Koreana Autumn 2005 (English)

BEAUTY OF KOREA

Japsang Lee Kwang-pyo Reporter, Th e Dong-A llbo

mall figurines of humans and animals, or what is com-

ular order." The japsang seen on traditional Korean build-

monly known as japsang [miscellaneous figurines]. can

ings do include human and monkey figurines; "however,

often be seen adorning the roofs of traditional Korean build-

Koreans of old did not always follow this particular order,

ings, especially those associated with the royalty or aristoc-

while figurines of other animals, such as lion, dragon,

racy. The use of japsang, which originated as part of the

giraffe, and fish, were added as well.

S

architecture of China's Song Dynasty [960-1279]. became

The most striking feature of the figurines is their face.

popular in Korea from the 17th century. A set of japsang typ-

When seen for the first time, the faces might appear to be

ically consists of an odd number of figurines, ranging from

menacing and hideous. However, upon a closer look and

three to eleven . Japsang are said to protect the building on

over time, they begin to take on a rather comical and famil-

which they are perched by warding off evil spirits.

iar appearance. Another attractive aspect of the figurines is

Yu Mong-in [1559-1623] wrote in his book Eouyadam

the aesthetic elegance of traditional Korean roof to which

that, "the main characters of Xiyouji [The Journey to the

they are attached . The figurines add to the refined simplicity

West) written by Wu Cheng'en [d . 1582]-the Buddhist

of the roof, thus contributing to the building's overall attrac-

monk Xuanzang, the monkey Sun Wukong, and the pig-

tiveness . This is the true charm of these miscellaneous fig-

human Zhu Bajie-were arrayed on the eaves in that partic-

urines. t.11

Korean a

Korean Art & Culture Vol.19, No. 3 Autumn 2005

Dokdo 8

Geology and Formation of Dokdo Island I Sohn Young Kwan

14

What Is the Controversy Over Dokdo All About?

I Kim Young-koo

20

Dokdo Island Dispute and International Law I Lee Jang-hie

24

Dokdo's Significance to the Korean People I Choi Tae-won

Koreana Intern et We bsite http://www.koreana.or.kr Š The Korea Foundation 2005 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form without the prior permission

of the Korea Foundation The opinions expressed by the authors do not

necessarily represent those of the editors of Koreana

or the Korea Foundation Koreana , registered as a quarterly magazine with the Ministry of Culture and Tourism [Registration No

Ba-1033, dated Aug . 8, 1987). is also published in Chinese, French, Spanish, Arabic and Russian

30

FOCUS

Korean Literature in the Spotlight at Frankfurt Book Fair I Kwon Se-hoon 34

INTERVIEW Kim Ki-duk

A Film Director Who Dares to Challenge the Establishment Cover: Although Korea's ownership of Dokdo is we ll-documented, dating back to 512 ,

I Kang Han-sup

Korea and Japan have been engaged in polit ical

40

wrangling over the island's territorial rights .

ARTISAN Won Kwang-sik

Maker of Bronze Temple Bells with Sublime Resonance

This issue delves into the Dokdo -ownership controversy, the island's sign ificance to the Korean peop le and its potential value .

I Park Ok-soon 46

MASTERPIECES

Baekje Tiles with Decorative Images 50

I Kim Jong-man

ART REVIEW 26th Seoul Theater Festival

Celebration of Korea's Drama Culture

Published quarterly by

I Kim Moon-hwan

The Ko rea Foundation 1376-1 Seocho 2-dong, Seocho-gu .

56

62

DISCOVERING KOREA Modern-day Maritime Industry Rooted in

Seoul 137-863, Korea

Korea's Shipbuilding Traditions

PUBLISHER Kwon ln Hyuk ED ITOR IAL DIRECTOR Kim Hyeh-won ED ITOR-IN-CHIEF Park Jeong - yeop ART DIRECTOR Choi Seong-su

I KimSung-juneandHughlhl

ON THE GLOBAL STAGE Jo Sumi

DESIGNER Hwang Oong-seok

A Soprano with a Voice from Heaven 66

ASSOC IATE EDITOR Chung Bo -young, Park Ok-soon

I Park Jung-jun

EDITORIAL BOARD Choi Joon - sik, Han Kyung-koo. Han Myung - hee, Kim Hwa-young, Kim Moon-hwan,

ON THE ROAD Cheongsong

A Natural Environment Untouched by Urbanization

Kim Young-na, Rhee Jin - bae

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LIVING lncheon·s Chinatown

A Taste of China Right Here in Korea 83

THE U.S. AND CANADA

I Kimok-um

JOURNEYS IN KOREAN LITERATURE

0 C o gUnderlying Tragedy of Life and Existence Evening Game I Translated by Bruce and Ju-Chan Fulton

I Hwang Do-kyung

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Geology and Formation of Dokdo Island Dokdo is a small-size island comprising two islets, with a diameter

unwavering

symbol of Korea's

of less than 500 meters; however, it is of tremendous geological

sovereign territory. Despite its

significance. Dokdo is a geological artifact that provides

diminutive size, Koreans have always

invaluable insight into the evolution of seamounts.

maintained a keen interest in Dokdo,

Sohn Young Kwan Profe ssor of Ear th and Environ menta l Sc iences, Gyeo ngsang National Unive r s¡ity

with many hopeful of visiting there some day. However, visiting the island is no easy matter and only few people

S

tanding in lonely isolation amid the East Sea, Dokdo is

have done so. Meanwhile, scholars have developed a special

an island where the dawn sunlight reaches first each

interest in Dokdo due to its geological formation process and

day, before anywhere else of Korea 's territory. Although it is

potential scientific value, but it is only in the past 12 years or

far from the Korean mainland, it has long been an

so that research on the island has been underway in earnest.

131'52"

Dokdo's geology, age, and formation process has only become clearly known in recent years. I had the rare opportunity to remain on the island for a one-month period twice, in 1992 and 1993, to conduct on-site geological surveys. A geological map of the island has been prepared on the basis of the survey data. In addition, after a year of analytical tests, a research paper on the island was published in the Journal of the Geological Society of Korea [19941, and the Bulletin of Volcanology, a regular journal of the International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth's Interior [1995].

The paper revealed a number of geological facts about Dokdo. An analysis of the age of the rocks of Dokdo found that the island was formed during the Pliocene epoch, some to 2.5 million to 4.6 million years ago. This means that Dokdo is much older than Jejudo or Ulleungdo, two major

volcanic islands of Korea formed 1 or 2 million years ago, and had already emerged above the ocean surface in the boundless expanse of the East Sea well before the formation of Ulleungdo.

In addition, the paper described the unique geology and formation process of the island , leading to recognition of Dokdo's geological significance by the international volcanology community. Then, of all the countless volcanic islands on the earth, why is Dokdo so special? Before answering this question, it would be helpful to provide an overview of Dokdo's geological formation process.

Dokdo's Formation Process

Some 4.6 million years ago, at a depth of 2,000 meters along the floor of the East Sea, hot molten lava began to spew into the cold waters of the deep sea . The lava cooled

Based on geological analyses of the rocks of Dokdo, geologists estimate that Dokdo was formed about 2.5 million to 4.6 million years ago.

I

'I

I

rapidly in the cold water, creating a In the waters beneath Dokdo lies a massive seamount seamount made up of pillow lava [lava that measures some 2,000 meters in height with a basal diameter that erupts in the water and forms a of 20-25 kilometers. Oceanographic surveys have pillow shape] and hyaloclastite [rock also revealed two other table mounts nearby. fragments formed when lava cools rapidly in water and then crumbles].

This seamount, gradually built up over millions of years, which all of these stages can be observed. This is because eventually reached a height of 2,000 meters. About 2.5 million seamounts rarely rise above the ocean surface to reveal a years ago, the seamount gathered up its strength and in a geological cross-section, and even in such cases, it is indeed an exception when all the growth stages can be observed at last gasp emitted magma, which resulted in the formation of a volcano atop the seamount. In this way, Ookdo was born. a glance. It is all the more extraordinary when the transiDue to a volcanic explosion, pyroclastic material [rubtional stage remains intact, because the pyroclastic material ble created by a volcanic explosion] was spewed into the air formed at this stage is usually eroded by wave activity or like a geyser and then fell back to earth and settled in layers later covered by lava . As such, few examples of this phearound the volcanic vent. Over time, the volcanic explosions nomenon exist for scientific observation. However, in the case of Ookdo, which reveals all growth stages, its well-preintensified and the pyroclastic material was deposited by the served transitional stage is of tremendous geological value. pyroclastic surge [rapid flow of a mixture of volcanic materiThis being the case, how does the international vola~ and hot gases across the earth's surface] around the volcanic vent, which accumulated into a pyroclastic cone. canology community assess Ookdo 's geological signifiAfter the accumulation of breccia and tuff [elements of cance? To describe the views of relevant foreign specialists, a pyroclastic cone] through powerful explosions near the the following is an excerpt from a paper written by renowned German volcanologists, which was published in surface of the water, a massive eruption of lava occurred.

The lava from the eruption formed the upper part of Ookdo, the International Journal of Earth Sciences in 2002: which is characterized by prominent columnar joints. After this lava effusion, there were several smaller eruptions and "... Uplifted and dissected deepwater to shoaling volcanoes provide insight into the internal structure of intrusions, but it was apparent that volcanic activity on Ookdo was coming to an end at that time, which was about seamounts. Such sections generally lack the transitional (shoaling to emergent] stage, however, because this stage is 2.5 million years ago. small in volume compared with the entire edifice and is easily eroded by wave action . The uplifted Tok Islands [Dokdo].

Dokdo's Geological Value Related to Ookdo's formation, what is the particular Korea, are, as far as we are aware, the only example of a reason for the island's notable geological significance? In shoaling to emergent volcano located in a marine setting in which the transitional stage is preserved .. ... general, a seamount undergoes the following stages of development: subaqueous growth stage when pillow lava and hyaloclastite build up, transitional stage involving exploAside from the authors citing the geological importance sive eruptions near the sea surface, and subaerial growth and rarity of Ookdo in the published paper, it is gratifying to have Dokdo's geological value recognized by foreign spestage when the seamount rises above the water level to become an island and lava continues to erupt. However, cialists and for the island to be identified as part of Korea by there are very few geological cases around the world in the international geological community.

10 Ko reana I Autumn 200 5

131°52"

I

Dokdo Island

Underwater to pography of Dokd o indicates th sits atop a at the island massive table mount with a ba of 25 k1lom t se diameter of 2 ODO e ers and height • meters Source: Korea Ocean Research and D Institute. evelopment

2 ~~olog ical map of Dokdo ows numero f

[thick Lin I us ault lines es through island· l out the s and mass.

LEGEND • 11111111

Trachyte dike Trachyt e 3 Intrusion Trachyte 2 Scoriace Trachyanod~ss:::illi tuff (Unit P-3)

••

Bedded · . tuff (Unit P-2) M . [l ap1ll1) ass1ve (tuff) brecc1a . (U ·t Trachyte1 n1 P-1 l Unconformity

•

•

Fault breccia Geologic boundary Fault ---- Concealed fault

Autumn 2005 I Koreana 11

The seas surrounding Dokdo, where cold currents converge with warm currents, are known as fertile fishing grounds with bountiful marine animal life and seaweed.

Source: Korea Ocean Research and Development Institute

a massive seamount of more than 2,000 meters in height with a base some 20-25 kilometers in width . For purpose of comparison, it could be said that a large mountain about the

Underwater Topography of Dokdo

Although I was able to discuss the estimated age and

size of Mt. Hallasan, South Korea's highest mountain, lies beneath Dokdo. Unlike other seamounts, this so-named

unique geology of Dokdo in the papers published in 1994 and

Dokdo Seamount includes a flat top with an area equivalent

1995, no information was available at that time about the

to some 10,000 football fields. Because of its flat top it is

structure of Dokdo underwater. However, in the late 1990s,

called a table mount, or guyot, while Dokdo, which reaches a

the Korea Institute of Geoscience and Mineral Resources

height of 200 meters above sea level, sits atop this vast base

and the Korea Ocean Research and Development Institute

in the form of a sharp pinnacle, like the proverbial tip of an

began to carry out oceanographic surveys of the waters

iceberg.

around Dokdo, which led to a series of new and surprising revelations about Dokdo"s underwater structure.

Oceanographic surveys have identified another two table mounts nearby Dokdo Seamount, which have been

Although Dokdo consists of two islets, east and west, of

named Donghae Seamount and Tamhae Seamount. The

less than 500 meters in diameter, below the sea surface lies

existence of three table mounts in such close proximity is of

12 Ko reana I Autumn 2005

considerable significance in terms of their geological value

durable, while the faults created by the crater¡s collapse are

and for further investigating the formation of the East Sea.

constantly shearing the rock into bits and pieces. Because of

Generally, a table mount is formed when a volcanic island in

these geological conditions, Dokdo"s foundation is much

the middle of the ocean is gradually worn down by wave

more fragile than that of any other Korean island and its

action until the top is flattened and then eventually becomes

land mass is being eroded at a rapid pace. In fact, most of

submerged. It is thus believed that Dokdo, and the two near-

Dokdo's volcanic rock has already been worn away during

by table mounts, were previously large-scale islands .

the past 2.5 million years, which is not that long a period in

Therefore, it can be presumed that there were once large

geological terms. As such, it can be said that Dokdo is inex-

islands in this area of the East Sea, of which only Dokdo

tricably approaching the end of its existence. Visitors to

remains in part.

Dokdo would do well to be mindful of the island's weakened geological condition and thus take special care to preserve its delicate natural environment.

Future of Dokdo

t;t

If Dokdo is the last remnant of an island sitting atop a vast table mount, what will happen to Dokdo in the future?

As with any island lying in the open seas, Dokdo is exposed to relentless wave action and brutal weather conditions .

Moreover, the island's tuff and breccia are not especially

Dokdo's Natural Ecology

Land Flora

Land Fauna

Sea Fauna and Flora

Some 50-60 species of plants have been found

To date, 22 species of birds have been

The major fish found in the waters surround-

on Dokdo . Naturally growing herb species

observed on Dokdo including the black-tailed

ing Dokdo include squid. mackerel pike, yel-

include dandelions. yellow wood sorrel [Oxalis

gull [Larus crassirostris), Swinhoe¡s Storm-

lowtail [Serio/a quinqueradiata). globefish,

corniculata), Arabis takesimana. green foxtail

Petrel [Oceanodroma monorhisl. streaked

Chinese gizzard shad [clupanodon thrissa].

[Setaria viridis), mugwort, purslane [Portulaca

shearwater [Calonectris /eucomelasl. kestrel

conger eel [Astroconger myriasterl. flatfish.

o/eracea), goosefoot [Chenopodium album var.

[Falco tinnunculus interstinctus). osprey

sandfish [Arctoscopus japonicus), arabesque

centrorubrum Makino), and plantain [Plantago

[Pandion haliaetus]. dusky thrush I Turdus

greenling [Pleurogrammus azonus Jordan et

asiatica), along with woody plant species like

naumannil. crow. and daurian redstart

Metz), and black rockfish [Sebastes schleget,J.

black coral [Antipathes japonica), honeysuckle

[Phoenicurus auroreus]. in addition to 37

There are also such shellfish as abalone,

[Lonicera insularis Naka,1. wineberry [Rubus

species of insects, such as the dragonfly, sea-

conch, and mussel. while seaweed varieties

phoenicolasius), and camellia trees.

side earwig [Anisolabis maritime), grasshop-

include marine brown seaweed [Undaria pin-

per, cicada, beetle, and butterfly. Though pet

natifida). kelp [Laminaria japonica). laver,

dogs are brought to the island from the main-

Ceylon moss. and seaweed fusiforme. In addi-

land from time to time, there are no mammals

tion, sea cucumber, prawn. and red snowcrab

native to the island.

are also found in the nearby waters.

Autumn 2005 I Koreana 13

What Is the Controversy Over Dokdo All About?

D

clearly Korean territory. Yet Korea's

The ownership dispute over Dokdo Island is developing into a diplomatic feud between Korea and Japan. It is thus necessary to understand the history of Ko rea's possession of Dokdo as well as the origi n and development of this controversy.

territorial sovereignty over Dokdo has

Kim Young- koo Form er Presid ent, Korean Society of International Law

come under attack by a tenacious and

Map of Do kdo. Source: Dokdo Museum

okdo Island is a pair of rocky islets with an area of no more

than 0.2 square kilometers ; but it is

deliberate Japanese policy initiative.

Recently, the council of Shimane Prefecture passed an

Around this time, King Taejong issued an official decree

ordinance that designated February 22 as "Takeshima Day"

under which all residents of Ulleungdo were ordered to

[Takeshima is the Japanese name for Dokdo]. while the

return to the mainland. Moreover, official missions were

Japanese government has persistently claimed ownership

regularly dispatched to inspect the islands and ensure that

of Dokdo, which have served to rile anti-Japanese

the relocation policy was being observed, which were known

sentiments in Korea and again make Dokdo a cause for

as "Official Missions to Ulleungdo and Surrounding Areas."

concern and attention of the Korean people.

These inspections also covered Dokdo, which was part of the administrative district of Ulleungdo.

