Koreana Winter 2001 (English)

KOREAN ART & CULTURE

"One World in Your Hand"

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BEAUN OF KOREA

Chimney with Ten Longevity Symbols at Gyeongbokgung Palace

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Jagyeongjeon is a residential building constructed during the reign of King Gojong (r.

1863-1907) for the grandmother of the king. It was situated to the east of Gyotaejeon, the queen's living quarters. Jagyeongjeon, along with Gyotaejeon, have the most feminine characteristics of Gyeongbokgung's structures.

Its walls decorated w ith fl ower and plant designs and the chimney featuring the ten symbols of longevity, sipjangsaeng, attract the attention of passersby.

The rectangular chimney (Treasure No. 810), measuring 381 centimeters wide, 236 centimeters high, and 65 centimeters thick, is actually part of the wall behind Jagyeongjeon, protruding slightly from the wall. A scene featuring the ten symbols of longevity (rock, mountain, water, cloud, pine tree, herb of immortality, tortoise, crane, deer and sun) and the Four Nob le Ge ntl emen (plum,

orchid, chrysanthemum and bamboo) decorate the chimney's exterior surface. Above and below the longevity scene are decorative cranes and the face of a goblin to keep , away evil spirits.

The ten sipjangsaeng symbols, which are among the most common motifs in traditional Korean art, represent a wish for longevity, in this case, long life for Queen Sinjeong, the wife of Ikjong.

The chimney is similar in design to the Amisa n chimney, which is also found in Gyeongbokgung. The Amisan chimney, however, is in the shape of a hexahedron, whereas the Jagyeongjeon chimney takes the shape of a rectangle. With its refined elegance, in addition to its function, the Jagyeongjeon chimney is indeed one of the masterpieces of decorative palace art created during the Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910). +

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KOREAN ART & CULTURE Cover: There are a number of private art ga ll eries in Korea dedicated to the promotion of Korean art that stage exhibitions of not only individual artists but also groups of artists as well as special events fea turing a. particular topic or theme. This issue of KOREANA introduces Korea's leading galleries in regard to their history and efforts to promote Korean art and artists at home and abroad. On the cover is a silk patchwork bojagi (traditional wrapping cloth) on display at an exhibition of the works of craftswoman Kim Hyeon-hui at the Forum Space of the Gana Art Center.

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KOREANAInternet Website

4 q'he Roots of Korea's Art Galleries Lim Kyung-sik

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Korea's Art Galleries 10 Galleries-Forums of the Art World · Kim Chong-geun Ho-Am Art Gallery · Kim Mi-ok Musee Whanki · Park jang-min Hakgojae · Kongju-h yung Gana Art Center · jun Seung-bo lnsa Art Center · Yoon joung-mi Gallery Hyundai · Kangjae-h yun Total Museum · Nohjoon-eui Kukje Gallery · Kim Unsoo Galerie Bhak · jung Hoon Park Ryu Sook Gallery · Lee jae-yeon

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© The Korea Foundation 2001 All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form without the prior permission of the Korea Fouodation.

2001: Year ofRegional and Civic Culture · Kang Shin-pya

The opinions expressed by the authors do not nea:ssarily represent those of the editors of KORFANA or the Korea Foun· dation.

Literati Painter Chang Woo Soung . Kim Young-jai

KOREANA, registered as a quarterly magazine with the Ministry of Culrure and Tourum (Registration No. Ba-1033, dated Aug. 8, 1987), is also published in Chinese and Spanish.

40 INTERVIEW

46 TRADITIONAL ARTISAN

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50 ON THE ROAD

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he 21st century is referred to as an era of globalization. While watching the mounting tides of free trade and Internet ecommerce, it is quite apparent that national boundaries, at least in terms of economic activity, are becoming increasingly blurred. Some also describe the current era, that follows on the heels of modern industrialization, as a period of cultural competition and commercialization of art. Not many people would object to this characterization. The cultural and att modes of each country around the world are being dizzily intertwined, amid active attempts to highlight differentiation. The Korean art market is no exception to these trends. After restrictions on the importation of antiques were lifted in 1989, the domestic sculpture and portrait market was also opened up to foreign competition in January 1990. The opening of the painting, pastel painting, and wood print sectors followed in January 1991. And with the nation's opening to competition from f oreign art galleries in 1997, the Korean art market, notwithstanding its desires, now needs to significantly improve its fundamental system.

At the forefront of these changes are Korea's artists. However, it is the art galleries that are responsible for determining the value of art works and interacting with foreign mai路kets to explore and invigorate the market. As such, it is essential for Korea's art galleries to adopt a new management paradigm in order not to lag behind in the global competition. It is true that the Korean art market has only a brief history. It has also been hindered by various contradictions that originated from the rapid growth it realized in a compressed time frame. This article thus seeks to describe the development path that modern Korean galleries have been traveling along for the purpose of providing a framework for assessing Korea's status in this age of globalization and liberalization.

The earliest form of an art gallery in Korea was founded during the Joseon

Dynasty (1392-1910). At that time, paintings were not exhibited and sold from a specific venue as they are today.

Whenever aristocrats or affluent families sought to acquire a painting, they invited and paid an artist to stay over at their sarangbang, the male quarters of a traditional residence, where the painting would be produced. Newspapers, which were first published in Korea in the 20th

Korea's art market, despite its brief history and lack of systemic foundation, has undergone significant devel路 opment thanks to the local art community's dedicated 路efforts and passion for art. ~;Jut

rapid, intensive growth inevitably leads to various problems. As a result of a cha.,ge in attitude toward art works and galleries, as well as rapid expansion of

galleries in line with Korea's economic development, and liberalization of overseas travel, art works have emerged as a new medium for investment.

century as a result of frequent contacts with Western culture by way of China and Japan, helped to stimulate interest in art, mainly among the intellectuals.

Paintings used to be sold at newspaper buildings, as well as stationery and supply shops, which served as galleries.

Gogeumseohwagwan, the first gallery in Korea, was opened in 1913 by Gim Kyu-

jin (1868-1933, pen name Haegang), a painter and calligrapher of the late Joseon period. He reportedly learned about gallery operations in Tokyo in 1902 when he visited there and developed relations with Japanese painters and calligraphers. An advertisement he placed in the Maeil Sinbo in December 1913 indicated that the gallery was used to sell mainly his own paintings rather than the works of various artists. Due to an apparent lack of demand for his works, the gallery closed in early 1920.

Newly formed art organizations began to emerge in Korea among its Western art circles in the 1930s as growing numbers of Koreans returned home after studying Western painting abroad amid a surge of people going to Tokyo to study art. Several art coteries were established, which held a variety of exhibitions in an attempt to introduce and promote Western painting in Korea.

Meanwhile, Korea's Oriental art community pursued a variety of activities as well, including the launch of painting and calligraphy associations. Among the Oriental art groups that remained active until Korea's liberation from Japanese colonial rule were Husohoejeon led by Kim Eu n-ho (pen name Idang), Cheongjeon Hwasukjeon, an association founded by followers of Lee Sang-beom (pen name Cheongjeon), and Yeonjinhoe led by Heo Baek-ryeon of Gwangju. The Joseon Art Museum opened amid this vibrant artistic atmosphere of the 1930s. Founded on the recommendation of 0 Se-chang (pen name Wichang), an elder artist of the painting 路 and calligraphy community, the gallery focused more on traditional monochromatic ink paintings and calligraphy rather than Western paintings, which were still somewhat unfamiliar to the masses. The Joseon Art Museum organized a variety of exhibitions and operated actively for the next 10 years. But cultural and art activities came to an abrupt halt in the 1940s when Japan engaged in all-out war, while leading painters were mobilized to participate in

the art exhibitions that were held as part of Japan's war efforts. With Korea's artists thus unable to pursue independent, creative activities, the Joseon Art Museum was pressured to close down in 1941 by the Japanese colonial authorities.

Korea's liberation from Japan on August 15, 1945 heralded the beginning of another period of confusion. The various art organizations in the country repeatedly merged and broke up as a result of conflicts between leftists and rightists whose ideology had nothing to do with the formative arts. Political confrontation among the art groups gradually subsided by 1947, while a foundation was laid for art education with the opening of the nation's first art colleges at Seoul National University, Ewha Womans University, and Hong lk University, following the inauguration of an independent South Korean government in 1948: While Korean was gradually moving toward consolidation in spite of considerable turmoil, the first National Art Exhibition sponsored by

the Ministry of Education was held at the art museum on the grounds of Gyeongbokgung Palace in 1949. In addition, the Daewon Gallery and Daeyang Gallery, both commercial galleries, opened in August and October 1947, respectively. It is not clear who opened the Daewon Gallery, which was located in the Chungmuro area of Seoul, but it is said to have mainly exhibited Western paintings. Its various activities included exhibitions of works by the members of the Dangu Art Center in August 1947 and the works of Baek Yeong-su in 1949, as well as the first showing of works by Rokmihoe, an alumni association of Western painting graduates of Ewha Womans University. However, the gallery's activities ended when the building was demolished during the Korean War. The Daeyang Gallery, which_ Pak Yeong-dal opened in Myeong-dong, made quite a splash by displaying the oil paintings, crafts, and

sculptures of Kang Chang-won, Kim Bong-ryong, and Kim Gyeong-seung at its opening exhibition, but managed to stay in business less than a year due to legal problems over ownership of the gallery building.

Major cultural activities, which had been suspended during the Korean War, began to return to normal in 1953 when the government was able to return to Seoul. In 1954, Lee Wan-seok opened the Cheonil Gallery within the Cheonil Department Store atJongno 4-ga (today's Cheonggyecheon). Oriental painters, such as Ko Hui-dong, Kim ELm-ho, Lee Sang-beom, Lee Eung-ro, Jang U-seong, and Park Saeng-gwang, as well as Western painters, including To Sangbong, Lee Ma-dong, Kim ln-seung, Kim Whanki, Nam Kwan, Lee Joong Sub, Park Sao Keun, and Choi Young-Lim, showed their works in the "Exhibition of

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Contemporary Artists," the gallery's opening exhibition on July 25, 1954. The gallery also organized a posthumous exhibition of the works of Kim Junghyeon, Ku Bon-ung, and Lee In-seong who died during the Korean War. However, the gallery closed down in less than six months due to Korea's struggling economy as well as its Jongno 4-ga location, which was inconvenient for attracting the local art communit y.

Nevertheless, Lee Suk-yeong, daughter of the gallery founder Lee Wan-seok, is carrying on her father's tradition as the manager of the Yeh Gallery in Sinsadong.

In 1956, foreign diplomatic envoys in Seoul and the wives of U.S. military personnel stationed in Korea organized the Seoul Art Society to pursue their interest in Korean art. They also opened the Bando Gallery, a permanent gallery at the Bando Hotel. Local artists welcomed the opening of this gallery in the absence of any commercial galleries to sell their art works, but it also struggled to remain in business, due to slow sales. Lee Dai Won, who took over the gallery's management in 1959 from To Sang-bong, the first chairman of the gallery, also experienced serious operating difficulties in the aftermath of the April 19, 1961 student uprising and the May 16, 1961 military coup. Park Myung Ja, proprietor of the Gallery Hyundai, landed her first job with the Bando Gallery in the 1960s, where she began to learn the art business. She was soon joined by Han Yonggu, who helped to improve operations of the gallery. Consequ entl y, sales improved, such that it began to enjoy a virtual monopoly in the late 1960s. As a result, the Pagodong and Su galleries were opened within the Bando Arcade, but both were destroyed by fire several years later, with only Bando Gallery remaining in business. Although the Bando Gallery catered exclusively to foreigners and wealthy Koreans, its continued existence helped create an environment for modern galleries to open in Korea after the 1970s.

In the 1970s, the Korean art market enjoyed a renaissance period as society gradually stabilized thanks to rapid economic growth resulting from modernization efforts. It was an era that saw the emergence of new organizations of young painters, including Sincheje in 1970, S.T. in 1971, and Esprit in 1972 The Art Exhibition of Painting Collection Contest, organized by the daily newspaper Hankook Iloo in the early 1970s, her-

moved into its own building in Sagandong specifically designed for exhibitions and firmly established its role as a .bridge between the public and the artists.

The gallery included an area of 99 square meters on the first floor and 132 square meters on the second floor.

The Myeongdong Gallery, which opened after the Gallery Hyundai, was particularly known for its efforts to discover and support young artists. It pro-

aided the launch of private exhibitions in Korea. Commercial galleries in the modern sense of the word also opened in tandem 'with the robust activities of the art sector, spearheaded by the Gallery Hyundai, which opened in April 1970, along with the Myeongdong Gallery, Joseon Gallery, and Jin Gallery. The Gallery Hyundai focused on popularizing art, which was little understood by the public, through the organization of exhibitions, utilization of media publicity, and publication of an art magazine Hwarang In 1975, the Gallery Hyundai

vided financial assistance to several of today's representative artists, including ¡Kwon Jin-kyu and Pak Seo-bo, when they were still struggling to make a name for themselves. In addition it also focused on popularizing wood prints by holding an exhibition of globally renowned wood prints, an exhibition of Western posters, and a grand-prix exhibition of modern wood prints. Kim Mun-ho, founder of Myeongdong Gallery, also founded the Galleries Association of Korea in 1976 and served as its first chairperson. He also devoted

much effort to the publication of the association's magazine Misul Chunchu (which is now titled Hwarang Chuchu).

Despite his dedicated efforts, however, Korea was not sufficiently developed to .enable Kim to fully realize his dreams.

However, his achievements came to be highly appreciated, and after his death, critics Yun Jun-sang and 0 Kwang-su, artists Pak Seo-bo, Kim Ku-rim, and Song Su-nam, and Koryo Gallery manager

force, and the construction of modern forms of housing, especially apartment complexes, led to a surge in the demand for art. The notable expansion of galleries, which began in 1975, also transformed Insa-dong, a street of frame shops and galleries displaying traditional art works into a district of modern galleries. Meanwhile, a series of galleries opened in provincial areas: Gallery Kong Kan opened in Pusan in 1975,

Kim Seok-ju joined together to organize the first-ever exhibition commemorating not an artist, but a gallery owner at the Koryo Gallery in July 1982. Kim Mun-ho was also posthumously awarded the first art prize by the Galleries Association of Korea in August 1994, while an exhibition about his lifetime achievements was held during the 1994 Gallery Art Festival.

Above all, it was Korea's remarkable economic growth that led to the rapid expansion of galleries. The middle class that emerged as a dynamic economic

Maekh yang Gallery and Y eemock Gallery in Daegu in 1976, followed by the Dong San Bang Gallery specializing in Oriental ar~ and the Munhwa Gallery in 1976. In 1977 and 1978, the Sun, Kyeongmi, Growrich, Taein, Yeh, and Koryo galleries opened in quick succession, paving the way for the burgeoning art business of the 1980s. Thanks to Korea's economic boom leading up to the 1988 Seoul Olympics, the local gallery scene underwent a major change in the late 1980s. Not only did new galleries open, but a number of existing galleries,

previously centered in the Insa-dong and Sagan-dong areas, started to relocate to southern Seoul to follow the newly emerging consumer class, creating a new gallery district in Sinsa-dong and Cheongdam-dong. Beginning with the Ye Gallery's relocation to Sinsa-dong in 1982, several galleries followed suit, or were newly opened in the southern district, including the Mee, Subyeong, Saem, Park Ryu Sook, Yeemock, and Yuna galleries.

As such, Korea's art market, despite its brief history and lack of systemic foundation, has undergone significant development thanks to the local art community's dedicated efforts and passion for art.

But rapid, intensive growth inevitably leads to various problems. As a result of a change in attitude toward art works and galleries, as well as rapid expansion of galleries in line with Korea's economic development, and liberalization of overseas travel, art works have emerged as a new medium for investment. A number of issues need to be resolved, including streamlining the tax system to include capital gains tax. More than anything else, the value of art works should be determined through a fair auction process, not based on the scale of the work. It is also urgent to foster professionals capable of adopting to the extremely rapid changes in the world art market. Another needed change involves perceptions of the price of art works. Rationally priced works of art have to be made available to the middle class, which is emerging as a new consumer class. In order to instill__ a positive attitude toward art among the public, efforts by individual galleries are not enough; government-level support is also essential.

Although artists are the core of Korea's art scene, art galleries-are responsible for discovering and fostering local artists while vigorously interacting with overseas markets. If gallery managers make efforts to create an exhibition culture based on trust, then there will be no need to be apprehensive about opening Korea's art market +

Galleries-Forums of the Art World Kim Chong-geun Art Critic, Professor, Department of Art Studies , Hong lk University

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hat is a gallery? A commercial art gallery exhibits and sells the works of artists.

