Half-century in the Literary Field

An exhibition of 35 paintings and 19 works of calligraphy by poet Ko Un was presented at the Korea Foundation Cultural Center Gallery (September 4-12).

In addition, at a special poetry-reading event, ambassadors in Korea read selected poems of Ko Un in their native language.

Ko Un also recited one of his new poems.

In the preface of his book Poetry Left Behind , published in 2002, Ko Un proclaimed: “I am my own future!” This might be understood as a declaration of his commitment to ceaselessly march toward a future “me,” rather than contemplating the present “me.”

Winter 2008 | Koreana 41

rotten with the pain of striking home never to return.

One last breath! Now, let’s leave the bowstring, throwing away like rags everything we’ve had for decades everything we’ve enjoyed for decades everything we’ve piled up for decades, happiness all, the whole thing.

Body and soul, let’s all go transformed into arrows!

The air is shouting! Piercing the air body and soul, let’s go!

In dark daylight, the target rushes towards us.

Finally, as the target topples in a shower of blood Let’s all, just once, as arrows bleed.

Never to return! Never to return!

Hail, arrows, our nation’s arrows!

Hail, our nation’s warriors! Spirits!

“Arrows” Translated by Brother Anthony of Taize, Young-Moo Kim, and Gary G. Gach

After focusing on nihilism during his early days, from the 1970s, Ko Un turned his attention to political activism, which is said to have been a dark period of his literary career.

Nevertheless, his poetry has never strayed from a fundamental search for the truth of reality.

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Of course, here, the “target” might be unclear. However, considering the prevailing circumstances of the mid to late 1970s, when this poem was written, and its widespread popularity among university students and activist figures, it is evident that Ko Un had since left behind the nihilism of his early days and moved on to the challenge of creating a new political order. Throughout the 1980s, a synergy effect was created by combining his literary endeavors with his personal participation in the political process, together with a staunch determination to bring his beliefs to fruition.

Although Ko Un’s poetry and actions earned him a position of influence among Korea’s political vanguard during the 1980s, he also sought to discover a more profound and extensive path for himself. From 1987 to 1994, Ko Un worked on Baekdusan , a seven-volume epic dealing with the independence of the Korean nation and reunification of the Korean Peninsula.

He started to pen another literary masterpiece, Ten Thousand Lives (Maninbo ), in 1986. This was a period in which minjung literature had yet to be divided along social and nationalistic lines. In other words, while a majority of minjung authors were competing with one another to clearly define this brand of literature, Ko Un had already reached the point in which he perceived a necessity for the minjung to live

their lives in a more exemplary manner, at the forefront of society.

An instant that is born between you and me!

There the furthest star rises.

Meetings of people – in the hundreds of miles of Buyeo, in each village of ancient Mahan’s fifty-four nations.

Since then, the meetings of people in a single fatherland!

In this ancient land parting means an expansion.

Procession of endless living, in which no one can exist all alone. Tomorrow!

Ah, a person can be a person, a world, only among other people.

“Preface to Maninbo” Translated by Brother Anthony of Taize and Lee Sang-Wha

The 30-volume Ten Thousand Lives (Maninbo ) was born out of Ko Un’s desire to record his recollections of 10,000 people that he has met during his lifetime. The work is expected to be completed sometime in 2009. Although the number of accounts of people has since been reduced to 3,000, the final publication of this series of poems, in its entirety, will nevertheless represent Ko Un’s successful completion of a literary work of an unprecedented scale, and tangible proof of his boundless ambition.

Insight and Intuition Although the direction of Ko Un’s poetry might have undergone change during his 50-year career, his Seon-based intuition and insight have remained a constant. His poetry, regardless of when they were written, all feature a radical disconnection of thought, straying outside the realm of conventional wisdom, and creation of paradoxical notions. These traits, which are rooted in the ten years he spent as a Buddhist monk, are even more evident in the poetry that he has written since the 1990s. The keen interest in his poetic works among readers abroad results from the Oriental Seon-like sensibility embodied in his poetry, and the fact that this sentiment cannot be re-created from a Western perspective.

Yi Mun-gu, a novelist and close friend of Ko Un, who passed away in 2003, once said: “If I were to sum up Ko Un’s identity in a word, I would say comprehensive.” This assessment can indeed be verified by the 150 or so of Ko Un’s works that have been published to date, which include tomes of poetry, fiction, essays, travel logs, critical biographies, and commentaries. Moreover, it is also necessary to be familiar with Ko’s achievements in other artistic genres, apart from his poetry, which have tended to be overshadowed by the preeminence of his poetic career.

The immense curiosity and passion that enabled Ko Un to break down boundaries between genres have further made it possible for him to transcend the divide between language and form. The exhibition at this event included 37 acrylic paintings, calligraphic works, and Seon paintings, which had been created in a mere 12 days, during the scorching heat of summer.

These works, which were highly lauded by everyone there, revealed a little-known aspect of Ko Un’s creative genius.

Does this suggest a direct relationship between literary and artistic talent? Or that all forms of art are derived from a common origin? Even more surprising was the flourish of colors that filled every inch of the canvas, leaving no blank spaces. Literati paintings are usually characterized by a sense of minimalism and the use of blank space. However, during the media session Ko Un made known the fact that he chooses to ignore the Oriental notion of blank space. He said: “I am very fond of the physical affluence and sensualism that oil paintings exude, and of their ability to fill up entire canvases with garish colors.” This unorthodox approach to painting is a reflection of Ko Un’s philosophical outlook.

He explains: “I cannot live the rest of my life simply being satisfied with what I have already accomplished. I am not looking to resolve or answer the questions that popped up during the first half of my life. I’m getting ready to tackle the next upheaval or challenge which life throws my way.” During his remarks to the Seoul Literary Society, Ko Un mentioned: “Rather than focus on the last 50 years, I plan on spending my remaining days creating a glorious future.” This thought is a manifestation of his indomitable spirit, and endless quest for re-creation.

Forever Young Ko Un plans to embark on a new challenge after the final volume of Ten Thousand Lives (Maninbo ) is published, sometime in 2009. His current plans include the creation of additional masterpieces such as Virgin , an epic and metaphysical poetic work based on the story of the beloved fairytale character Sim Cheong, which includes an underwater encounter with the sea king; and Destiny , which delves into the possibility of creating a new school of thought that can integrate Oriental and Western values. However, as Ko Un admits, he can only wonder about his ability to complete these planned projects, since he places great faith in a notion of “destiny as a form of natural writing.”

Ko Un is perhaps the foremost member of the Korean literati, in terms of the fame he has earned abroad, which can be attributed to his prolific writing over the past half century. However, in his assessment of the poem “The Void,” Yom Moo-ung observes that: “Ko Un’s poetry may not have reached the summit yet.” Indeed, the commitment of Ko Un to his “I am my own future” attitude could not be more selfevident.

Winter 2008 | Koreana 43

ARTISAN

Archery Craftsman

Yoo Young-ki Blends Strength with Resiliency From ancient times, Koreans have been called “Dongi,” meaning “a people of the east skilled in archery.”

During the Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910), archery was a basic aspect of everyday life, of the king and his subjects, which contributed to the development of one’s body and mind. Yoo Young-ki belongs to a family that for five generations has been dedicated to the traditional craft of making arrows and bows.

Park Hyun Sook Freelance Writer | Seo Heun-kang Photographer

44 Koreana | Winter 2008

with. This thing called a bow, it is so easy to go too far with it, or to not go far enough, unlike what the heart desires! I cannot stop making arrows until I make one that perfectly satisfies me.”

Unity of Artisan and Archer

Traditional arrows made by master craftsman Yoo Young-ki.

The background image is a depiction of the mural painting of hunting scenes in the Goguryeo (37 B.C.-668 A.D.) period Muyongchong Tomb (Tomb of Dancing Figures).

S

ince a work of art is a vessel through which an artisan can express his soul and inner sentiments, it will naturally reflect the maker’s character. The piercing eyes of Yoo Young-ki, which seem capable of reading your mind, and his lean build, are well suited to his craft of making traditional arrows and bows. From early childhood, Yoo has been surrounded by archery making, first helping out his father by fetching bamboo shafts and pheasant feathers. And today, now in his 70s, he continues to spend all his time around arrows and bows.

“When I was 15, the Korean War broke out, which forced us to flee our home practically empty-handed. But my father insisted on packing up and carrying his archery-making tools. I could not understand why he did this, until I was older. To a master craftsman of arrows and bows, his tools are his life. Though I am now past 70, I have yet to make an arrow that I’m completely satisfied

Yoo’s hometown in Gyeonggi-do Province has been famed for its archery-making activities since the Joseon Dynasty. His father Yoo Bok-sam operated the arrow-making shop that he had inherited from his father, who was known as one of the foremost fletchers of his time, supplying arrows to leading archery grounds nationwide. As his reputation spread by word of mouth, people from all around the country sought out his arrows.

“They say that quality goods come from quality materials.

But when it comes to arrows, there is another requirement: the bowyer needs to know about the person who will use his bows.

He needs to meet the archer in person and take a good look at his physique, the length and strength of his arms, and also his character. The body of a bow should be tailored to an individual’s particular characteristics. When a bow’s strength and weight are in harmony with the archer, this will help to optimize his ability to shoot more accurately. A bowyer cannot make a proper bow by meeting the archer only once or twice; they must meet several times so that the bowyer can become familiar with this individual.

Archers who fully enjoy life and the arts are prized customers.

They help me to refine my arrows and bows based on their valuable feedback, when handling a certain bow. There should be a harmonious relationship between the artisan and the archer.”

The archers, who once gathered around Yoo’s workshop like clouds in the sky, were his advisors and his friends as well, sharing a mutual appreciation of each other’s expertise. Although in lesser numbers than before, archers still come by to visit Yoo. Their specific requests for bows with more strength, or with a lighter weight, present Yoo with a wide array of challenges. But the pleasure of resolving these tasks gives Yoo immense satisfaction.

In traditional Joseon society, archery was more than just a martial arts form. Along with etiquette, music, horsemanship, calligraphy, and mathematics, archery was among the Six Social Graces featured in the Confucian doctrines, as a means to cultivate one’s body and mind. According to Mencius: “Being compassionate is like shooting an arrow. Archery can be accomplished only by disciplining yourself.”

The ancient Chinese text, Book of Rites , notes that the purpose of archery is to nurture your emotional capability: “Since long ago, archery has been considered a practice that involves the recognition of virtue, which can only be acquired through the heart. Therefore, a man of virtue practices archery in order to preserve the soundness of his heart.” In Korea, with the origin of archery dating back to the Paleolithic Age, it attained widespread popularity during the Joseon Dynasty, when archery was enjoyed by the king and commoners alike. Yoo recalls that, until the 1960s, and the 1970s to a lesser extent, regular archery competitions would be held at every village around the country.

Winter 2008 | Koreana 45

“They say that an upright posture is required to strike your target. An archer must straighten his body as well as his mind, and combine the two to make an accurate shot. Nothing is better than archery for the cultivation of your body and mind.