Historical References

On October 25, 1900, the Great Korean Empire

Koreans have regarded Dokdo as part of Korean territo-

[Daehanjeguk, the name of Joseon from 1897 until the

ry ever since the Silla period [57 B.C.-935 A.DJ In the

annexation by Japan in 191 OJ issued Royal Edict No. 41 , to

renowned 12th century historical text, Samguksagi [History of

reinforce the administration of Ulleungdo and Dokdo. This

the Three Kingdoms]. compiled by Kim Bu-sik [1075-1151].

edict was recorded in the official gazette as "Renaming of

the "Royal Annals of Silla" recorded the existence of an

Ulleungdo as Uldo and Promoting the Island Governor to a

ancient maritime kingdom known as Usanguk, consisting of

County Magistrate." The second paragraph of this edict stat-

the islands of Ulleungdo and Dokdo, that was conquered in

ed: "The county office will be located in Daeha-dong, and its

A.O. 512 by the Silla general Isa bu, and incorporated into Silla.

jurisdiction will include the entire island of Ulleungdo, Jukdo

The first reference that indicated Korea's geographical

[Jukseodo, a small island located right alongside

recognition of the islands of Ulleungdo and Dokdo can be

Ulleungdo]. and Seokdo Island." In the Jeolla-do regional

found in Goryeosa [History of Goryeo]. published in 1441 and

dialect, "Dokdo" meant "island of rock, " and "Seokdo" [:fi ~]

1451. This geographical recognition of Dokdo was again con-

was used to express Dokdo in Chinese characters.

firmed during the early Joseon period [1392-191 Ol. The

The name "Dokdo" only came into regular use in Korea

Annals of King Taejong [Taejongsillok]. compiled in 1416,

in the late 19th century, but Korea's geographical recogni-

stated that the Joseon Dynasty recognized the small island

tion of Ulleungdo and Dokdo has clearly been consistent

of Dokdo near Ulleungdo, and included a reference to a dis-

since the early Joseon Dynasty. Different names have been

cussion about this island at the royal court that involved Vice

used for Dokdo since that time , such as Usando,

Minister of Taxation Bak Seop.

Sambongdo, and Gajido. This use of a variety of names by

14 Ko reana I Autumn 2005

131°52"

Koreans does not mean that there is any contradiction or

Japan's Imperialism

confusion in the geographical recognition of Dokdo. Rather,

Japan has referred to this island as Takeshima only

it is evidence of the frequent contact that the people of Korea

recently. At a meeting on January 28, 1905, the Japanese

have had with Ulleungdo and Dokdo.

cabinet decided that Dokdo would be incorporated into Japanese territory, and what had until then been known as Liancourt Island was suddenly and arbitrarily renamed Takeshima Island. Japan 's geographical recognition of the

An 1876 reproduction of the "Complete Map of the Eight Provinces," a map created in 1592 by the order of Japanese warlord Toyotomi Hideyoshi, just prior to the Japanese invasion of Korea in 1592. This is the earliest known map of Japanese origin that uses the Korean designation for Dokdo.

Ulleungdo and Dokdo islands originated about the 16th or 17th century, and from that time Japan has referred to

Autumn 2005 I Koreana 15

Ulleungdo as Takeshima Island and Dokdo as Matsushima

had bee n reborn as a modern nation under the Meiji

Island . After 1840, however, it suddenly began to refer to

Restoration, began to move forward with its ambitions for

Ulleungdo as Matsushima Island , and Dokdo as Liancourt

th e Korean peninsula and adopted measures to advance its

Island.

imperialist aggression, it establi shed an advance base of

The existence of th is kind of inconsistency indicates

opera tions on Ulleungdo . The decision by the cabinet in

that Japan did not have a specific geographical understand-

January 1905, to suddenly rename Dokdo as Takeshima

ing of Ulleungdo and Dokdo. Furthermore, the decision of

Island, can be seen as a symbolic step under which Dokdo

the Japanese cabinet [January 28, 1905] to suddenly and

was designated an initial target of Japan's imperialist

arbitrarily rename Dokdo as Takeshima Island, the name

aggression.

that had been used for Ulleungdo, wh en it sought to incorporate Dokdo into Japanese territory is unnatural and thus must be viewed as irrational. In reality, when Japan, which

Map used by the Sup reme Command fo r the Allied Powers in 1946 that indicates the Japanese and Korean areas of administrative jurisdiction, following the end of World War II. Ulleungdo Island (Ullung) and Dokdo (Take) are clearly identified as part of Korea·s area of jurisdiction.

2 A lighthouse, which has been operated since 1954, a police guard house, and communicat ions fac ilities are among the major improvements that have been developed on Dokdo.

Japan's Persistent Claims

Japan 's unjustified claims of ownership of Dokdo are

MA N CHURIA

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SCAP ADMINISTRATIVE AREAS JAPAN AND SOUTH l<OREA

1w, u1. .1'i,, 1

16

Korea na I Autumn 2005

111 52'

nothing new. These claims were initiated before the signing of the Treaty of Peace with Japan in San Francisco on September 8, 1951, which became effective in 1952 to formally conclude World War 11, when the Japanese government under Prime Minister Yoshida Shigeru conducted a lobbying campaign to have the Supreme Command for Allied Powers recognize Japan's ownership ofTakeshima Island.

The primary grounds for Japan's claims of ownership of Dokdo can be summarized in the following two points: First, Japan incorporated Dokdo into its territory in January 1905, and second, Dokdo was not included in the list

In 1994, when Korea and Japan adopted their respective exclu sive

of islands that Japan had to return to

economic zones, the issue of Dokdo aga in becam e a bone

Korea under the Treaty of Peace with

of contention. In particular, Japan has pursued an aggressive

Japan [1952).

First, there is the matter of the

territorial policy under wh ich it has repeatedly claimed that Dokdo is Japanese territory.

measures undertaken by Japan's government in its efforts to incorporate Dokdo into Japanese territory in January 1905. The process

[1952). This peace treaty, which was concluded between the

of incorporating Dokdo, which at that time was being legally

victorious Allied Powers and the defeated Japan to bring

governed by the Joseon Dynasty, into Japanese territory is

World War II to an official end, stipulated that "Japan, while

patently invalid under international law. There was no

recognizing the independence of Korea, renounces all right,

protest from Korea because Imperial Japan had effectively

title, and claim to Korea , including the islands of Quelpart,

seized national sovereignty from the Joseon Dynasty by

Port Hamilton, and Dagelet'' [Quelpart refers to Jejudo

gaining control of Korea 's diplomatic authority under the

Island, Port Hamilton to Geomundo Island, and Dagelet to

Korea-Japan Protocol [February 23, 1904) and the First

Ulleungdo).

Korea-Japan Agreement [August 21 , 1904).

In an earlier draft of the treaty prepared by the Allied

After having rendered the Joseon Dynasty virtually

Powers, Dokdo was included as one of the islands that

powerless, Japan proceeded to incorporate the strategically

Japan had to return to Korea . However, under the leader-

valuable Dokdo into Japanese territory as the first step of its

ship of Prime Minister Yoshida Shigeru , Japan lobbied vigor-

imperialist efforts to pursue territorial expansion. Despite

ously to convince the Allied Powers that Dokdo should be

the fact that the Japanese government had officially

reflected as Japanese territory under the treaty. As a result

acknowledged Dokdo as being Korean territory on two sep-

of these efforts, Dokdo was subsequently deleted from the

arate occasions [1699 and 1877). it sought to incorporate the

list of islands that Japan had to return, while the U.S. gov-

island through a secretive and conspiratorial process that

ernment issued an official statement that noted: "Dokdo is

was not announced to the international community .

recognized as Japanese territory under the name of

Regardless of the perspective that might be argued, this

Takeshima Island." Japan thus claims that Dokdo had been

process was clearly invalid under international law.

The same is true of the Treaty of Peace with Japan

officially recognized as Japanese territory based on this provision of the peace treaty.

Autumn 2005 I Koreana 17

Solution Proves Elusive

sion cannot be construed as meaning that Dokdo is thus

However, if the principles of international law are

Japanese territory . Accordingly, contrary to what the

applied to the relevant provisions of the subject peace treaty,

Japanese claim, the Treaty of Peace with Japan does not

it is clear that Dokdo was not specifically designated as

specify that Dokdo is Japanese territory under the name of

Japanese territory. Despite the fact that Dokdo's return was

Takeshima Island.

not specified in the final draft of the peace treaty, this omis-

In the Treaty on Basic Relations between Japan and the

13' '2

l

1 Dokdo's western islet as seen from the eastern islet. Although the island is clearly owned by Korea, its territorial sovereignty has been persistently challenged by Japan, despite the dubious nature of its claims.

2 This map, created in 1785 and entitled "Map of the Nearby Lands of the Three Kingdoms," was included in Explanation of the General Survey Map of the Three Kingdoms, prepared by Hayashi Sihei, the most prominent Japanese geographer of his time. Since all of the islands in the East Sea are designated as Korean territory, this map is regarded as further evidence that verifies Korea's ownership of Dokdo.

Republic of Korea , concluded in June 1965, it was Japan 's intention to designate Dokdo as a disputed territory between the two countries, but this provision was ultimately deleted due to objections by Korea . In fact, Korea was in full possession of Dokdo at the

It seems that Korea believes its current occupation of

time, which served to establish the

Dokdo has effectively secured its right of possession, and if

superiority of its claims. In subsequent

this occupation is maintained over time, then the ownership

negotiations, Korea and Japan sought

controversy will naturally disappear. However, such an atti-

to avoid the controversial issue of

tude represents a precarious approach, which is somewhat

Dokdo, with each side maintaining its

difficult to comprehend from the perspective of international

own position on the matter. In this

law. As such, the current stance of the Korean government

way, from 1965 to 1996, Korea and

can be assessed as being rather tenuous under internation-

Japan tacitly agreed not to raise the

al law.

issue of Dokdo.

Furthermore, according to the fisheries agreement

Upon the proclamation of the

concluded between Korea and Japan in 1999, Dokdo is

United Nations Convention on Law of

located within a provisional zone designated in th e East Sea

the Sea in 1994, Korea and Japan des-

that calls for joint efforts for the maintenance and regulation

ignated exclusive economic zones that

of related fishery resources. Nevertheless, during the past

extended 200 nautical miles from their

six years of the agreement's effectiveness, Korea has unilat-

respective coastlines. Related to this,

erally refused to promote the joint regulatory measures that

Japan abandoned its passive stance

had been agreed upon. t.t

that had relied on written claims of ownership, and instead adopted an aggressive territorial policy under which it publicly and explicitly claimed that Dokdo was Japanese territory.

The Korean government remained silent and pretended to ignore Japan's belligerent claims.

Autumn 2005 I Koreana

19

Dokdo Island Dispute and International Law The dispute over the ownership of Dokdo Island continues to fester,

but that Japan's control continued until

as neither Korea nor Japan is able to reach an acceptable solution .

the Treaty of Peace with Japan went

Accord ing to a specialist in international law, Japan's claims are

into effect on April 28, 1952. The peace

clearly lacking in legal validity and without merit.

treaty between the Allied Powers and

Lee Jang- hie Professor of Law , Hankuk Univers ity of Foreign Stud ies

Japan set forth significant provisions relevant to the Korean peninsula and the status of Korea, and thus is seen as

I

n light of the historical background of Dokdo, the invalidity

a substantive document for determining the ownership of

of Japan's ownership claims , an evaluation of Dokdo's

Dokdo. In Article 2 of this treaty, Dokdo was not specified on a

status following the Korea-Japan- Fisheries Agreement

list of islands that Japan had been required to return to

(1999). and the recent situation on the Korean peninsula, it

Korea . Nonetheless, Japan 's claims to Dokdo are unsub-

seems that Korea's policy approach of indifference [quiet

stantiated and invalid under international law.

diplomacy] has reached its limit. The following discusses Japan's claims of ownership of Dokdo and the invalidity of its legal arguments under international law.

Unsubstantiated Claims The historical support for its "inherent territory" concept is not substantiated by facts . Dokdo has been Korean

Summary of Japan's Claims

territory, along with Ulleungdo Island, since at least A.O.

The thrust of Japan's claims to Dokdo can be summa-

512, and although the Joseon Dynasty did order the reloca-

rized by the following four points: First, Japan claims that

tion of island residents to the mainland in the early 15th cen-

Dokdo is inherently Japanese territory. Second, it claims that

tury, this was an exercise of sovereign power, not an expres-

the administrative measures adopted by the regional

sion of any intent to relinquish ownership.

Shimane Prefecture council, under which Dokdo was incor-

During the Joseon period, Dokdo, which was known as

porated as Japanese territory on February 22, 1905, consti-

Usando Island, was administratively assigned to Uljin-hyeon,

tute an effective act of occupation according to international

Gangwon-do province, along with Ulleungdo. As a result of

law. Third , Japan argues that it has continuously exercised

the efforts of An Yong-bok, Japan sent official correspon-

sovereign national authority over the island through various

dence in 1693 and 1696 that acknowledged Dokdo and

administrative measures implemented after the incorpora-

Ulleungdo as being Joseon territory and pledged to prohibit

tion procedure. Fourth, it cites the fact that Article 2 (al of the

Japanese fishermen from fishing off these islands. In 1869

Treaty of Peace with Japan (between the Allied Powers and

and 1877, in the aftermath of the overthrow of the Tokugawa

Japan]. which was signed on September 8, 1951 to bring

Bakufu by Japanese warlords and establishment of the Meiji

World War II to an official end, did not specify that Japan

Restoration government, the Japanese government con-

must return Dokdo to Korea. That is, Japan contends that the

firmed that: "Dokdo is Joseon territory that is of no concern

Korean peninsula was not freed from Japanese rule with the

to Japan." On October 25, 1900, Emperor Gojong (r. 1863-

signing of its unconditional surrender on September 2, 1945,

1907] proclaimed Royal Edict No. 41, under which Ulleungdo

20 Koreana I Au tum n 2005

131 °52"

was renamed Uldo, the incumbent governor was promoted to county magistrate, and Ulleungdo, Jukdo, and Seokdo were placed under his magisterial jurisdiction. In spite of the fact that Japanese did intrude upon Ulleungdo while it was devoid of Korean residents, this cannot be regarded as an effective occupation of Dokdo by Japan. In addition, ports of call and fishing activ ities of Japanese fishermen cannot be recognized as official acts by a governmental agency. And in particular, Japan 's efforts to incorporate Dokdo into its territory, based on the Shimane Prefecture 's Proclamation No . 40 in 1905, prove that Dokdo was not, in fact, Japan·s inherent territory.

Invalid Occupation Claims

Until the Japanese cabinet adopted measures to rename Dokdo as Takeshima, incorporate the island into its territory, and occupy it on January 28, 1905, the Joseon Dynasty had continuously and peacefully exercised territorial sovereignty over Dokdo, and thus maintained substantive title to the island. Accordingly, Japan 's claim of occupation cannot be accepted as a legal action based on international law.

Japan's claims of occupa-

Dokdo Island is not only valuable politically and diplomatically, but is also a precious environmental a nd ecological resou rce. Warm and cold currents intersect here in the seas around Dokdo Island, making it an idea l habitat fo r subpolar, wa rm tempe rate, and subtropical seaweed , as well as a variety of fish.

· tion are deemed invalid under international law for the following reasons. Unde r international law, occupation is a title to territorial acquis ition that is established when a nation discovers a new terra nullius or exercises effective and continuous rule before any other nation over a region that had been abandoned by its former ruler. The polar areas,

including Antarctica, are an exception

Japan failed to have Dokdo Island recognized as Japanese territory

to this principle. The subjective condi-

under the Treaty of Peace with Japan. Moreover, in accordance with

tion of occupation is expression of

SCAPIN No. 677, Dokdo has been recognized as being part of Korean

intent to take possession of a territo-

territory by the international community.

ry, wh ile the objective condition calls for exercising effective and continuous rule under national authority. This objective condition is

Moreover, this proclamation was secretively and hurriedly

considered especially relevant as a means of confirming

adopted as part of a military strategy. In addition, it is not

the existence of the subjective condition of intent to take

even certain whether this proclamation was ever officially

possession.

issued. The subject of occupation is a nation, not an

Unlike individual nations, there is no centralized authority that oversees the international community. It is

autonomous local governing body such as Shimane Prefecture.

thus necessary for exclusive territorial sovereignty to be

Third, Japan claims that after the incorporation and

constantly maintained through effective occupation [evi-

occupation measures were adopted by Shimane Prefecture

dence of stable and continuous national activity]. The subject

in the related proclamation on February 22, 1905, there was

of occupation is the nation. The subjective condition of occu-

no objection raised by Korea . Yet this does not take into

pation , the intent to take possession, is demonstrated

account the fact that since Korea had been deprived of its

through a declaration of possession, legislative and admin-

diplomatic authority by Japan under the 1905 Protectorate

istrative measures, and notification to other interested

Treaty, Korea did not have the ability to officially protest the

nations. However, a majority opin ion contends that official

incorporation of Ookdo into Japanese territory.

notification is not a requ isite condition of occupation, while a minority opinion upholds its applicability.