Galleries are thus ideal forums for keeping up with the latest art trends, with the artists and art collectors. However, Korea's galleries are now facing a serious crisis due to a rapidly worsening depression plaguing the art sector. In fact, a majority of galleries have ceased even planning exhibitions, and are barely managing to remain in business by leasing their galleries out for exhibitions while forsaking their regular gallery functions, thus portending an even darker future for Korea's art community.

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In the past, at least one or two paintings would be sold during an exhibition, but there are virtually no buyers today, even at showings of individual artists.

This vividly illustrates the seriousness of the downturn spreading through the art circLes. But a more significant problem is the,steady decline in the number of galleries as the situation worsens. To realize the gravity of the situation, one need look no further than the number of galwith the Association of leries ~ 1 egistrd Korean Galleries, which currently stands at 107, only about half that of just three or four years ago.

Currently, only about 15 galleries in Seoul are planning and staging exhibi-

tions. But the majority of even these galleries rarely holds an exhibition once every two months. Only about 10 galleries in Insa-dong and Sagan-dong, the mecca of Korean contemporary artists, are actively exhibiting contemporary art works. But even among these, only about five hold notable exhibitions of promising young artists, which is underlining the basic foundation of Korea's art sector.

Because an auction system has yet to be firmly established in Korea, galleries are the heart of the art community. That ever more galleries are closing their doors is of greater consequence than the slump in art sales, because this means

It is easy to confirm that the Gallery Hyundai is synonymous with the development of Korean art and artists just by looking at the list of artists who presented their works in the recent exhibition that was held to commemorate the gallery's 30th anniversary. The list is a lengthy one that includes almost every one of Korea's leading artists.

that artists have no place for their creative works to be shown. And if this continues, the local art sector will inevitably collapse from within. As such, it is becoming increasingly difficult to find Korean art dealers even vaguely resembling such legendary foreign art dealers as Leo Castelli and Denise Rene. , The fact that handful of galleries still pursuing conventional functions despite the mounting adversity is Korea's last ray of hope.

The galleries in Korea are clearly divided by the Han River into those in northern and southern Seoul. This situation is similar to that of Paris where the galleries are divided by the river Seine.

In the late 1990s, southern Seoul, a district dominated by commercial-retail influences and a large population of affluent upper-middle-income households, emerged as a new center of galleries, witp the majority being concentrated in.- the Cheongdam-dong district adjoining the haute couture area. In compariSOI], northern Seou l is popular among artists because of the many small galleries .centered in Insa-dong, the traditional ga1lei-y district. Northern Seoul is further divided into Insa-dong, home to a number of small galleries and the center stage for young emerging artists, and Sagan-dong, where large-sized art museums and galleries are situated. The

Pyeongchang-dong artist village in northwestern Seoul is emerging as a new center of art activities as well.

Korea 's most prominent galleries include the Gallery Hyundai, with the longest tradition and history in Korea, Gana Gallery, and Kukje Gallery in Insadong and Pyeongchang-dong, in ad~iton to Dongsanbang Gallery, Hakgojae Gallery, and Gallery Sun, which mainly exhibit traditional Korean paintings. The Galerie Bhak in southern Seoul, is also noteworthy for its dedicated efforts to actively introduce the works of young Korean artists in foreign countries, while the Park Ryu Sook Gallery is making active inroads into foreign art circles to

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promote the works of the nation's major artists. The Yeo mock, Pyo, Indeco, Growrich, Juliana, CA.I.S, and Chung Jak galleries also hold exhibitions regularly.

When discussing Korean galleries, it is necessary to start with the Gallery Hyundai, owned by Park Myung-ja, the trailblazer and godmother of Korean galleries. Park first began her career by working for the Bando Gallery. She was 29 and newly married when she first opened her gallery in Insa-dong in 1970 with an opening exhibition of 30 artists, including To Sang-bong and Yun Jungsik. She emerged as Korea's leading art dealer by single-mindedly pursuing a career as an "art merchant," while operat-

ing the nation's first commercial gallery, the Gallery Hyundai, for the last 30 years.

With a discerning eye and unwavering confidence, she selected and sold countless works of local artists. Korea's leading art dealer, Park has been nurturing Korean art both spiritually and materially, with several hundreds of artists displaying their works at her gallery.

As evidenced by the exhibition From Park Soo-keun to Paik Nam June, almost every major artist in Korea, including Park Soo-keun, who is known as the "people's artist," Lee Joong-sub, Kim Whanki and the world-renowned videoartist Paik Nam June, went on to ~njoy success and even stardom after showing 12

their works at Gallery Hyundai.

At a time when there were essentially no other legitimate art galleries in Korea, the contributions of Park in building a foundation for Korean commercial art have truly been invaluable. To date, the Gallery Hyundai has organized more than 300 exhibitions. It also helped to create a boom in art exhibitions by organizing and holding noteworthy exhibitions.

The exhibitions of Lee Joong-sub, Chun Kyung-ja and Park Soo-keun even became hot social topics, attracting an endless line of visitors ranging from young students to adults. Beginning with an exhibition of Joan Mira (1893-1974) in 1981, the Gallery Hyundai has also introduced critically acclaimed foreign artists, including Marc Chagall and Henry Moot:e, thereby helping to satisfy the desire of art enthusiasts who sought easier access to the works of artists from abroad. The Gallery Hyundai has indeed contributed much to helping the general public :regard art as an intimate part of their life.

It is easy to confirm that the Gallery Hyundai is synonymous with the development ef Korean art and artists just by looking at the list of artists who presented their works in the recent exhibition that was held to commemorate the gallery's 30th anniversary. The list is a lengthy one that includes almost every one of Korea's leading artists: Kim Whanki, Kim In-soong, Kim Heung-su, Kim Jong-hak, Kwon Ok-yeon, Nam Kwan, To Sang-bong, Moon Hak-jin, Park Soo-keun, Park Ko-suk, Byun Chong-ha, Lee Joong-sub, Lee Dai-won, Lee Man-ik, Yim Jik-soon, Oh Chi-ho, Yoo Youngkuk, Yun Jung-sik, Chang Ucchin, Choi Young-lim, Choi Wook-kyung, Hwang Yun-soo, Kim Ki-<:hang, Pyon Kwan-sik, Lee Sang-beom, Lee Eung-ro, Chang Woo Soung, and Chun Kyung-ja. Recently, the gallery also held a prominent exhibition of abstract art entitled "Light and Movement of Abstract Art of the 20th Century." The renowned French art dealer Denise Rene and France's Pompidou Center organized the exhibi-

tion. Members of Park Myung Ja's family are current! y managing the Gallery Hyundai. Park has shown that an art gallery is not for the exclusive enjoyment of a special class, but a part of our everyday life.

In comparison, Lee Ho-jae, 47, proprietor of the Gana Gallery, worked from early on to support and promote Korean artists not only in Korea, but also abroad.

He is a legendary art dealer, who began his career as the owner of a small gallery in the late 1970s. Lee proved to be a shrewd businessman who went on to amass tens of billions of won in personal assets, and as such is among the most successful and influential individuals in the local art sector today. Thanks to his keen business sense, he diversified into a variety of areas, including a shop selling arts and crafts at affordable pric~ and an art auction house.

Advancing beyond the rudimentary gallery management method of consignment sales, he became a professional art dealer by adopting a highly aggressive management style. He held exhibitions of many distinguished American and European artists, including French Impressionists, and at the same time, passionately sought to discover and support talented newcomer Korean artists. He rapidly established himself as Korea's most progressive and influential art dealer by sponsoring or selling the works of artists with only marginal commercial value or those of popular art schools that other galleries would not even look at In addition to organizing exhibitions, Lee was involved with environmental protection projects, publishing activities and art and crafts shops. Above all, the Gana Gallery has spared no efforts for the advancement of Korea's art culture and the internationalization of Korean artists.

It also opened the Gana Beau Bourg gallery in Paris. By operating a large-scale gallery in Paris, a venture that even the local people find challenging, he continues to dedicate himself to the promotion and international exchange of Korean art.

On the domestic front, the gallery offers studio facilities to artists so that they can fully concentrate on their artistic pursuits without the pressure of financial concerns. The Gana Cultural Training Center, equipped with not only studios but also recreational facilities, is part of such efforts. On the global fron~ Lee established an affiliation with Cite Internationale des Attes, an institution on the banks of the Seine that makes available studio space for use by visiting foreign artists, to enable Korean artists to personally experience international art trends. Lee also launched Gana Art, a bimonthly magazine that, although no longer being published, helped to expand the social realm of art, in addition to publishing books on art to broaden the public and corporate sectOI0S interest in art Lee developed a multipurpose cultural complex that is unique not only in Korea but in foreign countries as well.

He has pursued the kind of projects that help artistic activities to become a part of everyday life, such as the opening of a printmaking shop to popularize exceptional works of art He has also pursued environmental development projects to help ensure a pleasant urban environment. Lee also opened the Insa Art Center, an extension of the Gana Gallery (headed by Lee Ok-kyung) in Insa-dong, _.., which was designed by the worldrenowned French architect Jean-Michel Wilmotte. This art center is helping to usher in a new era of culture by staging a variety of exhibitions, lectures, and cultural events.

The Gana Gallery is Korea's largest commercial gallery in terms of scale and scope of business. It was practically the only gallery in the country that expanded its business since Korea's 1997-1998 financial crisis. Lee opened Korea's first art auction house, Seoul Auction, as well as the nation's first Internet art portal site, ganaartcom, thus establishing itself as a truly multidimensional art enterprise in Korea.

During the 1980s when the nation's

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fledgling art community was experiencing serious difficulty, Lee donated about 200 paintings to municipal art museums.

He then published the works as a catalogue entitled Realism of the 1980s, as a reference source. Lee is much more than an art dealer; he is a paragon for those involved in att.

At a time when France-based Korean artists were experiencing financial difficulties, Lee bought their paintings and also opened a gallery in Paris. A true pioneer, he has devoted himself to introducing Korean artists to the world. To acknowledge these dedicated efforts, the

The Insa Art Center is at the fore of popularizing and energizing Korean art by supporting artists and promoting craft works. Within this art complex is a space managed by the Korean Culture and Arts Foundation dedicated to the discovery, support, and display of the works of innovative young artists. A part of the center is also reserved for craft exhibitions and several workshops intended to familiarize Koreans with the crafts culture. By offering multifaceted cultural programs immersed with the fragrance of classic and contemporary sensibilities, the Insa Art Center aspires to "pursue not only traditional and modern sensibilities, but also harmony with the future." In line with these efforts, the art ce ~ ter offers programs aimed at

French government, which imposes strict criteria when assessing a person's artistic and cultural contributions, honored him with a cultural medal.

enhancing the public's understanding of modern art, including programs for children through the Children's Art Academy, as well as lectures on Oriental

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art, art appreciation and appraisal, and auctions and art collections. An open-air performance area for various cultural events is another notable feature of the art center.

Countless artists have shown or are continuing to show their works at the Insa Art Center. They include Choi Jongtae, Ko Young-hoon, Kwun Sun-cheol, Kim Byung-jong, Im Ok-sang, Lee Jongsang, Lee Eung-ro, Kim Hong-soo, Oh Sufan, Hwang Chang-bae, Hong Sung-dam and Lee Wal-chong. The numerous exhibitions that the gallery has held include exhibitions of Western contemporary art and contemporary art for families, an exhibition titled "Donggangbyeolggok," and an exhibition of French Normandy Impressionists.

Recently, Lee Ho-jae received appro:ral for handling the management of copyrighted consigned art works.

The art center's data room is thus currently protecting the cop yright of about 200 artists in Korea.

Another gallery worthy of note is the Kukje Gallery. Among the Korean artists who have held exhibitions at the Kukje Gallery are Kwak Hoon, Kim Keun-joong, Kim Tschoon-su, Moon Beom, Park Seo-bo, Yuk Geunbyeong, Rhee Ki-bong, Yi Bul, Lee U-fan, Chun Kwang-young, Cho DiJCk-hyun, Choi Jae-eun, Cody Choi, Hong Seunghye, and Hwang Yong-yop. The works of many world-renowned artists have also been exhibited at the galleryAnselm Kiefer, Fran!< Stella, Sam Francis, Donald Judd, Ellsworth Kelly, Jonathan Borofsky, Cy Twombly, Ed Ruscha, Kiki Smith, Helen Frankenthaler, and Anthony Caro among others. Thus, the Kukje Gallery was able to join the ranks of Korea's leading galleries in a relatively short time. Its curator, Park Kyung-mee,

has played a key role in this achievement.

The Gallery Sabina in Insa-dong, owned by Lee Sabina, 43, boasts the most creative exhibition space in Seoul. Her refreshing exhibitions based on ingenious ideas are the talk of the art circles, such as the showings Paintings at Barbers, Kisses, The Weather Forecast, and Money, Money, Money.

The author of paperback editions titled Story of Galleries and Picture Books That Make You Sma r~ Lee Sabina ¡ is currently enjoying success as one of the most popular authors in the art sec- tor, having published a book filled with the "little and big anecdotes that take place from the time a painting leaves the hands of the artist, is shown in a place called a gallery, and meets its new owner." An art major, Lee opened the gallery only five years ago in 1996.

Surprisingly, this founder of the most vibrant gallery in -Insa-dong used to work as a television producer. After . working for about six years at the MBC bureau in Mokpo, she decided she wanted to become an artist. She then went to Bulgaria where she received a master's degree from the National Academy of Arts in Sofia. The Gallery Sabina is where artists are most eager to show their .~ works, thanks to its innovative and popular exhibitions.

Although the Gallery Sabina has only a brief history, it is an exceptional gallery that is helping to upgrade the overall quality standard of Insa-dong by staging exhibitions that generate much public interest. For instance, it organized a special exhibition for children during summer vacation. Thanks to its exhibitions designed to satisfy the specific and diverse demands of the public, the gallery has succeeded in attracting the interest of the art sector and the media ever since its founding.

The Gallery Sabina is the most noteworthy exhibition site in Insa-dong, according to "Selection of 104 Cultural Places of Note in Insa-dong." A critic even notes: "There would be no fun in com-

ing to Insa-dong were it not for Sabina."

Almost every exhibition held at the gallery receives special attention from the media, as a result of its highly creative planning and execution. The No Cut Exhibition, the most recent exhibition to come under the media spotlight, once again demonstrated Sabina's masterful planning skills. Consequently, the gallery is able to enjoy success even though the majority of the artists showing their works at the gallery have relatively limited commercial value. Among the artists who have exhibited at the Gallery Sabina are Park Bul-dong, Song Pil-yong, Kim Eul, Ahn Chang-hong, Lee

to see and an enjoyable experience for school students. The Gallery Sabina is one of the rare galleries that displays the price of art works to help the general public better understand details of the art world.

As such, the flow of Korea's art community has proceeded based on an inseparable relationship with galleries.

But the galleries are still small in scale, and thus it is realistic to look forward to their playing the kind of role of their counterparts in the United States or Europe. Although under the current circumstances it may be unavoidable for the galleries to organize exhibitions that

Heung-deok, Jung Bok-soo, Sung Donghun and Won Hae-yeon.

One of the gallery's first exhibitions was Paintings That Make You Smart, which coincided with the publication of the book, Picture Books That Make You Smart. The criteria for selecting the works for this exhibition were that they had to be funny and interesting for children, of outstanding artistry, and help nurture the power of imagination and creative thinking. Based on a unique approach that no one had ever attempted before, the exhibition offered plenty

focus more on popular artists rather than younger, lesser-known artists and to cqncentrate on a specific group of artists, it is necessary for the leading galleries to embrace the diverse forms of contemporary art in order to ensure their further development. To promote the sound development of Korean art, galleries have to more actively accommodate and introduce new artistic trends. Whereas producing quality works is the task of artists, showing and introducing art once it leaves a studio is the duty of galleries. + 15

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• KOREA'S ART GALLERIES

Ho-Am Art Gallery

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KimMi-ok Freelance Writer

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he Ho-Am Art Gallery is located on the first floor of the headquarters building of the JoongAng Ilbo at Soonhwadong, Jung-gu, Seoul. The gallery was established in September 1984 to stin1ulate the general public's interest in art by introducing recent trends in modern art in Korea and abroad Its convenient location, situated at the center of downtown Seoul, has contributed much to its success. Since its opening, the Ho-Am

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Art Gallery has annually held six to seven special exhibitions of both Korean and international art. The HoAm Att Gallery has become a popular attraction for the general public as well as sti.1dents seeking to learn about and enjoy art The gallery includes exhibition halls as· well as a lounge, video showroom, and gift shop, all equipped with temperatu·i·ej humidity control systems and unobtrusive security devices that create

a pleasant viewing environment.

Visitors can purchase items made from traditional materials that reflect modern aesthetics as well as replicas of the art works shown at special exhibitions.