“I opened a museum to promote archery because interest in the art has been dying off. Children come here to learn about archery and some of them ask: ‘Can we find Jumong here?’ How adorable and innocent children can be! Jumong, the renowned archer and founder of ancient Goguryeo, might no longer be with us, but our children are his descendants, which makes them all Jumong. So, I tell them: ‘You are Jumong.’”

In May 2001, Yoo opened the Young Jip Bow & Arrow Museum, which includes displays of about 200 arrows and bows, from the East and the West. It also features a singijeon replica, a multiplelaunch artillery weapon from the Joseon period, which was capable of simultaneously firing off more than 100 arrows.

Uncompromising Dedication Korea’s traditional arrows can be grouped into two categories: jukjeon , made from bamboo, and moksi , made with various woods. During the Goguryeo Kingdom (37 B.C.-A.D. 668), in the northern area of the Korean Peninsula, wooden arrows were made with bush clover, willow, and white birch. The bush clover arrows of Goguryeo were known to be highly effective. But wooden arrows of the Goryeo Dynasty (918-1392), were more difficult to produce and somewhat heavier, which limited their range, versus bamboo arrows. These disadvantages led to a decline in the popularity of wooden arrows from the early Joseon period, after which traditional Korean arrows have been made primarily from bamboo. Bamboo is durable yet flexible, enabling an archer to maintain precise control of his grip and the arrow’s direction, which makes it an ideal material for making arrows.

To make a traditional arrow, a time-consuming and tedious handcrafted process is required. In late November, Yoo will spend a month roaming about the country in search of the ideal bamboo for making arrows. He dries the bamboo in the shade for about seven weeks. After removing the skin from the bamboo stalks, he

dries the shafts over a charcoal fire. He smoothes out the surface of the bamboo pieces, and then selects the most suitable shafts for making arrows.

“I prefer bamboo that grows along the seaside, to bamboo grown in the mountains. The best bamboo for arrows comes from bamboo trees that are two years old. The bamboo must be of an even thickness and the nodes must be free of chinks. The selected bamboo pieces are cut into 90-centimeter shafts, which should each include three segments of equal length. I have traveled every corner of the country in search of high-quality bamboo, from Gangwon-do Province to Jejudo Island.

“It seems that if I look over 100,000 bamboo trees, only 5,000 are suitable for making arrows. With orders for arrows that needed to be made, but not enough suitable bamboo gathered up, I would often wander about all day, searching for bamboo. Once in the 1970s, when I was in my forties, I was mistaken for a North Korean infiltrator, while combing through a bamboo grove along a coastal area. Nevertheless, I never became tired or gave up looking for suitable bamboo back then. When I descended a mountain after a difficult yet successful search for good bamboo, I would gaze at the sunset and briefly relax, while thinking that there was nothing in the world for me to envy.”

After the bamboo has been prepared, the arrow is put together with steel pieces, cow sinew, bush clover, fish glue, and pheasant feathers. The individual parts are made separately in the following order: the shaft, arrowhead, nock for the bowstring, and feathers to improve the arrow’s true flight. The feathers from a single pheasant are enough to make about three arrows. And it takes much attention to boil fish bladders to produce the glue for attaching the arrowheads. The assembled arrows need to be planed by hand several times, to adjust the weight. Attaching the arrowheads and polishing the arrows are simple enough, but with a single arrow requiring over 130 steps for its proper completion, three arrows are all that Yoo can manage to make, even when he spends an entire day at his worktable.

Due to the prevalence of convenience and mass-production in modern times, traditional bamboo arrows have been over-

1 Various arrow types, including signal arrows that made a sound when shot, short military arrows, fire arrows, arrows for delivering messages, and hunting arrows, along with stringed implements, are exhibited at the Young Jip Bows & Arrows Museum, founded by Yoo Young-ki.

1

2 Final inspection of a completed arrow

“I have devoted my entire life to making arrows, but I am not good at shooting arrows. Nevertheless, I have learned my life lessons from working with arrows. They say a good archer needs to have the posture of a dancer, together with flexibility and self-control. I believe that is what we should strive for in our lives as well.�

2

1 After bamboo shafts are dried in the shade for a month,

2 Any protrusions are removed to assure a smooth surface.

they are heated over a charcoal fire and straightened out.

3 Fish glue is applied to both ends of a bamboo shaft, and covered with strips of cow-sinew to prevent cracking.

5 Based on the shaft’s weight and length, a matching arrowhead is attached to the front end.

48 Koreana | Winter 2008

4 A pheasant feather is trimmed and attached to the rear end of the shaft.

6 The completed arrow is inspected for flaws, and adjusted accordingly.

Master craftsman Yoo Young-ki will test each of his arrows by shooting them himself.

The crafting of a single arrow involves some 130 steps.

whelmed by cheap, machine-made plastic arrows. Disheartened by this trend, Yoo has sought to restore various types of traditional arrows, in a personal campaign to spark public interest. He also published a book on traditional arrows in 1977, which details the variety of arrow types, production processes, techniques, materials, and tools.

Examples of traditional arrows displayed at Yoo’s museum include hyosi , a signal arrow that makes a sound when shot; pyeonjeon , an arrow half the length of a regular arrow (30 centimeters) that works with a bow-support device; hwajeon , a fire arrow; sejeon , an arrow for sending a message; sejeon , for delivering the king’s orders; and jusal , a hunting arrow, with retrieval string. In 1996, in recognition of his status as a master craftsman of traditional arrows, Yoo was designated Important Intangible Cultural Property No. 47, the first-ever honor of this kind for an archery maker.

Five Generations of Archery The harmony between strength and flexibility is a distinctive characteristic of the traditional Korean bow. Bamboo, oak wood, mulberry wood, water buffalo horn, and cow sinew strips are the materials used to make a bow. The grip or hand-plate, and the ends of a bow, are made from oak and mulberry, respectively, while the bow’s center spine is made with bamboo, to provide maximum flexibility and suppleness. Layers of water buffalo horn and strips of cow sinew are attached to the bow with fish glue,

made from the bladder of croaker fish. Because the croaker fish glue’s adhesive strength is less effective in high temperatures, high-quality bows are not made in the summer. Yoo explains that the flexible bamboo and the more durable oak and mulberry are combined with other materials to optimize the bow’s tensile strength.

“The traditional Korean bow is a type of horn bow, made with water buffalo horn and cow sinew. In terms of performance, it belongs to the ganggung , or strong bow category, the most powerful of traditional bows,” Yoo notes. Over the years, Yoo has passed on his crafting skills to his son, representing the fifth generation of this family’s making of arrows and bows. For Yoo’s second-oldest son, Se-hyeon (43), who grew up watching his father make arrows and bows, as was the case with Yoo himself, he has since given up the security of his regular work to follow in his father’s footsteps.

“I have devoted my entire life to making arrows, but I am not good at shooting arrows. Nevertheless, I have learned my life lessons from working with arrows. They say a good archer needs to have the posture of a dancer, together with flexibility and self-control. I believe that is what we should strive for in our lives as well.”

On this windy and chilly winter afternoon, at my request, Yoo agreed to draw one of his bows, although he mentioned that it had been awhile. His upright posture conveyed a forthright and natural character, much like a river that flows effortlessly along its singular course.

Winter 2008 | Koreana 49

MASTERPIECES

Elegant Earthenware Figurines Reveal Silla’s Spirituality An elegant figurine of a man on horseback (National Treasure No. 91) is a masterpiece of Korean earthenware for its aesthetic and archeological value. The realistically detailed depiction of the rider and horse, as well as the clothing and accessories, provide a unique insight into the lifestyle and mindset of the Silla people.

Song Yi-chung Director, Department of Archeology, National Museum of Korea Photographs National Museum of Korea

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xcavations of Silla period (57 B.C.-A.D. 935) tombs have yielded a diverse array of relics, including earthenware, iron weapons, and saddles, of varying numbers and types. In particular, the abundance of earthenware artifacts of a wide variety of styles and types has provided valuable information about the everyday life of Silla people, along with serving as a gauge to estimate the date of a tomb’s origin.

The excavation of the Geumnyeongchong Tomb (Tomb of Golden Bells) yielded a true Korean masterpiece of ancient art: an earthenware figurine of a man on horseback, along with a complementary piece. As compared to a majority of ordinary earthenware items, such as vessels and bowls designed for everyday use, this figurine is highly decorative, with a realistic rendering of the rider and horse in vivid detail.

Silla’s Artistic Brilliance In the downtown area of Gyeongju, which served as the capital of the Silla Kingdom for over one thousand years, you can find almost 200 ancient tombs of varying sizes, ranging from 20 meters to 60 meters in diameter. Among these earthen mound tombs, about 40 sites are well-preserved, with little visible damage to their exterior. It has been concluded that Silla royalty had been buried in these tombs, based on the recovery of myriad gold accessories, such as waist belts, necklaces, bracelets, and rings, testifying to Silla’s prosperity and the splendor of its cultural achievements.

Geumnyeongchong is a treasure trove of Silla relics, yielding a large number of gold artifacts, including crowns and belts. Based on these relics, the tomb is believed to date to the late fifth century or the early sixth century. The tomb was named Geumnyeongchong, or “Tomb of Golden Bells,” due to the recovery of a gold crown to which two small gold bells are attached. The gold crowns and accessories found in this tomb are relatively small in scale and were all placed within close proximity of each other, which causes scholars to conjecture that the tomb contained a young child, perhaps a Silla prince.

Although the tomb acquired its name from the gold crown, its most noteworthy artifacts are not the crown and other gold accessories, but four uniquely-shaped earthenware figurines. Two of

50 Koreana | Winter 2008

The figures featured on a pair of ewers, recovered from a Silla-period tomb, are thought to be depictions of the tomb’s occupant and his servant. The detailed rendering of the master’s clothing and decorative horse-riding gear provide valuable insight into the culture of Silla nobility. (height: 24 cm, length: 29.5 cm)

Winter 2008 | Koreana 51

The figurine’s core is hollow so that a liquid, such as rice wine, could be poured into the cavity through a funnel-like opening to the rear of the horse, and dispensed from a spout carved into the horse’s lower neck. Based on its placement within the tomb from which it was recovered, the figurine was probably used to pour rice wine during a funerary ritual, just prior to the tomb being covered with earth.

the figurines depict a man on horseback, with the other two being boat-shaped forms with an unclothed rower inside. Why did the Silla artisans create these figurines? And why were these earthenware works buried with the dead?

Unique Figurines The four earthenware works excavated from Guemnyeongchong are representative examples of the various figurines created by Silla artisans, which depicted humans, animals, and other natural objects. This popular earthenware style of Silla and Gaya (42-562) is thought to have been transmitted from Gaya to Silla, sometime around the fourth century.

With a hollowed-out interior or a cup attached to the body, this kind of figurine could function as a container for holding a liquid. Of note, it was clearly distinctive from solid ceramic figurines, earthenware vessels intended for everyday use, and clay coffins.