Fourth, the object of occupation is required to be ownerless land . But in 1905, Dokdo was historically not owner-

Based on the legal princ iples of occupation under

less land and was already effectively ruled by Korea, so the

international law, Japan's 1905 claim of occupation reveals

island was not a legal object of occupation . Ownerless land

the following contradictions.

refers to an area that is not part of the territory of another

First, there was no notification of Korea , as an interest-

nation or land that has been abandoned an¡d thus is no

ed nation. When Japan proceeded with its incorporation of

longer ruled as part of a nation's territory. Abandonment of

Ookdo in 1905, it issued no notification whatsoever to Korea.

territory requires the subjective condition of intent to aban-

In light of the results of such cases as Clipperton Island

don territory and the objective condition of its actual aban-

[1931] and Palmas Island [1928], it can be concluded that, in

donment. In the case that a nation temporarily evacuates

terms of international law, since Korea had a clear interest

residents from a territory in accordance with national policy,

in the uninhabited island of Ookdo, notification was neces-

if it can be proven that there was no definitive and external

sary. Of course, Japan claims that notification has not been

expression of intent to abandon the territory, then this would

recognized as a requisite condition for establishing occupa-

not be considered abandonment. Joseon¡s policy of relocat-

tion under international law.

ing the residents of Ookdo and Ulleungdo to the mainland in

Second, it is necessary for intent to occupy to be made

order to protect them from frequent raids by Japanese

known abroad by a "nation ." Japan 's 1905 expression of

marauders, in the aftermath of the Japanese Invasion of

intent to occupy was made simply through a proclamation

1592, was not an abandonment of territory. Even during the

issued by an autonomous local Japanese governing body.

enforcement of this policy, the Joseon government ad minis-

22 Korea na I Autumn 2005

Dokdo Island, home to some 60 varieties of pla nt life, is a favo ri te nesting grounds for black-ta iled gu lls, streaked shearwaters, Swi nhoe¡s fork-ta iled petrels, and other seafowl.

eighth, and ninth drafts prepared by the United States and the joint draft prepared by the United Kingdom and the United States did not contain any reference to Dokdo as either Korean or Japanese territory. In the end , the final agreement that was signed did not include any specific mention of Dokdo.

Second, since Japan failed to have Dokdo trated Ulleungdo and Dokdo by dispatching regular inspec-

designated as Japanese territory in the Treaty of Peace with

tions of the islands.

Japan, and the validity of SCAPIN No. 677 has been upheld,

Japan's occupation procedures were contrary to

Dokdo has thus been recognized by the international com-

international law, while the administrative measures under-

munity as Korean territory in accordance with international

taken by the Japanese government did not constitute effec-

law. The Republic of Korea was founded on August 15, 1948,

tive occupation to prove possession . Thus Japan's occupa-

while SCAPIN No. 677 was still in effect, and the U.S. military

tion of Dokdo, through the conclusion of World War 11, was

government turned over all Korean territory to the ROK,

solely the result of its aggression .

including Dokdo. Even if Japan had succeeded in specifying Dokdo as Japanese territory in the Treaty of Peace with

Peace Treaty of 1951

Japan, this still would have required ratification by the

Meanwhile, Japan's argument that Article 2 [al of the

Korean government. This is because as a third party to this

Treaty of Peace with Japan, which did not specify the return

treaty, Korea 's consent would be required in order for the

of Dokdo to Korea, is evidence that Dokdo is Japanese terri-

related provisions to be applicable to Korea.

tory is tenuous at best.

First and foremost, Article 2 [al resulted from Japan's

Third, because SCAPIN No. 677 specified that Dokdo was Korean territory, the Treaty of Peace with Japan would

lobbying of William J. Sebald, a political adviser for the

have had to explicitly overturn this stipulation in order to

Supreme Command for Allied Powers. The first through fifth

supersede the original designation. Evidence of the intent of

drafts of the Treaty of Peace with Japan designated Dokdo as

the Allied Powers can be found in the policies they imple -

Korean territory, but Sebald sought to delete Dokdo and have

mented during their occupation and governance of Japan.

the island listed as Japanese territory. However, Sebald was

Fourth, the islands listed in Article 2 (al of the Treaty of

unable to secure the agreement of the United Kingdom and

Peace with Japan only included the major islands to be

other Allied Powers, and even the United States was not

returned by Japan, not every single Korean island involved.

swayed by Japan's lobbying, while ultimately citing the validi-

This is clear when one understands that the islands that

ty of SCAPIN No. 677 (Supreme Command for Allied Powers

belong to Korean territory are not limited to only Jejudo,

Instruction No. 677, January 29, 1946, under which Dokdo

Geomundo, and Ulleungdo, which were specified in the

was recognized as Korean territory). Thereafter, the seventh,

treaty. t:.t Autumn 2005 I Koreana

23

Dokdo's Significance to the Korean People T

o the Korean people, Dokdo is a symbol of national pride that can

never be given up for any reason . The number of islands that are part of Korean

For the Korean people, Dokdo Island is much more than just the easternmost point of their national territory. Indeed, Dokdo's special significance is reflected in the notable efforts of the people who have ardently protected and cared for this island.

territory is practically

Choi Tae-won Free la nce Wri ter

countless. But it is Dokdo that is at the heart of a raging controversy due to

ri across the sea/from the southeastern end of

Japan's repeated claims of sovereignty of the island. Indeed,

island/200

Koreans think of Dokdo as much more than a national

Ulleungdo/the home of birds .. ... is Jeong Gwang-tae¡s signa-

boundary that is now the target of political wrangling .

ture hit [www.dokdokorea.net1. Especially, the popularity of

Despite the fact that Dokdo is a remote island in the East

this song did much to heighten public awareness about the

Sea that the vast majority of Koreans have never even seen

importance of Dokdo.

up close, this easternmost point of their national territory is dear to people's hearts.

Jeong, who registered Dokdo as his family address in 1999, and was even appointed honorary governor of the island, made a big name for himself with this one song .

Dokdo in Song and Art

Recently, Jeong teamed up with another singer, Kim Heung-

When Koreans heard the news that the local council of

kook, to release a song entitled "The Butterfly that Went to

Shimane Prefecture in Japan had proclaimed February 22

Dokdo ." Singer-songwriter Han Dal, who has also sung

as "Takeshima Day," the entire country again became

about Dokdo, yearns for unification in the song "Hollo

aggravated over the issue of Dokdo. Incensed by Japan's

Arirang," which starts out "The lonely island in the East

belligerence, Koreans staged protests amid the emergence

Sea/buffeted by strong winds again today ...... In fact, figures

of various reactions, including advice to demonstrate ratio-

from the entertainment and artistic circles drew attention to

nal and cool-headed behavior, rather than emotional out-

Dokdo through their popular culture pursuits well before the

bursts of outrage. As in the past, the territorial dispute over

territorial dispute became such a high-profile controversy.

Dokdo, which the Japanese call Takeshima, remains a polit-

While the songs of popular singers left lyrical images in the

ical volcano, capable of erupting at any moment.

minds of the public, artists expressed their deep affection

This being the case, how is Dokdo, an ecological trea-

for Dokdo with their brush and canvas.

sure [designated Natural Monument No. 336 in 1982 as a

The three art exhibitions on Dokdo, which have been

seabird habitat] and symbol of national pride, perceived by

presented at the Seoul National University Museum, vividly

Koreans? Whenever Dokdo is mentioned, a song immedi-

demonstrate how Korean artists perceive the island. Under

ately comes to mind . It is a popular contemporary song that

the themes "History and Consciousness : Dokdo in

is all too familiar to almost all Koreans, young and old, who

Contemporary Art" [2001 l, "'History and Consciousness :

invariably can sing the refrain: " Dokdoneun uri ttang"

Dokdo

[Do kdo is our land]. This song, which starts out "A lonely

Consciousness: Woodblock Print Landscapes of Dokdo"

24 Koreana I Autumn 2005

Landscapes"

[2002].

and

"History

and

131°52"

[2003). the three exhibitions were noteworthy events that

Dokdo, at the outdoor plaza of the lncheon Multiculture and

served to encourage further artistic and academic endeav-

Arts Center.

ors related to Dokdo, which had previously been assessed from only political and economic perspectives.

Dokdo Museum

After the declaration of ''Takeshima Day" by Japan,

Korea has for long exercised sovereignty over Dokdo. In

the Sum Art Culture Institute organized the "Dokdo Arirang

1696 [22nd year of the reign of King Sukjong] during the

Exhibition," which toured eight cities starting from Seoul.

And in April, 120 artists from the lncheon area held an arts festival, for the purpose of promoting the protection of

Until recently, private citizens were not allowed to visit Dokdo. which is designated Natural Monument No. 336.

But under a change in government policy, the island has been open to the public. on a restricted basis. since March 24. 2005.

Autumn 2005 I Koreana 25

26 Korean a I Autumn 2005

'31 ~2¡

Lately, the public's concern and affection for Dokdo have received a boost from the Internet's communication and networking technology.

As such, a variety of Dokdo-related sites can be accessed online, which feature art works and academic research about the island.

Dokdo-theme art exh ibiti ons enable Korea n artists to exp ress their creati ve sentime nts about t he island .

Thi s is a work by Lee Jong - sa ng.

2 Park Dae-sung dep icts Dokdo as an island of grandeur and dyna m ism w ith a trad it ional in k wo r k.

3 Altho ugh a rat her tiny an d remote isla nd, Dokdo is t he source of a wide dive rsity of impress ions and imagery, as seen in this pa int ing by Lee Wa l-c hong.

Autumn 2005 I Koreana 27

Joseon Dynasty, An Yong-bok, a fisherman who was abduct-

archives would whisper to each other, "Here comes

ed by Japan, declared to Japanese authorities that Dokdo

Takeshima," when they caught sight of Lee.

belonged to Korea. Carrying on An 's legacy, a volunteer group led by Hong Sun-chil [1929-1986] stood guard at the island in 1953, after learning about a possible intrusion by Japan.

Online Promotion of Dokdo Recently, interest in Dokdo has flourished via the Internet. Sites such as the Righteous Troops of Dokdo

Any discussion on Dokdo must make mention of Lee

[www.o-dokdo.com] and Dokdo Suhodae [www.tokdo.com],

Jong-hak [1927-20021, a bibliographer who devoted his life

as well as clubs like Dokdo 199 [user.chollian.net/-zstokdo].

to bringing attention to Japan¡s distortion of historical facts

are just a few examples of how the Internet has helped to

about Dokdo. The late Lee was the first director of the Dokdo

bolster public support for Dokdo, especially among the

Museum [www.dokdomuseum.go.kr]. the nation's first terri-

young generation.

torial museum that opened in 1997, and a high-profile protector of the island. The Dokdo Museum is located on a

In contrast to some sites that exist mainly in name alone, www.cybertokdo.com is particularly active thanks to the assistance of its many volunteers. This site, which has been commended by the National Assembly Dokdo Club

1 Dokdo Museum collects and exhibits materials related to Do~do and the East Sea. 2 Children participating in an event organized by Dokdo Museum show off the fans that they just made.

and is highly recommended for Korean youth by the Information Communication Ethics Committee, is operated

by Kim Hyun-jung, an ordinary wage earner. Kim developed an interest in Dokdo when he came to realize that the international community commonly referred to the East Sea as the "Sea of Japan." This situation prompted Kim to stay up until the wee hours night after night, searching for available information on Dokdo, and then later launching and operating the subject web site.

The site includes diverse information on the environment and history of Dokdo as well as a gallery of related art works. In particular, Kim says that it is especially gratifying to be able to answer questions asked by young students. As for Kim, who has been appointed an honorary employee of the Dokdo branch of Daegu Bank, he is concerned that: ''The government and private groups have not been able to secure an advantageous position in dealing with the Dokdo issue." While Japan has been preparing a legal basis for its

1,597-square-meter site in Yaksu Park on Ulleungdo. Lee,

claims by granting mining rights, and creating documenta-

who donated 555 maps, documents, and other materials to

tion of tax payments, no one in Korea has taken the initiative

the museum, was known for his deep attachment to Dokdo.

to assure that this matter is being handled in an effective

Lee visited Japan numerous times to search out documents

manner.

that proved Korea's ownership of Dokdo. In this regard, it is

Moreover, Kim notes that while the people's love for

said that the staff of university libraries and government

Dokdo on a personal level is important, this needs to be

28 Korea na I Autumn 2005

131'52"

â&#x20AC;˘ ~

.

:n

backed up by more organized and systematic efforts. It is thus fortunate that the Dokdo Institute [www.dokdoinkorea.com) is striving to prove Korea's rightful ownership of Dokdo based on scholarly research. Founded in March 1996, the Dokdo Institute has organized a variety of seminars on the territorial ownership of Dokdo and published an abundance of related research in the journal Dokdo Studies

[Dokdo Yeongu chongseol.

As a reflection of the Internet's value in rallying public support for Dokdo, the Hangeul Internet address service provider, Netpia, has donated Dokdo's Korean lan-

[www.dokdo.go.kr). as of March 2005, thereby enabling

guage

Koreans to more easily visit Dokdo, if only on line. 1..1

Internet

address

to

the

government

of

Gyeongsangbuk-do province. That is, the company has made available the Korean domain names " Dokdo" and "Dokdo Sarang," which can be used instead of the English domain

Dokdo-related Internet Sites

~ ~ ~¡ ~1 Dokdo Institute

www.cybertokdo.com

Dokdo Museum

Dokdo Institute was formed in 1996 by schol-

This site is operated by an ordinary salaried

Established on Ulleungdo in 1997,

ars who sought to conduct academic research

worker, Kim Hyun-jung. It provides a wide

Dokdo Museum is Korea's only territorial

to substantiate the history and importance of

variety of related information, including

museum . Founded by the late Lee Jong-hak,

Dokdo as a part of Korean territory. This group

Dokdo's history, photographs of the island,

a bibliographer who dedicated his life

has held a variety of seminars on Korea's

and various press releases and articles.

to collecting Dokdo-related research

territorial ownership of Dokdo and published a

The site also includes "Cyber Dokdo

materials, the museum's basic collection

wealth of research and information related to

Broadcasting Station " and "Simulation

consists of items accumulated by Lee, most of

Dokdo, which can be accessed at its website

Dokdo," wh ich feature video coverage of the

which are related to the geology and ecology

[www.dokdoinkorea.com].

island.

of Dokdo [www.dokdomuseum .go.kr1.

Aut umn 2005 I Korea na 29

Korean Literature in the Spotlight at Frankfurt Book Fair The Frankfurt Book Fair's opening in October is fast approach ing. As this year's Guest of Honor, Korea will be presenting "100 Korean Books" at this high-profile event to introduce Korea's literature and culture to the world.

T

he Frankfurt Book Fair played a central role in the European

book trade from the time of Gutenbe r g's invention of movable metal type in the 15th century t h rough the 18th century, when Leipzig took over the organization of

Kwon Se-hoon Manager, Public

this event. The Frankfurt Book Fair,

Information Division, Korean Literature

which was resumed in the 1950s

Translation Institute Ahn Hong-beom Photographer

after World War II, is being held for the 57th time in 2005. Today, it is recognized as one of the world's largest book fairs.

Book Selection Process Korea is the third Guest of Honor from Asia, following Japan and India, since the Guest of Honor system was introduced in 1988. The Frankfurt Book Fair is not only a venue abuzz with book expositions and copyright negotiations, it also offers a diversity of forums on cinema, television, and digital content, thus attracting wideranging interest. In this way, the Frankfurt Book Fair, which is called a "cultural Olympics," has been reborn as a vast marketplace for the distribLobby of the 2,500- square-meter Guest of Honor Hall at the Frankfurt Book Fair that features an exhibition of the highlights of Korean¡ literature, "100 Korean Books" corner, "Korean Books Today" corner, an exhibition introducing contemporary Korean authors, and e-Korea Cafe .

ution of books and multimedia.

In 2004, the Frankfurt Book Fair featured the exhibition of 400,000 books of publishers from more than 100 countries and the stag i ng of numerous events and activities,

hrme of the Chason D, nast\

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which attracted 350,000 visitors. Under the Guest of Honor

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Translation into Six Languages

system, the cultu re of the designated country is introduced

The 100 selected books covered 8 subject areas:

through a variety of cultural programs and activities,

thought and philosophy (9], history and geography (9]. reli-

including the presentation of literary works. In terms of

gion, folklore, and language (7]. arts and culture (33], social

Korea, which for many in Europe remains terra incognita,

sciences (6]. science and technology (5]. Korean literature

hidden in the shadow of Japan and China, this kind of

(22]. and children 's literature (9). By language, the books

Guest of Honor event is especially meaningful. On the one

included 46 in English, 22 in German, 10 in French, 8 in

hand, it is an opportunity to introduce Korea's unique cul-

Spanish, 6 in Chinese, and 8 in Japanese.

ture and to gauge its potential for interaction with other

The "100 Korean Books" will help to introduce their

cultures of the global village , and on the other hand, a

respective subject area, as well as provide insight into

chance to reflect upon Korea's cultural identity within the

Korea's arts and culture and Korean lifestyle for foreign

ever-changing world cultural environment.

readers, thereby contributing to a better understanding of

The "100 Korean Books" project sought to select 100

Korea and its people among the global community. As

books, which are capable of making Korea's unique cultur-

such, the books cover the vast spectrum of Korean culture,

al richness known to the world, and then having them

from the Zen philosophy of the Goryeo period monk Jinul

translated and published in English, German, French,

(1158-1210] to fairy tales and comic books.