Being well aware of the need to promote and develop a modern art culture in Korea, the Samsung Foundation of Culture established the Samsung Museum as a separate foundation entity. The separation of the Ho-Am Art Gallery and the modern art it promotes

has enabled the Ho-Am Art Gallery to establish itself as a museum specializing in modern art, while the Ho-Am Art Museum located in Yongin, Gyeonggido province, has proceeded to develop itself as a center for traditional and ancient Korean art The Samsung Museum presents special exhibitions featming the art of the -20th century as well as exhibitions designed to identify future art trends of the 21st century. The Ho-Am Art Gallery and the Rodin Gallery, which is also part of Samsung Museum, include permanent exhibitions intended to help familiarize the public with modern art and that of the past The gallery's first exhibition of the new millennium was The Worlds of Paik Nam June, which presented the works of world-renowned video artist Paik Nam June. It was held at the Hoi Am Art Gallei-y, Rodin Gallery, and the Fountain Plaza in front of the Samsung Plaza A retrospective exhibition covering 40 years of Paik's illustrious cai¡eer, it 1

was the largest exhibition ever held in Korea. .: Since"'" its opening in 1984, the Ho-Am Art Gaiiery has staged numerous exhibitionS, starting with the Art Nouveau Glass Exhibition in October that year, 100 Years of Korean Folk Painting (1986), Modern Art Masterpiece

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Exhibition (1992), 20 Years of Modern Art (1994), and Masterpieces from the Guggenheim Museum (1996), in addition to Chagall Exhibition, The Great Goryeo Exhibition, Chun Kyung-ja i Exhibition, Park Soo-keun Exhibition, and Korean Art Fair and Korean Artists.

A variety of educational programs for the general public, including lectures on exhibitions, workshops for children, audio guides, gallery classes, and lectures, are offered to promote a better understanding of art.

Masterpieces of Buncheong Ware ITThe Hidden Beauty of Korea, a followup to the Masterpieces of Buncheong Ware I exhibition held in 1993, was presented from August to October this year. It exhibited masterpieces of the past alongside works of modern art to present contrasting perspectives. + 1

Inside the Ho-Am Art Gallety (above, opposite page) and its Masterpieces of Buncheong Ware exhibition (below)

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â&#x20AC;˘ KOREA'S ART GALLERIES

Musee Whanki Park}ang-min Curator, Musee Whanki

he Musee Whanki was built in 1992 by the Whanki Foundation which Kim HyangAn, the artist's wife, established after his death in 1974. The inspiration for constructing this gallery was the retrospective exhibition Kim Whanki-Ten Years in New York, held at the Paris National Formative Arts Center in 1987.

A forerunner of Korean modern art, Kim Whanki (1913-1974) experimented

with abstract art from the 1930s. By integrating Korea's natural beauty into his art from the 1950s, Kim Whanki established himself as one of the most promito successfully assimilate the nent ~rtis Kor~n psyche in a modern art form.

The Musee Whanki, established for the_ purpose of preserving and exhibiting his works of art and conducting res~ch, is the embodiment of what he had 'hoped to develop during his lifetime-a modern art gallery. Musee

Whanki was designed by Woo Kyu Seung, an architect and friend of the family who resides in Boston.

Dominique Bozo, the then curator of , the Pompidou Center in Paris and dose friend of Kim HyangAn, also provided input during the design process. .

The Musee Whanki joins the ranks of att galleries built to commemorate a specific artist such as the Picasso Art Gallery and the Matisse Art Gallery.

Musee Whanki, however, does not limit

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itself to Kim Whanki's art world. The gallery also plans and holds exhibitions to promote the latest developments in modern art, thereby functioning as an exhibition hall as well.

The gallery presents special exhibitions of young a1tists two or three times a year in its annex In addition, it hosts a valiety of concerts, lectures, and perfor. mances throughout the year. It is also involved in a number of international exchange programs and contributes to the advancement of modern a1t by stag-

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ing an international biennale The gallery houses some ~0 works

by Kim Whanki including many items completed during his New York era.

The gallery holds an exhibition of Kim's work once or twice a year to present his mt world from various perspectives.

Visitors can also enjoy art from the gallery's cafeteria that looks out onto Buam-dong valley of Mt. Bukaksan.

Visitors can purchase scarves, neckties and mementos featuring the art of Kim Whanki. +

The Musee Whanki was built for the preservation, exhibition and study of the works of artist Kim Whanki (opposite page).

Inside and outside the Musee Whanki in Buam-dong,Jongno-gu (above right, below)

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â&#x20AC;˘ KOREA'S ART GALLERIES

Hakgojae KongJu-hyung Art Critic/Curator, Art Space Korea

efitting its name, "a house learning the old," Hakgojae was founded on the ideal of "knowing the old and pursuing the new." It consists of the Hakgojae Gallery, Art Space Seoul, Art Consulting Seoul, and Hakgojae Publishing.

The Hakgojae Gallery, which opened in Insa-dong in 1988, has focused on o!ganizing a series of wellplanned exhibitions to display traditional art works normally inaccessible to the general public. These have included Paintings and Calligraphic Works by 19th-Century Literati, Unsigned Paintings, Paintings from the Late Joseon Dynasty, Calligraphy of the MidJoseon Dynasty-From Toege to King Jeongjo, Paintings and Writings of the Late Joseon Dynasty-From King Injo to King Jeongjo, and Ae~thics of Meeting and Parting-Paintings of Fraternity

Meetings and Poems of Farewell. The gallery has also exhibited the works of such representative artists of the 1980s as Kang Yo-bae, Kim Jeong-heon, Min Jeong-gi, Sin Yeong-bok, Sin Hak-cheol, 0 Ytm, Lee Jong-gu, and Lee Cheol-su.

Today, it seeks to present the works of outstanding Korean artists as well as traditional paintings and calligraphy works based on diverse themes.

Ever striving to fulfill its ideal of "learning the old and creating the new," Hakgojae opened the Art Space Seoul gallery in Sogyeok-dong in 1996. This gallery, \Vhich faces Gyeongbokgung Palace, is situated within a building modeled after a traditional Korean house. In particular, this gallery is known for featuring a diverse range of contemporary Korean at1. The juxtaposition of its traditional Korean housing structure and contemporary art offers

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visitors to the gallery a unique experience. The Le Corbusier Exhibition, Jene Highstein Exhibition, Tim Lowly Exhibition, Exhibition of Minimalism as a Landscape, The Seeding of Light-Yun Suk-nam Exhibition, Kim Won-soak's Exhibition of Flowing to Happiness, and Lee Sao-hong-Inside Outside Interside are among the exhibitions that have clearly embodied the primary objectives of Art Space Seoul. While presenting a diverse range of contemporary ar~ Art Space Seoul also strives to discover young talented artists, with the most prominent discovery being Kang Ikjung whose works were featured in the Korean Gallery at the 1997 Venice Biennale.

Art Consulting Seoul's core business involves the planning of large-scale exhibitions and art events. Since its establishment in 1996, the company has organized a number of events that have made ai1 more accessible to the general public including the Seoul Metropolitan Government's Seoul in Media-Lumina of Century, Art Vision & City Vision, which featured the use of electronic signboards, Exhibition of Dialogue/Space/Sculpture, which was held at the Olympic Sculpture Park, and Kim's Open Art Festival, which used the large discount store Kim's Club as the exhibition venue. It is currently planning an exhibition titled "Ilju Art House," which will be staged within the Hungkuk Life Insurance Building.

Meanwhile, the Subway Project, which

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uses Subway Line No. 7 as the exhibition venue, is being widely enjoyed as well.

Since its establishment in 1992, Hakgojae Publishing, has mainly published books on humanities and culture, with a goal of creating the classics of this era. Some of the notable works it has published include the Complete Warks of Choi Sun u, a collection of writings by Choi Sunu (sobriquet Hyegok), a former curator of the National Museum of Korea, Leaning Against d1e Entasis Pillar of dJe Mitayus Hall, Traditional Painting of Korea by Lee Dong-ju, and Think about joseon by Muneyoshi Yanagi. Among its steady sellers are The Paintings in My HeartLee Ju-han's Happy Reading of Paintings

by Lee Ju-hon, curator of Art Space Seoul, Fifty Days of Experiencing European Art Musem~ II, and Myd1s Read through Paintings, all of which are discourses on paintings. Recently, as a result of the publishing house's efforts to establish a common ground between artand publishing, it published A Three Thousand Year History of Chinese Painting, Owon ]ang Seung-eop, and jang Wook-jin Catalogue Raisonne As such, the Hakgojae Gallery, Art Space Seoul, Art Consulting Seoul, and Hakgojae Publishing have each created their own image based on their respective mission. However, the forte of Hakgojae is not the individual successes of its gallery, consulting and publishing businesses, but rather their operation as an integrated system wifu complementary components. The 21st century is often called a century of culture and an era of avant-garde fusion. As such, Hakgojae will remain dedicated to its role of promoting the brilliant culture of ancient Koreans and introducing contemporary Korean art, while continuing to search for productive means to satisfy the demands of the times. + Art Space Seoul gallery in Sogyeok-dong (left) Hakgojae G.illecy in Insa-dong (right) 21

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• KOREA'S ART GALLERIES

Gana Art Center Jun Seung-bo Independent Curator

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roceed· toward the Bugak Tunnel at Segumjeong then turn left up a hill in front of the Olympia Hotel About 100 meters up the hill are two modern buildings on the right The white building is the Gana Art Center while the blue one is the Seoul Auction.

Notwithstanding its contemporary appearance, the Gana Art Center, which Mt. Bukhansan surrounds like a folding screen, is integrated into the scenery like a huge rock or peak of Mt. Bukhansan. The innovative design of French architect Jean-Michel Wilmotte

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created by the architecture and surrounding scenery is deeply rooted in the gallery's structural elegance as well as the efficiency of its architectural design.

is truly remarkable in the way in which the building was constructed without altering the natural slope of the site.

Taking in the views at the coffee shop on the top floor of the building, it is hard to believe that the gallery is just a 10-minute drive from the center of Seoul Enjoying the natural scenery surrounding the gallery customarily follows a viewing of the exhibitions.

Visitors can lose themselves in thought without realizing how much time has gone by.

The unique sensation created by the architecture and surrounding scenery is

! An exhibition of bojagi (patchwork wrapping cloths) by Kim Hyeon-hui at the Forum Space of the Gana Art Center

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deeply rooted in the gallety's structural elegance as well as the efficiency of its architectural design. The buildings that house att gallelies are often as much an object of appreciation as the works of art they display. The Guggenheim Museum Bilbao is a good example.

Focusing excessively on the at-chitecture of a museum, however, will undoubtedly prove a distraction from the core issue since architecture loses its meaning altogether if not for its utility and function. A pure form of appreciation involves reflecting upon the physical processes related to the arrangement and building of the structure. The Gana Art Center satisfies this standard.

The opened gate at the entrance hall leads to a wide bead-pattern glass window through which the center squat·e can be seen. An outdoor performance hall that can seat 300 is situated at the center of the art complex where art exhibitions, music concerts, fashion shows, dance performances, and media events are held. The hall is transformed

setting, while at the Gana Print Studio into an outdoor cafe when no events are scheduled. With a few tables and on the lower level, which is open to the chairs here and there, it seems to reflect public, printmaking activities can be the true nature of the Gana Art Center, observed.

Ville, a restaurant inside the Gana Art which does not exhibit works of art in a rigid manner.

Center, is another attraction. Its chic inteThe Gana Art Center includes three rior and tempting food are pleasing to exhibition halls. A 330-square-meter exhithe eyes as well as the tastebuds. bition hall #3, two-story exhibition halls Meanwhile, the Motte cafe on the roof #1 and #z spanning 198 square meters, of the Seoul Auction building, is a comlounge, and classroom are ideally bination of gallery and cafe featuring a arranged throughout the structure, takromantic atmosphere. Its large glass wining full advantage as the largest art cendows and outside terrace allow visitors ter in Korea in terms of its 200-meter to enjoy, from indoors as well as outwall length. The Gana Art Center has ' doors, the scenery of Pyungchang-dong hosted over 500 exhibitions of Korean that sprawls out beneath Mt. Bukhansan. and foreign artists, which represents a The first floor of the Seoul Auction noteworthy accomplishment. In particuhouses an exhibition hall while the sec- ' lar, the Gana Art Shop is a delight to ond floor is home to the Seoul Auction offices. Located amid a romantic backvisit where original craft works are on sale. At the Gana Arts and Craft drop, this is an ideal place to relax. and Exhibition Hall visitors can appreciate enjoy art and nature. The Gana Art Korean traditional crafts in a modern Center has been increasingly drawing attention from art enthusiasts over the past three years as a "Stage for multi-att and cultural activities." + 1

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• KOREA'S ART GALLERIES

Insa Art Center Yoon]oung-mi Curator, Insa Art Center

he glass-walled Insa Art Center is a prominent structure in the Insa-dong area of Jongno. A work of art itself, the Insa Art Center was designed by Jean-Michel Willmotte, the designer of the Incheon International Airport.

Willmotte used China Black and tempered gla&s to allow in natural light and create a feeling of spaciousness. Despite its brief history (the center opened in May 2000), the Insa Art Center has already become one of the leading cu1·tural centers, along with the Gana Art Center and Auction House in Pyeongchang-dong.

The basement of the six-story structure houses a performance hall, exh.ibi-

·The interior and exterior of the Insa Art Center 24

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tion hall and cafeteria where visitors can meet and spend time with artists. A shop selling works of art is located on the first floor while there are galleries on the second and third floors where exhibitions of a variety of art genres are held. The fmnth and fifth floors are for the exhibition and sale of high:end art There is also a terrace area that looks out at Mts. Inwangsan and Bukaksan where visitors can relax. The building elevator is enclosed in glass, allowing ' visitors to view the surrounding neighborhood.

The Insa Art Center seeks to become an Insa-dong landmark in the world of art by successfully combining elements of traditional and modern art. It has

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already held a number of exhibitions including the Lee Sang-hyun Lee Exhibition, which marked its opening, and exhibitions by Chun Sung-woo, Kwun Sun-cheol, Han Jin-sub and An Zong-de. In addition, it has presented special exhibitions sponsored by the Korea Culture and Arts Foundation and the Insa Art Space, designed to introduce and pr~mote new artists and their experimental works. It also operates the exhibition halls and distribution center of the Korean Arts and Craft Foundation in an effort to support tra-

lnsa Art Center operates the exhibition halls and distribution center of the Korean Arts and Craft Foundation in an effort to support traditional arts and crafts. Meanwhile, items available at the Gana I

Art Shop strive to incorporate art into everyday life. ditional arts and craft. Meanwhile, items available at the Gana Att Shop strive to incorporate art into everyday life.

The exhibition hall in the basement of the Insa Art Center is made available to talented artists regardless of their experience or renown, both individuals and groups, from all regions of the country. Established artists active in the field of Korean modern art are invited to show their art works in the exhibition hall on the second floor. The art shop on the first floor offers visitors the opportunity to appreciate and to purchase Gana-brand works featuring a harmony of traditional Korean beauty and refined modern artistry.

The Insa Art Center is open from 10:00 a.m. until 7:00 p.m Special exhibitions ar·e held every Wednesdays under a particular theme that changes every other week + -·············--···-····-~

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• KOREA'S ART GALLERIES

Gallery Hyundai KangJae-hyun Manager, Gallery Hyundai

pened ·30 years ago on April 4, 1970 in Insa-dong, Jongnogu, Seoul Hyundai Art Gallery was the first gallery in Korea to introduce leading Korean artists such as Park Soo-keun, Lee Joongsub, Kim Whan-ki, Chang Ucchin, Chun

Kyung-ja, Lee Eung-ro, Nam Kwan, Paik Nam June, Yu Young-kuk, Kim Kichang and Kim Tschang-yeul. At a time when no other establishments engaged in th ~ business of commercial art, the gallery opened a new era for Korean artists with a space dedicated to the

exhibition of art works ranging from traditional to modern art.

The gallery began publishing Hwarang, an art magazine, in September 1973. For the following 20 years, the magazine served to disseminate Korean art information, promote art journalism, and broaden the horizon ~ . of art enthusiasts. " ; Beginning with an exhibition of masterpieces by Joan Mira in March 1981, the gallery has introduced the works of such prominent foreign artists as Marc Chagall (1981), Henry Moore ; (1983), Soto (1988), Christo (1992), and Basquiat (1997) as well as special exhibitions like the Spirit of Fluxus (1993). In 1987 it became the first Korean gallery to participate in the Chicago International Art Exposition. It has since participated regularly in the Basel Art Fair, Koln Alt Fair, FIAC of Paris, LA Alt Fair, and NICAF of Japan, all the while keeping an eye on art trends around the world and introducifl:g Korean artists to the world.