These figurines, which were not designed for practical, everyday usage, are believed to have been ceremonial containers used to dispense rice wine or water for funerary rituals, or as a funerary object to wish for a peaceful existence in the next world. Such earthenware items would be buried within the tomb after a funeral service. The figurines recovered from Geumnyeongchong are significant as relics that provide a glimpse into the funerary customs and the spiritual realm of the Silla people, who earnestly appealed for peacefulness in the afterlife.

Master and Servant As for the two figures on horseback, one is assumed to be the master and the other his servant. The master figurine is somewhat larger (height: 24 centimeters, length: 29.5 centimeters) than the servant (height: 21.6 centimeters, length: 26.3 centimeters). The master is wearing aristocratic attire, with a peaked hat and a short sword, along with a decorative bridle and saddle. In contrast, the servant is dressed in a basic garment, with a load on his back. The differences in their sizes and clothing, as well as the decoration of their horses, are indicators of their respective social standing. When excavated, the servant was found placed in front of the master, as if guiding him to the next world.

A close look at the master’s hat shows two straps fastened under the chin and a lower rim adorned with round buttons—a style similar to the gold headpieces recovered from other Silla tombs. Since a headpiece like that of the figurine was not found in Geumnyeongchong, this type of hat might have been for adults, and thus would not by worn by a

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1

1

2

1 The servant-figure ewer, which is slightly smaller than the master-figure ewer, includes simpler clothing and basic horse-riding gear.

The servant is shown holding a small bell, which is associated with a traditional funeral procession. (height: 21.6 cm, length: 26.3 cm)

2 When recovered, the servant ewer was found in front of the master, symbolizing the servant’s role to guide his master in the afterlife.

young child, who is presumed to be the tomb occupant. It is also thought that the master was depicted as an adult to pray for the prince’s healthy development in the next world. The collar and waist of the master’s upper garment are elaborately decorated with round buttons, while his trousers, worn under protective armor, have a checkered pattern and are bound at the ankles. His shoes are pointed at the tips, and his short sword, with a ring-shaped hilt, is hung from his waist on the left side.

The master’s horse is fully equipped for riding, including a harness that is similar to the metal horse-riding gear found in other Silla tombs. There are bit rings at the end of the reins, and the bridle is notably decorative. The horse’s mane is neatly gathered into a topknot, pointing forward. Two large bells hang from its breast area and a heart-shaped pendant is attached to the decorative straps on each side of its body. The joints of the harness straps are secured with buttons, while the saddle is connected with ringed straps. The saddle blanket and saddle flaps are decorated with a simple linear pattern along the edge, which is also seen on the saddle flaps recovered from Cheonmachong Tomb.

In addition, the funnel attached to the horse’s back includes a decorative rim.

Unlike the master, the servant wears a headband around his topknot, without a hat. His chest is bare, and he is shown carrying a bundle on his back, across his right shoulder. The bell he is holding in his right hand is especially meaningful. According to ancient funeral customs, a person would lead the bier procession while ringing a hand bell, to guide the coffin bearers and the soul of the deceased.

The figurine’s bell thus indicates that this traditional practice had been observed by people of the Silla Kingdom. The servant’s trousers are similar to his master’s, but are not covered with armor, while the tips of his shoes are rounded. His harness is simple, without reins, bit rings or decorative straps, while the horse’s mane is not gathered together.

Appeal for the After Life Ancient Silla tombs are rich repositories of valuable artifacts that help reveal the contemporary culture and thoughts of its society. Whereas the gold ornaments, such as crowns and belts, show us the splendor of Silla’s material culture, the earthenware figurines found in Geumnyeongchong reveal its spiritual culture, in regard to funeral ceremonies, belief in the after life, and a social status hierarchy, expressed through clothing, possessions, and stature.

Recently, similar but cruder forms of earthenware figures, of a man on horseback, have been excavated from tombs in Gyeongju and the nearby Gyeongsan area, demonstrating that this type of earthenware item was commonly possessed by people of various social standing. The earthenware figurines of Geumnyeongchong provide considerable insight into the burial customs of the Silla people and their spiritual beliefs, as well as their hopes and prayers for life after death.

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ART REVIEW

Magnum Korea Exhibition Images of Korean Society’s Diversity The Magnum Korea exhibition was presented at the Hangaram Art Museum of the Seoul Arts Center (July 4-August 24). As for the world-class photographers of Magnum assigned to the project, what sights and scenes of Korea and its people might have caught their eye and been recorded on film? This curiosity was enough to attract overflow crowds of visitors to the exhibition venue.

Sohn Young-sil Photography Critic

A photograph of N Seoul Tower taken by the famed photographer Thomas Hoepker, whose unique use of color features and reportage photos have earned him worldwide acclaim. Š Thomas Hoepker, Magnum Photos, Euro Photo-Magnum Korea

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lthough the artistic community overall has been languishing in the doldrums for sometime now, audiences continue to turn out for exhibitions that feature noteworthy artists and works of art. In 2005, an exhibition of the works of the distinguished French photographer Henri Cartier-Bresson was held at the Seoul Arts Center. Although interest in photo exhibitions was just beginning to take off at that time, the renowned Cartier-Bresson name attracted streams of enthusiastic visitors.

The recent Magnum Korea exhibition, which was also staged at the Seoul Arts Center (July 4-August 24), invigorated Korean audiences with a new form of energy. Featuring the photographs of modern-day Korea taken by the world-class photographers of Magnum, the exhibition enabled visitors to discover heretofore unknown aspects of their own existence.

I myself spent hours, wandering about the images, while contemplating the question: “Why is Magnum so highly regarded?”

Recording Reality Upon its establishment in 1947, Magnum became the first-ever photography agency. It was founded by Robert Capa and his close friends, Henri Cartier-Bresson, George Rodger, and David Chim Seymour. Magnum photographers embrace a common philosophy that a photographer’s task is to record a particular period or era in a manner, which stands apart from the then prevailing ideology or influences, while simultaneously striving to transcend typical records of contemporary events through an autonomous approach, in terms of the selection of subjects and the time frame needed to produce the desired image.

The status of Magnum photographers are defined by three categories: probationary, associate, and regular members. To become an associate or regular member, you must be voted in with a two-thirds approval from the existing membership.

Currently, the agency dispatches some 50 photographers to project assignments around the world.

In general, photo documentary is an inclusive term that encompasses all forms of images taken with a camera. A photography project initiated by the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s Farm Service Agency, during the 1930s, is among the first of such photo documentary efforts. In 1929, the United States sought to implement a plan to relocate farmers from the southern and central regions of the country Winter 2008 | Koreana 55

© Chris Steele-Perkins, Magnum Photos, Euro Photo-Magnum Korea

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1 Chris Steele-Perkins, a photographer who has emphasized societal and humanitarian issues, sought to highlight the division of the Korean Peninsula through his images of Korea’s Marine Corps.

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© Harry Gruyaert, Magnum Photos, Euro Photo-Magnum Korea

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© Ian Berrys, Magnum Photos, Euro Photo-Magnum Korea

Harry Gruyaert prefers obscure expressions, as seen in his esoteric images of people sitting on benches at Incheon International Airport.

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3 Ian Berry, who is known as an “always present but seemingly invisible photographer,” captured images of Korea’s National Treasure No. 1, Sungnyemun (South Gate), as well as denizens of Seoul.

that had been plagued by abysmal harvests during the Great Depression.

In 1937, the Farm Service Agency hired photographers as part of an effort to broaden public awareness of the harsh reality of residents in impoverished rural areas. This initiative, for the purpose of objectively and realistically documenting the grave situation, led to the emergence of documentary photography. Although the documentary photos that highlighted the Dust Bowl hardships had been motivated by political considerations, the potential for photography to shape public opinion was readily evident. By enhancing the documentary photography efforts of early proponents, like various magazines, the photographers of Magnum eventually emerged on the international scene with their own critical and distinctive style of documentary photography.

The establishment of new photography agencies, such as Gamma and Sygma, served to shift the emphasis of documentary photographers toward reportage aspects and an “auteur” concept. The influence of this trend can be seen in the work of a new generation of Magnum photographers, such as Luc Delahayer. These new-age photographers have sought to communicate with the public not only through traditional means, like print media, but also innovative channels, such as the staging of exhibitions at art galleries and Internet applications. In this way, it could be said that Magnum has been intimately associated with the evolution of documentary photography.

Forgotten Scenes of Korea For the exhibition project, in 2007, Magnum dispatched about 20 photographers, almost half of its current members, to Korea, for two- to four-week periods to capture on film various aspects of Korea. Prominent photographers who participated in this project included Harry Gruyaert, Alex Web, Gueorgui Pinkhassov, Elliott Erwitt, Steve McCurry, and Hiroji Kubota.

The basic exhibition consisted of 20 mini-exhibitions, in order to highlight the individual personality of each participating photographer, together with the inclusion of eight designated themes. Indeed, the unique styles of individual photographers were clearly on display, in terms of the manner in which they breathed life into their images. For example, similar to her “American Series,” which featured images of teenage girls under duress, photographer Lise Sarfati focused mainly on high school girls and young women.

As for Jean Gaumy, he captured the natural geography of Korea in his theme of the surrounding seas and fishermen, with images of the deep-blue waters of Korea’s East, West, and South Seas, and the fishermen whose livelihood depends on their bounty. Steve McCurry’s contemplative outlook is reflected in his Buddhism-related images. For his part, Ian Berry focused on Korea’s National Treasure No. 1: Sungny-

emun Gate. His images, depicting a guard decked out in a traditional palace outfit alongside modernly attired passersby, are a classic portrayal of Korea’s ever-present encounter of its past and the present.

Meanwhile, Tomas Hoepker used overlapping frames to depict N Seoul Tower, while Gueorgui Pinkhassov combined blurred images of people and forms with dimly-lit scenes of Korean cities. Alex Majoli created a surreal atmosphere by juxtaposing images of people onto Korea’s scenic landscape.

The photos vividly express various features and scenes of Korea that have faded from the consciousness of most Koreans, who are too wrapped up in their everyday life to take notice of these sights.

Martin Parr’s satirical and critical portrayal of today’s mass consumption society and globalized culture seemed to clearly strike a chord with a large majority of the viewers. For this project, which can be regarded as an extension of his 1999 Common Sense work, Parr used micro lens to take closeups of familiar treats, such as instant cup ramen and bungeoppang (“fish bread with bean filling”). Parr connected with the audience’s sensibility by capturing the mundane features of everyday life with an insightful humor.

The exhibition’s eight themes included: Religions of Korea, Korean Culture, Seoul and the City, Nature and Life, Enjoy Korea, Love and Marriage, Success and Fame, and Social Aspects of Korea. As for the Religions of Korea theme, the related photos aptly reflected the broad-minded and passionate sentiments of the Korean people, who have long embraced a diversity of religions, including shamanism, Buddhism, and Christianity. The Iranian photographer Abbas, who had previously worked on a project related to Islamic culture, found the coexistence of various religions in Korea, ranging from a shaman ritual (gut ) to the edifices of Buddhism and Catholicism, as a source of personal inspiration.