Spanish, Chinese, and Japanese for exhibition at the 2005

The books were selected for the specialized informa-

Frankfurt Book Fair. This ambitious project, which has

tion of their respective subject area as well as the ability to

been allocated a budget of 3 billion won (about $3 million].

appeal to a general readership . The books related to

is being undertaken by the Ko rean Literature Translation

thought and philosophy deal with Korea's representative

Institute.

traditional ideologies, such as Taoism, Confucianism, and

In January 2004, the "100 Korean Books" selection

Zen (Seon] Buddhism. In the history and geography area,

committee, comprised of 24 literary specialists

the selected books survey the whole of Korea's lengthy

(Chairman: Hwang Chi-wool, reviewed some 3,500 books,

history, present ancient maps, offer insight into Korea's

which had been recommended for consideration by the

modern history, and delve into the relationship between

Ministry of Culture & Tourism, Korean Literature

national territory and lifestyle . The books on social sci-

Translation Institute, and leading domestic publishers.

ences cover such subjects as the Korean War (1950-1953].

After three general committee meetings and detailed

the Park Chung Hee era (from his coup d'etat in 1961 to his

evaluations of individual subject areas, a final list of 100

assassination in 1979]. and the division of the Korean

books was selected in March. The criteria for selection

peninsula . As for science and technology, the books outline

focused on content quality, likely appeal to foreign read-

the history of Korean science and recent advances in

ers, suitability for translation, publicity potential, visual

Korea 's science and technology. The religion, folklore, and

aspects, and ability to compete in publication markets

language area includes books on such subjects as reli-

abroad .

gious thought, lifestyles and customs of the past, folk culAutumn 2005 I Koreana 31

The "100 Korean Books" translation and publication project is a rare opportunity to comprehensively present the developments and current trends of Korea's literary and cultural pursuits. This effort can thus be seen as the opening of a new chapter for Korean literature on the global stage.

ture, the history of Hangeul [the Korean alphabet]. and Korean grammar.

The arts and culture area features a wide variety of books dealing with such diverse subjects as mask drama, shaman rituals, earthenware, ceramics such as celadon and white porcelain, traditional patterns, metalcraft, traditional clothing, personal accessories, gardens, caves, flowers, kimchi, fine arts, and architecture. There are also books that describe Korea's adaptation of Western cultural influences, such as "A Century of Nietzsche's Influence on Philosophy," along with three comic books. As for Korean literature, there.are 14 works of prose and 8 poetry works that have been steady sellers over the past 20 years and deemed worthy of introduction to new readers around the world. The nine children's books have already gained acceptance from publishers abroad.

Opening a New Chapter

The 100 books have been translated by accomplished translators and will be published by September. About 80 32 Korea na I Autumn 2005

of the books will be distributed directly to international markets by foreign publishers, while the remaining 20 will be published domestically. The books to be published domestically will be used to introduce Korean culture to the world, and subsequently distributed to foreign markets through a variety of channels.

The "100 Korean Books" translation and publication project represents a rare opportunity to systematically and comprehensively make the developments and current trends of Korean literature and culture known to the world . This project will also serve as a steppingstone for domestic books to gain entry into world publishing markets. Ultimately, it is not simply an attempt to boost book exports, but also a means of contributing to the establishment of an infrastructure that will enable Korean writers and publishers to produce books aimed at overseas readers and to boldly compete with prominent foreign publishers.

As for the domestic publishing sector, which in reality has not been in a position to venture into overseas mar-

kets, it is clear that these expectations cannot be fulfilled overnight. In this regard, continuous support by the government is of course essential; however, moving in this direction calls for Korean writers, publishers, translators, and copyright agencies to pursue future-oriented cooperation related to the publication of high-quality books that can be successfully distributed in world markets. As such, the "100 Korean Books¡¡ project is only an initial step for Korea's emergence onto the global literary stage. Related to this, the Korean Literature Translation Institute is following up on the "100 Korean Books" with the "Korean Books 2005" project, under which another 96 books will be translated and published in six different languages.

Additional details about the Frankfurt Book Fair and the Guest of Honor events are available at the 2005 Frankfurt Book Fair website (www.book-fair.com] and the home page of the Korean Organizing Committee for the Guest of Honor at the Frankfurt Book Fair 2005 (www.enterkorea.net]. 1.11

1 Exhibitions in the Guest of Honor Hall begin with ""Time Tunnel: History of Literature in Korea," which provides chronological highlights of the history of Korea's literature and publishing.

2 Through mobile, digital, and multimedia technology, the "1 DO Korean Books" corner presents 1DO selected Korean works on a wide variety of subjects.

3 "Author's Wall: Contemporary Korean Writers 12+6" offers an in-depth introduction of 18 representative Korean authors.

4 "Korean Books Today" corner will feature some 1,800 books about Korea collected from around the world .

"What do you mean that one is a

metaphorically. It seems that a con-

unabashed admirer of Kim Ki-duk

dozen?" Then, with a playful expres-

versation with Kim Ki-duk flows no

and his work. I loved all of his films

sion as if to imply, "Ifs a sophisticat-

more smoothly than any of his films

except for his second, Wild Animals

ed metaphor that may be difficult for

when viewed for the first time. Above

[19971. Moreover, Birdcage Inn [1998]

you to understand," Kim explained:

all, Kim is a serious intellectual, who

and Spring, Summer, Fall, Winter,

'What I mean is .. ." I got the idea. He

is so enraged by all the evil and mis-

and Spring [2003] should be regarded

had incorporated the esoteric philo-

fortune of the world around him that

as masterpieces not only in terms of

sophical concept of "the whole and

this resentment never allows him to

Korean cinema but on a¡ global level

the parts" into his own tangible, vivid,

relax.

as well. But even more than the overthe-edge and provocative nature of

and heartfelt experience as a director who had completed 12 films in 10 years, and sought to express this

3 As a "proletarian director ...

Kim Ki -duk looks for filming sites as soon he gets an idea for a film. He then proceeds with whatever funds, equipment, and actors that might be availablel. In this way, . .. .. he has completed 12 films in only a 10-year period.

36 Ko rea na I Autu mn 2005

Proletarian Films As a Korean film critic, I am an

his films, I greatly respect Kim's work ethic, relentlessly making films with

1 Released in 2003, Spring, Summer, Fall, Winter, and Spring questions the meaning of human life by comparing the life of a monk-from childhood, adolescence, adulthood, and old age-with the four seasons of the year.

2 Last year, Kim Ki-duk achieved the remarkable distinction of winning the Award for Best Director in two out of three prominent international film festivals. 3-/ron earned him the Award for Best Director at the Venice Film Festival.

entered a vacant house where an unfortunate woman was being kept captive." By then, the film was more than half done.

According to Kim: "In Korea, there are two kinds of film directors: bourgeoisie and proletarian. When a movie script is available, bourgeoisie directors start meeting with potential backers who, if they like the project, will agree to extend support provided that star actors can be retained. Then the bourgeoisie directors start meeting with the star actors¡ managers to arrange the casting , and spend time making endless changes to the script to accommodate the schedule and

whatever resources that might be

expressway when the image of a man

available.

entering a vacant house came to him.

personal whims of the lead actors

Kim's filmmaking method can

If an idea has potential, he thinks

and managers. In contrast, proletari-

be described as follows. First, he

about developing it in one way or

an directors will start looking for

reads and observes intently, then

another. For 3-lrdn, the image

film ing sites as soon as they get an

wanders about. If he has nothing in

became an idea : "The man attaches

idea for a film. They then start mak-

particular to do, he likes to read mag-

an advertising flyer onto the door

ing the film with whatever funds,

azines in a library or roam around the

frame . If it is gone when he returns

equipment, and actors t hey can

city at random. While doing so, an

the next day, the house is occupied; if

muster up at the moment."

idea for a film suddenly emerges. In

it is still there, the house must be

Having attended only elemen-

the case of last year's 3-/ron, he was

vacant." This developed into a basic

tary school and forced to work as an

driving through a toll gate on an

storyline for a film: "One day, a man

unskilled laborer, Kim is a true proletarian director. He was fortunate enough to complete elementary school. While Kim did not attend any of the universities that children of the bourgeoisie spend their youth competing for admission, he came to see the world for what it really is. Instead of licking the rind of a watermelon and saying, " in English, this is called Autumn 2005 I Koreana 37

Even a perfect script cannot guarantee a great film. To Kim Ki-duk, who believes the script itself is less important than the way it is shown, a film is not so much a product as it is a process.

a watermelon," like some third-rate

detached from reality. They come up

films, all the while steadily honing his

intellectual, he would smash a water-

with filmmaking goals from a rational

unique film style. Evidence of Kim"s

melon into bits and remark : "This

perspective, and construct a theory

success includes his receipt of Best

consists of more than 95 percent

and method for attainment of their

Director awards from Europe's most

water."

objectives. But rationality is a particu-

prestigious film festivals as well as

Kim knows well that human life

lar thought process created by mod-

breaking new ground in the distribu-

is a miraculous sequence of one

ern Western philosophers. Rational-

tion of independent films in the U.S.

chance occurrence after another,

ity is not encoded in the human

market. Kim is a truly remarkable

which we only live once . He also

genes . Furthermore, rationality and

success story, showing how it is pos-

knows that human wisdom is not

the mind are not actual realities but

sible for a self-made man to become

acquired by getting down on your

merely chemical reactions among

a world-class film director. But

knees and praying, or by training the

nerve cells of the brain.

instead of appreciating his impres-

mind and learning about rationality,

Instead of seeking to construct

sive success, Korea's aspiring film

but by repeated attempts and failures

the world and relying on rationality

directors continue to view Kim with

to figure out the endless problems of

for ideas, Kim simply jumps up and

considerable skepticism.

existence, one at a time. The only way

starts doing, whatever. By trying and

to attain wisdom is through trial and

failing , he learns by doing, from one

Forever Defiant

error experience. But for university-

personal experience after another.

Kim does not hesitate to take

educated directors, it is all too easy to

This self-taught individual, who never

issue with film critics . Indeed, he

transpose life into an abstraction

studied film, has learned by making

seems intent on making films that

38 Koreana I Autumn 2005

1 An elated Kim Ki-duk received the Award for Best Director at the awards ceremony of the 61 st Venice Film Festival in September 2004.

2 Kim Ki-duk¡s 12th film, The Bow, has been invited for viewing as part of the Un Certain Regard section of this year's Cannes Film Festival.

challenge the existing values and

beyond their unfortunate plight ,

systems of Korea's film industry, as

while only bickering and turning

well as the mainstream standards

against each other. As a result, Kim

advocated by film critics. Prior to his

has been condemned as ignorant,

recent rise to fame , in response to

uncultured, and a perpetrator of gen-

the mass media's disparagement of

der discrimination, while being rele-

his films, he submitted a letter of

gated to the periphery of the cinema

protest to a newspaper unde r the

world .

headline "Crocodile Tears." He refuses to grant interviews with film mag -

Man of Deep Compassion

azines that are critical of his films

But after seeing his first film

and despises critics who are disre-

Crocodile, I have felt that Kim was a

spectful of him . From this year, he

man of deep compassion . And it is

Next Film

has decided not to submit his films

because of th is compassion that he

Kim has not yet decided on his

for consideration of Korean film

despairs at the injustice and misfor-

next film . He is taking a short break

awards, and pledged to decline any

tune of the real world and seeks to

for now, allowing his defiance to sub-

such recognition. For the release of

express this lament through extreme

side. Meanwhile, various film ideas

his latest film, The Bow, in Korea, he

outrage. Really evil people do not

have come into his mind, but nothing

did not offer a cinema preview and

bother to insult others but merely

that inspires him . The film that he

provided only a single photograph to

sneer. Kim explains it this way: "For

really wants to make is the story

the media . As such, Kim declared

me, the task of making a film is a

about the Korean troops who were

that film critics and journalists

process of attempting to convert a

unwittingly thrust into a scene of

should go to the theater and buy a

world of misunderstanding into one

massacre during the Gwangju

ticket to see the film. Naturally, with

of understanding ." I believe this is not

Democratic Uprising [May -18, 1980].

many critics and journalists refusing

a mere effulgence of words but a

Perhaps the film should be entitled

to view his film as paying customers,

vivid portrayal of his true conviction .

Poclain . Poclain is a brand name

it was seen by only some 1,500 view-

Unlike too many intellectuals, Kim is

used by a French maker of construc-

ers and ended up a box office failure.

not a narcissist of rationality and ethi-

tion equipment for a backhoe. Kim

So, why does Kim choose to be so

cal niceties. After scraping through

bought a backhoe a while ago that

defiant?

elementary school, he endured a

was used for building his studio near

Although he is now recognized

hard life as a factory worker, and

Yangpyeong. While riding home with

as a world-renowned director, Kim

even as a youth he rebelled and

him in a jeep, I asked him: "Couldn't

remains an outsider in Korea . In par-

acquired a worldly self-confidence as

you have just rented a Poclain?" His

ticular, this is because his films fea-

well as an understanding of how

answer was typical of Kim. "No, it's

ture men who ruthlessly abuse and

things work that intellectuals might

so much fun operating a Poclain .

exploit women, or people living in

learn only after carefully reading

Don't you know it's better to own

poverty who are unable to look

countless philosophy books.

something than to borrow it?"

t.;t

Autumn 2005 I Korea na 39

Temple bells are usually made from an alloy of copper and tin in a ratio of 8:2, which is ideal to enhance the bell¡s durability and resonant sound .

Autumn 2005 I Koreana 41

Won Kwang-sik, who has dedicated himself to restoring Korea¡s ancient tradition of bronze temple bells. has brought some 5,000 bells to life.

42 Koreana I Autumn 2005

today there is an artisan who has dedicated himself to restoring Korea's ancient tradition of bronze temple bells: Won Kwang-sik [b. 19421.

"The traditional method of beeswax casting was continued in the early Joseon period . It was only in late Joseon that things changed .

As bells became bigger, beeswax casting became more cumbersome, and the somewhat simpler Chinese method was adopted .

Producing a bell was a major state undertaking. Naturally, it was also closely related to prevailing conditions, since culture can only blossom fully when the country is at peace and the economy is stable. You can see that in Korea's la rgest bell, the Divine Bell of King Seongdeok, National Treasure No . 29 .

Otherwise, how could they have spent eight years, over the reign of two kings, making a bell?"

Won began crafting bells in the early 1960s. But at that time there was a dearth of research available on Buddhist temple bells.

He studied under his mentor Won Guk-jin, until his death in 1972, although the methods he learned were not entirely Korean-style techniques. He was able to carry on the tradition in the few remaining places where bells were still made. When his teacher died in 1972, Won took over the bell-making company Sungjongsa Co., Ltd. Even while he was making bells, frustration and lament welled up a corner of his mind.

"The bells looked okay, but I couldn't figure out how to refine the sound so that it was brighter and clearer. It was extremely painful and frustrating, since I wanted to understand everything about Korean bells. But th is was too much for an artisan to accomplish by himself."

Producing a bronze temple bell A Bricks are piled up to form a support mound for the bell.

B A mixture of clay and sand is applied to smooth out the surface.

C A wax replica is prepared in the shape of the bell. including the designs engraved on the outer surface.

D A mixture of clay and fine sand is applied to the surface of the wax mold. which is allowed to thoroughly dry.

E The mold form is firmly set so that its shape does not become disfigured.

F The mold is covered with a thick mixture of clay and coarse sand and allowed to thoroughly dry.

G When the outer coating is dry, heat is applied to melt the wax mold inside.

H The molded clay form is fitted over the prepared support mound. and a molten alloy of copper and tin is poured into the cavity. After the metal cools and hardens. it is trimmed and the bell¡s surface designs finished.

Autumn 2005 I Koreana

45

Created during the peak of the Baekje era, these tiles are decorated with relief carvi ngs based on painting techniq ues, demonstrating the brilliance of Baekje culture.

46 Koreana I Autumn 2005

MASTERPIECES

Baekje Tiles with Decorative Images Featuring a variety of images in relief, these eight unique and elaborate square tiles, measuring 29 centimeters along each side, reflect the naturalist mindset of the people of Baekje and their vision of a paradise land.

Kim Jong-man Chief Curator, Buyeo National Museum Photography: National Museum of Korea

T

iles are made from clay that is shaped with a frame and then fired in a kiln. Korea's long tradition of pro-

ducing tiles and bricks with decorative patterns is readily evident in the decorative tiles unearthed at Oe-ri, Gyuammyeon , Buyeo-gun, Chungcheongnam-do province, which have been collectively designated Treasure No. 343.

There are eight tile pieces, each with a different scene or pattern carved in relief on its face. The images include a landscape scene, landscape with a phoenix, landscape with an ogre (dokkaebi), ogre and a lotus flower, dragon, phoenix, lotus flower, and cloud and lotus flower pattern.

The tiles are square, measuring 29 centimeters along each side, and about 4 centimeters thick. The surfaces of the tiles are decorated with relief carvings based¡ on painting techniques, demonstrating the brilliance of Baekje [18 B.C.-660 A.O.] culture. The tiles were discovered in 1937, lying in a north to south alignment on the floor of a Baekjeperiod temple building.

Merger of Buddhist and Taoist Ideology

The tiles with a landscape scene and a landscape scene with a phoenix enable us to assess the artistic refinement of Baekje painting at the time the tiles were created. The landscape scene features mountains, trees, water, rocks, and clouds. Of note, the three-peaked mountain is depicted with an advanced technique. The landscape comprises a horizontal symmetry, while the rocks and Autumn 2005 I Koreana

47

mountains appear to be situated above the viewer, conveying the grandeur of nature. In the foreground , a variety of elements typical of a landscape painting can be seen, such as water, a mountain temple, and a monk. The landscapeand-phoenix tile presents the mythical phoenix amid auspicious clouds above a landscape scene , in a natural blending of Buddhist and Taoist concepts.