The gallery relocated from Insa-dong to a new building located in front of the East Gate of Gyeongbokgung Palace (122 Sagan-dong) in 1975. In 1987, it moved again to a new exhibition space at 80 Sagan-dong to commemorate its 20 years in the att business and changed its name to Gallery Hyundai.

Moreover, after previously having held exhibitions of mainly well-established or deceased artists, it began to concen-

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trate on holding special exhibitions to introduce new artists.

The building, which integrates modern and traditional architecture, was designed by architect Bae Byung-kil.

The roof resembles that of a traditional Korean house while the structure's aluminum-panel exterior conveys a modern look It includes a basement level and four floqrs above ground. The exhibition hall on the basement level displays experimental works by young artists. Works of veteran artists are presented in the exhibition areas on the first and second floors while the third floor is for permanent exhibitions. The top floor houses a cafe pavilion, enclosed with full-length windows, where visitors can relax and enjoy the view of Gyeongbokgung Palace as well as Inwangsan and Bugaksan mountains.

The structure was awarded a bronze prize for its architectural design by the Seoul Metropolitan Government in 1996.

The concept of a window gallery was introduced to utilize the gallery's show windows as a separate exhibition space during the building's renovation in 1995. Window galleries, commonly seen overseas including the United States, is another means of bringing art to the general public. Window displays continue to attract passersby even when the gallery is closed. The art shop on the first floor offers art and prints of renowned artists as well as posters, cards, ceramics, and accessories featuring the works of Lee Joong-sub, Kim Whanki, Park Soo-keun, Chun Kyung-ja, Hwang Kyu-bail, Chang Ucchin, and Yu Young-kuk. The shop also carries domestic and foreign art books, monthly publications, schedules of special exhibitions held by the Gallery Hyundai, and books about major artists. +

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The Gallery Hyundai in Sagan-dong, Jongno-gu (right) The permanent exhibition rooms of the Gallery Hyundai (opposite page)

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Total Museum Noh]oon-eui Director, Total Museum

he Total Museum is a multifaceted cultural complex designed to create a "broad and indepth communication forum" across a range of artistic disciplines. In addition to exhibitions, it hosts a variety of events including concerts, lectures, seminars and other artistic programs.

The Total Open-Air Museum opened in jangheung in October 1984 as Korea's first private outdoor sculpture museum. It is owned and operated

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by Total Design, a company that focuses on creating designs that are highlighted by naturalness, as opposed to those which overly emphasize the functionality, professionalism and rationality· that can alienate people. The Total Open-Air Museum features a large collection of sculptures and is situated on a site with an ideal setting for revealing the total visual dynamism of the works. The museum's collection includes high-quality paintings and

sculptures, which are exhibited in the indoor display halls on special occa- ' sions. For the public, the museum offers education and relaxation amid a pastoral setting, while for artists, it represents a cultural venue where they can express their creativity. · Due to the outdoor museum's space limitations and rather remote location, a new complex was opened in Seoul's Pyeongchang-dong area to meet the demand for additional space for the dis1

play of innovative artworks. The Jangheung complex has focused on contemporary art, staging photography and video art shows since the 1980s while introducing unknown artists such as Tony Cragg and Thomas Ruff, who are now widely acclaimed Since 1993, the Pyeongchang-dong complex has been fulfilling its role as a diverse cul-tural venue,. offering courses in art, music history and the history of architecur~, along with hosting the TAC, or Total Atts Creo, a monthly program of artistic stage performances.

In terms of scale; the Total Open-Air Museum includes an outdoor exhibition area of 16,500 square meters, indoor exhibition space of 660 square meters, and amphitheater for staging various performances. There is also a cafe, Neowajip, where visitors can enjoy refreshments. The Pyeongchang-dong complex features two exhibition halls and an archives, guest room, amphitheater and music room. The music room , and exhibition halls are equipped with state-of-the-art facilities.

The Total Museum is different from other museums in its efforts to accommodate all artistic fields. Recently, museums in Korea have been increasingly utilizing their facilities for concerts and art programs, but the Total Museum has pioneered this trend from early on. The Total Museum Academy, a program that stresses the importance of understanding and learning about culture, will celebrate its lOth anniversary next year. The courses offered include History of Contemporary Art, Masters of Contemporary Art, Trends and Traits of Contemporary Art, Composers and Their Music and Understanding Architecture-all quite specialized with high standards yet available to the general public. The museum's concerts have also set a stan! dard in organizing such programs. The Kronos Quartet has played here and Paik Nam June's echo percussion piece has been performed here as well, in

addition to John Cage's contemporary music series. The museum has also been staging contemporary music performances since 1992, including original works by Korean composers.

The Total Museum has also been presenting its Project 8 since 1996 that brings together each year four Korean artists and four contemporary artists from abroad to showcase the latest trends in contemporary art. Last year, the museum took this project a step further by launching the Web Project 8, reflecting its interest in the latest developments in Web art Each participating artist was requested to create a new work for the project, which can be viewed at www.totalmusem.org. â&#x20AC;˘ ¡

.The Total Museum of Contemporary Art in Pyeongchang-dong (right) An outdoor exhibition at the Total OpenAir Museum inJangheung (below, opposite page)

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Kul\je Gallery KimUnsoo Curator, Kukje Gallery

ince opening in 1982, in the been participating in major art events neighbOrhood of the National since 1988, stmting with the Los Angeles Folk Museum and other estabArt Fair. Since then, it has participated in lished galleries, the Kukje the Art Basel, the most noteworthy modern and contemporary art ¡event Gallery has distinguished itself as an international art galley by staging exhithat bas been held annually in Basel, bitions of prominent international a1tists Switzerland, for the past 32 years. To such as Helen Frankenthaler, Sam introduce Korean artists whose works Francis, Jim Dine, Frank Stella, Robert are- relatively unknown to the internaMangold, Anthony Caro, Cy Twombly, ' tiona! a1t community, the Kukje Gallery _Ed Ruscha, Anselm Kiefer, and Joseph ofte_n shows their works alongside The Kukje Gallery in Sogyeok-dong, Jongno-gu

Beuys. Such exhibitions are especially meaningful since they often represent the only opportunity for most Koreans to view the works of world-renowned contemporary artists without going abroad. In organizing such exhibitions, the Kukje Gallery works directly with the individual mtists as well as their galleries and dealers worldwide, thereby establishing vital networks for information exchange and collaboration.

In its efforts to promote Korean artists abroad, the Kukje Gallery has 30

those of well-known international artists. In doing so, the Korean m-tists as well as the gallery enjoy broad exposure while receiving much attention from foreign art circles. The gallery also promotes Korean artists through noncommercial venues, using an extensive network of museum curators and critics worldwide. Many of the Korean

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artists who have shown their works in conjunction with the Kukje Gallery have gone on to participate in special exhibitions at international biennials including the Venice Biennale, Lyon Biennale and Kwangju Biennale. These artists have also been invited by notable art museums abroad to participate in group shows as well as one-person exhibitions.

The Kukje Gallery has played and will continue to play a critical role in developing the domestic a1t market and promoting Korean artists abroad while also raising the Koi¡ean public's awareness of contemporary a1t The gallery is currently undergoing a major expansion, constructing a new exhibition space

behind its existing building. The twostory building is scheduled to open in November with an inaugural show of recent works by Anselm Kiefer who had a previous show at Kukje in 1995.

The new exhibition space includes a combined floor space of 240 square meters, with the ceiling height of the ground floor (4 meters) and the second floor (2 meters) being ample enough to

accommodate large-scale works andl installations. The original building houses a cafe and restaurant which have gained a reputation for authentic French and Italian cuisine. The eateries complement the gallery activities by providing a delightful place of re.spite for visitors and gathering place for artists, collectors and dealers. With the 20th anniversary of the founding of Kukje coming up in 2002, the gallery continues to vigorously pursue its original goal of promoting the latest trends in Korean and international contemporary art +

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• KOREA'S ART GALLERIES

Galerie Bhak JungHoon Curator, Galerie Bhak

irst opened in May 1993 in Cheongdam-dong, Gangnam-gu, Seou~ the Galetie Bhak has distinguished itself by playing a major role in the development of commercial Korean art with its exhibitions of works by talented new artists and the creativity of its art events.

In June 1997, the gallery moved to its current locatiGn in a modern two-story structure in Cheongdam-dong. In addition to the 165-squar·e-meter main exhi-

bition hall on the first level and 66squar·e-meter permanent exhibition hall on the second, it features an outdoor exhibition area of approximately 330 square meters.

Since opening, the gallery has breathed new life into Korea's art scene by mtroducing the works of newcomer artiSts in their thirties and forties from home and abroad, staging some 20 invitational exhibitions annually and participating in numerous att events in Korea

and abroad to promote Korean art. The gallery has also sought to keep pace with the ever-changing art scene by presenting well-organized exhibitions aimed at enhancing the public's understanding of international art trends.

The gallery mainly stages exhibitions of modern art including sculpture, painting, photography, and video art that feature the works of established artists as well as young artists experimenting with new ideas. Since 1995, the

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gallery has annually conducted the exhibition with the Kim Foster Gallery of New York, and For the Love of Our Bhak Young Duk New Artist Contest Country, An Exhibition of Art Works to discover and foster new artists. by 50 Artists, with art works donated The gallery's major exhibitions by various artists or galleries and the include events featuring groups of sale proceeds going to the national treaartists such as Diversity in Thought and sury. Exhibitions by individual artists Experience, which was launched in 1993, Expectation and Hope, presenting include Paik Nam June's 95 Art and works recommended by major critics, Communication in 1995 and Beyond the Century in 20~ In the Nam.e of Peace-111 Artists as well as exhibiExhibition, a fund-raising event for ' tions by Lee Young-hak, Cho Sungmook, Hwang Ho-sup, Yun Hyongworld peace with proceeds from the sale of works of att donated by artists keun, Moon In-soo, Eric Orr, Moon going to the IAEA, The Furniture Atts, Beorn, Park Seo-bo, Chang Hwa-jin, Kim Art Works by Two Dutch Artists, an Chang-young, Yun Myung-ro, Mike and exchange exhibition with the Galerie 1 Doug Starn, Ahn Sung-keum, Kim JinA'pert in Amsterdam, Art Works by Park soo, Kim Hyung-dae, Won Su-ye~ Hyun-ki, Han Man-young, Lee SarigFour New York Artists, an exchange

nam, Lee U-fan, Kim Tschang-yeul, Francoise Morel~ Kim Bong-tae, Ham Sup, Toh Yun-hee, Koo Young-mo, and Roh Jung-ran.

Serving as a bridge between the international and Korean art communities, the Galerie Bhak has also participated in prominent international events including the 1995 Chicago Art Fair, Miami Art Fair, San Francisco Art Fair, Koln Art Fair in Germany, FIAC Art Fair in France, and NICAF Art Fair in Japan to promote the works of Korean artists. The Galerie Bhak is forever striving for a more diversified portfolio of art activities to fully participate as a member of the international art community. +

The Galerie Bhak in Cheongdam-dong

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â&#x20AC;˘ KOREA'S ART GALLERIES

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Park Ryu Sook Gallery Lee}ae-yeon Curator, Park Ryu Sook Gallery

owadays, art galleries and art museums are taking on diverse roles in their efforts to promote contemporary art. The rapid changes and developments in recent years, including the increased sharing of information and exchanges between galleries and their expanded capability to collect works of ar~ have enabled the Korean public to enjoy some of the very best art in the world, and of course, that of Korea as well. In addition, several galleries have ¡introduced Korean fine art works to foreign dealers through international art expositions and events, which have opened up new opportunities for

Korean art. In light of these developments, it is evident that art galleries serve as a vital link between art museums, artists and the general public: Tqe Par~k Ryu Sook Gallery opened in Gangnam, southern Seoul, in 1983 and has since played a key role in the emergence of Gangnam as a new center of art in the capital. The gallery moyed to its present location in Cheangdam-dong in 1995. It is housed in a freestanding building whose external form expresses its function as a gallery.

This now well-known building looks as if it was built from earth, clearly distinguishing itself from the cookie-cutter, featureless concrete buildings so ubiqui-

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tous in Seoul. There is an emphasis on natural elements while its sirpple design reflects modern sensibilities.

The uniqueness of the building well reflects the operating philosophy of the Park Ryu Sook Gallery. With an ambitious goal of leading the conterpporary art scene in Korea and the world as well, the gallery has focused on introducing progressive contemporary art.

To overcome the brief history of contemporary art in Korea and insufficient cultural education and promotion which are behind the Korean public's relative lack of enthusiasm for contemporary ar~ the gallery has endeavored to introduce a variety of young artists who bring a dynamic spirit to the local art scene. In line with this, the gallery has unveiled to the public such artists as Chun Kwang-young, whose hanji (traditional mulberry paper) works explore ancient texts and the traditional packaging methods from a contemporary perspective; Lee Young-sup, whose "Excavation" series has opened up-new horizons in spatial art; Kim Kang-yong, who finds the essence of painting in shadows and has made great strides in promoting Korean hyperrealism; and Nam Tchun-mo, who uses acrylic and polyester paint in minimalist works that capture the spirit of nature. Thus the gallery is taking the lead in discovering up-and-coming artists who feature something uniquely Korean in their

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psyche, while at the same time continuing to present the works of established I veterans such as Park Seo-bo, Chung ! Chang-sup, and Kim Chong-hak who have contributed to the development of Korean modern art During the 1990s the gallery worked with numerous foreign artists in introducing the works of prominent contemporary artists to Korea. Moreover, the gallery took advantage of the latest i information technology to promote itself worldwide and keep up with I international art trends. In cooperation with leading galleries and artists from I abroad, it presented exhibitions in - I i Korea of such distinguished artists as Christo, Jennifer Bartlett, Frank Stella, Jim Dine, Mitoraj, Nigel Hall, Patrick Hughes and George Rickey. After participating in the Basel Art Fair in 1993, the gallery began to realize the impor1

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tance and potential of such international a1t events. Thereafter, it has participated in various art events including the Chicago and Koln aJt fairs in an effort to introduce Korean art not only to foreign dealers but general audiences as well. These art fairs have proved to be a valuable channel for introducing the works of Korea's best-known a1tists as well as those of newcomer a1tists while providing the general public in other countries with an opportunity to get acquainted with the recent trend of Korean contemporary art.

ContemporaJ-y art has broken down various barriers in art but a majority of the general public still seems to be at a loss in terms of an understanding or appreciation of it. As such, the Pa~¡k Ryu Sook G!l}lery has continued to organize divers ~ exhibtons based on new ideas and r.ii¡spectives in an effort to arouse

interest among the general public, and thus expand the interaction bytween the public and the art world. The gallery has also sought to reinforce the links between traditional Korean art and contemporary art through such exhibitions as that of Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910) white porcelain held in August 2000, while attempting to trace the origins of contemporary art to the past. By exploring the links between the past and the present in Korean ar~ the gallery has focused attention on such issues as identity in art and historical perspectives.

In refusing to acknowledge any limits to its artistic role, the Park Ryu Sook Gallery is constantly searching for new ways to bring art closer to the public, through cooperation with businesses, the Internet, and participation i~ art fairs. +

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F 0 C U S

2001: Year of Regional and Civic Culture Kang Shin-pyo Professor of Anthropology , Inje University

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ecently, I visited the village of Sicheon, Sancheong-gun, Gyeongsangnam-do province to attend the Seonbi Culture Festival, organized in observance of the SOOth anniversary of the birth of Nam Myung.

In conjunction with this festival, there was a conference held by the Committee for 2001 Year of Regional and Civic Culture titled "Current Issues and Alternative Proposals for the Regional Culture of Gyeongsangnam-do: On-site Surveys and Talks on Regional Culture."

It was an especially refreshing experience to be immersed in the high hills and clear air and water at the foot of Cheonwangbong peak of Mt. Jirisan, where Sancheonjae, Deoksan Seowon Confucian shrine-academy and Nam Myung's grave are all located.

An international conference on "Studies of Nam Myung and the NeoConfucian Movement in the 21st Century" was also held at the Samsung Training Center to discuss various issues related to regional culture, which presented me with the opportunity to meet many renowned scholars in this field.

In addition to these events, during this past summer I had the chance to experience some other enriching cultural activities. A week before the Seonbi Culture Festival, at the invitation of Prof. John MacAloom of the University of Chicago

36

and prof. Roger Janelli of Indiana University and his wife Dawnhee Yim Janelli, I was introduced to the unique regional and civic culture of the American Midwest. I first visited the University of Chicago's Yerkes Observatory near Lake Geneva in Wisconsin, then Conner's Prairie in Indianapolis, Indiana, an 1830s Frontierera folk village. The Yerkes Observatory was the first astronomical observatory in America built for the purpose of identifying landmarks for the building of railroads along the western frontier.