For his part, Hiroji Kubota sought to reveal the respect for ancestors of Korean culture through images of its ancestorworship rituals. Tomas Hoepker captured the elation of university students playing the janggo (hourglass drum), while Elliott Erwitt depicted the humorous antics of members of a modern dance company. The photos enabled viewers to grasp the multi-dimensional nature of a Korean culture that has become increasingly diversified amidst the presence of traditional and Western influences, which includes processes of coexistence, struggle, and convergence.

The Nature and Life section brought to life the close relationship between Koreans and the natural environment, which has been so deeply embedded in their psyche. The main actors of this theme were the simple farmers and fishermen who manage to eke out a living while taking great care not to disrupt the graceful scenery of rural areas.

The Enjoy Korea theme delved into Korea’s entertainment and leisure culture with depictions of Koreans’ love of merWinter 2008 | Koreana 57

© Abbas, Magnum Photos, Euro Photo-Magnum Korea

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Abbas, whose photos often center on religious themes, observed: “It is truly astounding to me that despite the widespread nature of Buddhism and Christianity, shamanism continues to have so many adherents in Korea.”The photos recorded scenes of a Mansin Gut (shaman ritual) performed by Kim Keum Hwa.

riment and gregarious nature. The photo by Steve McCurry, taken during the Mud Festival in Boryeong, Chungcheongnam-do Province, of a young woman whose entire body had been covered with mud, vividly expresses the passion and sense of freedom of Korea’s younger generation. The tone of this photo stands in stark contrast to McCurry’s photograph of an Afghan girl, and her dire situation, which appeared on the cover of National Geographic. Meanwhile, Koreans are seen enjoying themselves at a water-park complex and ski resort in Ian Berry’s photos. David Alan Harvey, the author of a book, Living Proof , dealing with hip-hop culture, focused his lens on the nightclub culture for which the area around Hongik University is known.

The Love and Marriage theme featured photos that highlight the dramatic change of Korean society’s attitudes toward 58 Koreana | Winter 2008

marriage. Chen Chi Chang, whose recently published Double Happiness photo series depicted the unfolding of an arranged marriage between a Vietnamese girl and a middle-aged Taiwanese man, used multiethnic families in Korea to demonstrate the extent to which perceptions of marriage have been altered.

Koreans’ legendary zeal for education, which has resulted in a unitary emphasis on education as the key to a successful life, was the central subject of the Success and Fame section.

In this regard, the photographs by Tomas Hoepker were especially noteworthy, which included the images of students of the Korean Minjok Leadership Academy, as well as Seoul National University, two of Korea’s most prestigious institutions of learning.

The highlights of the Social Aspects of Korea theme

© Elliott Erwitt, Magnum Photos, Euro Photo-Magnum Korea

Elliott Erwitt is well known for his humorous and witty portrayals, including this photo of Korean actress Moon So-ry.

included renowned war photographer Bruno Barbey’s thoughtful portrayal of social groups who have become alienated from mainstream society due to the widening gap between the haves and the have-nots. The raw emotions of a Korea, in which northern and southern ideologies have struggled for supremacy, is well illustrated by a series of photos of troops standing guard along the DMZ (Demilitarized Zone) by Chen Chi Chang.

Final Reflections The Magnum Korea exhibition represented a large-scale photography project that Korea organized as part of the various activities to commemorate the 60th anniversary of the founding of the Republic of Korea. As such, the project organizers retained Magnum, the world’s premier photography

agency, to document the face of Korea’s modern-day society.

Unlike other projects undertaken by Magnum, which usually involve longer time frames, the photos of Korea were taken over a relatively short period of time. However, the images captured by these world-class photographers enabled Korean audiences to encounter portraits of themselves, which captured their vibrant and diversified character with perhaps strange yet familiar imagery.

The explosive growth of digital camera users and popularity of photography as a modern art form have boosted interest in photography to unprecedented heights. Thanks to the exhibition’s focus on everyday themes and images, the Magnum Korea project has served to vastly broaden the horizons of documentary photography, which heretofore has been mainly associated with photojournalism.

Winter 2008 | Koreana 59

DISCOVERING KOREA

Kevin O’Rourke Passionate Translator of Korean Literature Thanks to his 35 years of experience, Kevin O’Rourke has emerged at the forefront of English translators of Korean literary works. In Korean, which he once found so difficult to learn, he now converses easily about his life and personal experiences in Korea.

Lee Soo Jin Freelance Writer | Ahn Hong-beom Photographer

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ecently, the unprecedented popularity of Korean culture has resulted in a cultural phenomenon, especially in the Asian region, that has come to be known as the “Korean Wave” (Hallyu). The thrust of this trend has been centered on pop culture, such as film and music— genres that can be readily disseminated and enjoyed by consumers. Korean literature, however, has gained little notice from this phenomenon. Unlike other cultural forms, such as music and art, whose transmission and understanding are not impeded by language barriers, literature must undergo a process of re-creation, or translation, to be properly appreciated by readers of other languages.

Re-creation Process Today, several Internet sites provide free online translation of a text. Just a single click is needed to produce a rough, but generally understandable, translation. A remarkably useful tool, in certain cases it can eliminate the need for a regular translation. However, is this technology capable of capturing the more delicate subtlety and sentiments of literary works in various languages? Can literary works translated in this manner adequately convey the author’s intended message to readers? It is more than a vague nostalgia for an “analogue age,” largely based on manual work, which makes me wonder about these kinds of questions. The translation of literature is not simply about a mechanical conversion of words, from one language to another. The translation of literary works, which embody a country’s culture, history, and values, cannot be satisfactory unless it involves an intricate artistry that can render an outcome that will appeal to the interests of readers from different cultural, historical, and linguistic backgrounds. For this reason, the essence of literary translation is not “conversion” but “re-creation.”

Kevin O’Rourke (68, Professor Emeritus of English Literature of Kyung Hee University) has spent the better part of his career translating numerous works of Korean literature, including poems, novels, and short stories, both classical and modern. His published works include: Tilting the Jar, Spilling the Moon (Poems from Goryeo, Joseon and Contemporary Korea); Singing Like a Cricket, Hooting Like an Owl (Selected Poems of Yi Gyu-bo); Poems of a Wanderer (Selected Poems of Midang Seo Jeong-ju); Mirrored Minds, a Thousand Years of Korean Verse (Anthology of Classical and Modern Korean Poetry); Looking for the Cow , a comprehensive anthology of modern Korean poems; The Dream Goes Home (Poems of Cho Byung-hwa); The Pine River Songs (Jeong Cheol’s shijo and kasa); The Book of Korean Shijo and The Book of Korean Poetry (Poems of Silla and Goryeo), as well as The Square , a novel by Choi In-hun, and Our Twisted Hero, a novel by Yi Mun-yol.

To date, Korea has not been particularly successful in the systematic training and support of English-language translators of Korean literature. In light of this reality, O’Rourke’s contributions are all the more meaningful.

His masterful work, rooted in his dedication to literature and longtime experience in translation, has been highly acclaimed in Korea and abroad. In fact, he won the Korean National Literature Prize in 1989 for his translations of Korean poetry. He also received a commendation from the Poetry Society of England “As a student of philosophy and theology I had a special fondness for literature during my years at the seminary. And I think the rich literary heritage of my homeland, Ireland, also had a great influence on the choice of my career. Just as Korea has produced many excellent works of traditional Korean painting and ceramic art, Ireland has produced great writers who left indelible marks on 20th-century

The Book of Korean Poetry (University of Iowa Press, 2006) is a collection of Silla and Goryeo hyangga and gayo poems translated into English by Kevin O’Rourke.

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Western literature, such as James Joyce, William Butler Yeats, Oscar Wilde, and Samuel Beckett, to name a few.”

O’Rourke came to Korea in 1964 as a priest of the St. Columban Missionary Society. At the time, he was 24 years old, which means he has spent almost two-thirds of his life in Korea. The young Irish priest arrived in the small East Asian country of Korea aboard an airplane, which was his first encounter with air travel. Perhaps because this was his first time abroad, he maintains vivid memories of his arrival, including the landscape around Gimpo Airport, where armed soldiers could be seen here and there. On his way to Seoul, he rode in a car along an unpaved road, amid endless clouds of dust stirred up by the traffic. Initially, he thought of Korea as a mysterious country with a dreary landscape and a suppressive atmosphere, due to the military regime, which seemed to weigh heavily on people. However, he was undaunted by his first impressions; rather, he felt a sense of excitement. Being a young 24-year-old priest, brimming with enthusiasm and curiosity, he thought that life in Korea would be filled with exciting challenges.

Had he not become a priest, it is likely that O’Rourke would not have even set foot on Korean soil. So, what was behind his decision to become a priest? “In Ireland, people took pride in having a priest or two in the family. Moreover, you don’t have to worry about getting married or going to college. So, wouldn’t it be a pretty nice choice for me to become a priest?” His humorous explanation reveals his inner optimism.

Inquisitive Student While O’Rourke lived in the Columban Central House in Donam-dong in Seoul, he started to learn Korean at the Yonsei University Korean Language Institute. For a year, he immersed himself in efforts to learn Korean, while asking his teachers countless questions and wondering to himself: “Why is Korean so difficult to learn?” Although he had learned Greek and Latin with relative ease, Korean was much more difficult. He constantly pestered his teachers with endless inquiries about “why this” and “why that.” Of note at that time was the system of language instruction which eschewed formal grammatical explanations and focused on rote memorization.

“In the beginning, I had a very hard time learning Korean. I thought: ‘Oh, why is Korean so difficult to learn!’

And I even complained that Korean linguists did not make enough effort to develop easier teaching methodology.” As O’Rourke recalls those days, it brings a smile to his face.

During two years of studying at the Korean Language Institute, he became enamored with the language. Thereafter, he decided to pursue the study of Korean literature.

In 1968, after having spent four years in Korea, he entered the Graduate School of Yonsei University, where he 62 Koreana | Winter 2008

majored in Korean Literature. Back then, the mere presence of a foreign student enrolled in the Department of Korean Language, or any other department at a university in Korea, was enough of a rarity to attract considerable attention. While managing to overcome the language barrier and people’s curiosity, he earned a master’s degree for his thesis on the influence of French naturalism on the short stories of the 1920s. With this achievement as momentum, he decided to continue his study and enrolled in a doctoral degree program. In 1982, he was awarded a Ph.D. degree for his dissertation on the influence of English poetry on the Korean poetry of the 1920s.

O’Rourke thus became the first foreigner to receive a Ph.D. in Korean literature from a Korean university. Then, after spending two years editing an academic journal for Yonsei University, he joined the faculty of Kyung Hee University, as an associate professor of English Literature. During his almost 30-year academic career there, until his retirement in 2005, he was widely known as a dedicated professor in regard to scholarly matters.

Enchanted by Korean Poetry O’Rourke’s first work of translation, Ten Korean Short Stories , was an anthology published in 1974. Although he has since translated numerous works of modern Korean poetry and literature, he has always been most enchanted

by Korea’s classical poetry, such as Goryeo gayo and Silla hyangga.