This tile imprinted with a phoenix and landscape design is similar to the tile with a landscape scene.

Baekje-style landscape elements are also found on a silver cup with bronze stand , which was excavated from the Tomb of King Muryeong [Muryeongwangneung]. from an earlier period than the tiles. This representative landscape style can also be seen in Japan's Baekje Bodhisattva of Horyuji Temple and the stone artifacts of Mt. Sumeru housed at the Asuka Historical Museum, thereby confirming the cultural interaction of Korea and Japan .

The tiles of a landscape scene with an ogre and a lotus flower with an ogre are highlighted by a Korean ogre, or dokkaebi. The ogre is a product of the religious beliefs of

Tile engraved with a lotus flowe r, a prominent symbol of Buddhism, the s piritual fou ndation of Baekje society

the people of Baekje, whose pursu it of peace, longevity, and happiness in the afterlife included the creation of a dokkaebi, which was called on to drive away evil spirits .

These concepts appear to have been formed in China during the Southern and Northern Dynasties period [420-589].

The vividly depicted dokkaebi on the tiles gaze straight ahead, their arms extended and mouths wide open, baring their fangs, while wearing a belt around an ample girth.

Paradise Land of the Baekje People In the dragon and phoenix tiles, the mythical creatures are depicted in flight within a ring of beads, creating Tile imprinted with an eight-cloud-and-lotus pattern.

Li ke the lotus-flower tile, there is one-quarter of a lotus flower in each corner.

a sense of rhythm and dynamism . In each corner of the tiles is one-quarter of a lotus flower, so that ¡when four tiles are placed together in a square, th is would create a whole flower at the ce nter. Along with the girin [a mythical one-horned creature with the body of a deer, tail of a cow, and hooves and mane of a horse]. the turtle, dragon, and phoeni x were conside r ed divine animals, such that the decoration of tiles with these mythical creatu res is regarded as a manisfestation of the Baekje people's desire to symboli ze auspicious omens and the eradication of evil spirits.

The lotus tile features a blossoming lotus flower within a ring of beads. The lotus flower has ten petals, each one with honeysuckle leaves, and a large stamen in the center, as if illuminating the entire world . The lotus flower has

long been a representative Buddhist symbol that embodies the ideals of Baekje society, which was founded on the spiritual principles of Buddhism.

The lotus flower-and-cloud tile contains eight clouds rotating clockwise within a ring of beads, along with an eight-petal lotus flower rendered with thick lines amid the clouds. The lotus flower, considered the supreme water flower, is surrounded by clouds, most likely as a form of protection and to emphasize its significance. Like the drag-

Tile w ith a dragon pattern in relief that depicts th e r hythm and dynamism of the creature in flight.

on and phoenix tiles, the lotus flower-and-clouds and the lotus-flower tiles have one-quarter of a lotus flower in each corner.

The specific use of these tiles is not known. Since tiles with similar scenes and patterns have been found at Wangheungsa Temple in Buyeo and a kiln site in Ssangbuk-ri, it can be

The elegant images in relief, which resemble paintings,

concluded that these tiles were used

reflect the refinement of Baekje's artistic culture at the time

in important buildings . The picture

the tiles were created. The scenes include all the pictorial

tiles were designed to be placed

characteristics generally found in Asian landscape paintings.

together in groups of four to form a square. The tiles were found lying on the floor of a temple during an excavation project, but judging by their relative lack of hardness, the patterns carved in relief, and grooved edges, it is reasonable to assume that they had been used to decorate a wall.

These picture tiles from Oe-ri were created during the golden age of Baekje culture. Although reflecting Chinese cultural influences of the Southern Dynasties period, they express the exquisite artistry of the people of Baekje and their open-minded and international outlook. It is also noteworthy that there is a linkage between the design composition of these tiles and that of the Baekje Incense Burner discovered at a temple site in Neungsan-ri, Buyeo.

Tile imprinted w it h a landscape scene and og re. or dokkaebi. The peop le of Baekje, who bet ieved in th e afterlife, created the dokkaebi to drive away evil sp ir its.

The tiles are works of art that could only have been created by artisans with a deep appreciation of nature and philosophy. Although the images were carved onto the clay surfaces, the texture and composition of the scenes and patterns closely resemble ink and paper paintings. The tiles represent a transcendent state that can only be properly expressed by someone who is in close harmony with nature. The masterful painting techniques of the picture tiles served to influence the artisans of Baekje as well as the Asuka culture of Japan . 1..11 Tile w ith lotu s flower and ogre design in re lief.

Autumn 2005 I Ko reana

49

T

he 26th Seoul Theater Festival was presented at theaters in the

area of Daehangno, Dongsung-dong, from May 4-22. It has been 20 years since this area became known as Daehangno ["University Street"]. due to the fact that the Seoul National University administration buildings and College of Liberal Arts and Sciences were located there, which made the event even more special.

Previously, the National Theater Association of Korea was responsible for organizing the Seoul Theater Festival, but last year the newly launched Seoul Theater Association had been named to oversee this event. For this year¡s festival, as a transitional measure, the organizing committee was comprised of an equal number of members from the National Theater Association of Korea and the Seoul Theater Association, with the latter group handling the day-to-day operation .

The Joy of Living Together Eight designated plays, which were selected through a screening process of their script content and stage performance, were eligible for festival awards, while 18 open-participation works and 3 street performances added to the festive atmosphere . At the opening ceremony, Health and Welfare Minister Kim Geun-tae, Democratic Labor Party President Kim Hye-kyung, Democratic Party Assembly Member Sohn Bong-

Autumn 2005 I Koreana 51

enduring much mental anguish, she finally experiences liberation, like a butterfly freed of its cocoon. Perhaps it was due to a kind of synergy with the recent rise in anti-Japanese sentiments among Koreans over the Dokdo Island dispute, but the play seemed to be directed in an overly stiff fashion. The script of the play had its weaknesses as well, such as the decisive moment that appeared to come about by chance.

"The Idiot Shin Dongseop" [written by Wie Ki-hoon, directed by Yim Su-taek] sought to criticize arrogance in the field of science and technology scuk, and Korean Culture and Arts

about how this joy can actually be

due to its potential to create serious

Foundation President Hyun Ki-young

realized. In any case, the following

consequences for human beings. An

were commissioned as promotional

provides an overview of the designa-

effort to transform mentally retarded

ambassadors. In addition, the desig-

ted plays.

children into geniuses , under a " Human Intelligence Augmentation

nated plays were introduced and various special events were presented.

Overly Ambitious

Of note, the designated plays were

"Butterfly"" [written, translated,

thought to be of a higher quality than

and adapted by Kim Chung-mi,

those of previous years, on balance,

directed by Bang Eun-mi] was origi-

thus raising expectations for the

nally created in 1994 under the title of

Seoul Theater Festival in the years

"Comfort Women. ¡¡ It deals with the

ahead .

" Korean comfort women who were

The organizing committee decid-

dragged off against their will " and

ed on "The Joy of Living Together" as

was performed as a single- and mul-

the overall theme because of its

tiple-act play in the United States .

emphasis on the need to promote

The female protagonist, who hides

harmony among people, which is

her past as a comfort woman

deemed no less important than the

[Korean women forcibly mobilized to

results of artistic pursuits. Yet most

serve as sex slaves of the Japanese

of the performances seemed to cast

imperial army]. lives in seclusion in

a harsh light on a relative lack of "joy

the United States. Then after meeting

of living together" in real life, thereby

two old women from Korea, who

causing the audiences to wonder

were also comfort women, and

52 Ko reana I Autumn 2005

Project, " leads to emotional problems among the subjects and ulti-

mately ends in failure . The playwright

This work delves into the interrela-

has noted that he adapted the motif

tionships between actors who are

for his story from the American short

auditioning for the role of Hamlet and

story "Flowers for Algernon," by

the world of the play "Hamlet" itself,

Daniel Keyes. Yet the play lacks the

but unnecessary characters and dia-

philosophical sophistication to com-

logue result in a sense of chaos . In

plement its intent of critically exam-

particular, a low-quality audio system

ining the inhumane aspects of mod-

made it difficult for the audience to

ern science and culture. The story is

understand the dialogue and follow

overly simplistic: a young boy who

the play. On the other hand, the light-

was abandoned by his mother due to

ing and staging [including video] were

his mental disability participates in

much more effective than the audio,

the genius project in the hope of

while the acting by the lead characters

being accepted by his mother if he

was exceptional.

becomes a genius; but he is disap-

A disjointed nature was also

pointed when his mother continues to

prominent in "Every Very Minutes"

shun him. Despite the simplicity of

[written and directed by Jang Woo-

the story, the pedantic dialogue, which

jae]. in which two characters meet and

is undoubtedly the playwright's own

reminisce about their past, starting in

utterances, creates disarray.

1991 and covering a four-year period,

Excessive ambition is seen

"Green Bench" swept the awards at this year's theater festival, winning the grand prize as well as the honors for best directing, best acting, best new actor, and best staging.

2 In a disjointed "Every Very Minutes," the protagonist's memories of the past are presented as flashback scenes.

3 Scene from "Butterfly" that deals with the issue of comfort women during World War 11, an especially painful episode of modern Korean history.

4 In "Getting Out," the skillful directing conveyed the play's socially critical viewpoint through talented acting and impressive staging, leaving audiences with a favorable impression.

in

then a three-year period, another

"The Trap-A Meditation of Hamlet"

three-year period, and finally a six-

[written and directed by Kim A-ral.

month period, with the related scenes

. .. .

M , ..

www .stt.or.kr

Publicity poster for the 2005 Seoul Theater Festival, which featured the theme "The Joy of Living Together ...

Autumn 2005 I Koreana

53

1 "Prom enade," w hich portrays the tru e-life story of a Korea n poet, was comm ended for we ll depicting the th eme of this yea r' s festival.

2 Scene from "The Idiot Shin Dong seop " th at presen ts a criti ca l perspective of the moral an d . ethical conce rn s resultinb from advances in science and tec hnology 3 The awa rd fo r best stag l g was presented to "The Trap-A Medita f Hamlet ...

I

io

The theme for this year's festival, "The Joy of Living Together," was adopted in an effort to heighten public appreciation of drama.

Yet the overly difficult approach of the producers of the designated plays seemed to instead widen the gap between the audiences and the drama world.

being acted out by other performers.

tional values can deteriorate during

The playwright apparently sought to

the process of modernization . In par-

have the audience objectively observe

ti cu la r, the challenge posed to

the experiences of each period of

Catholic values by native African reli-

reminiscence, but the technique was

gions is meaningfully portrayed . Only

unconvincing and the sudden and

through the sensibilities of a female

unexpected introduction of incidents

playwright is it possible to reflect

tended to be distracting. There was

upon why each of the five sisters

considerable superfluousness in the

takes an interest in men with an

protagonists¡ acting as well.

unreliable character. The amateurish acting, though, could not breathe vivid life into this theme.

Dysfunctional Families The technique of "memory edit-

The feminist perspective was

was

notably prominent in "Getting Out"

impres-

!written by Marsha Norman, trans-

1

ng

sively applied

lated and directed by Moon Sam-

in "Dancing at

hwa]. A young girl who was sexually

Lughnasa" [writ-

abused by her father and ignored by her mother falls victim to the wiles

54

Koreana I Autumn 2005

featuring Han Myung-hee, and

of her boyfriend and becomes a

adapted and directed by Ha llhol.

prostitute. Ultimately, she is impris-

Set in Ireland in the 1930s, the

oned for fraud while pregnant. In

story recounts the expe ri-

prison, after being separated from

ences of a family of five

her baby, she manages to escape, but

sisters, an older broth-

commits accidental man¡slaughter in

er who is a clergyman

the process. She is imprisoned again

that indulges in native religion,

for eight years . Then, at the end of

the youngest sister's undepend-

her prison term, thanks to the influ-

able boyfriend, and the young son,

ence of the prison chaplain, she

as well as looking into human

decides to start anew and changes

nature beneath the surface. The play

her name. She seeks to regain her

convincingly demonstrates how tradi-

baby from the foster family and raise

it herself. But she discovers that soci-

especially elaborate. It has been ten

ety has not improved during the time

years since the director last staged

she was imprisoned; in fact things

this work, but the excellent acting

have become even worse. The tech-

brought to life the message that he

nique of occasionally introducing

intended to convey.

episodes of the girl's younger life into the story amplifies her conflicts, along

Unnecessarily Cumbersome

with sharply illuminating the theme.

Abnormal mental states were

The consistently high-quality acting,

also a fundamental factor in "Prome-

appropriate staging, and especially

nade" (written by Kim Cheong-zo,

the skilled directing contributed to

directed by Yang Jung-ungl. The life

successful communication of the

of the well-known poet Chun Sang-

play's socially critical viewpoint.

byung has been brought to the stage

A father's abuse of his daughter

a number of times, but this version is

is a primary motif of "Green Bench"

perhaps the most poetic. The cham-

(written by Yu Miri, directed by Lee

ber music-like songs and musical

Sung-youl) as well. In this play, incest

accompaniment were moving, while

leads to a mother hating her daugh-

showing that the poet's supposedly

ter and her daughter falling for a man

eccentric behavior should not be

her father's age. Betrayed by her

thought so abnormal in light of the

husband, the mother lives with

state of oppression imposed by the

another man, and when he leaves

military regime. The sincere affection

her, she has an affair with a man her

that his friends and wife extended to

son's age. This younger man feels a

this naive poet was the most fitting

deep sense of guilt over the death of

expression of the theater festival's

his own mother, who thought of him

theme: "The Joy of Living Together."

as her lover, and because of this guilt

The performances of the leading

he is utterly devoted to the older

actors were particularly touching.

woman. However, he experiences

Overall, the audience reactions

incestuous thoughts toward his

were relatively favorable toward the

older sister.

festival. But, except for "Promenade,"

This work was successful in

the dramatic approach taken by

examining the abnormal relation-

most of the works seemed to be

ships between dysfunctional charac-

unnecessarily cumbersome. It is

ters thanks to skillful acting that

also unfortunate that the comedic

enabled the audience to understand

elements of "people's drama" were

their inner psyches. The staging that

noticeably absent. Indeed, there is

visualized the psyche of a person who

no reason comedy cannot be a part

had just committed murder was

of tragedy.

i.;i

Autumn 2005 I Ko reana 55

DISCOVERING KOREA

Modern-day Maritime Industry Rooted in

Korea's Shipbuilding Traditions Korea is a leading maritime nation, ranking as the world's No. 1 shipbuilder and eighth-largest commercial shipper as of 2004. Of note, this maritime prowess has been rooted in Korea's longstanding history and tradition in shipbuilding.

Kim Sung-june Researc h Fellow, Korea Maritime Unive rsi ty Hugh lhl Professor, Korea Maritime University

Information so urce : Gyujanggak Archives, The Korea Maritime Museum

A

s of 2004 year-end, Korea was ranked as the world's

About 2,000 years ago, the Three

No . 1 shipbuilder and eighth-largest commercial

Kingdoms that occupied the Korean

shipper. Yet as recently as the 1960s, Korea could build no

peninsula

and

a

portion

of

more than 100,000 tons of ships annually, and did not even

Manchuria-Goguryeo [37 B.C.-668

possess a large-scale shipyard. Korea was able to emerge

A.Dl Baekje (18 B.C.-660 A.O .]. and

as the world leader in shipbuilding in the span of a mere 30

Silla [57 B.C.-935 A.0 .)-were

years because of its accumulation of related expertise and

engaged in hegemonic competition

technology. From ancient times, Koreans built boats to

with each other. During this period,

hunt whales at sea and to promote trade with neighboring

each of the kingdoms dispatched

China and Japan.

envoys to China and Japan, along with launching naval offensives

Unique Shipbuilding Technology

against rival states . In 396, King

The earliest evidence of boats in Korea is an image

Gwanggaeto of Goguryeo [r. 391-413)

carved onto a rock alongside the Taehwagang River in the

launched a naval assault against

Ulju-gun District of Ulsan . Engraved by ancient Koreans

Baekje, which maintained the closest

sometime between the Neolithic and Iron Age, the image

relations with Japan . Meanwhile,

depicts various animals, such as tiger, deer, and whale,

Silla operated a specia l Ship

along with four boats. These boats are dug-outs, carved

Administration agency to oversee

out of solid wood, which show that from early times

trade shipping and curtail raids by

Koreans built boats for venturing out to sea to hunt whales.