Even the fact that an observatory played a crucial role in building railroads was intriguing. Interestingly, the guide was alluding to how what was considered to be high technology in that era is now being applied to life today. Two points are worthy of note here: First, by demonstrating how the past is connected to the present to local residents and visitors, they are tempted to take a closer look at themselves; and second, by introducing the people who researched, designed, built, and developed the observatory and their life, the visitors can better appreciate their accomplishments.

The guide adeptly interacted with the visitors by interjecting various anecdotes about the characters into his narrative.

At the Conner's Prairie folk village, visitors receive a brief but insightful

Folk Art Contest (right) and Andong Mask Festival.(below) are examples of cultural events organized by regional groups.

37

introduction to American history. All the buildings had been restored to their original appearance in the 1830s- the houses, drugstore, school, blacksmith's stall, sundries shop, carpenter's shop, clothing store. And in each building, people dressed in period costumes enact everyday life as it would have been back then. When I asked if it wasn't too dark without electricity, I was told that the windows provided enough light When I asked if they were familiar with Korea, they replied that it sounded like a very distant land. I asked a boy sitting outside a house what he was doing, and he said that his parents owed the owner of that house a lot of money, so he was required to work there until the debt was repaid. When I asked how long that would take, he said he made only a few cents a day so it would probably take a very long time.

All the villagers were volunteers, who performed their roles. They had obvious38

ly done much research and were playing their roles as authentically as possible.

Their re-creation also made me realize how much unnecessary clutter we have in our lives today. Whereas the Korean Folk Village focuses on buildings and displays, Conner's Prairie focuses on the activities of daily life. It was quite impressive to see ordinary people playing their roles with so much enthusiasm.

The impression that I got while traveling through Korea's different provinces for on-site surveys and discussions on the cun;ent issues of regional culture on behalf of the Committee for 2001 Year of Regional and Civic Culture is that in every region there are many talented people who love and nurture their cultural traditions. In fact, regional and civic culture would not exist without these dedicated individuals.

A regional society is made up of peer ple from diverse backgrounds and cultural traditions. However, during the

rapid economic development and social transition of the past few decades, Korean society has discarded many of our traditional customs without even realizing it It can be difficult to find common values among strangers who happen to gather at an unfamiliar place and then live there as separate individuals.

At New Year's, Koreans invariably have high hopes. We have always had great hopes for every new year. And whenever we come to a year's end, . there is always considerable regret But that does not mean we will greet the New Year without high hopes and anticipation.

The Ministry of Culture and Tourism has been designating each year for a specific cultural field since 1991, which was the Year of Theater and Film. This was followed by the Year of Photography (1998), the Year of Architecture (1999), the Year of the Arts (2000), and the Year of Regional and

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Civic Culture (2001). This year has also been designated the Visit Korea Year locally while the U.N. has designated it the Year of International Volunteerism worldwide.

Situated on the Korean peninsula, Korea has been nurturing a unique culture for more than 5,000 years, which has enabled us to maintain a separate and distinct identity from neighboring China and Japan. The. remarkable progress that Koreans have achieved during the past half-century, would not have been possible without our long-standing cultural traditions.

The 21st century is said to be the century of culture. As the information age continues to advance, the wave of glo!::r alization appears to be an irresistible force capable of overwhelming all native cultures. But on the other hand, countries are embracing the unique cultural traditions of their own and other nations as part of a new survival strategy for indigenous cultures.

It is commonly believed that Korean culture is unique. But that is all relative.

Each of the various regions on the Korean peninsula has nurtured its own way of life due to the influences of its natural surroundings and historical experience. Indeed, this diversity has enabled Korean culture to blossom and flourish During the past half-century, we have achieved so much in our pursuit of economic development, but at the same time, we lost so much as well.

Everything has become so heavily concentrated around the capital city of Seoul that the unique lifestyles and traditions that have been nurtured in individual regions are steadily falling victim to neglect and disinterest.

Now is the time for us to reflect upon what we have lost and what is being destroyed. Economic value cannot be the only means of measuring quality of life.

We must look back at how wisely ancient Koreans sought to live in harmony with their neighbors and natural surroundings. In the folk customs of every

civilization lies so much age-old wisdom, which we are in desperate need of today. This wisdom will soon be forever lost if we neglect and abandon our folk heritage.

Regional culture is not only handed down from the past. We must also focus on the culture that is being created and developed today by the people living in individual regions. People in numerous locales are pursuing cultural activities in many distinctive ways as part of efforts to solidify a sense of community and confirm their identity.

These activities should be promoted in conjunction with the regional cultural events.

The Year of Regional and Civic Culture programs are aimed at bringing new ligh_f to the cultural traditions of each region while searching for ways to revitalize these traditions as well. The main theme for The Year of Regional and Civic Culture is "People-PlaceHarmori¡y," supported by the slogans "Starting the 21st Century with Regional Culture" and "Together Creating Regional Culture, Together Sharing Community Culture."

We must also appreciate just how valuable every individual region is.

Under the organization of the Culture and Tourism Ministry's 2001 Year of Regional and Civic Culture Promotion Committee, a large-scale conference was held in January in Yuseong, near Daejeon, to discuss practical ways to revitalize regional cultures. Indeed, some one hundred specialists from around the country involved in the fields of art and culture participated enthusiastically in lively discussions. Also in January, the Chungcheongbuk-do provincial chapter of the Minyechong NGO organized a seminar to discuss the arts and cultural policy of Cheongju. Both discussions ultimately centered on the issue of how regional artists and cultural activists can overcome the ever-increasing dominance of the cultural influence of Seoul.

As such, full-scale reform will be required to resolve the problems of

political, economic and cultural centralization, in light of the current local government era. National policies call for critical evaluation of cultural activities in economic terms. The on-site surveys and talks on regional culture organized by the Committee for 2001 Year of Regional and Civic Culture, being held in a different province every month, provide the cultural activists, civil servants and other specialists of the region with a chance to share their thoughts on existing problems and proposed solutions. One thing we often found was that the festivals held in different regions are too similar in content such that each region must strive to develop new and more original programs. We were also able to witness the tremendous pride that people have in their own regional cultures while realizing that our tasks and problems are not so different. Of note, it is particLilarly meaningful that the cultural activists in all regions are now linked together as part of a nationwide network What the Committee for 2001 Year of Regional and Civic Culture hopes is that these efforts do not end up as merely a one-shot yearlong campaign. Accordingly, with the support of regional cultural proponents, the committee is continuing to develop and promote a growing scope of activities. As part of this effort, the committee operates a Web site (www.regions2001.org) to introduce the cultural events of the different regions.

In addition, the committee supports projects that provide venues for the active discussion of various cultural issues, encourage members of the younger generati.on to video-tape their region's cultural legacy and urge people in all regions to discover and introduce materials that express the unique characteristics of their regional culture on the Internet. The committee is also promoting a competition calling for creative proposals for the design and development of a distinctive culture in cyberspace, which should provide additional opportunity for the future of regional culture. + 39

INTERVIEW

Literati Painter Chang Woo Soung

Expressing His Spirit ¡ in Line and Colors im Young-jai It is a pleasure to meet you. It is amazing enough that you are having an exhibition at the age of 88, but what is really attracting attention to your show are your noble, scholarly aura and the free spirit of your brushstroke. You were born in 1912, so you have been through all the dark periods o f mode rn Korean history, from Japanese colonization and the chaos following Liberation to the Korean War. I am curious how you were able to establish a painting style that transcended this dark reality which surrounded you.

Chang Woo Soung: You call them chaotic times, but for my generation those things are w hat everyone experienced.

Und e r colonial rule, the Japanese Governmen t-General appointed the judges for the Joseon Art Competition, two artists each for the four genres of Oriental painting, Western painting, crafts, and sculpture who were all acclaimed masters from Japan. If you were hoping to get some sort of award or recognition, you had no choice but to follow the Japanese style With Liberation, that influence clearly became a remnant of colonial rule that we had to shed from our work

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Kim: You made your debut at the age of 21 at the Joseon Art Competition w ith a w ork entitled Haebinsogyeon, won the Changdeok Palace Award, the competition's top prize, w ith Diary of Youth at 31, and followed this up with another top prize at 32. It must have been difficult to shed such a history and the Japanese artistic style that you grew up w ith, a nd crea te a distinctivel y Korean style for yourself.

Chang: What I had to do first of all was to reexamine Japanese painting, . w hich , was based on the realistic Western-style painting that swept in during the Meiji era. The basic element of Oriental painting is the line, but they created an eclectic style based on form and shadow and called it Japanese painting.

So the first thing we had to overcome was the Japanese-style Western painting.

Kim: After participating in organizations that could be categorized as pro-

Hwangsa (Yellow Sand), 2001, 50 em x 68 em

moting nationalism, or nationalistic art, such as the Dangu Art Institute and the Husohoe, how were you personally able to do away with the traces of Japanese colonial rule in your art and establish a style of your own?

Chang: Following Liberation, the pur. suit of independence and original creativity was the dominant trend in all fields, from politics and economics to the social and cultural sectors. Art was no exception. For me, serving as a judge for the National Art n ewly-established Competition and teaching for 20 years, first at Seoul National University for 15 years and then at Hong Ik for another five, were a source of energy. Teaching is learning. I did a lot of research, from Chinese painting history and theory to

the calligraphy and painting of the Joseon Dynasty. I believe you should build a proper foundation before beginning to paint Kim: Although having a different nuance than the term 'japanese painting," the term ''Korean painting" began to be used among local artists during the 1970s and now seems to have found its way into our vocabulary. How would you say the spirit of Korean painting is different from that of Japanese painting?

Chang: From where I stand, I don't really think the term Korean painting is appropriate. If a name is necessary, Korean Oriental painting would do. The spirit of Oriental painting lies in lines; it is philosophical and aesthetic, something that is separate from reality. In Oriental painting, you do not depict shape or color as it is; you paint a subjective picture, according to your thoughts. It would not be right to say that this is something unique to Korean painting.

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I0m: That must have been a big part of your research and teaching of aesthetics and art theory at Seoul National University.

Chang: At first there were so many issues I had to consider, especially since I had to decide what I would teach those young people. I could not teach them

I don't really think the term Korean painting is appropriate.

If a name is necessary, Korean Oriental painting would do.

The spirit of Oriental painting lies in lines; it is philosophical and aesthetic, something that is separate from reality. In Oriental painting, you do not depict shape or color as it is; you paint a subjective picture, according to your thoughts.

the Japanese style simply because of my background. So, first of all, I began by telling them that what Japanese artists did-imitating the West-was wrong. I said Oriental painting in Japan was not really Asian art Japan adopted a Western abstract process, and more recently, they have taken it a step further and now we're seeing very odd abstract works.

A solo exhibition was held to commemorate Chang Woo Soung's 80th birthday at the Gallery Gajin in September 2001 (below).

Kim: The overall artistic style that Seoul National University represents could be described as academic and scholarly, which I think had much to do with your input Chang: Well, with time the students will develop and nurture their own individual styles, but initially I taught them relito try to embrace the philosca~ gious and spiritual essence of Oriental painting rather than, say, sketch mountains or draw fancy flowers. And I also

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emphasized that they should practice the way of the literati. How could your work be called "literati painting'' if you do not have the spilit and knowledge of a man of letters?

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I0m: That is to say, one should read a thousand books to enlighten a spii·it of knowledge and ennoble a scholarly aura through a mature, vibrant spirit. And behind the literati spirit would be the spii·it of samjeol. Your own early training was very 01thodox You studied Korean writing under Jeong In-bo, calligraphy at the Sangseohoe, established by the master Kim Don-hui, and painting at Kim Eun-ho's Nakcheongheon. Would it be accurate to say that samjeol reflects the essence of the literati spii·it?

Chang: Yes. Samjeol refers to a wellrounded scholar, fully versed in calligraphy, painting and poetry; in the old days brilliant scholars were those having knowledge and refinement. Do you know what they called painters in the Joseon era? They were called hwanjaengi, or daubers, and were considered no more sophisticated than a blacksmith or construction worker. Then with modernization painters began to shun that title. At the same time, there was acknowledgment that painters without spiritual refinement deserved to be called hwanjaengi, so we should work on that.

Kim: How do you think that the literati spirit and samjeol spirit can be expressed and formulated? In your works, you emphasize the will to depict, or the saeui of Namjong-style literati paintings, which depicts not the form but its meaning, the golgi, or animated spi·~ that is acquii·ed through training in calligraphy, and the importance of harmony between the margins and the supporting text based on suribujak, which seeks to depict the reality of objects without mtificial embellishment.

Chang: That is a great way of putting it. Since it is created through saeu~ golgi and suribujak, you could say the charac42

ter of Oriental paintings is based on a spii·it of abstraction That spii·it seems to be continuing today. On the other hand, in the West, abstract a1t began only after they had been through the classic, medieval and modern ages. So the conclusion I came to was that Oriental painting was based on lines, not on metaphysical or abstract shapes. I told my students, let's just stick to lines and ink, forget planes and colors. I believed that was the dii·ection which Oriental painting needed to take and that's the direction toward which I led my students at SNU.

Kim: Some categorize your work as Woljeon style, named after your sobriquet, while Kim Won-yong defines it as non-phonetic poetry, pointing out that the use of high horizon lines conveys a sense of noble coexistence··with nature . while the simple lines and rich colors, reminiscent of blue-and-white porcelain, project a spiritual compassion. Lee Yulmo describes your work as being based on a Namjong style characterized by simplified linear ink painting techniques using mainly the middle part of the brush and making maximum use of margins with a vividly recognizable literati spii·it. We should say that all this comes from the literati spii·it and samjeol spilit, don't you think?

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Chang: I am grateful for such gracious comments, and more so that you would interpret it as literati and samjeol spirit.

Kim: In the supporting text for your

painting Bunmae (Potted Plum Blossom), you wrote: "The stoic scholar of noble wisdom standing tall from a stump of steel skeleton, against the ferocity of icy frost." I think it would be accurate to say this is the spirit of the Woljeon style.

That spirit is also highlighted by the juxtaposition of paradoxical satire and symbolism, as in the transcendental spirit of a tall pine tree or a snowy heron and chatty, wicked crows and mocking monkeys.

However, in your portrait of Admiral Yi Sun-sin (Yi Chungmugong), he is par-

trayed as an astute leader rather than a fierce warrior, with a scholarly soul rather than a militant one. That work is representative of the modern Korean portrait, rendered in the coloring tech-

niques of the Bukjong painting style.

That is to say, you have successfully ven43

tured into both the Namjong and Bukjong styles of painting.

Chang: Portraits are not something I do out of choice. I have never painted out of talent, always hesitant about showing any lesser work, but people probably think, well, he has exhibited at the ]oseon Art Competition, teaches at SNU, judges the National Art Competition, so he must be good at portraits. So they asked me to do it, and being an admirer of Yi Sun-sin, I tried to do my best. People say it's a good portrait so I am content with that. I don't know how to draw the line between different styles.

That was my opportunity to broaden my horizon, I guess.

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Kim: That was during the war, when you relocated to Busan with a temper rary teaching position. I heard that it was ]o Byeong-ok who personally proposed the project. Thereafter, your painting was designated as -the official portrait by the Screening Committee for Portraits of Ancient Sages.

Chang: It was a huge surprise that a lop political figure, rumored to be a presidential candidate, wanted to see me. It was just as surprising that he wanted to discuss Admiral Yi Sun-sin. The official portrait designation came in 1973, so it was much later. President Park Chung Hee visited the Chungmugong memorial Hyeonchungsa to observe the anniversary of the admiral's birth and heard that they needed an official portai~ since different portraits were hanging in all the different schools around the country.

With people saying, ''Hey, the portrait at Hyeonchungsa is pretty good. We should use that one," President Park said: "I've seen that portrait and people are right. We don't need any other portrait." I heard that's how it came to be designated the official portrait.

loved by everyone. I believe in this case, your focus on the litearti spirit, which brought Chungmugong's stature and distinction to life, was the key. The same kind of praise has also been accorded your religious paintings that the Vatican recently loaned to the Jeoldusan Catholic Martyrdom Museum for the bicentennial of the Sinyu Catholic Persecution. What do those works mean to you personally?

Chang: I was thrilled to see the paintings again, after they had been stored at the Vatican's ancient document archives for 52 years. There are three paintings I painted in 1949 for the Myeongdong Cathedral which Bishop No Gi-nam sent to the Vatican. I don't follow any religion, but I accepted the project since the sul:r ject matter was the Virgin Mary and the martyrs while the paintings were Korea's entry in the International Sacred Art Exhibition. So I worked very hard on them. I would like to say that a tremendous amount of effort went into their creation, rather than trying to evaluate them. But of course, it pleases me when other people say they are good paintings.