“I believe the greatest works of Korean literature were written during Silla [57 B.C.-A.D. 935] and Goryeo [918-1392]. And I think the greatest poet in the history of Korean literature is Yi Gyu-bo [1168-1241]. With a cosmopolitan perspective and voice, that is, a global power, he was a poet who matched the great Chinese poets, such as Li Bai [701-762], Du Fu [712-770] and Shu Shi [1036-1101]. I love his poems because they are full of imagination and because the poet confesses in his poems, without reserve, his own inadequacies as a human being. Human weakness became a source of the poet’s inspiration.”

O’Rourke believes that Confucianism, the central ideology of the Joseon Dynasty, had a negative impact on Korean literature. Confucian orthodoxy sought to eradicate the influences of Buddhism, which had been rooted deeply in the minds of Koreans for a thousand years. As such, this suppression served to stifle lyricism and passion – the essence of literature. Nonetheless, lyricism began to show signs of revival when prominent poets of Joseon, such as Kim Si-seup (1435-1493) and Seo Geo-jeong (1420-1488), wrote poetry that continued the literary tradition of the previous era.

As for Korea’s modern poetry, Pak Mok-wol and Seo Jeong-ju have played a critical role in remaining outside the

a novel by Yi Mun-yol. Although this book did not attract as much attention as the author’s other bestsellers, O’Rourke was captivated by its unique power, when he first read the novel 20 years ago. The storyline, while remaining close to its central theme, delves into various power relationships existing in every segment of society, thereby revealing a cross section of Korean society. O’Rourke’s English translation of Our Twisted Hero , after being published in 2003, has resulted in French, Spanish, and German versions.

O’Rourke refers to translation as a “pleasant work.”

Even though he might struggle for more than a month over a single word, the translation of poetry offers a fulfilling and enjoyable challenge. There are those who say that more than 10 years of effort are required to become a competent translator. Indeed, deriving pleasure from such a painstaking endeavor involves an enlightened state of mind that can only be attained with much patience and perseverance.

Boundless Passion

In 1982 Kevin O’Rourke became the first foreigner to receive a Ph.D. degree in Korean literature from a Korean university.

Thereafter, he joined the faculty of Kyung Hee University, as an instructor of Modern English Literature. During the course of his 30-year academic career, he has sought to instill his students with a passion for literature and a cosmopolitan worldview.

shadow of Western literature, thus preserving the identity of Korean poetry. By returning to the spirit of Silla, the two poets reconnected the main current of Korea’s literary tradition. As a Catholic priest, O’Rourke is especially intrigued

by Zen Buddhism’s relationship with the excellence of Korean poetry. His favorite modern Korean poet is Seo Jeongju, whose middle and later works he finds immensely pleasurable.

For foreign readers who are not familiar with Korean literature, Kevin O’Rourke recommends Our Twisted Hero ,

While residing in Korea for more than 40 years during its period of rapid development, Kevin O’Rourke has been named an “honorary citizen” by the Seoul City authorities for his literary contributions. “The good thing about being an honorary citizen,” he says, again with a smile, “is that you can ride the subway free.” He also expresses certain regret over Korea’s rapid transformation. “Koreans had more tender hearts in the past. But now people have become rather quick-tempered and tend to place more emphasis on material achievement.”

“Do you hear people use the word geulpi nowadays?” he asks. He observes that the pure Korean word, meaning “two days after tomorrow,” has fallen out of favor over the past 20 years, since people now pursue such fast-paced and transitory lives that there seems to be no time to contemplate the future beyond tomorrow. He can only reminisce about the slow and leisurely pace of Korean life that he enjoyed during his visits to mountain villages of Gangwondo Province, some 30 years ago.

Nowadays, O’Rourke spends a few months in Ireland and the remainder of his time in Seoul. Though officially retired, his day is still comprised of reading, writing, and the translation of literary works. Several years ago, he was awarded an honorary Ph.D. degree, in literature, by the National University of Ireland. As such, his literary contributions have been recognized by both his home country and adopted country.

It could be said that Kevin O’Rourke’s love of classical Korean poetry is as profound as any Korean individual. The literature of Korea has been the essence of his life, as well as a source of his enthusiasm and satisfaction. Deep within his heart, Kevin O’Rourke remains a young man with a boundless passion for Korean literature.

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ON THE GLOBAL STAGE

For her debut performance in Korea as a conductor, Sung Shi-yeon took the podium to lead the Seoul Philharmonic Orchestra, at the Sejong Center for the Performing Arts on January 9, 2008.

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Sung Shi-yeon A Humble yet Forceful Presence at the Podium Sung Shi-yeon is a young and upcoming woman conductor from Korea.

Her success is especially noteworthy in the field of conducting, in which few Koreans, male or female, have realized global acclaim. Recently, Sung has been basking in the limelight of the classical music world, conducting such prestigious U.S. institutions as the Los Angeles Philharmonic and the Boston Symphony Orchestra.

Anna S. Roh Music Columnist Photographs Seoul Philharmonic Orchestra

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ung Shi-yeon (b. 1976) maintains a calm and quiet demeanor that serves to accentuate her distinctive femininity. But the moment she steps to the podium, she takes on a wholly different persona. Holding her baton, the gravity of her presence is readily evident, while her emphatic arm and hand movements, musical cues, animated facial expressions, and coordinated techniques immediately command the full attention of every member of the orchestra.

Her graceful body movements and gestures are like a choreographed ballet, which can be appreciated apart from the music itself. Based on her personal interpretation, Shostakovich is presented with a masculine character, while Sung’s rendering of Mussorgsky (1839-1881) leads the audience on a journey into a world of fantasy and boundless imagination.

Rise of a New Conductor Korean musicians have earned a stellar reputation that is globally recognized throughout the classical music world. One of the earliest wunderkind from Korea was the violinist Kyung Hwa Chung, who has been followed by Sarah Chang and Han-na Chang, and more recently pianist Kim Sunwook, who captured the first prize of the Leeds International Pianoforte Competition. It is even said that competition officials have discussed a need to impose special regulations on Korean contestants, who have come to dominate a number of the most prominent classical music competitions.

The field of conducting, however, remains an exception, in which the success of Korean musicians is indeed a rarity. The reason seems to lie in the nature of the work and the

skills needed to succeed. On the surface, a conductor’s efforts are focused on musical direction, but his real responsibility is related to people management, which requires interpersonal skills. As compared to a regular musician, a conductor cannot attain fame through individual talent and achievement alone.

Rather, a conductor’s effectiveness is related to a capability to adeptly handle personal matters and political situations. As such, a conductor must embrace two seemingly incongruous elements: political and artistic factors.

Of note, music education in Korea is largely centered on the pursuit of personal glory through individual achievement.

This is evident from the lesser number of Korean musicians, who are members of top-tier orchestras around the world, as compared to a relatively larger number who have succeeded as solo performers. Moreover, Korean orchestras have yet to gain the international recognition of their counterparts from other regions of the world.

Conductor Sung Shi-yeon is like a natural gemstone that has been refined into a brilliant jewel, in spite of difficult circumstances. Being a woman makes her stand out even more. The relevance of gender in the field of classical music might seem passé, but conducting remains a male-dominated area, with women conductors being a rare exception, in Korea as well as the international scene. On top of this, Sung is an Asian, with a reserved demeanor and a notably petite stature. Though these qualities might appear ill-suited for the conducting profession, they belie an internal passion that has enabled Sung to steadily carve out a sizable niche of her own.

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Sung regards modesty as the most essential virtue for a conductor’s effectiveness.

This is rooted in her conviction that a conductor, who truly cherishes the composer of a musical work, can render a heartfelt presentation only with a humble approach.

In this way, she strives to bring out the essence of the music by creating an optimal harmony among the individual orchestra members.

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66 Koreana | Winter 2008

From Pianist to Conductor Early on, Sung aspired to be a pianist, with no thought of being a conductor. At a young age, she won several highprofile competitions in Korea. Then, while studying piano at the Berlin University of the Arts, she became frustrated with an inability to improve on her musical performance. At this time, her teacher advised Sung to expand her horizons by exploring some other areas of music. After viewing a video clip of conductor Wilhelm Furtwängler (1886-1954), Sung recalls being mesmerized by his masterful artistry. With only a year remaining before graduation, she began to study conducting at the Hanns Eisler Music School in Berlin, majoring in advanced conducting and piano. And there, she met Roff Reuter, who accepted Sung as his first and only female student.

“Women majoring in conducting are not unheard of in Europe, but their number is minimal. Reuter treasured each of his students, but I think I received so much care and attention from him,” noted Sung. Reuter was a passionate teacher who enabled his students to develop on their own terms, based on his understanding of their individual characteristics and strengths, instead simply providing standardized instruction. His personalized teaching approach and attention to each student helped Sung to better understand her own personality and establish her identity as a conductor.

After only a year of study studying conducting, Sung made her debut as a conductor with “The Magic Flute” of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. In 2004, she won the Solingen Conducting Competition for Women, and then went on to stun the world by becoming the first woman to win the top prize at the 3rd Sir Georg Solti International Conductors Competition, in 2006.

And the following year, she won second prize at the 2nd Gustav Mahler Competition.

These competitions are widely regarded as critical benchmarks for assessing a conductor’s potential to succeed on the international stage. Sung thus became the first Korean woman to receive such global recognition, which opened the door to her conducting career. Thereafter, these credentials landed her a job in the United States, when in October 2007 she moved from Berlin to Boston, after accepting an assistant conductor position with the Boston Symphony Orchestra, led

by James Levine.

“It was difficult in the beginning. I was not familiar with the language and there were cultural differences as well. The orchestra members, however, showed me respect, in terms of their professional behavior. They were always punctual for rehearsals and respectful of the conductor’s opinions. The members remained focused throughout rehearsals, without engaging in casual conversation. And even if a conductor falls

short of expectations, there is no change in their outlook.

Although, as soon as rehearsal was over, they would all rush out, as if they could not stand another minute.”

Seeking Comfort in Music Over time, Sung has encountered her share of personal hardship. The sudden illness and untimely death of her mentor Reuter in September dealt her an especially hard blow, leaving her in a state of shock and sorrow. Even while he was in the hospital, Reuter called Sung in to offer advice for her guest-conductor appearance in Frankfurt, while going over each page of the music score. Therefore, the news of his passing, which she received at her hotel room in Frankfurt, was devastating.

“I couldn’t cancel the performance to mourn Reuter’s passing. So, I wiped away my tears and entered the concert venue. The orchestra was steeped in tradition and its members were about my father’s age. I was determined to overcome my personal sorrow and present an impressive performance, but there was difficulty. I was shattered by the death of my mentor and the members of the orchestra could sense my fragile condition. Between orchestra members and the conductor, there is always a delicate balance of power. I could sense resistance to my interpretation of the music, which comes with the territory of being a young conductor.”

“Normally, I would have sought a middle ground, but that day was different. I felt I was facing my first crisis as a conductor. In order to show respect for my beloved teacher and to affirm my own identity, I was determined not to step back.”

This was Sung’s first clash with an orchestra, but she was fortunate in eventually winning them over. When the orchestra members learned about Sung’s tragic loss, after the concert, they were noticeably moved. The performance that evening was praised as one of the best.