Japanese pirates. These incidents

56 Koreana I Autumn 2005

of a central board, and attaching the floor planks with

are evidence that Goguryeo, Baekje, and Silla all built and used ships.

wooden pegs to form transverse beams. The method of

In 1975, a dug-out boat was excavated from Anapji

joining planks together with transverse beams was still

Pond in the ancient Silla capital of Gyeongju. Generally

used in the construction of later-day Korean ships, indicat-

referred to as Anapji Ship, the boat has a length of 5.5

ing that Koreans had developed a unique shipbuilding

meters, width of 0.6 meters at the bow and 1.3 meters at

technology as early as the seventh century to the ninth

the stern , and a depth of 0.36 meters, with bottom planks

century.

of 15 to 18 centimeters in thickness. The Anapji Ship, which

In 1983 and 1984, a wooden ship was excavated near-

was used for leisurely cruising about the pond, was built by

by Wando Island, off the southwest coast of Korea . The

joining three hollowed-out logs together at the edges, bor-

Wando Ship, which is thought to have been a coastal mer-

ing holes in the side pieces, installing hoops in the middle

chant ship from around the 11th century, apparently sank

.â&#x20AC;˘

-----

....-_

~

,,,..-

Autumn 2005 I Koreana

57

During the Japanese invasions of Korea (1592-1598}, the Korean navy achieved an incredible record of 23 victories in 23 naval battles. Behind this remarkable feat lies Korea's exceptional shipbuilding expertise and technology, as exemplified by the celebrated turtle ships and panokseon (superstructure vessels). while sailing along the coast with a cargo of 30,000 ceram-

the mid-15th century there were also dual-purpose ships

ic pieces. Though the fore and stern areas of the main deck

used for both naval and mercantile functions. No docu-

are missing, sections of the bottom and sides were recov-

ments have survived to indicate how these ships were

ered.

built, but fortunately drawings have been preserved that

The bottom of the Wanda Ship was built by fitting five

depict the superstructure vessels and turtle ships, which

thick planks together side by side, boring holes into the

formed the foundation of Joseon¡s naval vessels from the

sides, and attaching the planks with long wooden pegs.

16th century, as well as a type of merchant vessel, the rice

After assembling the bottom, the port and starboard areas

transport ship.

were built up from five wooden planks joined together with

Superstructure vessels, turtle ships, and rice tax

rabbet joints and a clinker surface, and reinforced with

transport ships differed in function and appearance, but

short wooden pegs. In particular, the Wanda Ship's use of

their construction methods were basically similar. The

only wooden pegs, with no iron nails, is another notable

construction of superstructure vessels and rice tax trans-

characteristic of traditional Korean ships. The Wanda Ship

port ships is described in detail in Drawing Books of

is about 9 meters long , 3.5 meters wide, and 1. 7 meters

Korean Ships, published in the late 18th century. According

deep at its center, with an estimated deadweight of about

to the drawings, superstructure vessels were built by

10 tons.

assembling a bottom made of 15 planks, building port and starboard areas from 7 planks each held together with rabbet joints and a clinker surface, and attaching 14 trans-

23 Victories in 23 Battles

When the Joseon Dynasty was founded in 1392, it

verse beams between the sides to provide lateral stability.

faced two pressing tasks. Externally, it had to put an end to

The bow consisted of 15 planks attached vertically, while

the marauding of Japanese pirates, while internally it had

the stern area was built to stand tall, for a more imposing

to transport rice, the basic form of state taxes, from the

appearance and to protect the rudder from high waves.

provinces to Seoul. To vanquish the Japanese pirates who

The superstructure vessel had twin decks, with the

had been plundering the coasts of the Korean peninsula

lower deck occupied by oarsmen and the upper deck by

since the late Goryeo Dynasty, King Sejong launched a

gunners and archers to attack an enemy ship. During the

naval assault on the island of Tsushima involving 227 naval

Japanese invasions of Korea [1592-15981, Admiral Yi Sun-

ships and 17,000 troops, which resulted in its capture in

sin led his flagship, a superstructure vessel, to a perfect 23

1419.

victories in 23 battles against Japan's nava [ forces. The

In the early 15th century, naval ships were classified

superstructure vessel commanded by Admiral Yi was

as large ships, medium-sized ships, battle ships, and forti-

about 20 meters in length along the bottom, with 8 oars on

fied naval ships. It seems that these ships were not distin-

each side, and carried an estimated crew of 160 men.

guished by special shipbuilding techniques, but instead classified by their size and purpose . During the early

First Ironclad: Turtle Ship

Joseon Dynasty, there appeared to have been merchant

Together with the superstructure vessels, the key to

ships used exclusively for transporting rice levies, while by

defeating Japan's naval forces of the Japanese invasions

1 Rice tax transport ship was a typical merchant vessel of the Joseo~ Dynasty.

Source Boak of Drawings of Korean Sh,ps 2 Model of a rice tax transport ship, used to deliver rice tax payments to the governmen( s warehouses.

These 18th century vessels could cariy a cargo load of about 100 tons .

3 Model 01 the vaunted turtle ship, which along with superstructure vessels. played a crucial role 1n fending off the Japanese invasi ons of Korea ¡1 the 1590s.

58

Koreana I Autumn 2005

/\

!\

â&#x20AC;¢ I

'117

Autumn 2005 I Koreana 59

gitudinal beam and for ramming, since the turtle ship would be at the vanguard of the fleet. According to Japanese sources, the sides and cover of the turtle ship were partially covered with metal plates, making it a forerunner of later-day ironclads.

Thus far, there is a consensus among researchers that the turtle ship was a twin-deck vessel with a ma in deck and superstructure cover. If so, this would mean that the oarsmen and combat troops occupied the same deck, making it difficult for the two groups to function effectively.

This raises doubt as to whether the turtle ship was really a twin-deck vessel, but no remains have been found, and all modern reconstruction models include a twin-deck structure. However, in a Joseon Dynasty drawing revealed to the public in 2004, a turtle ship is depicted as a triple-deck vessel, with an oarsmen's deck, gunnery deck, and superstructure cover. According to ancient records, a turtle ship's measurements included a length of 34 meters overall and 19.6 meters along the bottom, a width of 4.4 meters was Korea 's famed turtle ship . The basic design of the tur-

at the bottom and 9.1-9.7 meters at the main deck, and a

tle ship appears to have existed from the early Joseon

height of 6-6.5 meters, with a capacity for a 160-man crew

period, but it was modified for use in naval warfare by

of 100 oarsmen, 50 gunners and archers, and 10 steersmen .

Admiral Yi Sun-sin and his aide Na Dae-yang. The

Rice tax transport ships were used for delivering rice

Complete Book of Admiral Yi, published in 1795, some 200

levies to the government authorities. Their construction

years after the Japanese invasions, contains two drawings

was basically similar to the naval ships, with some minor

of the turtle ships, which indicate that their bottom and

differences. The superstructure vessels were built with

sides were the same as those of superstructure vessels,

vertical planks at the bow and 14 transverse beams con-

with only the special cover being different.

necting the side plates, but the rice tax transport ships

Whereas the superstructure vessels featured a com-

used horizontal planks at the bow and only 4 transverse

plex deck system, the turtle ship included a wooden cover

beams. This was because of a need to minimize the num-

that protected the upper deck. Cannons could be fired

ber of transverse beams, which ran across the cargo hold ,

from both sides of the turtle ship, along with the dragon's

so as to not interfere with loading and unlo¡ading of the

head having a gun port and being used to emit smoke for

rice. An 18th-century rice tax transport ship measured 17

camouflage when attacking an enemy ship. There was a

meters long, 3.9 meters wide at the bottom, and 3.3

cross-shaped opening in the wooden cover, which allowed

meters deep, with a load capacity of about 100 tons.

access for the crew to operate the sails, and spikes on the surface to prevent enemy intruders from boarding the

Tailor-made Adaptations

ship. At the fore area was the head of a demon , which in

With a tradition spanning some 2,000 years, Korean

addition to its symbolism was thought to function as a lon-

ships have acquired several unique features. First, instead

60 Korea na I Autumn 2005

of a keel, they have a flat bottom made of planks joined

were made from very thick planks, whereas Chinese and

together. Unlike the pointed bow and stern of European-

Japanese ships used much thinner planks.

style ships, Korean vessels have a practically flat bow and

The structural characteristics of Korean ships were

a stern with a blunted form. In addition, Korean ships have

specially tailored to suit the conditions of Korea's coastal

no mainframe or transverse bulkhead, but instead rely of

areas. Along the south and west coasts of the Korean

transverse beams for lateral stability. The side panels are

peninsula, the rise and fall of the tides are extreme. So

attached with unique rabbet joints and a clinker-style

when the tide recedes, the flat bottom of Korean ships

surface.

allows them to sit on the seabed without tipping over.

Chinese and Japanese ships resemble Korean ships

Because Korean ships are built of thick planks that are

in terms of an absence of structural ribs, but each has its

joined with wooden pegs or wedges, they can be easily

own characteristics as well. To reinforce lateral stability,

replaced or repaired in the case of wood rot or damage.

Chinese ships used a transverse bulkhead, while Japanese

Korean ships are also remarkable for their buoyancy,

ships used a kind of deck called hunabari. The method for

thanks to their raft-style structure. Overall, even from long

attaching the side planks of Chinese ships involved the use

ago, Korean ships could be seen as a product of the cre-

of iron nails. In Japanese ships, the side plate was usually

ativity of Koreans in adapting to the characteristics of

made from a single, wide plank, and only when a single

Korea¡s coastal waters.

t;t

plank was not wide enough, then several planks would be joined together with iron nails. Moreover, Korean ships

Autumn 2005 I Koreana 61

J

o Sumi first met Herbert von Karajan in the winter of 1986. After hearing Jo sing, Karajan could hardly contain his amazement. When he asked where she had learned to sing, Jo said that she had studied at the Santa Cecilia Conservatory of Music in Rome. Then Karajan asked where she had studied before that.

"I told him Seoul, Korea," Jo recalled. "This surprised him even more. My basic skills were first honed by my teacher Yoo Byung-moo of Sunhwa Arts High School, and Professor Lee Kyung-sook of Seoul National University.

And for this, I will always be grateful to them."

A Voice from Above

Jo Sumi was a second-year music student at Seoul National University when she took off for Italy in the early 1980s, a period of political turmoil in Korea. At the time, she was searching for something new. She completed the five-year course at Santa Cecilia Conservatory of Music in Rome in two years, and went on to win the grand prize at the Arena di Verona concours and a number of other competitions.

Karajan praised her for having "a voice from above" and one that is heard "maybe once in a hundred years." As conductor of the Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra, Karajan cast a broad shadow over the classical music scene, such that Jo Sumi found herself rising quickly to the top following his discovery of her. In 1987, when Karajan placed Jo on the stage in Verdi's Un Balla in Maschera [A Masked

Ball]. alon~ with Placido Domingo and the Vienna

Philharmonic Orchestra, Jo 's name became known throughout the world from the recording of this performance. Though Karajan passed away shortly thereafter in 1989, Jo went on to perform on all the top-flight stages of the world, including the Teatro alla Scala in Milan (1988).

New York Metropolitan Opera [1989). Covent Garden in London [1991). and Bastille Opera in Paris (1993].

In between, Jo returned home in 1988 to perform at the commemorative concert for the Seoul Olympics and was received with thunderous applause from her fellow Koreans, who took much pride in her fame as a worldrenowned soprano. In 1994, the year when North Korean leader Kim ll-sung died and the summer was remembered for being one of the hottest ever, Jo returned again to perform a repertoire of Korean songs at the Seoul Arts Center, which confirmed her standing as Korea's "national soprano ." By the mid-1990s, Jo Sumi seemed to have nowhere higher to go, and nothing to be desirous of after being acclaimed the "world's No. 1" soprano.

Passion for Music

At the dawn of the new millennium, Jo began to gain even more widespread popularity in Korea. A Korean TV station aired a documentary on her success story, and her first crossover album "Only Love " sold almost a million copies. She also performed at a variety of international events, such as a cultural festival as part of the 2000

1 After bein g discovered by the renowned conductor Herbert von Karajan. Jo Sumi (shown performing with tenor Andrea Bocelli) has gone on to perform at all the best-known opera theaters around the world.

2 Jo Sumi, who still practices diligently. has made it to the top thanks to her passion for music and wi llingness to take on new challenges.

Autumn 2005 I Koreana 63

Jo Sumi has always been filled with a passion for music that has constantly driven her to search for something new. She says that her dream is to be an artist who remains humble, because she has Learned from the maestros it is a purity of mind that will move the hearts of audiences.

Sydney Olympics and the Nobel Prize awards cere-

But I find Russian and Baroque songs the most difficult to

mony. She also performed with pop singers, and appeared

deal with. My major, of course, is bel canto, and in concerts

with North Korea's Chosun National Orchestra when it

and recitals I have performed French and German songs,

performed in Seoul. Even people who were not fans of

including the works of Mozart , but the Russian and

classical music came to appreciate Jo's world-class talent

Baroque works are the ones I really want to do," explains

when she sang the theme song for a popular TV drama

Jo.

series and the 2002 FIFA World Cup theme song.

Jo is fluent in Italian, French, and English and has a

" I have been tra ined in classical music since I was

working knowledge of Spanish and Ger man . She says this

born . I don't have much time to spare for pop songs. There

is natural since she sings in these languages. And in order

are so many new fields to challenge and so many things to

to sing Russian songs, she has learned Russian as well.

learn. .. I can understand why busy people today don't listen

The final question of this brief interview was what in partic-

to classical music. So, I have a sense of mission, to win

ular she had learned from the maestros like Karajan .

them over to the classical side," Jo says. " My overall goal

"I have worked closely with the maestros, practicing,

is to develop my musicality and technique and build up an

joking around with them, and also seeing them make mis-

extensive music repertoire. Many artists remain satisfied

takes and get upset. But they all had in common a purity of

with what they have and lose the potential to develop fur-

mind. Even now when I think of their eyes, what I see is an

ther. It is my dream to be constantly pursuing something

untainted mind devoid of calculat ing thoughts or social

new and to always be a humble artist. "

niceties. They all knew nothing but music. I learned from

Any journalist who has interviewed Jo knows that she

them that this kind of purity of mind is what will move the

is friendly, vivacious, and open-minded. She likes to joke

hearts of audiences . I hope that younger singers will

around, and has a talent for making the conversation inter-

remember this too," Jo says.

esting as well as surprisingly insightful. There are so few

If all people lived to the age of 70, would everyone's

people whose words can be written down as said and

life be of the same length? Some would say, "Of course,

come across as natural. But Jo is one of these few. In fact,

since time is absolute, " while others would contend, "The

she is one of those rare performers who also speaks and

span of your life depends on how you live it." In this regard, it cannot be denied that the supremely talented singer Jo

writes well.

"I have tried pop music and musicals, and many different things so that I can cover a wide variety of music.

Sumi is living her life to the fullest , for which I sincerely applaud her as well. t..t

Major Discography

1. The Magic Flute [Decca) Jo Sumi gained recognition as the world 's top coloratura soprano when she performed the role of Queen of the Night in Mozart"s Die Zauberflote /The Magic Flute}. This was the second album in which Jo performed as Queen of the Night, under the baton of Sir Georg Solti, which features an exquisite rendition of the Queen of the Night's aria.

2. Carnaval [Decca) This album is an early solo album that includes a collection of the songs Jo Sumi has regularly performed, arranged by theme. It is a must for anyone who really wants to get to know her truly remarkable voice. It also shows how much hard work the artist put into studying French diction to sing the songs so flawlessly.

3. Jo Sumi Sings Mozart [Erato) This is Jo Sumi's most popular classical solo album. It demonstrates how well she has mastered the works of Mozart, including the Queen of the Night's aria, with such clarity and marvelous technique that it is said to be hauntingly beautiful.

4. Bel Canto [Erato) This album presents Jo Sumi as the quintessential bel canto soprano, featuring songs by Rossini, Bellini, Verdi, and Donizetti. Even in Italy, the self-proclaimed center of Western vocal music, this album is acclaimed as "truly amazing.¡¡

Au tumn 2005 I Ko reana 65

B

ecause of its remote inland location in the eastern

Mt. Juwangsan

region of Gyeongsangbuk-do province, Cheongsong¡s

Cheongsong-gun has long been known as an area

exchanges with other areas have for long been rather

nestled deep within Korea's interior. In fact, Gucheon-

limited. But nowadays, the steady urbanization of nearby

dong, of Bunam-myeon, used to be referred to as an

Andong has increasingly exerted an influence on Cheong -

"inland island. " Also, the tiny village of Naewon, which is

song. Cheongsong is typically approached by way of

known as the "village without electricity," remains difficult

Andong . However, after passing through Andong,

to access. This village of Naewon, which is situated within

visitors must navigate narrow and dizzily winding roads .

the grounds of Juwangsan National Park, is home to a

But Cheongsong can thank the inconvenience of this

total of 9 families consisting of 15 individuals. Because of a

access for enabling it to be spared from urban development

lack of electricity service, the residents of Naewon must

and thereby preserve its natural environment in such a

rely on solar-powered generators. The existence of such

pristine state.

pristine areas, as yet undisturbed by humans, makes the

68 Korea na I Aut um n 2005

1 Daejeonsa Temple is situated at the base of Mt. Juwangsan that is known for its breathtak in g natural scenery, which is said to be reminiscent of the fabled Mt. Geumgangsan in North Korea.

2 Naturally white-colored rocks of Baekseoktan look like a range of snow-covered mountain peaks.

natural environment surround ing Naewon all the more impressive, even by Cheongsong-gun standards.

ly admired for its breathtaking scenery, which takes on a different character for each season . Moreover, this moun-

More than 80 percent of Cheongsong-gun is wooded

tain, whose natural scenery is said to be reminiscent of the

forests and open plains, with agricultural lands making up

fabled Mt. Geumgangsan in North Korea, has earned it the

less than 20 percent of the total area . Instead of rice fields,

nickname Sogeumgang. Serving as a natural boundary

various produce crops seem to be growing on every suit-

between the inland and east coast areas, Juwangsan

able tract of land. Apples and peppers are the leading local

includes 12 peaks standing at least 600 meters tall. With

products of Cheongsong-gun, with the apple blossom

Juwangsan featuring a series of craggy peaks that are like

serving as the symbol of the county.

the panels of a folding screen, it is also referred to as

Cheongsong-gun boasts three notable mountains:

Seokbyeongsan .