Kim: I can see that your literati spirit is based on a noble character and transcenand at the same time, your dental spir~ work ethic is based on discipline and hard work What are some of the other works you would say that you poured all your heart and soul into?

Chang: The portraits of Admiral Yi Sun-sin and the Virgin Mary. The painting of Cheonji on Mt. Baekdusan truly required a substantial amount of work as well. That painting now hangs in the . National Assembly, which means it will be there for as long as Korea exists. It is significant in that the National Assembly is an institution that represents the peer pie of this country and also that Mt. Baekdusan represents the spirit of the Korean people.

Kim: It is not often that a portrait is

Hymn to Black Bamboo, 2001, 183 cmx34cm 44

Kim: I see that you place special meaning on preservation of the Korean character and promotion of the Korean spirit. I heard that for the 1980 exhibition

at the Cernuschi Museum in France, you requested that part of your accompanying poetry text be translated and displayed with the paintings. That being an example of your effort to promote the Korean spirit.

Chang: Even today, I believe that my idea about the essence of Asian culture is correct. Look around. It distresses me that Asians are abandoning their wonderful legacies to pursue the same direction as Westerners. Pretty soon we might have to turn to the West to learn about Eastern beliefs. The Westerners are even more interested than we are in - Eastern philosophy and other things Asian. While Asians have been chasing after Western civilization and deserting their own distinctive beliefs and ideas, hundreds of Westerners have shaved their heads.

Kim: So true. Westerners nowadays have a keen interest in Eastern thought, yet it would not have been easy to see the excellence of the Eastern spirit 50 years ago. You are still very active today in art education and the promotion of Korean painting through the Woljeon Art Museum and the affiliated Dongbang Art Research Organization, as well as the Hanbyeok Munchong journal and the Woljeon Art Prize. These projects must have much significance for . . you.

Chang: The Dongbang Art Courses at the museum have been offered for 10 years for the purpose of promoting the Eastern spirit, and we now attract 100 students for 50-student classes. I hope that means we're doing something right.

Kim: We greatly appreciate your dedication to art and all these outstanding projects. It is wonderful to see that you are so healthy and fit. Thank you for sharing your thoughts with us today. +

From top: Roars, 46 em x 58 em, 2001; Ox with Mad Cow Disease, 2001, 59 em x 68.5 em; Cries ofRavens, 2001, 54.5 em x 67.5 em 45

ARTISAN

Hwang Hye-sung Keeper of the Ancient Recipes of Changdeokgung Palace Lee Hyoung-kwon Head , Cultural Properties Research Institute

repared by the most skilled culinary specialists using only the highest quality produce and ingredients from around the country, the food served in the royal palaces was Korean food at its quintessential -best In the palace, meals served to the king and queen were called sura. At dawn, a simple breakfast, or chojoban, was served, typically a porridge of either plain rice or rice mixed with abalone, mushroom or sesame seed. Two formal sura were served at around 10 in the morning and 7 in the evening. Lunch was known as natgoe~ "daytime dish," and was usually a simple meal of fruit and rice cakes or cookies.

A typical sura table included basic dishes-steamed rice, soup, stew, hotpots, kimchi and sauces-and 12 banchan, or side dishes. Two types of rice were offered-plain white rice and white rice with red beans-for the diner's preference. The 12 banchan were prepared with such seasonal ingredients as mea~ fish, seaweed, deodeok, an herbal root, and dried pollack Steamed beef, raw and cooked vegetables, salted fish, meats and vegetables cooked with sauce, and pickled vegetables are some typical examples of banchan.

The number 12 was significant in that it symbolized national peace. In times of war and other turmoil or when there

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46

Hwang Rye-sung, an expert inJoseon Dynasty court cuisine, Hwnan Cultural Asset No.38

was a poor harvest, villages could not supply high-quality produce and other specialty items to the royal court. As such, a ¡bountiful sura table represented political stability, prosperity and peace. At every meal, as the king savored the offerings from around the country, he appreciated the farmers' hard toil, such that the sura table was a symbol of the love and loyalty between a king and his people.

The most important aspects of Korean court cuisine are formality and dedication. None of the 12 banchan

would have the same main ingredient, while the preparations incorporated the principles of yin-yang and the Five Elements to ensure balanced nutrition.

The yin-yang balance in food involves balancing meats with vegetables as well as land items with ocean ingredients.

The formality and dedication that goes into preparing court cuisine is represented by the gomyeong, or garnishes, for the dishes. A gomyeong usually includes the five basic colors of cosmology while adding it to a dish is meant to indicate that the food has been prepared solely for one individual, with the utmost energy and dedication of the kitchen staff.

Attention to detail is also an important factor in setting the table. Foods that should be eaten while warm are placed on the right for easy access, with other dishes to the left and items which are eaten less frequently, such as salted fish, . being situated in a corner. A dish that was served in the morning would never be served again for dinner. If fish boiled in sauce was served in the morning, for dinner the fish would be broiled. As such, court cuisine did not necessarily mean that the dishes had to be prepared from special ingredients from afar, but that they were prepared with dedication and sensitivity, along with a focus on variety and diversity in flavor.

Court cuisine came to be known by

the public when members of the ]oseon Dynasty royalty formed blood ties with the scholar-official class, and also with preparation methods being passed on to the court's loyal subjects. This contributed to the development of a culinary culture in Korea that was characterized by formality ad high standards.

With the demise of the ]oseon Dynasty, however, court cuisine quickly began to disappear. It might likely have been lost all together without a trace had it not been for a pioneer who has stood at the forefront of preserving court cuisine and passing it down to future gener. ations.

This individual is Hwang Hye-sung, an expett in court cuisine who has dedicated her entire life to discovering and preserving the culinary details of Korea's royal courts.

Born in 1920, Hwang is now an octogenarian but li.er exceptional posture and clear, crystal voice make her seem girlish. She still dresses in hanbok, Korea's traditional dress, when teaching, speaking in a soft, intimate voice.

Hwang, who has written some 30 books on the court cuisine of the Joseon Dynasty, received the Order of Civil Merit Mogryeon Medal in 1986 and the ..... Order of Culture Merit Bo-Gwan in 1990 for her achievements. However, the fact that her three daughters are all studying . "" court cuisine makes her proud.

Hwang was born in Cheonan, Chungcheongnam-do province, to a wellto-do family that operated the local rice mill. Conceived after 11 years of marriage and years of hundred-day prayers, she was doted on as a child, constantly the center of attention and adoration. After graduating from Cheonan Elementary School and Gongju Girls' Academy, she entered Gongju Girls' High School, which was then the only high school for girls in the entire province of Chungcheong-do.

It was Hwang's mother who enabled her to pursue higher education. Her mother was adamant that girls were just as entitled to an education as boys, and thus persuaded Hwang's father to send

A dinner table Hwang Rye-sung prepared for the funeral of the last princess of the Joseon Dynasty (above) Hwang Rye-sung (below), a great stickler for detail, was trained under Han Hi-sun (right), the last of the royal cooks of the Joseon

Dynasty.

her to study in Japan, albeit reluctantly.

With her mother's encouragement, Hwang went to Japan and attended Fukuoka Girls' High School and after graduation went on to earn a degree in home economics from the Kyoto Women's College. She returned home in 1940. At age 20, she received her first teaching position at Daedong Girls' High School (now Daejeon Girls' High School).

47

sovereigty had been take over by Japan and the king had no actual authority, but the formalities of the court were still observed.

It was at the kitchen of Nakseonje where Hwang first met Han. Hwang can still vividly recall Han from that first encounter, sitting on a plush cushion and cutting a fish into thin slices using a latge, heavy knife with a curved tip.

The number 12 was significant in that it symbolized national peace.

In times of war and other turmoil or when there was a poor harvest, villages could not supply high-quality produce or other specialty items to the royal court.

As such, a bountiful sura table represented political stability, prosperity and peace.

]eolpyeon, plain rice cake (top) Danja, colorful balls of glutinous rice powder (above) Hangwa, traditional cookies (opposite page)

But not long after she began teaching, she lost both her parents and returned home, resigning her position. It was during this time that she received an offer from Sookmyung Women's College (now Sookmyung Women's University) to teach in their home economics department The dean of Sookmyung Women's College was then a Japanese national named Oda Dean Oda was a nutritionist and a scholar of Korean history who 48

believed that Koreans should systematically learn Korean court cuisine and thus asked Hwang to teach court cuisine. He also introduced Hwang to the chef of Changdeokgung Palace, an extremely rare opportunity for an ordinary citizen.

Through this turn of events, Hwang came to meet court chef Han Hi-sun, an encounter that changed her life.

That was in 1942, when Hwang was 22. Their first meeting led to a 30-year relationship with Hwang being Han's protege, learning all about court cuisine until Han's death in 1972, at the age of 82 In the early 1940s, Queen Yun, the second wife of King Sunjong, resided at Nakseonje in Changdeokgung. Korea's

They saw each other everyday for the next 30 years and, though they grew as close as a mother and a daughter, they always used honorific terms when addressing each other. The. training did . not involve recipe cards or anything else in writing, but only observing and tasting. When Hwang tried to ask questions because Han's hands were so deft and quick, she would scold her, saying not to get saliva on the food. At first, learning the court language was itself a major challenge. People seemed to talk incomprehensibly: for example, meals were called sura; doenjang (soybean paste) stew tojangjochi, piclded vegetables janggwa; radish kimchi songsongi; dishes

boiled in sauce jo1igae. So Hwang took notes on anything she did not fully understand and visited her mentor on her days off at her residence on the grounds of the palace annex in Angukdong. What she would hear repeatedly from her teacher was that there were no special secrets to court cuisine other than ensuring that the flavor focused on harmony and preparations reflected utmost dedication.

Hwang began taking notes on eveiything she was taught and trying the recipes out on her own. She then set out on a project to create modern versions of - these court recipes. This led her to another project, the revival and restoration of court recipes for state dinners and the royal ancestral rites at Jongmyo. Until then, public interest had been limited to simple court dishes because they could , easily be adapted to everyday meals, but there had hardly been any interest in or serious research of banquet cuisine or ceremonial dishes.

Hwang first began searching for recipes and other records from the Joseon Dynasty at the archives of Changgyeonggung Palace and the Seoul National Library. Among the materials that Hwang discovered included 'jinchan-euigwe," a record of recipes used to prepare the food for the 60th birthday party of Queen Mother Jo; .,_ "Wonhaengeulmyojeongri-euigwe," a record of dishes prepared for the ritual held at the gravesite of Crown Prince - ~

Sadoseja on the occasion of the visit of King Jeongjo and Lady Hong; and "Gongseonjeongrye," a record of all the types and amount of local tribute presented to the court from around the country.

In 1957, Hwang's discoveries and what she learned from her mentor were documented in a book titled A Study of the Yi Dynasty Royal Cuisine, Korea's first-ever systemic study of palatial culinary art.

As interest in court cuisine and recognition of Hwang's scholarly achievements have steadily grown, Joseon Dynasty court cuisine was designated Human Cultural Asset No. 38, while Hwang's mentor Han Hi-sun was recognized as a first-generation specialist in this field.

Hwang was named a

Dried squid omately cut into the shape of a phoenix was used to decorate table settings for special court banquets.

second-generation specialist after her teachei0S death and focused on mnturing another generation of specialists at Myongji University, Hanyang University, and Sungkyungwan University. She also founded the Institute of Korean Royal Cuisine for the purpose of promoting further education in court cuisine.

She has three daughters .who are all following in her footsteps. Eldest daughter Han Bok-ryo is the directot:¡ of the Institute of Korean Royal Cuisine. Second daughter Han Bok-suon operates her own restaurant specializing in court cuisine, and third daughter Han Bok-jin is a professor of the traditional culinary arts at Hallym University.

Hwang still has one last wish that she would like to see fulfilled in her lifetime-to establish a court cuisine museum so that the sophistication and exceptional quality of Korean culinary arts can be made known to the public. â&#x20AC;˘ 49

ON THE ROAD

Trip to

usan Kim}oo-young No ve li st 50

he city of Busan .stretches out along the southeast coast of the Korean peninsula. As home to Korea's largest commercial harbor and its second largest city, Busan is a bustling, densely populated metropolis. To the east across th e Korea Strait is Japan. From Hae undae Beach on a clear day, the Japanese island of Tsushima seems near enough that you could reach out and touch it. Due to its relative proximity to Japan, Busan has served as a gateway to the Korean peninsula from the past, and is still doing so today, albeit with differences. As a large city primarily built on light industries, Busan also

T

't ~

.r .]

plays a central role as the key industrial area on the southeast coast linking the Ulsan and Masan industrial districts, w hile at the sa me time serving as a major harbor for onshore and offshore fishing.

Its location at the southeastern tip of the Korean peninsula and its topographical conditions-in particular the residual rid ges of th e fo rmidable Tae baek Mountains lying diagonally north to west and the Nakdong River flowing to the wes t-h ave markedl y shaped Busan's development throughout its lengthy history. Its massive commercial harbor, the Nakd ong River traversing from north to south through the center

of the Korean peninsula linking the nation's inland districts like a spid er web, and the city's commercial industry, as well as its cultural diversity, have caused Busan to become a city with a thousand faces. Busan Bay's coastline, the Na kd ong River estu ary, and the inland Busanjin and Dongnae districts are home to the highest concentration of pre-historic relics in Korea. Mounds of seashells dating to the New Stone Age are scattered throughout Dongsamdong and Dadaepo Geumgok along the coastal and ri ve rba nk areas, w hil e seashell mound s from the Iron Age have been discovered in Jeonpo-dong.

Stone tombs and seashell mounds of the

\

\

-1

' 'Morundae

Taejongdae

Bronze Age were . uncovered in the Dongnae and Sa ha d istricts as well, togeth er w ith excava ti on sites in Gimhae adjoining Busan. Such relics are evidence that Busan's natural environment and its mild climate have offered ideal living conditions since prehistoric times.

The opening of Busan's harbor to the outside world in February 1876 proved to be a turning point in a rapid transformation of the city's traditional natural environment. And w hile Busan's functions have been dramatically altered in accordance w ith the times, its ancient 51

influences still can be seen in various places today, as though to prove the Korean saying that "a rich man who goes bankrupt still has hoarded enough money to live for three years."

A leisurely sightseer should stop off at Beomeosa Temple on Mt. Geumjeongsan in Cheongnyong-dong, Geumjeong-gu before heading to the central district of Busan. Beomeosa, "Brahman Fish Temple," is not large in size but it is one of the best-known temples in Korea. Visitors can get a glimpse of the character of Busan residents from this temple, as it still vividly retains the history of turmoil and adversity Busan experienced and the efforts taken to overcome these challenges. A particularly high number of Busan residents are adherents of Buddhism, many of whom visit Beomeosa for their worship since it is the Buddhist temple closest to Busan's downtown area.

The city of Busan has been created and molded by the sea. As such, it has constantly suffered from seemingly end less invasions and pillaging by Japanese pirates and marauders from as long ago as the era of the Three

Cheonwangmun Gate (above left) and the temple's main hall (left) Hae~d Beach (below)

52

Kingdoms (Goguryeo, Silla, and Baekje; 1st century B.C.-A.D. 7th century).

Beomeosa's main hall has an unfortunate past; it was burned down during the 1592Japanese invasion of Korea, and twice reconstructed. The decision to build the temple was motivated by the serious concerns of Japanese invasion. It was first built in A.D. 678 during the reign of Silla's King Heungdeok At the time, the king ¡ was extremely worried because more than 100,000 Japanese troops were being mobilized to invade Korea. One day, the king had a dream in which a god appeared who urged _ him to pray and meditate. The king then did so, earnestly praying and meditating for divine intervention. This supposedly resulted in the Japanese soldiers falling into total disarray, leading to their eventual withdrawal. The temple was built to commemorate the repulsion of the 100,000 Japanese invaders through the power of prayer and meditation. It was perhaps natural for the residents living by the sea, suffering frequent plundering and other misfortune, to have highly revered worship at this temple. This influence continues today, with the city's large Buddhist population carrying on the tradition of worshipping at Beomeosa.