Even today, as she steadily advances along a path to success, Sung regards modesty as the most essential virtue for a conductor’s effectiveness. This is rooted in her conviction that a conductor, who truly cherishes the composer of a musical work, can render a heartfelt presentation only with a humble approach. In this way, she strives to bring out the essence of the music by creating an optimal harmony among the individual orchestra members. So long as a conductor maintains an emphasis on the music, above all else, the relationship between the conductor and orchestra members will be based on cooperation. Whenever Sung takes the podium, alone but with self-confidence, she dreams of the day when “all men become brothers under the sway of thy gentle wings” of music (Beethoven’s Symphony No. 9 “Choral”).

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ON THE ROAD

Jeongseon’s Natural Beauty Endures the Passage of Time In Jeongseon, mountain peaks that reach heights of over 1,000 meters overlook tiny villages nestled in deep valleys, which have been little changed by the passage of time. As the birthplace of “Jeongseon Arirang,” the doleful folk song about the painful lament of life’s agonies, Jeongseon is a personification of han, a Korean ethos of melancholy.

Lee Yong-han Poet | Ahn Hong-beom Photographer

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t felt like a journey in time. Walking along a winding path of a silent mountain, the commotion and drone of the bustling city, which I had just passed by, quickly became a distant memory. The sloping fields at the foot of the mountains are strewn with stones and sparse growths of buckwheat, corn, and bean stalks. At dusk, smoke arises from the chimneys of low-roofed houses, lying in the shadows of stately mountains. In no time, darkness covers the village, situated deep in the mountains, where the sun seems to descend faster. Beyond this nostalgic landscape, I head toward Jeongseon, which warmly welcomes me with open arms, like some long-lost relative.

In the past, Jeongseon was known as a place to which you “arrive crying” and from where you would “depart crying.” Newly appointed magistrates would arrive in tears, ruing their misfortune of being assigned to such a backwater area. Over time, however, they would come to love the area’s graceful scenery and the warm-heartedness of its residents.

Then, they would depart Jeongseon in tears upon the completion of their assignment.

The mountainous terrain and remoteness of Jeongseon seem to go hand in hand. To describe what it is like to be surrounded by an endless range of steep mountains, the villagers like to tell visitors that they can attach one end of a clothes line to a mountain in the front and the other end to the slope of another mountain in the rear.

Picturesque Donggang River The vast mountain range that surrounds Jeongseon includes Mt. Gariwangsan (1,561 meters), along with a number of mountain peaks whose height exceeds 1,000 meters.

Streams flowing down from the mountains join together

Donggang River, as it meanders through the valleys of mountains with steep cliffs, creates picturesque scenes along its entire course.

Jeongseon

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to form the Donggang River. Also known as Joyanggang, the river winds its way to Yeongwol, where it flows into the Namhangang River. The picturesque landscape along the Donggang River is perhaps the most exquisite of Jeongseon’s scenic masterpieces.

Like the meandering melody of “Jeongseon Arirang,” the Donggang River flows gracefully through Jeongseon.

Until not long ago, makeshift bridges, known as seopdari and tongnamudari , were used to cross the river. The former would be constructed with wooden posts, pine branches, and mud, with the latter being built by laying out wooden logs that would be attached to support posts. Once a year, in the chill of November, residents would gather to build another bridge across the river, followed by a village feast.

The scenic splendor along the Donggang River takes you to Yeonpo Village, in Deokcheon-ri, where the river makes a sharp U-turn, with Baengnyong Cave located nearby. The rock cliffs along the river bank enhance the delightful sights of Yeonpo Village. With their feet touching the water, the cliffs are so sheer that the village is constantly in the shadows, which has spawned the saying: “The sun rises three times in Yeonpo.” And in fact, the villagers can receive direct sunlight only when the sun briefly passes between the series of mountain peaks.

In Yeonpo Village, there is a vendor inn, where traders who rode rafts to ply their wares along the river to Seoul would spend the night, until about 20 years ago. In its boom times, the inn might accommodate as many as 30 to 40 vendors. According to the elderly lady who still runs the inn, in

1 Two rivers intersect at Auraji Junction, which had been a key landing for water-raft traders in ancient times. Today, rope-drawn ferries are used to cross the river.

2 Hwaamgul Cave is a limestone cavern that extends over a distance of some 500 meters. Its notable attractions include an impressive flowstone fall and the Grand Stalagmite, with a five-meter circumference and height of eight meters.

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1 Residents of Andojeon, a remote mountain village,

the past, there would often be row upon row of rafts making their way along the river rapids, creating a dizzying spectacle. The rafts, which had long been an integral element of Jeongseon’s village life, have since given way to the torrents of modern civilization. Still, the former rafting route is now a popular course for recreational white-water rafters.

continue to operate an age-old treadmill to grind grain.

2 Rail-bike riding is a popular family activity for visitors to Jeongseon.

The rail-bike tracks, which were built to accommodate now-abandoned coal-mining operations, traverse an ever-changing panorama of delightful scenery.

3 With a name meaning “a place where clouds gather,” Morundae is a rugged mountain cliff with breathtaking views, which has long been a source of artistic inspiration for poets and painters.

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Secluded Mountain Villages Where the peaks are high, the valleys are deep. And even today, there are a number of mountain villages located deep in the valleys of Jeongseon. As for myself, I found that spending time at these secluded villages was the ideal way to understand Jeongseon and the lifestyle of its residents. Hambawigol in Bukdong-ri is perhaps the most remote and tiniest of these villages. To get there, you need to drive about 12 kilometers along a dusty mountain path, after exiting provincial road No. 424. It is such a lonesome village and so quiet that it might be possible to hear the trees conversing with each other.

The village’s sole occupant is an elderly Choe, who has been living here for the past 50 years. In his house, there are two items that are rarely seen these days: a spear for hunting wild boar, and a length of straw rope called padae , which is used to scare away birds and animals from field crops. When Choe was younger, he put both items to good use. Even today, although the spear is no longer used for hunting, the padae is still useful. This straw rope, of just over three meters in length, is weighted at both ends. “When a crow pecks at my corn or a wild boar comes by to dig up my potatoes, I hurl this at them, as hard as possible. Then, they run away, frightened by its loud noise, which can sound like a gunshot,” explains Choe.

Nowadays, Choe grows just a small patch of corn and radish, hardly enough to need a padae to deter intruders. So this makes me ask: “Don’t you ever think about leaving this village?” To my impertinent question, he quickly answers: “I live here because I love this place. It is quiet around here. The air is fresh, the water is clean, everything’s great. Why would I live here if I didn’t want to?” The elderly Choe does not seem the least bit troubled by the absence of modern conveniences.

Andojeon Village, in Imgye-myeon, is another small mountain community. A range of mountain peaks, rising above 1,200 meters in height, surrounds the village like a massive fortress wall. According to the villagers, the houses here used to have roofs made of hemp stalks, but since the 1970s, they have been replaced with tin roofs. Except for their roofs, the village houses still retain features of longtime construction methods of the area, such as mud-plaster interior walls and stone exterior walls. As in other mountainous areas of Korea, village houses are few and far between.

For long, it was traditional for houses in the mountain villages of Gangwon-do Province to have an enclosure for livestock, attached to the kitchen. In addition to the fact that

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prized livestock, such as cows, were treated like members of the family, this arrangement also provided protection against predators lurking in the mountains.

In Andojeon, there is a tread-style mill that remains in use today. The villagers use the mill to grind their crops, such as millet, corn, or dried pepper, and to prepare processed food, such as soybean paste. For traditional holidays, they pound steamed rice for homemade rice cake, which is so chewy and flavorful that it might be hard for you to enjoy machine-made products. In Baekjeon-ri, there is a 100-yearold water mill that residents regularly used, until about 10 years ago.

Auraji and Morundae Everywhere you turn in Jeongseon, the scenery is simply gorgeous. But Auraji Junction, where the Songcheon Stream meets the Goljicheon Stream, is among the most well-known and popular scenic attractions of the area. In the past, it also provided a landing area for rafters who transported timber to

Seoul, along the lengthy Namhangang River. Here, you can see a statue of the “girl of Auraji,” featured in the folk song, as well as a rope-drawn ferry and makeshift bridge for crossing the river.

Sailor of Auraji, please help me to cross the river.

The camellias in Ssarigol may soon shed their flowers.

The flowers can land on the fallen leaves, But where can my broken heart go without my love beside me?

These well-known lines, from the “Jeongseon Arirang” folk song, are still sung by residents of Auraji, and elsewhere.

Recently, a rail-bike track has been opened from Auraji to Gujeol-ri, which attracts visitors from all across the country.

Since the closure of coal-mining operations, Gujeol-ri residents have experienced considerable economic hardship; however, the launch of a rail-bike route has created a popular visitor attraction. The track, which traverses a distance Winter 2008 | Koreana 73

In Jeongseon, much of its natural scenery and people’s way of life has been unaffected by modern times. Insulated from the turmoil of the outside world, it remains a tradition-bound town of the Korean countryside, which readily arouses a wistful yearning in older Koreans. Also, it is “the hometown of poets,” who no doubt found inspiration in the area’s gorgeous scenery.

A monk on the grounds of Jeongamsa Temple passes by Sumano Stupa, a revered pagoda of Mt. Taebaeksan built with agate-carved bricks.

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of 7.2 kilometers, passes alongside a diverse landscape that assures an enjoyable and memorable experience.

Other noteworthy destinations include Hwaamgul Cave, Hwaamyaksu Spring, and Morundae Cliff. Though less wellknown than the Donggang River and Auraji, these are the favorite sites of Jeongseon residents. The recently opened Hwaamgul Cave features Asia’s highest flowstone falls (28 meters) and a vast array of huge stalagmites and stone pillars. There is also detailed information about gold mining, along with exhibits that explain the formation of gold deposits as well as the history of gold refining and uses. Hwaamyaksu Spring is revered for the remedial properties of its water,

which is said to be effective for the treatment of skin, eye, and digestive ailments. According to legend, if an evil-minded individual attempted to draw its water, the sight of a terrifying serpent would suddenly appear, to scare away such an undeserving person.

Morundae Cliff, which has long been a source of inspiration for Korean poets and painters, is the foremost natural attraction of Jeongseon. Morundae, or a “place where clouds gather,” is so named because the dramatic views from the cliff’s vantage point are so breathtaking that people would say even passing clouds had to briefly pause there to appreciate the picturesque scenery. Atop the rugged cliff is the

gnarled trunk of a pine tree that conveys a sense of solitude, which no doubt stimulated the artistic creativity of poets and painters.

From downtown Jeongseon to Morundae, a placid road, with occasional twisting turns, meanders along either side of the cliffs. Morundae looks out at a sharp abyss, which naturally lends itself to lines of lyrical poetry. At the edge of the sheer cliff face, shrouded by clouds, the trunk of a pine tree, likely struck by lightning, maintains a vigilant watch over the sprawling landscape in all directions. Often neglected by visitors, Morundae is known as a source of “steep text” inspiration for poets, who, like the passing clouds, found themselves compelled to pause there, if only briefly.