Taehaengsan [933 meters], Muposan [717 meters], and

The origin of Juwangsan¡s name can be traced back

Juwangsan [720 meters!. Of these, Juwangsan is especial-

to a figure known as Zhou Du, who during China's Tang Autumn 2005 I Koreana 69

Jusanji reservoir, which was built almost 300 years ago, is still in use today.

But this reservoir is particularly known for having a dawn scenery that is of such extraordinary magnificence it practically defies description.

Dynasty [618-907] proclaimed himself "Emperor of Latter

watch on the temple's courtyard . Small statues of

Zhou " and mobilized an army to launch an attack against

Amitabha and Bodhisattvas adorn the Bogwangjeon altar.

Tang. However, his forces were defeated and driven all the

As is often the case with a Buddhist temple's inner sanc-

way back to this mountain , where he took refuge . As such,

tum, there is an antiquated appearance to the murals and

there are several legends about the area's peaks and

Buddhist paintings. However, the paintings of auspicious

caves that in one way or another are related to the King of

animals and symbols adorning the walls and ceiling are of

Zhou [Juwang in Korean!.

a darker tone and thicker outline than similar paintings in

Juwangsan boasts a diverse array of peaks, large and

other temples.

small, and rock formations. Of these, Flag Rock, found

Sansingak, a shrine to the Mountain Spirit, situated to

behind Daejeonsa Temple, is a massive rock that seems to

the right of Bogwangjeon, is not without its own subtle

have fallen out of the sky. Nearby the entry to an adjacent

charm, despite its small size. Above a few small stone

valley, you can see a 30-meter-high waterfall that, according

stairs, there is a painting that harmoniously depicts a

to legend, the soldiers of the King of Zhou drank from, as

mountain god with a long white beard, a pine tree, and a

well as the lotus-shaped Yeonhwabong peak and the

tiger who seems to have appeared out of nowhere. This

Juwang cave where the King of Zhou is said to have sought

kind of shrine, which incorporates aspects of Korea's

refuge. In addition, there are also three waterfalls, lined up in

indigenous beliefs, first appeared shortly after Buddhism

a neat row, along the four-kilometer-long valley. The residents

was introduced into Korea .

of Cheongsong, who modestly tell visitors that there is little of interest to be said about their area , can recount numerous

Cheongsong Landmark: Jusanji

tales when a conversation turns to the subject of Juwangsan.

The construction of Jusanji began in 1720 and was

Daejeonsa Temple is found at the foot of Juwangsan .

completed the following year. This large-scale reservoir,

There are two differing accounts about the origin of the

which was built so that the water flowing from Juwangsan

temple : some claim that it was established in 672 by the

could be used to irrigate the surrounding agricultural

renowned monk Uisang daesa, while others believe that it

lands, has remained in use through today. The reservoir is

was actually the high-ranking monk Bojo guksa who

said to be bottomless, since even in time¡s of severe

founded the temple in 912. Whatever the case, there are no

drought its water has never been depleted . The reservoir's

known records that can verify when this temple was origi-

dimensions include a length of about 100 meters, width of

nally established. A majority of the existing buildings were

50 meters, and depth of 8 meters.

rebuilt in the aftermath of a fire that destroyed the original

Over the course of the past 300 years, Jusanji and

temple complex during the middle of the Joseon Dynasty

Juwangsan have come to attain a natural harmony. Every

[1392-191 Ol. Judging from the remains of a large-size well

year, visitors come by to behold the curious willow trees

that are visible in the garden area to the right of the temple

standing in the middle of the reservoir's waters, which are

grounds, it appears that the temple had been of a rather

recognized as the hallmark symbol of Jusanji. In particu-

significant scale.

lar, the mystery associated with Jusanji involves the

The Bogwangjeon hall at the center of the temple

intriguing scenery that can be seen here in the early morn-

complex includes three sections in the front and three on

ing . To start with, there is the reflection of moonlight on

the side, each with a gambrel roof. The bedrock located

the waters and the cold air with a bluish tint. Then, as the

right behind the Bogwangjeon hall seems to be keeping

moon and stars disappear from the morning sky, a dense

70 Koreana I Autumn 2005

1 DaeJeonsa Temple houses small-scale Amitabha and Bodh1sattvas.

2 Bargains abound at various traditional five-day markets in Cheongsong. where the good-natured vendors add much to the enjoyment of shoppers.

fog forms like low lying clouds at sea. A mist that seems to dance effortlessly about the water¡ s surface reaches a climax as the first rays of sunlight emerge. These indescribable images are certain to leave an indelible impression on anyone who takes the time to view Jusanji in this way.

Miracle Water Cheongsong boasts numerous valleys in which fantastically shaped rock formations are scattered about, along with streams with pristine water that beckon to passersby. Of these, Sinseong Valley offers especially clear waters and rocks of wondrous shapes. An 8-kilometerlong road runs along the cliffs of Sinseong Valley. And while much care is needed to negotiate this route, the gorgeous natural scenery is well worth the effort.

At the entrance to Sinseong Valley is a wooden pavilion known as Banghojeong, which was built in 1619 by Jo Jundo [pen name: Bangho), a resident of Cheongsong-gun, to commemorate the passing of his mother. Although the ideals of filial piety and pungnyu advocated by the Joseon literati are clearly reflected in Banghojeong, the site now serves as a vacation retreat during the summer season.

The gently flowing waters of the stream that passes under Banghojeong are perfect for cooling off or quiet contemplation.

Twenty minutes down the road from Banghojeong you come to Gowa-dong and Baekseoktan. The rocks of Baekseoktan, which look like they are covered with snow, bring to mind a scene of snow-capped mountain peaks. If you stand on the rock on which the word "Sesimdae" is inscribed, it is said that your mind will be cleansed and purified. All earthly concerns will dissipate while you gaze upon the rows of white stones amid the murmur of streams flowing through the valley.

Sinchon-ri , Jinbo-myeon is well known for having a source of water with medicinal qualities. During the late Joseon Dynasty, the government conducted a nationwide survey of all sources of medicinal water, which concluded that the water from Sinchon-ri was the most unique in 72 Koreana I Autumn 2005

taste. Then, as rumors spread that this water was effica-

Mystery of the Flower Rocks

cious for treating such disorders as stomach ailments and skin diseases, ever more people began to flock to the area.

The water contains a distinctive reddish tint, because of an iron-compound ingredient, which leaves a red-colored

To th is day, the mystery of Cheongsong¡s so-called flower rocks remains a secret. Most believe the uniquely shaped rocks resu lted from a gradua l process of chemical reactions and physica l changes that occurred after a violent eruption of

residue on any surface that comes into contact with the

magma. But to others, the lack of a co nclusive scientific expla-

water. People who drink this miracle water are impressed

nation simply means that this phenom enon is j ust another

by its invigorating taste and aroma, which many say tastes

example of the ine xpli ca ble wo nders of nature. Some 60

like a carbonated beverage.

rocks, resembl ing su nflowers, peonies, roses , dah lias, and carnations, have been excavated from the natura l rock beds of

Five-day Markets

Sinchon -ri, Jinbo- myeon.

Cheongsong is home to various traditional-style markets, which date back to the Joseon era, that are operated on a five-day cycle. These include Cheongsongjang and Adeokjang, which are open on days ending with 4 or 9 [like the 4'\ 9'\ 14'h, and 19'hj, Dopyeongjang, on days with 5 or 10, Bunamjang and Jinbojang on days with 3 and 8, and Hwamokjang, on days with 1 and 6. Due to this scheduling, one or two of these markets will be open whenever you might visit Cheongsong. During my visit, I dropped by Dopyeongjang, where on the 30th of the month vendors and merchants were extra busy completing month-end tasks.

Moreover, because the 31st is like a bonus day and the market is also open, I of course had to return there the next day.

Dopyeong is located at the southern end of Cheongsong. Since this area extends toward the coastal region, an abundance of fresh seafood is available. While leisurely checking out the products displayed along the roadway, I met down-to-earth people with no interest in profit-maximization, which made the experience all the more refreshing and pleasurable. The vendors converse animatedly with each other, as though the socialization is more important the sale of their goods. The items for sale, which are arranged in a haphazard manner, are limited to the basic foodstuffs needed for everyday life in the countryside. Indeed, the essence of Cheongsong lies in the ability to preserve its sense of humanity, like a wellspring of pure water.

~

Flower rocks A Gather ston e slabs from a natura l rock bed B Shape stone slabs with a large saw C Identify flower-shaped formations D Trim stone surface to hi ghlight flower forms E Poli sh surface and mount stone.

CUISINE

eo

0

Stir fried Sliced Rice asta

Chewy tteokbokki, made with sliced rice pasta, beef, and fresh vegetables, is perhaps the most popular snack dish of Koreans of all ages.

Tteokbokki, stir-fried sliced rice pasta seasoned w ith red pepper paste, is perhaps the most popular snack among Koreans. However, the tteokbo kki of today differs sign ificantly from the origina l version. Then, how did th is dish, which was once associated w ith the cu isine of the roya l court, become a favorite snack of the common people?

Yoon Sook-ja Director, Institute of Trad itional Korean Food Bae Jae- hyung Photographer Lee Kyung Cu isine Consultant

S

picy and chewy tteokbokki is one of the most popular snacks of Koreans. The ubiquitous food carts that are seemingly found along every street entice hungry children and adults alike with

savory red tteokbokki and eomuk [fish pasta).

However, today's tteokbokki differs greatly from the traditional version. In its original form, tteokbokki, which was then known as gungjung tteokbokki, was a dish served in the royal court and regarded as a representative example of haute cuisin¡e. The original tteokbokki was a stir-fry dish consisting of huintteok [white rice pasta) combined with a variety of ingredients, such as beef, bagoga-

ri [dried slices of gourd rind). mung-bean sprouts, parsley, Shiitake mushrooms, carrots, and onions, and seasoned with soy sauce. Since the original tteokbokki was seasoned with soy sauce rather than red pepper paste, it was simple in taste while the rice pasta's firmness complemented the fresh vegetables. In addition, the five different colors of gungjung tteokbokki-red, yellow, white, black, and blue-exhibited the zealous vigor of Korea . Moreover, with the various ingredients combining to provide a well-balanced meal, gungjung tteokbokki could well be regarded as a health food.

From Royal Court to the Masses

The Siui jeonseo, which was written in the 1800s, contains the following reference to tteokbokki: "Although it is prepared in the same manner as other stewed dishes, tteokbokki also involves cutting rice pasta into slices and then stir-frying briefly. The same ingredients that go into other stewed foods should be included, with the exception of flour mixed with water." This citation seems to indicate the original tteokbokki was regarded as a stewed dish that should be gradually boiled with seasoning and water, which did not involve stir-frying with oil. The preparation method was similar to that for tteokjjim.

The Ganpyeon Joseon yori jebeop, a cookbook compiled in 1934, includes recipes for tteokbokki and tteokbokki byeo/beop. The recipes list more diverse and more refined ingredients-rice pasta, beef, pork, Shiitake and seogi mushrooms, eggs, green onions, parsley, carrots, walnuts, and gingko nuts, which are seasoned with soy sauce, sesame oil, and salt.

Tteokbokki was regarded as a high-class traditional food that required an assortment of ingredients. Then, how did this traditional version become the tteokbokki of today that is made with red pepper paste? The first known reference to peppers in Korea is found in Jibongnyuseol, written by Yi Sugwang in 1613. According to this source, hot chili peppers, which were introduced by way of the southern states, were thought to be poisonous and thus tended to be avoided initially. Prior to the introduction of red peppers, Koreans used Sichuan pepper, ground pepper, mustard, and green onions to enhance the spiciness of foods. Spicy hot peppers, which quickly spread throughout the nation, soon became one of the basic ingredients of Korean food. Moreover, the widespread use of red peppers served to significantly impact the color and taste of Korean food.

Autumn 2005 I Koreana

75

The range of foods in Korea to which red pepper is now added, including kimchi, is truly remarkable . Red pepper not only became one of the essential ingredients of kimchi, but was also the primary ingredient of the traditional seasoning gochujang [red pepper paste]. Indeed, Regu lar Koreans began to eat tteokbokki, seasoned with spicy red pepper paste, no more than 50 yea rs ago. In accordance with today's contemporary tastes, "fusion tteokbokki" is now a favorite among the younger generation.

gochujang 's savory taste and bright redness are enough to stimulate the appetite. As a result, the Korean people, who have long favored spicy and savory foods, began to prepare ever more dishes with red pepper paste.

In the past, it was commonly believed that the color red had the ability to ward off evil spirits. Thus, it was thought that eating spicy red pepper could help to drive away the evil spirits hidden within your body. Red pepper was also used as an antidote to treat poison. The Ojuyeonmunjangjeonsango, which was written in 1850, contains the following interesting advice: "When a person has to take a trip in the middle of winter, he should wear a body pouch filled with peppers, and also stick red peppers into his beoseon [traditional socks) prior to his departure. Pepper's stimulating effect on your blood circulation can help to ward off the cold. In addition, peppers can also be used as a weapon, like a pepper cannon." In this way, peppers came to be a everyday staple of Korean life.

Although there is no known historical data that explains how tteokbokki with soy sauce seasoning evolved into today's version with red pepper paste, it is likely that Koreans naturally added gochujang to their tteokbokki preparation upon introduction of the chili pepper to Korea . As gochujang became readily available, it firmly established itself as a primary ingredient of virtually all Korean foods.

Evolution of Tteokbokki After the Korean War [1950-1953). a small store in Sindang-dong, Seoul started to sell tteokbokki with thin flour pasta and seasoned with spicy red pepper paste. With destitution being so prevalent and rice in such short supply in the war's aftermath, Koreans had to satisfy themselves with a simple tteokbokki of stir-fried flour pasta, instead of rice pasta, with red pepper paste. Nevertheless, its bright redness , which helped to stimulate the appetite, spiciness, and the chewy flour pasta proved to be a hit with the public. Tteokbokki was thus regarded as an affordable and tasty snack during this difficult period when people struggled to overcome serious hardship. Over time, other ingredients, such as eomuk, ramen, mandu [Korean dumpling]. and egg, were added to the mix.

To better appeal to contemporary tastes, various kinds of tteokbokki have since been introduced: haemul tteokbokki with various vegetables and seafood [haemul). such as squid, shrimp, turbo, and mussels; and japchae tteokbokki that includes rice pasta, glass noodles, and vegetables. The emergence of fusion tteokbokki, such as cheese tteokbokki and curry tteokbokki, has served to pique the interest of the younger generations. Tteokbokki can be expected to undergo continuous adaptation to keep pace with Koreans¡ changing tastes and preferences. 1.11

76 Koreana I Autumn 2005

One of the most appealing aspects of tteokbokki is that it can be easily combined with other foods, including seafood, curry, and even cheese. In this regard, "fusion tteokbokki" has emerged as one of the most trendy foods of the younger generation.

Court Tteokbokki Ingredients: r ice pasta, beef [50 grams]. 2 Shiitake mushrooms, carrots [50 grams]. 1/4 cucumber, 1/4 onion, 1 egg Sauce: soy sauce [4 tablespoons]. sugar [1 tab lespoon]. chopped green onion [2 tablespoons]. chopped garlic [1 tablespoon]. sesame salt [1 teaspoon]. sesame oil [1 tablespoon]. pepper [1/2 teaspoon)

Preparation Cut rice pasta roll into 4-centimeter sections and slice lengthwise into 4 pieces.

Scald rice pasta pieces in boiling water, rinse in cold water, and brush with sesame oil.

Slice beef, cucumber, and onion lengthwise.

Soak dried Shiitake mushroom in water and cut into strips lengthwise.

Season beef and mushrooms with soy sauce, sugar, sesame oil, ground pepper, and sesame salt.

Prepare sauce by combining soy sauce, sugar, green onions, garlic, sesame salt, sesame oil, and ground pepper.

Fry seasoned beef, mushrooms, rice pasta, carrots, onions and cucumbers in a pan, add the sauce, and simmer until the ingredients are cooked .

To serve, garnish with thin slices of fried egg.

Red Pepper Paste Tteokbokki Ingredients: rice pasta [200 grams]. eomuk [40 grams]. cabbage, green onions, and other vegetables Broth : anchovies [20 grams]. sea ke lp [10 grams]. 1 clove ginger, 3 cloves garlic, 4 cups water Sauce: red pepper paste [2 tab lespoons]. sugar [1 tablespoon]. soy sauce [1 teaspoon) Preparation Saute anchovies briefly to reduce fishy taste . Add sea kelp, ginger, garlic, and water, and boil for 20-30 minutes. Strain the broth.

Scald rice pasta pieces in boiling water.

Cut eomuk into bite-size pieces. Add red pepper paste sauce to the boiling broth.

Add rice pasta and eomuk, and simmer over low heat. Various vegetables can be added based on personal preference.

Autumn 2005

I Koreana 77

LIVING

lncheon's Chinatown A Taste of China Right Here in Korea In the port city of lncheon, alongside the Yellow Sea, you can find a community that looks like it had somehow been uprooted from the Chinese mainland.