A close study of Beomeosa, situated on the wide eastern slope of Mt. Geumjeongsan, reveals its exceptional

layout. The temple is reached by passing through three gates built along a single axis: Iljumun (Single-Pillar Gate), Cheonwangmun (Maharajas Gate), and Burimun (Advaita Gate). The first building you come across is Bojen1, which stands atop a 7-meter-high embankment and is used for worship services. Bojen1 is flanked by Simgeomdang, "House of Seeking the Sword of Wisdom," a hall where the scriptures are studied; Birojeon, a hall enshrining an image of Vairocana; and Mireukjeon, where an image of Maitreya is enshrined that does not have the typical images of attending Bodhisattvas. In a conventional layout, there would be a study and lecture hall diagonally across from Simgeomdang, but such is not the case with Beomeosa, where its sanctum, Beopdang,. is found instead. Such a layout, which serves to highlight the prominence of Simgeomdang, appears to reflect the sense of crisis over the threat of Japanese invasion that prevailed at the time Beomeosa was constructed. Daeungjeon, the main hall, is a wooden structure rebuilt during the mid:Joseon period. Though small in size compared to the main halls of other Buddhist temples, its simple, elegant, and concise architectural beauty is truly extraordinary. This results from a sense of balance attained through a perfect horizontal symmetry between the right

Vendors display the catch of the day at Gwanganri (above).

Oryukdo Island seen fi¡om Haeundae Beach (below)

and the left and the simplicity the structure exudes. In most Buddhist temples, the Daeungjeon has near perfect leftright symmetry, like India's Taj Mahal, which seems to be rooted in a religious ideal of balance and harmony.

Among Beomeosa's buildings, visitors should take particular note of the Iljumun gate. At most temples, the Iljumun is typically austere, frequently giving an impression of its being simply a gate. But at Beomeosa, compared to the size of its Daeungjeon, the Iljumun is

53

extremely grand. Although the painted exterior of the Daeungjeon is peeling and faded, the Iljumun's painted surfaces have been meticulously maintained. This impressive gate no doubt arouses reverence among temple-goers from the moment they enter the temple grounds.

Busan's foremost tourist attraction is its ocean resources. Haeundae, located between Dongbaek Island and Mipo, is Korea's most popular beach and Busan's No. 1 tourist destination. At Haeundae, you can see breathtaking scenery created by the harmony of the white sand beach, pine forests, and the blue ocean.

Before you reach the beach at Haeundae, you will notice a hot spa, which was built during the Japanese colonial era. It was after the opening of this spa that Haeundae started to attract visitors from far and wide. Beef ribs is a food item that has added to Haeundae's fame. Haeundae's beef ribs are so popular that even restaurants in Seoul and ¡ the provinces tout its name on their signboards. As for fish, the place to go is the Jagalchi Market or the cooperative fish market, both of which are nearby Haeundae. The Jagalchi Market, in particular, is the source of countless stories and episodes as Korea's most renowned fish market. For example, the term "jagalchi ajumma" was created here, referring to the women peddlers who helped to create the fish market by selling their wares in the streets after the Korean War. This market, where the dynamic and intense life of Busan residents is readily palpable, is a microcosm of Busan. Well known not just in Busan but everywhere in Korea, the Jagalchi Market is located by the southern sea in Nampadong. It pulses w ith a life unique to the nation's biggest fish market. Visitors wishing to enjoy fresh raw fish should also visit Haeundae's Mipo, or go over the Dalmaji Pass and head to the coastal area near Songjeong. The seawater is cleaner there than around the central district, with fish that cannot be any 54

fresher as the village fishermen fillet their catch as soon as it is brought aboard.

In the summertime, Haeundae teems with more than a million vacationers jostling for a spot on its sandy beach.

There are also beaches in Songjeong, Gwangan-ri, and Dadaepo. Taejongdae to the south of Yeongdo Island is surrounded by dense forests and uniquely shaped rocks forming towering cliffs, which come together in a spectacular scene reminiscent of Mt. Haegeumgang.

It came to be called Taejongdae after Silla's Taejong, or the first king Muyeol, during a tour of the nation after unifying the ancient three kingdoms of Silla,

Goguryeo and Baekje, enjoyed archery there, intoxicated by its magnificent scenery. Taejongdae commands an unobstructed view of the Korea Strait, in addition to looking out --onto oddly .shaped rocks that appear to be cutting across the craggy coast, amid some 200 species of subtropical broadleaf trees, including black pines that cover its highest peak rising 250 meters above sea level.

You can also see Oryukdo Island from Taejongdae. A group of small rocky islands, Oryukdo is a symbol of Busan. Oryukdo means "five or six islands," even though it actually consists of five islands, since there appears to be

six islands at high tide when the rising sea level seems to divide one of the islands into two. As one of the eight celebrated sights of Haeundae, Oryukdo creates a memorable scene when returning fishing boats go whipping by the islands. If you view the sunset from atop Mt. Wausan, the site of Dalmaji Pass to the east, you can just feel the fatigue of your tiresome day drain away as the sun dips below the western horizon. Oryukdo, which is visible to the west from Haeundae, can be seen in the east from Taejongdae. But on foggy days, Oryukdo sometimes appears to be three or four islands. This island came to be called Five-or-Six

Islands due to the effect of high tide, but the name also reflects the traditional sentiments of the Korean people, who shun a definitive name for one that is all encompassing and ambiguous. This is akin to the common practice of leaving blank areas ir1 ancient Korean paintings.

But then, there might not be a more appropriate name. As you stand there watching the sinking sun, the fishing boats vanishing into the distance, and the strange rock formations of Taejongdae, you feel reluctant to leave until the fishing boats out on .the night sea to catch hairtail and squid become visible on the distant horizon, their fishluring floodlights coming on one by

Lighthouse at Taejongdae (opposite page) CliffS ofTaejongdae and the sea (top, left middle, right above) Oryukdo Island seen from Taejongdae Qeft below)

one to cast light on the darkened, silent sea where only the incessant breaking of waves is audible.

It can be said that being so near the sea has been fortuitous for this chameleon city that knows no repose even at night. If not for the sea, the city would likely have been ravaged, with places of respite being ruined long ago.

When you visit the beautiful Sinseon55

dae, you acutely realize that Busan is a city that is constantly and rapidly growing, day and night. Sinseondae, located halfway between Haeundae and Taejongdae, offers a view of the nearby shipping container storage area, which is as remarkable as natural scenery. You can reach Sinseondae by following a trail that many area residents are hardly aware of. You can take in the grandeur of the vast container storage area that comes into view during your climb up this path. If there is any doubt, this is an opportunity to confirm Korea's valiant struggle for economic survival through exports. Hundreds, or even thousands, of shipping containers are neatly lined up on the pier with the precision of a military formation, while the security is so tight non-employees cannot even approach the site. Anyway, it is more impressive to observe the entire area as you climb up Sinseondae.

Your next destination should be Molundae. Because it is located at the southernmost tip of the Nakdong River estuary, you can also look out onto Eulsukdo, yet another notable site in Busan, which seems to extend endlessly along the right side of the access

Sinseondae (above left) and Busan Port seen from Sinseondae (left) Momndae (below)

56

road. Eulsukdo is a world-famous rest stop for migratory birds. Come winter, the island is overwhelmed with the cacophony of shrieking birds from the north who seek refuge from the winter cold. The sight of birds taking flight in formation is awesome beyond description, which attracts many visitors to the area in winter. Molundae, which lies beyond Eulsukdo, is connected to Dadaepo by the sedimentation of sand and soil washed down from the upper reaches of the river. Molundae is surrounded by a lush forest, forbiddingly jagged cliffs, and undulating waves. Its name Molundae, meaning "tower surrounded by clouds," came about because the area would be obscured whenever fog or clouds descended over the lower reaches of the Nakdong River. It is also a historic site where Admiral Jeong Un who, fighting alongside Admiral Yi Sun-sin, was killed while heroically battling the Japanese forces who invaded Korea in 1592.

During this naval battle at Busanpo, the Korean navy scored a sweeping victory by sinking some 100 of the 500-ship Japanese armada. But civilian access to the area is prohibited today due to its military use. Someone told me that it is now open to the public, so I decided to visit there, but a sentry appeared from a post at the entrance, and blocked my way, glaring at me with menacing eyes.

I told him I had heard that public access was now allowed, but he did not show the slightest intention of allowing me to enter. There is really nothing you can do at a time like this. It is futile to argue about the state of affairs or military

It can be said that being so near the sea has been fortuitous for this chameleon city that knows no repose even at night. _If not for the sea, the city would likely have been ravaged, with places of respite being ruined long ago. operations with a guard. But I was not willing to turn back without viewing Molundae after having driven more than 400 kilometers from Seoul. The guard, however, said only what he had to say, and returned to his post, clanging

the door shut.

In the end, I simply stood for a long while on the desolate beach with the wind swirling sand around me before departing. But I had to wonder why the Japanese forces attempted to land here with their 500 ships since the waters seemed rather shallow. Moreover, this was not a suitable area for a naval invasion, because the topography of the area resembles a hollowed out dune in the shape of a horseshoe, with the girth of the sea encircling the area like a folding screen. I decided that the Japanese commanders must have been lacking in their military strategy.

One point that should be mentioned is that our group had to endure much inconvenience while finding our way to the various historical sites in Busan, due to the confusing road signs, and total lack of signs in some places. On several occasions, we found ourselves at a dead end, unable to advance or reverse. As a tourism-oriented city, it is imperative for visitors, from anywhere in Korea and the world as well, to be able to reach their intended destinations by simply following proper road signs.

Nonetheless, the richness and vibrancy of Busan and its people can be seen and felt, just by standing on it.s streets. +

Eulsukdo Island

57

commute to work on Subway Line 1, which passes by Noryangjin Station. When the subway stops at this station, I frequently have an urge to get off here. It is usually when I am upset or feeling adventurous that I get this rash desire to get off and visit the fish market.

Awhile ago, I headed off to the Noryangjin Fisheries Market to enjoy fresh raw fish. As I exited the subway station, walked past the overhead bridge leading to the other side of the street A wide array of fresh fish on the ground floor of the Nmyangjin Fisheries Market (above) A long line of freshwater fish vendors (left) 60

crammed with private learning institutes, and crossed over the overhead wall<way linked to the fish marke~ my nose was suddenly assailed by the smell of the sea- a novel experience in tne heart of Seoul. I first came upon a vast parking lot, then a stairway. As I went down the stairs, the salty sea smell intensified. I could hear the voices of the market people spilling out from the market building, mixed with the sounds of gurgling and flowing water.

Although it does not hold a candle to enjoying raw fish with a real ocean in full view, it is fortunate indeed that there is this fish market in Seoul where you can feast on all the raw fish you desire.

Moreover, you can pick and choose among the diverse variety of fish, from flatfish and grouper to gray mullet, not to mention squid, hairtail, mackerel, clams, and sea cucumber.

The atmosphere of the Noryangjin market is different from that of the Minnak-dong fresh fish center in Busan's Gwangan-ri that I visited last fall. It exudes what can be described as a dignified maturity, befitting the market's lengthy history. Actually, it is quite difficult to walk leisurely past the stalls without encountering persistent merchants who will cajole, bargain and boast that their fish are the very freshest and best available in the market. "Now, which

was being filleted, watching the roughhousing typical of the people of the sea and listening to the glib talk of merchants. I was able to have a very pleasant time with a group of friends that evening because we brought back with us the vitality of the marketplace, which included the cheerful expression on the face of the shopkeeper and endless exchange of banter.

In the past, Noryangjin was called Nodeulnaru, Weeping Willow Ferry Crossing, because of the lush weeping willows that grew in the area. The folk song "Nodeul Riverside" is supposedly derived from Nodeulnaru. A center of maritime commerce since bygone days,

shop should I buy from?" I kept asking myself as I walked up and down the same aisle. After much hesitation, I stopped at a shop. The young proprietor, to show me the freshness of his fish, used a long-handled net to scoop out flatfish, groupers, and gray mullets from a tank filled with live fish. The fish thrashed vigorou sly in the net and indeed, were lively and fresh.

In the end, I chose a grouper and a trout, which the shop owner proceeded to fillet. He moved like lightening; I marveled at how he went about his work like an experienced artist. I did not feel even a moment of boredom during the time I stood there waiting while the fish

The market's frozen fish section (above) A fish vendor recommends a live halibut to a customer looking for raw fish (top) and then cuts up the fish as the customer waits (middle).

People enjoy the raw fish they selected and bought from vendors themselves at the market's second-floor restaurants (below).

Noryangjin still serves as a transportation hub. The Hangang Bridge links Yongsan with Noryangjin, while the Noryangjin Station on the Seoul-Incheon Line of the subway spans the Han River dividing Seoul's northern and southern districts.

And when Subway Line 9, scheduled for completion in 2004, begins operation, 61

Noryangjin will be at the center of traffic flowing between Seoul's eastern and western areas, fmther adding to the distJ.ict's commercial prospects.

In 1937, the Gyeongseong Marine Product Co. was inaugurated as an agency of the Gyeongseong-bu Wholesale Fish Market in accordance with the Central Wholesale Market Law. This led to the creation of a wholesale fish market in Uijuro in the notthern section of today's Seoul Seobu Train Station It was re-launched as the Seoul Fish Market Corporation in 1947 following Korea's liberation from Japanese colonial rule. It was relocated to Noryangjin in April 1975, whereupon it acquired the wholesale market division of the Korea Refrigeration Co., and ever since then, has been operating as both a wholesale and retail fish market Notyangjin is not only the site of the fish market but also home to a number of private learning institutes. Along the southern side of Noryangjin Station, students can be found there slaving away over their studies day and night throughout the year. The northern side of the station pulses with dynamic activity from the wee hours of the morning until late at night with merchants, vendors and shoppers from all patts of the country milling about the fish market About 60 percent of all the fishery products consumed in Seoul are handled by the Noryangjin fish market The market consists of two floors above ground and one basement level. The first floor includes a 6,950-square-meter auction area and about 700 shops, with dried fish shops and raw fish restaurants on the second floor.

The fishery products that are sold to consumers at the fish market come from 15 fishing ports along the Eas~ W es~ and South Coast, including Busan, Masan, Samcheonpo, Mokpo, Pohang, and Jejudo Island. Combined with the products brought by deep-sea fishing vessels from afar, some 350-400 tons of fishery products are traded each day at the Noryangjin market 62

Deep in the night wheri most people are asleep, the Noryangjin fish market is alive with a flurry of activity just as dynamic as during the daytime. The wholesale business transactions that take place from 2 a.m. until 7 a.m. create interesting and little-seen scenes of people as they buy and sell the fresh fish that are served in the raw fish restaurants in Seoul. Retail business begins from 7 a.m. after the wholesale market closes.

It is not uncommon for housewives to come to the market in the early morning in search of fresh fish to cook for breakfast The most valuable benefit of the Noryangjin fish market is the exhilaration you can experience there at all hours.

People will often visit a market when they are feeling tiresome or fed up with the drudgery of life. They can gain vitali-

ty and inspiration by simply observing the merchants who toil so earnestly for their livelihood. For those people who need to recharge their battery, perhaps no place could be better than a fish market. You can actually feel the pulsating dynamism of life because the products are so alive and fresh, while being overwhelmed by the mysterious aura of the marketplace where you cannot afford to let your attention wander for even an instant By the time you leave the market, even if empty-handed, you will know that you have experienced something special.

To appease your appetite after smelling the saltiness of the sea and lis-

tening to the flopping fish, pick out some fresh fish, pay for it, and go up to one of the raw fish restaurants on the second floor. You will soon be served the fish you had chosen only moments ago. You can enjoy plentiful raw fish at the restaurant by just paying for the condiments.

The Noryangjin fish market is where perfect strangers can share a table together amid a lively atmosphere.

The market is currently experiencing management difficulties and was put up for public auction earlier this year.

Nevertheless, it is still an important focal point that linl<:s Seoul with all the coastal areas of Korea and welcomes the citizens of Seoul at all hours of the day.

It would be worth your while to visit Noryangjin to personally observe the dynamism of the fish market Just thinking of the fresh fish available there makes my mouth water. If by"-chance you suddenly feel the urge to experience the sea somewhere in Seoul, just get on Subway Line 1 and head for Noryangjin Station, where the fish market promises you a truly unique adventure. + An assortment of fermented fish sauces

(opposite page) Bountiful display of all manner of fish and seafood (above) Large crabs from Yeongdeok (left) 63

CUISINE

â&#x20AC;˘

tnseo 0 Koo Chun-sur Director, World Food Research Institute

f you visit Chengdu, the capital of China's Sichuan province, around the time of summer vacation, you can find among the greens being sold in the markets what is called "a thousand-gold-min vegetable." It came to be so named because it was said to be so valuable in the past that only the Chinese emperor could afford it Actually, one variety of this edible plant is the endemic Korean daylily that can be found growing in the mountains and along the rivers of Korea today. One can only marvel at how highly prized the daylily must have been to the Chinese of old for it to be valued at a thousand gold coins. Today, foie gras, the fatty liver produced by force-feeding ducks and geese in France, is a high-end luxury food item.

Meanwhile, swallow nests and shark fins are pricey dishes in China, while the pads of beatJs feet are a rare delicacy in some parts of the country as well as in Vietnam. In Japan, swellfish, which contains a highly toxic poison, is a highly sought delicacy. After the poison is carefully removed from the fish, its flesh is then cut into paper-thin slices and served as sashimi-the taste of which is exquisite.