Jeongamsa Temple The Korean poet Hwang Dong-gyu (b. 1938) refers to Jeongseon as a “hidden dream” and “fire for his poetry.” In his poems, he expresses resentment of the advancement of development and modernization that has occurred in Jeongseon over the decades. What he is truly worried about seems to be that “county-side values” are being sacrificed for the convenience of modernization.

In his poetry, Hwang likens Jeongamsa Temple to a rest stop where people can enjoy a spiritual respite. Above all, Jeongamsa Temple is forever tranquil and solemn. Flowers bloom throughout the valley in spring; green shadows are cast over a quiet yard in summer; the sunset illuminates the crimson foliage in autumn; and snow falls to the ground as silently as the steamy breath of a monk in winter. After leaving Jeongmyeolbogung Hall, a monk rhythmically sounds his wooden gong while passing a pond of fresh-water salmon, on his way to Sumano Stupa. Jeongmyeolbogung Hall was built by Monk Jajangyulsa (590-658), during the reign of Queen Seondeok (?-647) of the Silla Kingdom (57 B.C.-A.D. 935). Jeongamsa is one of five temples in Korea that enshrine sarira of the Buddha.

Sarira and teeth of Buddha are housed within Sumano Stupa (Treasure No. 410). The yew tree in front of Jeongmyeolbogung Hall is said to have been planted by Monk Jajangyulsa some 1,300 years ago. According to legend, Mt. Taebaeksan had been home to three precious pagodas, built of gold, silver, and sumano (agate), but only the agate pagoda remains today. The agate stupa at Jeongamsa Temple is also noted for its architectural style, which includes a seven-tier pagoda built with stone-carved bricks.

In Jeongseon, much of its natural scenery and people’s way of life has been unaffected by modern times. Insulated from the turmoil of the outside world, it remains a traditionbound town of the Korean countryside, which readily arouses a wistful yearning in older Koreans. Also, it is “the hometown of poets,” who no doubt found inspiration in the area’s gorgeous scenery.

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CUISINE

Yaksik Rice Cake Tasty and Healthy Treat Korea’s traditional food culture has long been centered on a belief that food and medicine share similar roots. This is reflected in the meaning of yaksik (medicinal food), which is formed by combining yak (medicine) with sik (food).

Paik Jae-eun Professor of Food and Nutrition, Bucheon University

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aksik is a type of tteok (rice cake), made with glutinous rice combined with other ingredients.

Although yaksik has been traditionally associated with Jeongwol Daeboreum, the 15th day of the first lunar month, it is frequently served at special occasions, such as weddings, birthday parties, and festive events. The tradition of eating yaksik on the occasion of Jeongwol Daeboreum is said to have originated from the following incident.

During the 10th year of his reign, King Soji (?-500) of the Silla Kingdom (57 B.C.-935 A.D.) visited Mt. Namsan, located to the south of the Gyeongju capital, on Jeongwol Daeboreum to observe the full moon.

According to legend, a flock of crows suddenly gathered around the king and warned him that a treacherous plot had been planned by the queen and several monks. To express his gratitude to the crows, the king decreed that Jeongwol Daeboreum would hereafter be identified as Ogiil (烏忌日) (ritual day for crows). He also ordered the making of a dark-colored yakbap (medicinal rice), with a color similar to that of the crows, and for a ritual ceremony to be held in honor of the crows. This tradition has been passed down to the present day, with yaksik being recognized as a symbol of Daeboreum (the first full moon of the lunar year) and the king’s gratitude.

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Medicinal Ingredients In the past, the traditional ingredients of yaksik, such as honey and jujubes, were not readily available and rather costly for the common people, which meant that it could only be enjoyed on certain special occasions. Nowadays, however, due to the ready availability of these ingredients, and their relatively less expensive prices, yaksik can be enjoyed at any time, along with being regularly included in the diet of those who pursue a health-conscious lifestyle. As the health benefits of traditional foods, such as tteok, are made know tain their good health. This belief is evident in the term yangnyeom , which can be translated as seasoning, which had been derived from yaknyeom , that refers to the beneficial ingredients used in various kinds of seasonings.

The expression yaksik dongwon , which basically means that medicine and food share similar roots, is often used to describe the philosophical principles behind Korea’s traditional food culture. As such, yaksik can be understood as a representative example of this long-held belief. And in fact, yaksik’s ingredients include chestnuts, jujubes, pine nuts, and cinnamon, which are used for the making of oriental medicine as well.

Chestnuts are a source of carbohydrates, protein, fat, calcium, and vitamins A, B, and C. Since vitamin C

© Imageclick

Š Eurocreon

Today, due to the ready availability of ingredients, and their relatively less expensive prices, yaksik can be enjoyed at any time, along with being regularly included in the diet of those who pursue a health-conscious lifestyle. Nowadays, convenient individual servings of yaksik can be bought at a fast-growing number of rice cake outlets.

Yaksik Ingredients 5 cups glutinous rice, 10 chestnuts, 5 jujubes, 3 tablespoons pine nuts, 1 cup sugar, 3 tablespoons soy sauce, 6 tablespoons sesame oil, 1 teaspoon cinnamon powder, caramel sauce (6 tablespoons sugar, 3 tablespoons water, 3 tablespoons hot water)

Preparation 1 Wash the glutinous rice and allow it to soak in water for at least 6 hours. Line a steamer with cheesecloth and place the glutinous rice on the steamer bottom. Steam the rice for 40 minutes. Add cold water and stir the mixture two or three times during the steaming process.

2 Peel the chestnuts and cut each into 3 to 4 pieces. Remove the seeds from the jujubes and cut each into 2 to 3 pieces. Trim the pine nuts, if necessary.

3 Prepare the caramel sauce. Heat the sugar and water over low heat. When the mixture begins to bubble, remove from the heat and stir thoroughly. Resume heating until the mixture thickens and takes on a brownish hue, then add hot water to create an even consistency.

4 Add the sugar, soy sauce, caramel sauce, sesame oil, and cinnamon to the hot steamed glutinous rice, and mix thoroughly. Add the chestnuts and jujubes, and allow to stand for 2 hours.

5 Spread the mixture out on the bottom of the steamer, and steam for about 1 hour. Place in a container and garnish with pine nuts. Allow to cool and set.

6 Cut the yaksik into pieces and serve. Any leftovers can be refrigerated or frozen.

can help to absorb alcohol, chestnuts are an ideal side dish when drinking. Vitamin C also promotes sound growth, recovery from fatigue, and healthy skin, along with preventing the onset of colds. Carbohydrates contain an enzyme that improves gastric processes and helps to prevent adult diseases and maintain proper kidney function.

Jujubes serve as a diuretic, invigorant, and relaxant, and are thus widely used as an ingredient in various foods as well as medicines. The vegetable fat of pine nuts includes an unsaturated fatty acid that helps to lower blood pressure by decreasing the cholesterol level. It is also known to contribute to youthful-looking skin. Cinnamon can help to reduce discomfort of the chest and abdomen by stimulating blood circulation, enhance appetite, and facilitate digestion, while providing an antiseptic agent that regulates fermentation within the intestinal tract. The primary ingredient in yaksik is glutinous rice, which contains a higher content of amylopectin than regular rice.

Tasty and Attractive The tastiness of yaksik is appealing to Koreans and foreigners alike. The sweetness of yaksik, along with the chestnut and cinnamon flavors, can offset the fatty aftertaste of meat. The red jujubes, yellow pine nuts, and brownish glutinous rice, sprinkled with cinnamon, create a delectable and visually appealing dish, which can be served as a tasty dessert or healthy snack.

In contrast to a majority of traditional Korean foods prepared for special occasions, yaksik is simple to prepare and can be made with regular ingredients.

The first step involves preparation of the glutinous rice, to which the chestnuts, jujubes, soy sauce, honey, sugar, sesame oil, and cinnamon are added, and then placed in a steamer. After steaming, pine nuts are added as a garnish to complete the dish. Once the yaksik sets, it can be cut into pieces and served. Any leftovers can be refrigerated or frozen.

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rvice

LIVING

Korea Delivers with Speed and Agility What is a reasonable time to wait for the delivery of a food order?

After experiencing Korea’s speedy delivery culture, which boasts the world’s fastest speeds, you might think that your food was late after only five minutes. Moreover, the factors behind this world-class delivery system provide a glimpse into the unique psyche of the Korean people.

Song Doyoung Professor, Department of Cultural Anthropology, Hanyang University

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irst-time visitors to Korea are surprised at the sheer speed of Korean society. At any major intersection in the city, a phalanx of motorcycles and motor scooters will form, representing a lifeline of delivery services for office documents as well as take-out meals for apartment dwellers. Fleets of delivery trucks and vans, sporting business logos, are on road from the early dawn until late at night. What are the factors behind this near-obsession with speedy delivery in Korea?

Korea’s Delivery Culture

Motorcycle couriers provide prompt delivery to anywhere in Seoul. Although these services are more costly than regular mail and express parcel delivery, quicker receipt is assured.

In the case of a 31-year-old employee of the planning department of an advertising firm, his group regularly submits proposals for competitive bid projects. Above all, the bid deadline is sacrosanct, with no exceptions for any late submissions, which are automatically rejected. However, proposals are routinely submitted at the last minute due to a desire to put together an exceptional submission, which often requires final changes and finishing touches. As such, it is constantly a race against time to prepare the best possible proposal and then assure its delivery within the stated deadline.

This being the case, delivery by the post office or even one-day courier service is not acceptable, with everything riding on the bidder’s receipt of the proposal by the deadline. As such, while a large-size business might be able to dispatch a staff person, a more convenient alternative is the so-called “quick service” system in Korea, in which a mobilephone dispatched motorcycle delivery person will pick up your package and have it delivered to anywhere in Seoul within 40-60 minutes. Indeed, this delivery service is renowned for its reliability, safely handling any envelope or package that can be strapped onto the luggage rack of a motorcycle.

A 27-year-old office worker, who has been at his first job for two years, sighs with relief whenever he recalls his near-disaster on Parents’ Day. As an only child, he was constantly pampered by his parents while growing up and until he moved to Seoul for his work. It was already noon on Parents’ Day before he even realized what day it was.

In fact, he should have taken the time to visit his parents on the previous weekend to express his appreciation for their support. Now, it was too late to consider a trip home, involving a three-hour train ride.

Under the circumstances, he decided that the delivery of flowers would be the best solution for his problem. So, he turned to the Internet to place an online order. After finding a site for flower delivery, he found a nicely arranged basket of carnations from the product menu. Satisfied with the price, he wrote out a short message for the card, entered the delivery address, and clicked the “confirm” button to submit the order. By that afternoon, the flower arrangement had been safely delivered to the home of his parents, who called him before the end of the work day to thank their dutiful son.

In this way, delivery culture has long been an integral aspect of the everyday life of Koreans, for which a vast array of products and services only requires a phone call or Internet transmission. For office workers who rush off to work in the morning, many take advantage of breakfast delivery services, which offer breakfast meals, as well as milk, yogurt, and juice. This service is especially convenient and economical for single office workers living on their own. Meanwhile, Internet shopping is growing by leaps and bounds, not only for gift and luxury items, but everyday goods as well. Nowadays, it would be no problem to get by on delivery services alone, without needing to leave the comfort of your home.