Indeed, this "Little China" of Korea, lncheon's Chinatown, has been the home of Chinese people and culture for well over a century.

Kim Ok-Lim Freela nce Writer Ahn Hong-beom Photograph e r

A

t 9:00 in the morning of September 18,

Japan. It was also around this time that Chinese

1899, the shrill whistle of a train pierced

nationals first began to settle in lncheon.

the tranquility of the Land of the Morning Calm.

Following the designation of a special zone

This whistle announced the arrival of the first

for Qing Dynasty Chinese nationals within

train to make the journey along the newly com-

lncheon, where they could reside and enjoy

pleted Seoul-lncheon Railway, which connected

extraterritorial rights, this led to a steady inflow

Noryangjin in Seoul with Jemulpo [lncheon ·s

of Chinese immigrants to the city's Seollin-dong

former name). This unfamiliar sound signaled

district . This area, with a uniquely Chinese

the dawn of Korea's modernization .

lifestyle , eventually developed into the Chinatown of today. This Chinatown area was

Chinese Settle in Korea The emergence of trains and railroad

situated in front of lncheon Station and within easy walking distance of the waterfront. If you

tracks in the late 1800s marked the onset of

look at this area today, its rather small scale

modernity in Korea. At this time, lncheon was

and evident decline over the years are readily

the final stop along the western segment of the

apparent. However, it is also possible to imagine

railway line from Seoul. Although to a relatively

a past era when it was a center of considerable

lesser extent today, lncheon was for some time

prosperity. Some 120 years after its establish-

one of Korea 's most active and prosperous port

ment, about 500 or so second- and third-gener-

cities. lncheon also served as the gateway

ation Chinese-Koreans reside in lncheon·s

through which Western civilization gained

Chinatown .

access into Korea . In 1883, lncheon became

Across the street from lncheon Station is a

Korea· s third port to be opened to the outside

magnificent, pailou [traditional Chinese-style

world, after which it became the point of entry

gate, paeru in Korean). This gate, consisting of

for foreign cultures, initially from China and

four red pillars and a colorful roof, stands 11

78 Koreana I Autumn 2005

meters tall and 17 meters wide and is adorned with the inscription "Chinese Avenue" [Junghwagal. The pailou, which is the symbol of Chinatown, represents a spiritual link to the mainland for the Chinese diaspora. The original paeru , situated in front of lncheon Station, was donated by the city of Weihai, from the province of Shandong, China, to commemorate its establishment of a sister city relationship with the Jung-gu district of lncheon. As far as I know, this was the first time that China's central gov1 Students of lncheon 's Ch inese commun ity attend Jungsan Sc hool, a K- 12 institution.

2 Port rait of Guan Yu l?- 2191. a dist in gu ished gene ral from the Kingdom of Shu 3 Woman wea ri ng a trad itiona l Ch inese dress. Ch inese restau rants are seen on bot h sides of the str eet.

ernment or local autonomous authorities agreed to donate a pailou without requiring any financial remuneration in return . This is an example of just how deep-rooted the relations were between the two cities and countries. lncheon¡s Chinatown boasts two additional pailou, one in front of the Korea-China Cultural Center, and the other standing at the entrance to Freedom Park, which leads into Chinatown.

Historical documents indicate that lncheon¡ s Chinatown began to emerge in 1884, with a majority of the new residents hailing from Shandong, along with others coming from such provinces as Hebei, Jiangsu, Fujian and Guangdong. The majority of these n~wly arriving Chinese engaged in the sale of foodstuff, salt, and grain, imported from China, to Korean customers, in addition to buying alluvial gold from Korea and then selling it to Chinese merchants, as a means of expanding their commercial influence.

However, the outbreak of the SinoJapanese War in July 1937, which plunged the entire Chinese mainland into war, paralyzed commerce in lncheon, thus forcing some of the Chinese residents there to relocate to Taiwan, the United States, and Southeast Asia.

Meanwhile , those who remained took up new

In recent years, the burgeoning exchanges between China and Korea have contributed to a reinvigoration of lncheon's Chinatown. As such, there is keen interest in seeing what role this community, which has been at the center of Korea - China exchanges for some 120 years, will play in further advancing bilateral relations.

livelihoods as restaurant operators, general store propri-

on the menus of only the fanciest restaurants. For families

etors, and longshoremen.

enjoying an evening out, jajangmyeon has long been a pop-

The first generation of Chinese who settled in Korea clung dearly to their Chinese traditions while maintaining

ular choice, among both young and old from all walks of life.

their own way of life in lncheon . In the past, lncheon¡s

Nevertheless, there remains a question about who

Chinatown would come alive at the time of the first lunar

should get credit for its creation. Officially, the first restau-

month, when the Chinese community celebrated the lunar

rant known to offer jajangmyeon was Gonghwachun, which

New Year and the first Full Moon [15th day]. On this occa-

opened in 1905. The growing popularity of the restaurant

sion, every household would write down their wishes for

encouraged other Chinese residents to open their own

happiness and good fortune in the upcoming year on red

establishments in the area, which became a magnet for

paper, which would be posted on their homes, along with

attracting foodies from Seoul and surrounding areas in

colorful lanterns being hung all around the neighborhood.

search of Chinese cuisine. With the Gonghwachun's clo-

After sunset, long strings of firecrackers strung from tall

sure in 1981, it is no longer possible to enjoy the original

poles would be set off, rousing everyone who happened to

taste of jajangmyeon. Now abandoned and silent , the

be nearby. Unfortunately, these colorful traditions are in

Gonghwachun building is a reminder of the glory of bygone

large part now a thing of the past. Meanwhile, the City of

days. A group of individuals seeking to preserve the legacy

lncheon is planning to develop the Chinatown district into a

of the

tourist destination, by linking together lncheon

Gonghwachun Franchise Company in October 2003, and

International Airport, Freedom Park, and Culture Road,

have since made efforts to revive this restaurant, which for

which are found on Wolmido Island. As part of this effort,

long had served as the center of the Chinese community.

many of the run-down buildings in Chinatown are now being renovated or rebuilt.

original

Located

Gonghwachun

nearby the

established

former

the

Gonghwachun,

Daechangbanjeom is another Chinese restaurant that offers traditional Chinese cuisine. Operated as a family

Home of Jajangmyeon

business for the past three generations, this restaurant is

A conversation about Chinatown cannot avoid the

always filled with regular patrons, including Chinese as

mention of Chinese food. Related to this, the first thing that

well as Koreans, thanks to its traditional-style Chinese

pops into the minds of Koreans whenever they hear

food and pleasant ambience.

"Chinese food" is jajangmyeon. And of course, it is only natural for lncheon¡s Chinatown to be the birthplace of

Cultural Heritage

jajangmyeon. Of note, jajangmyeon is actually a

At the top of an alleyway to the left of Daechangbanjeom,

Koreanized adaptation of the Chinese dish . Jaja ngmyeon

you will find Jungsan School, the only Chinese middle and

was originally called chaojiangmian, or noodles covered

high school in lncheon . Th is building, which originally

with the black bean sauce chunjang [Chinese-style fer-

housed the Consulate of the Qing Dynasty, became a

mented bean paste mixed with flour].

school for Chinese students in 1934. Although the building

However, the Chinese residents of lncheon soon

has undergone several renovations, the traditional charac-

developed a new style noodle dish, which was better suited

teristics of Chinese-style architecture can still be seen.

to Korean tastes, by adding vegetables and meat to the

The delightful chatter of children, in both Chinese and

black bean sauce. Today, jajangmyeon is ubiquitous as well

Korean, confirms the natural harmony that exists between

as modestly priced; however, until the 1960s, it was found

the peoples and cultures of the two countries.

Autumn 2005 I Koreana 81

time, when Chinese-style buildings stood to the left of the stairway and Japanese-style structures to the right.

A statue of Confucius, which seems to be looking over the port of lncheon, is found at the foot of the stairway that separated these two foreign neighborhoods. Visitors to this site come away with a sense of the deep reverence of the Chinese people, even though living in a foreign country, for the teachings of Confucius.

A unique street, Samgukji Geori [Street of Sanguo Yanyil, has been established at the top of the boundary stairway. Here, you can look over 77 scenes from the well-known Chinese historical novel, Sanguo Yanyi [Romance of the Three Kingdoms) , which are painted on the

walls along both sides of the street. This street was created by the Jung-gu office in November

2004 as a symbol of Korea-China friendship . The Romance of the Three Kingdoms has long been

beloved by not only Chinese but Koreans as well. Perhaps this is why the wall painting scenes convey such a sense of familiarity. In this 1 Gonghwachun, the first restaurant in lncheon¡s Chinatown to offer jajangmyeon.

This building, which housed the popular restaurant until it was closed in 1981, remains abandoned.

2 Establishment of the lncheon Korean-Chinese Culture Center in Chinatown is an example of the efforts to boost cultural exchanges between China and Korea.

way, the Romance of the Three Kingdoms novel has served as a bridge for connecting our two countries and peoples. Based on recent trends, Korea-China cultural exchanges are certain to further deepen while becoming more vigorous

Walking up from the second pailou toward Freedom Park, the Cheong-il Jogyeji Gyeonggye

For additional information about lncheon¡s

Gyedan [boundary stairway between the Qing

Chinatown, visit its homepage [www.ichina-

Chinese neighborhood and the Japanese neigh-

tow n.or.kr) or that of the Jung-gu office of

borhood) comes into sight. Following the settle-

lncheon Metropolitan City [www.icjg .or.kr1. More

ment of Japanese residents in this area in 1883,

details can also be obtained from the lncheon

as Qing Chinese began to also move in , this

Korean-Chinese Culture Center [phone : [+82-

stairway has served as a boundary between the

32) 760-7860-5). 1.1

two communities from 1884. Although few remnants from this era are visible today, it is not difficult to envision scenes from this long-ago 82 Koreana I Autumn 2005

and diversified .

CRITIQUE

Underlying Tragedy of Life and Existence Hwang Do-kyung Literary Critic

0

Chong-hui [b. 1947) made her literary debut in 1968,

imagery. When I comment that her stories force us peer

while still a student at Sorabol University [today's

into the abyss of human existence and convey a "terrifying

Chung-Ang University). when her short story "The Toy

sublimity" and "spine-chilling love," it is because of her

Shop Woman·· won a prize in a contest for aspiring writers

ability, in written form, to vividly portray everyday incidents

sponsored by The JoongAng /Ibo daily newspaper. She

and thoughts. Her early works included images of water,

has since published a number of works, including River of

fire, the rotting bodies of dead cats and dogs, perverted

Fire, Garden of Childhood, Fireworks, and The Old Well,

sex, and deformed bodies, to symbolically portray deviant

along with receiving the !sang Literature Award for her

desires, an instinct for destruction that lies deep within ,

short story "Evening Game·· in 1979, and the Dongin

and deformed reality. Indeed, o·s works are invariably

Literature Award for "The Bronze Mirror" in 1982.

cited when discussing the significance of language and

o·s works are about life and death, light

sensuality in Korean literature.

and dark, and the underlying tragedy of life and existence

O's stories unfold with endless reversals

rooted in this dualism. They are acclaimed for their con -

between the everyday life lived under the pressure and

templation of the unfathomable inner world and life of

burden of obligation, or ennui and weariness, and sudden

humans that cannot be easily understood with rational

outbursts of anxiety, fear, and darkness that creep in

thinking. According to 0, because we are unable to pre-

through the cracks. That O is a woman is an important

dict, prepare for, or explain our lives, which are a series of

starting point for understanding her writing, which depicts

countless interconnected incidents, feelings , and actions,

the underlying tragedy of life and existence through the

we cannot perceive our lives through any single, clear

shadows of futility and death that one encounters in daily

incident, but only vaguely through complex and subtle

life, because women are portrayed as the individuals who

feelings, faint memories of the past, and traces of sensa-

experience such tragedy in the most transcendental ways.

tions lingering in our bodies. In this way, her novels and

For her heroine, 0 takes a woman as the core essence of

short fiction are not about a particular incident or story,

the family, and through a woman's tangible and everyday

but instead involve sensory images and atmosph·ere.

life, she depicts the shadows of futility and death that are

o ·s writing is highly regarded for express-

integral to life and existence. 0 believes that it is women

ing this notion with meticulous language and sensual

who experience most directly the unfathomable nature

84

Koreana I Autumn 200 5

and tragedy of life and existence. This is because women

r unning away from home, and the father·s life of depravity

have a womb, which can nurture and produce life, a mys-

prior to the occurrence of these developments. It is cor-

terious space where the beginning and end of life meet,

rupt and hypocritical, like playing cards with all the cards

and thus embody pleasure and pain, life and death , suffer-

exposed . The brother left home because he could no

ing and maturity.

longer stand the ··corrupt game," but the protagonist con-

The lead character in '"Evening Game" is a

tinues to play out the drama. She attempts to go out at

woman who lives alone with her father. Every night, after

night ; but always winds up at home in repair, where she

the dinner table has been cleared, the two play cards. On

sleeps with strangers for money like a prostitute and her

the surface, the storyline follows the daily life of this

father plays solitaire to strike it rich as usual, and they

woman . But what really grabs your attention are the

invariably engage in card playing w hen night comes

scenes that portray the underside of her everyday life -

around .

the profound darkness, conflicting words between father

This story reminds us that out lives are

and daughter, endless playing of cards even when the

being played out amid, or in ignorance of, madness and

back of the cards reveal your hand, ceaseless crying of a

death, and acquiescence of violence. As such, this senti-

child upstairs and the mother singing a lullaby to soothe

ment is conveyed more effectively through the symbolism

the child, youth in the detention center who can be seen

of women . In the final scene of the story in which the pro-

from the kitchen window, and a fire at an orphanage. This

tagonist, upon returning home, gasps as she lifts up her

pervasive darkness gradually drives a wedge between

ski rt and laughs, conveys her thirst for life from a sexual

father and daughter, shattering their tranquil existence

context, and at that moment the woman ·s body, as with

while revealing the stark madness of death and violence

her mother, is an embodiment of both violence and mad-

lurking beneath the shadows.

ness. The body of the woman, which reveals the secret

The protagonist"s endless card playing

meaning of life and existence, becomes an embodiment

with her father is a scene from everyday life in which the

of the underlying tragedy and rotational cycle of life and

stories of death and violen ce are buried in silence - the

existence. Thus O Chong-hui's "Evening Game" deals not

incidents like a newborn baby"s death, the mother who

just with the issue of women but life and existence as

was beaten when sent to a prayer center, the brother·s

well. l.t

Aut um n 2005 I Ko reana

85

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Studies Program @ Support for Research Institute Tel: 82-2-3463-5612 FAX: 82-2-3463-6025 e-mail: studies@kf.or.kr

Training ¡ @ Postdoctoral Fellowship @ Advanced Research Grant @ Graduate Studies Fellowship @ Publication Subsidy Program @ Support for Instructional Materials Development Tel: 82-2-3463-5614 FAX: 82-2-3463-6075 e-mail: fellow@kf.or.kr

Materials @ Distribution by Request Tel: 82-2-3463-5684 FAX: 82-2-3463-6086 e-mail: publication@kf.or.kr

For application forms, program guidelines or further information, please contact the respective departments or visit the Foundation homepage: www.kf.or.kr

Grant Application Deadlines Program

Application Deadline

Contact Information

- Institutional Support for Korean Studies Program - Support for Research Institutes

July 31 of the year preceding the calendar year in which the project is to commence September 30 of the year preceding the calendar year in which the project is to commence

Korean Studies Dept.

TEL (+82-2)3463-5612 FAX (+82-2)3463-6025 E-mail: studies@kf.or.kr

- Fellowship for Korean Language Training - Fellowship for Field Research - Postdoctoral Fellowship - Advanced Research Grant - Graduate Studies Fellowships - Publication Subsidy Program - Support for Instructional Materials Development

July 31 of the year preceding the calendar year in which the fellowship period is to commence January 15 January 31 Varies according to the country and institution March 31, September 30 of the project year March 31, September 30 of the project year

Fellowship Program Dept.

TEL (+82-2)3463-5614 FAX (+82-2)3463-6075 E-mail: fellow@kf.or.kr All application forms and guidelines are available on-line.

The Publication Subsidy and Instructional Materials programs receive applications twice a year.

- Regular Distribution of Reference Materials July 31 - Distribution By Request All year round

Media Dept.

TEL (+82-2)3463-5684 FAX (+82-2)3463-6086 E-mail: publication@kf.or.kr Applications available on-line

posco We move the wortd in silence www.posco.com

Fireworks Festivals We sponsor one of Korea's largest light and sound extravaganzas each June in Pohang

Campus Concerts

Art Exhibitions

Monthly Concerts

We sponsor concerts by Nanse Gum and the Euro-Asian Philharmonic Orchestra at major universities

We showcase contemporary works at the POSCO Center Museum and Pohang Works Gallery

We invite top artists from all genres to pertorm at POSCO Center in Seoul

Ill Korea has realized its long-cherished dream of becoming a petroleum producer!

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Forty years of exploration have at last led to Korea achieving oil-producing-country status.

By our own efforts, our own technology and our own investment finally we have succeeded in ¡realizing our dream to join the ranks of the oil producing nations.

Now, we launch ourselves boldly towards our next goalto become an energy independent country.

Korea National Oil Corporation