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State-of-the-art System When people first experience “quick service,” in which a delivery person shows up in a matter of minutes after you call in a request, they are amazed by the speediness. To understand how such a quick and reliable delivery service is possible, it would be helpful to describe the handling of a delivery request.

As for the advertising company employee mentioned above, his paramount concern is the timely delivery of his department’s bid package. For this, he contacts a quick service business by phone and provides information about the pickup location, delivery destination, and phone numbers. Then, among the delivery choices – urgent, regular, and discount – he requests urgent, which is the most expensive but also the fastest.

With the information of your delivery request, the delivery office checks its GPS to locate and dispatch the delivery person closest to the pickup point. The delivery person receives the instructions on his PDA and heads for the advertising company office. After picking up the bid package, he immediately makes his way to the drop-off destination, while relying on his mobile communication device to monitor real-time traffic conditions along his intended route.

When the delivery is completed, the delivery person sends a confirmation to his office, which transmits a text message to the sender that includes the drop-off time and name of the recipient. This process, which all takes place within an hour or less, serves as a cornerstone of the infrastructure that supports Korea’s business world.

A lightning-quick delivery network is a product of Korea’s post-war period, when people, amidst widespread devastation, struggled to survive from day to day. Recently, Korea’s penchant for speed has become a potent force in the 21st century’s information age, which features high-speed network connections.

1 A motorcycle courier safely delivers a document to its recipient. With the recent rise in the number of quick-service businesses, a wider variety of services are now offered.

2 Korea’s longstanding gift-giving custom on traditional holidays, such as Chuseok (Harvest Moon Day) and Seol (Lunar New Year’s Day) creates an explosive surge in package deliveries in the days preceding the holidays.

Delivery service workers pick up parcels at the distribution center of a department store.

Information Society So, how did this Korean-style delivery culture take root in the everyday life of Korean society? These days, delivery services are much more developed and prevalent not only in Korea but in other countries as well. With the popularity of online shopping among consumers, delivery services have proliferated worldwide, distributing the products ordered by online purchasers. Still, Korea is distinctive for its obsession with the speed of delivery services.

The proprietor of a Chinese restaurant in a college neighborhood advertises a guarantee for the delivery of any food order within five minutes, or else the food is free.

Known by his nickname of Lightning, word of his high-speed delivery service has spread throughout the country. In this way, Koreans are used to quick and speedy service.

In the early 20th century, in the West, Europeans referred to Korea as the “Land of the Morning Calm.” At that time, Koreans were characterized by their white-cotton attire, and leisurely pace, with little apparent concern for the hustle and bustle of modern life.

In addition, their definition of time and distance would be expressed with vague notions.

For example, an appointment might be scheduled for a time after “we have eaten and digested our meal,” or the distance to a neighborhood would be described as “the time it takes to smoke a cigarette.”

However, the devastation of the Korean War (1950-53) seriously traumatized the people of Korea, with scenes of catastrophe and tragedy in every direction, such as people clambering along the support beams of a bridge across the Hangang River that had been destroyed; residents struggling desperately to get onboard an evacuation vessel, just ahead of an onslaught of enemy troops; and trains packed to the roof with evacuees with a single thought: survival. Countless families ended up being permanently separated due the conflict’s turmoil, while the fate of an individual could be determined by a split-second instance, like jumping aboard a rescue ship or being left ashore.

During the 50 years that followed the war, Korea’s recovery from the vast wartime destruction has been highlighted by one of the most rapid economic development processes in world history. Due to a relative lack of natural resources, Korea has focused on the

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1 A quick service deliveryman with a full load of packages. To avoid congestion and ensure prompt delivery without a moment’s delay, he checks his GPS device to monitor traffic conditions in real-time.

2 Inclement weather does not deter the dedicated delivery person.

The reliability of motorcycle delivery service in Korea is nothing short of remarkable.

1 In the vert category of freestyle BMX, a biker rides along a large platform that includes curved sides, from which he can launch himself high into the air to perform acrobatic maneuvers. feature daredevil riders who seem to be constantly airborne.

Above all, the racing and freestyle forms of BMX invariably feature daredevil riders who seem to be constantly airborne.

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development of its manpower to assure its economic survival. Meanwhile, managing personal relationships was critical in this densely populated country, where few matters are as straightforward as they might seem. An entanglement of circumstances and relations called for careful deliberation at all times.

Being a late starter in the race for security and prosperity, Korean society was plagued by a belief that catching up with the world would require everything to be completed as quickly as possible, with never a moment to waste. This historical background fostered a sensitivity to speed, and in a half century Korea transformed from the “Land of the Morning Calm” to “Dynamic Korea.”

A lightning-quick delivery network is a product of Korea’s post-war period, when people, amidst widespread devastation, struggled to survive from day to day.

But, by eliminating the unnecessary steps of a process and emphasizing agility over formality, Koreans came to be known as “hasty,” which cast Korea in a less than positive light. However, this penchant for speed has become a potent force in the 21st century’s information age, which features high-speed network connections.

Speed equals competitiveness in the information age, and only those who can adapt to this reality will survive. Koreans have actively acculturated themselves, readily adopting rapidly changing technologies with an agility that is ideally suited to the digital environment.

The most noteworthy characteristic of Korea, according to world-renowned futurist Alvin Toffler, is “speed.” And the quick delivery services are a prime example of this “speed,” which is indispensable to Korea’s advancement. In line with the rapid pace of Korea’s metropolises, its delivery culture helps to assure that the busy daily rhythms of Korean society can continue uninterrupted.

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2 Above all, the racing and freestyle forms of BMX invariably

Journeys in Korean Literature

Koo Hyo-seo

For Koo Hyo-seo (b. 1958), his life has been immersed in the writing of fiction, as evidenced by his 15 novels and 7 collections of short stories. His diverse themes span a broad spectrum, from Korea’s unique rural traditions and its modern urban sensibilities, to undecipherable realms of abstraction. For the better part of his life, Koo has delved deeply in his craft of fiction writing.

CRITIQUE

Dance of Exorcism at the Fringe of Existence Kim Young-chan Professor, Department of Korean Language & Literature, Keimyung University

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or Koo Hyo-seo, it would be no exaggeration to say that his life is immersed in the writing of fiction. Only a quick glance of his 20-year output, since his literary debut in 1987, is needed to assess his prolific writing, which includes 15 novels and seven collections of short stories. If his books are stacked up, the pile’s volume and weight would symbolize the onerous burden that the author’s characters must endure for their day-to-day survival. As such, Koo’s “economics of fiction” call for an economy of writing to coincide with an economy of life. In this way, for Koo, fiction writing is a form of labor, in its most mundane sense.

It is not necessarily a case of conventionality when labor is associated with the creative process, for the breathing of life into objects and their revival, again and again. Conventionality might be evident, but there is another underlying significance as well. Since all worldly affairs, all people, all scenes, and all emotions of this world have been re-created through Koo’s fictional prism, you could say that, all this while, Koo has observed the world through only the eyes of his fiction, such that the entire world is a realm of his fiction writing.

For Koo, the writing of fiction is a means of production, which enables him to read, digest, and humanize the world, turning it into something new and vibrant, thereby bringing him back into the world and allowing him to live there. Life becomes fiction and fiction becomes life. Koo’s fiction exists at an intersection of the two worlds, where it can be difficult to differentiate between the two spheres.

Many of Koo’s characters are straddling a boundary that separates life and death, the present and the past, existence and nonexistence, routine life and life beyond the mundane, worldliness and

86 Koreana | Winter 2008

other-worldliness. This is where the two opposing worlds collide, where for an instance, “incidents” of encounter and exchange can occur between the two realms. Koo’s characters experience these incidents with conscious perception and physical sensation. And the incidents involve internal consequences as well, disrupting the order and perceptions of their mundane lives.

In Koo’s fiction, small but no less significant moments occur in the characters’ lives, creating an upheaval in their everyday routines and inner worlds, while arousing their consciousness. These moments may arise due to the death of an acquaintance, a photograph, desolate scenery, a story someone tells, or an unexpected death sentence that befalls the narrator. In Koo’s story “A Bale of Salt,” this moment occurs when the narrator is handed a Japanese edition of Kierkegaard’s Fear and Trembling , and is told this was a book that his late mother used to read.

The characters of Koo unexpectedly encounter themselves or their history in various objects and places. Therefore, “I” am everywhere, not just inside “me.” The characters might see themselves in anything: an old house where they were born and raised; an object in the corner of a photograph, staring into the vast, dark sky; the desolate melancholy of snow-covered woods in winter; a story told by a stranger encountered at the lake; and the gaze of a long-familiar barber.

The “I” in Koo’s stories comes to realize that the past and the future, other people and history, have all been absorbed into “I,” and that “I” exists in the interaction of these spheres. As such, it is this realization of “I” that Koo strives to express to his readers. It is also within this context that the “I” in “A Bale of Salt” makes the following comment, as he compares the parts he had underlined in his copy of Fear and Trembling , with the lines his mother highlighted in her Japanese edition: “I was able to underline these parts even when I could not fully understand the text, only because Mother’s hand was at work.”

Similarly, the recognition of one’s self can be found in the following quotation from another of Koo’s stories, “Where the Clock Used to Hang”: “I could not exist anywhere. Unless I were the wind, the rain, the sky, the sunlight, a cloud or a rock, I could not exist anywhere.”

“I” exists everywhere and nowhere as well. The existence or nonexistence of “I,” left alone amid the infinity of time and matter; the “I” and the corporeal “I,” the place where everything and everyone in the world flow by and encounter “I” along the way; and the internal processes that enable “I” to perceive such encounters—Koo seeks to unravel these entanglements in his writing. And beneath all this lies a nihilistic sentiment, with a keen recognition of the futile emptiness of our life and reality, supplemented by a willingness to embrace the shadows of life, based on self-reflection.

The essence of Koo’s fiction involves a conversion of this nihilistic sentiment into tranquility and reconciliation, which ultimately offers a positive outlook, based on a contemplative attitude toward our mortal lives, and an open exchange that transcends the self, allowing a rediscovery of the self and clearing away any barriers surrounding the self.

In this way, “A Bale of Salt” reveals a willing embrace of life’s shadows, not hopeless resignation in the face of darkness. Reminiscences of the extreme hardship that Mother had to endure, amid the turmoil of the Korean War, further move the reader’s heart. A sack of salt, placed in a dark, humid corner, produces tear-like salt droplets that are used for preparing food—bean curd in this case. This is a metaphor of the heart-rending capability of life’s shadows. At the same time, it also personifies the life of Mother, shedding invisible tears as she embraced her children, while refusing to give in to life’s darkest shadows. Koo has successfully created a unique character in Mother, who had endured the violence wrought by society (ideological clash) and in her personal life (her husband’s beatings), while persistently maintaining her human dignity until the very end.

Winter 2008 | Koreana 87

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