As such, what dishes are considered to be the most expensive or exceptional in Korea?

In the pas~ many of the most expensive Korean foods contained ginseng.

Dishes made with a variety of medicinal herbs were not only great tasting but

I

64

also beneficial to your health and thus were highly treasured. In addition, dishes using song-i, "mushrooms that grow on pin ~ t rees," were also regarded as prized deltcacies. Apart from these rather ut:Jlque dishes, which of the regular dishes were especially revered?

Among the foods that Koreans widely ~ ~ -egard as being most exceptional is sinseollo. This dish is a delicious combination of meat, vegetables, mushrooms, eggs, and fruit. Each ingredient is prepared separately, then placed in a special chafing dish, called "sinseollo," that has a tapered receptacle at its core to hold hot coals. Beef broth is poured over the ingredients after they are arranged in the dish, and then cooked right at the dining table. The name itself, which means "supernatural being's pot," shows that Koreans valued it so highly as to consider it worthy of being enjoyed by superior beings.

Asians believed in the existence of sinseon, or supernatural beings who resided in the mountains. Sinseollo literally means a cooking vessel so valuable as to be worthy of use by these supernatural beings, and is also used to refer to the food cooked therein. Sinseollo is usually placed in the center of the table for fullcourse Korean meals.

The majority of Korean food is named after their ingredients. However, sinseollo is named for the special vessel it is cooked in rather than the ingredients used.

The sinseollo vessel includes a tapered core for holding hot coals, which produce sufficient heat to simmer fresh and pre-cooked ingredients in the broth.

Diners eat the cooked ingredients directly from the sinseollo.

The word sinseollo is first mentioned in the Korean classic Dongguk Saesigi.

Before that, the dish was referred to as yeolgujatang, "soup that delights the mouth," indicating it was an especially delectable dish from long ago. Sinseollo vessels are made of brass, silver, or stone.

A great variety of ingredients are required for this dish to befit its name, along with great care and time going into its preparation.

North Korean cookbooks list 32 ingre-

dients, including spices, which should be used for sinseollo. Although not all the ingredients are necessary, a great number of diverse ingredients helps to produce a delightful dish that is pleasing in taste and appearance. In this way, diners will feel as though they are being treated to a truly sumptuous meal.

Sinseollo is distinct not only in the many types of ingredients used, but also in the inordinate time and effort involved in its preparation since many ingredients need to be individually prepared and pre-cooked. In contrast to today's emphasis on "quick and easy" meal preparations, the elaborate sinseollo process ensures the creation of a meal indeed fit for supernatural beings.

The agrarian society of Korea that preceded industrialization was extremely class-conscious. Accordingly, people would take every opportunity to pass themselves off as being of a higher class than they actually were. This inclination was most evident in clothing and food.

Customarily, pebple would place all the cooked food on the table at once so as to enhance the meal's extravagance. But then the food would turn cold and not taste as good as it looked. Thus one can speculate about the invention of the sinseollo vessel, which enabled diners to enjoy the peak flavor of the ingredients being simmered in beef broth right at the table.

Sinseollo is not unique to Korea; China has a similar cooking receptacle, but it is

not as original. Also, the Chinese dish does not require as many ingredients as sinseollo, while the preparation is not as complicated and time-consuming.

Sinseollo was especially popular in I ~o rea because of its cold winters, and it is easy to imagine ancient Koreans adding to their enjoyment of the dish by continuing to include additional ingredients. This dish undoubtedly came to symbolize wealth and power, thus necessitating even greater care in preparation.

Depending on the season and region of the country, a variety of intricate methods were used to cook the dish. Thus the following recipe should be considered as only one example popular in Seoul and Gaeseong. + 65

Ingredients 200 grams beef brisket 100 grams beef hind shank 5 eggs 10 grams manna lichen 30 grams pine mushrooms 5 grams oak mushrooms 30 grams flour 200 grams radish 40 grams bean curd 1 gram walnuts (shelled) 30 grams ginkgo nuts 5 grams pine nuts (shelled) 40 grams green onions (or one large green onion) 100 grams dropwort 1 medium-sized onion 2 red peppers 3 cloves garlic 1/4 section ginger 1 tablespoon clear rice wine 40 grams soy sauce 1 tablespoonful sesame oil 1 tablespoonful ground sesame seeds pepper to taste 5 grams salt

20 grams sesame oil 50 grams cooking oil 3 grams sugar

Preparing the Stock and Beef Wash the brisket under cold running water. Peel the radish, wash and cut into two pieces. Place the brisket in a pot Add an uncut green onion, garlic, ginger, rice wine, salt, and four to five cups of water, and boil over medium heat When the water comes to a boil, remove the radish and continue to simmer the brisket When the brisket is cooked, remove it from the pot and set aside to cool. When cool, cut the brisket into thin, narrow slices. Cut the radish into broad slices and place in a dish and season with ground garlic, chopped green onion, sesame oil, ground sesame seeds, and pepper.

Meatballs : Grind the shank. Wrap the bean curd in a clean cotton cloth and squeeze out the water. Mix the ground beef with the bean curd and

marinate with 1 tablespoonful chopped green onion, 1/2 tablespoon ground garlic, 1/2 tablespoon sesame oil, 1/2 tablespoon ground sesame seeds, and pepper to taste. Roll into small balls. Beat one egg well. Roll the meatballs in flour and dip in the egg.

Pan-fry the meatballs to a golden brown in a little oil.

Eggs Separate the white and yolk of two eggs, and add some salt to both. Panfry each separately in a greased frying pan.

Mushrooms Clean the manna lichen and then let dry. Place in a blender and grind to powder. Mix the powder with the whites of two eggs and pari-fry. Cut the pine and oak mushrooms into thin strips.

Red Peppers Cut the red peppers in half, soak them in cold water for a while, and then remove the seeds. Pan-fry the peppers lightly.

Final Preparations Sinseollo is especially enjoyable when eaten as it simmers on the table and is highly nutritious thanks to its use of diverse ingredients. In addition , these ingredients are artfully arranged in such a way that diners will enjoy a thoroughly delightful culinary experience. Accordrngly, a harmony of color and taste is created by using dropwort for green, sea cucumbers for black, carrots for red, and lotus roots for white.

Sinseollo is eaten after placing smokeless hot charcoal in the middle of the pot and the broth begins to simmer. Using a Korean-style spoon to sample the just cooked sinseollo ingredients will surely be a memorable experience.

LIVING

Jade Craft Suh}i-min Professor, Department of Metal Arts, Seoul National University of Technology

-~

beautiful woman is often compared to jade (ok).

Likewise, a chrystal-dear voice is likened to the distinct sound of pieces of jade coming together. There are also expressions such as okan, elegant face, and seomseomoksu, slender, delicate hand.

All of these are used to describe a state of mind that is profound and tranquil and an inner being that is pure and subtle. As for jade craft, the word jade itself conjures up images quite different from other precious gems, something more refined and elegant.

Jade has long been a part of the daily life of various cultures. The Inca and Maya civilizations produced special jade products and regarded jade as being sacred. Jade was considered to have a spirit and as such was treated with great care and consideration.

During the prehistoric era (10,000 to 3,800 B.C. called the jade age), in the area around the Kunlun Mountains in China, jade was considered even more precious than gold. Also, during the Western (or Former) Han Dynasty of China, jade ware wa.s revered as one of the eight wonders¡of the world.

The jade burial clothes sewn with gold and silver thread found in the tombs of Emperor Qin Shi Huang are among the best-known ancient Chinese jade works. In the funeral rites of the Nangnang period (Lolang) of Korea, jade was also used for various burial items.

Jade was a symbol of such virtues as benevolence, courtesy, intelligence, trust and virtue. And as a medium capable of attracting the energy, or gi (chi), of heaven and earth, it was considered a passport to heaven for the dead. As such, jade was thought to emit positive energy.

Jade was believed to safeguard the soul of the dead, prevent decaying of the corpse and guide the soul to a deserving resurrection. For this reason, jade items were buried with the dead and placed in and affixed to different parts of the body. Some examples are jangok, jade used for funeral purposes, and hamok, jade used to make figurines in the shape of cicadas or other animals that were placed in the mouth of a corpse. Other jade wares used to protect the dead included saekok, which was placed in the mouth and the nine body cavities; okdon, a piece of jade that was held in the hands; and okbyeok, a round piece of ¡jade placed on the chest. The cicada is a symbol of resurrection while -;, the saekok served to block the vital ener~ gy from escaping the body. The eyes were covered with jade that was affixed with string, much like eyeglasses, while okdon was placed in the hands to guide the spirit to the next life.

In particular, the following focuses on the royal court jade known as gungjungok that was only produced in Korea.

Reserved exclusively for use in the palace, gungjungok was used to produce articles for the royal court.

Contemporary jade brooch created by Ye Myeong-ji

~

Pendant with jade decoration (top) Jade and mother-of-pearl decoration (above)

If we look back in history, in chapter 3, page 84 of Sejongwangjosillok (Annals of King Sejong) in 1433, the year of the ox, King Sejong said: "I confer official positions to former court food inspector Seo Ha and the student Yi Ho as a reward for their discovery of gyeongseok (jade) from Namyang."

In Seonghosaseol, an encyclopedic history journal written by Sirhak scholar Yi 68

Ik, the section on Bak Yeon recounts that King Sejong's particularly keen interest in crâ&#x201A;Źating music led him to order Bak to develop a chime made with gyeongseok from Namyang. The instrument Bak created was a calibrated chime made with L-shaped sheets of jade.

And in Sejongwangjosillok, volume 3, page 74, it is recorded that Bak Yeon strung together 12 pieces of jade onto a frame and presented this chime to the king.

As Confucius is known to have said: "Good jade has a clear sound and is very rare." Likewise, Sejong noted: 'jade is very ¡important in the making of musical instruments."

The jade found in Korea's Seongcheon and Uiju was not suitable for use in musical instruments, however, jade from the Kunlun Mountains in China fortunately made its way to Korea. The king was indeed pleased as he believed that quality jade was essential for royal court music (Sejongwangjosillok, volume 4, page 584).

Stone chimes, first imported from China, were based on the standard note, hwangjong To tune them, Bak Yeon created a 12-note pipe, yulgwan. The standard note was achieved by filling the pipe with Chinese millet from Ongjin and the other notes by adjusting the length by thirds. A good quality sound was achieved with chimes made from Namyang gyeongseok and tuned with the 12-note yulgwan. The chimes were used in the music played during the royal ancestral rites at Jongmyo and at court meetings. Examples of such chimes are the pyeongyeong and teukgyeong, which can be seen at the National Museum of Korea.

In 1438, the year of the snake, it is recorded in Sejongwangjosillok, volume 8, page 61, that Sejo said: "Tell all the provincial governors that gyeongseok and yakseok (medicinal stones) are treasures and the places where they can be found are where divine energy is concentrated. Recently, some people have been foolishl y mining the mountains for these stones with dreams of becoming wealthy and have caused great damage.

Let it be widely known that the mountains are sanctuaries and care should be taken not to damage them." Thus it can be seen that during the Joseon Dynasty jade mining was strictly regulated.

This was because, at that time when Confucianism was the state ideology, jade was considered a luxury, along with gold and silver. Also, jade was one of the items that China demanded as tributary from Joseon and for trade between Joseon and China.

The limited scale of jade mining was also due to a lack of expertise. Thus the small-scale production of jade meant that the development of jade craft proceeded slowly and gradually.

Gungjungok, royal court jade, began to be used in the palace from 1426 (the eighth year of the reign of Sejong) with records indicating that it was mined fullscale from 1427 through 1778 (the second year of the reign of Jeongjo).

Jade from Namyang was used for the

official scepters, gyu, in the ceremonies when Seongjong ascended the throne in 1450 and Yeonsangun in 1495 as well as a monument for King Seongjong and ornaments for the ceremonial dress of Queen Sirn, wife of King Gyeongjong (r.

1720-1724).

In 1645, the 23rd year of the reign of Injo, seals and ritual vessels were made from gungjungok, special jade reserved for the palace. It is written in the book

Donggukyeojiseungnam (Augmented Survey of the Geography of Korea) that the stone was blue-green in color.

The different kinds of stones that were regarded as jade at the time include buyongseok, bichwi (common name for jade in general), Namyangok (jade from Namyang), jangseok (feldspar), yeonok (nephrite), cheongumseok (lapis lazuli), aksu (chalcedony), mana (agate), byeokok (jasper) and gyeongok (jadeite).

Different kinds of jade stones, classified by their color or surface pattern, included samunseokok (snake-pattern jade), gongjakseok (peacock jade) and noksongseok (green pine jade). They are found in metamorphic rocks formed at high pressure and low temperature, weathered boulders, stream deposits and glacial deposits while changing in form and color due to the effect of certain minerals such as hwiseok (proxene) and bangheseok (calcite). On the hardness _., scale, bangheseok (calcite) is 3-4, while jangseok (feldspar) and hwangok (topaz) are 5-8.

Stones known as jade were also cla'>Sified according to color, such as baekok (white jade), chwiok (green jade or emerald), and hwangok (yellow jade or topaz); place of origin, such as Namyangok, Chuncheonok, and Dancheonok; and use.

Jade items in Korea included okbae (jade wine cups), okham (jade chests), okdeung (jade lanterns), and okbong (jade flute). Jade ornaments used for decorative or ritual purposes included okdae (jade belts), which were not belts made entirely of jade but cloth or leather belts adorned with thin jade discs. The king

wore an okdae lined with red silk and ¡ stamped with gold leaf over his official robes, whereas the crown prince wore a different kind of jade belt. Other jade ornaments included hair ornaments such as okgwanja (worn on the side of the hair), okjeongja (worn in the hair), okjam (jade beads on the headpiece worn by the king when carrying out official duties) and okbinyo (jade hairpin). Such items were used as royal gifts or obtained through private transactions in China.

Highly sought jade crafts from China included dragons from the Lung-shan culture, chains and tiger ornaments from the Yang-shao culture of Neolithic China, seals from the Qin Dynasty, wine glasses from the Ming Dynasty, dragonshaped cups from the Ching Dynasty, and belt rings from the period of the Warring states. Major items from Korea

Jewelry box decorated with jade (top, middle) and jade rings by Ye Myeong-ji (right) 69

included ritual vessels used in the royal court, musical instruments and royal seals.

One of the jade ritual items was a document made of jade, called okchaek, which was inscribed with honorable titles to acknowledge the virtue and deeds of the royal family, including the king, queen, and queen mother.

Okchaek were also enshrined with the ancestral tablets at the royal shrine Jongmyo on which the posthumous title of the royal person was inscribed, in addition to being presented to the king upon his ascension to the throne. The okchaek of King Hyojong and other examples are preserved at the Cultural Properties Administration (Republic of Korea) and the Royal Museum at Deoksugung Palace. Okchaek were also used to extol the virtues of persons posthumously granted titles and passed down as family heirlooms.

The okgyu was a jade scepter and symbol of royal power held by the king when he received greetings from his subjects or welcomed envoys from China. Okin were jade seals used by the king as well as the crown prince, crown princess, and their heirs.

Okin were also called oksaek In volJade royal seal carved in the shape of a gargoyle 70

ume 32, page 73 of Sejongwangjosillok, there is a reference to collecting jade for the royal seal of Gwanghaegun: "Because traditionally the jade used for okbo and okchaek has been found in the Namyang region, why shouldn't we send an official from Dogam to collect the jade from there with the permission of the county chief?" From this it can be presumed that the royal seals were made from Namyangok Gyeonggukdaejeon, a code of laws of the Joseon Dynasty, reveals that along with gold and silver, jade items were classified as luxuries and as such their use and possession were confined to the royal court and designated officials.

I came to love jade through the influence of my mother. When I was young, I rel1_lember her often taking a jade ring or hairpin out of her jewelry box. In the 198_0s when I operated a showroom at the Daeyeongak Building, a gracious and elegant elderly lady came up to me one day. She said that she was looking for the "jade professor" (my nickname)

because she wanted a special piece made for her daughter-in-law. She handed me an uncut stone about 10 centimeters x 3 centin1eters in size. She said that one of her ancestors who had been a prime minister received the stone from the king.

At first sight, the stone looked black The woman said that during the Korean War, she had covered it with black ink to prevent it from being taken from her.

However, when I cut the stone at my factory, I found that it contained much iron and was not real jadeite but a fairly ordinary stone. It was a jade stone with proxene.

Years later, in reading about the achievements of King Sejong in a project undertaken to translate Sejongwangjosillok, I learned that a certain Mr. Suh, an ancestor of mine from 500 years back, was the first person to discover jade in Korea. I knew then that my love for jade was fate. I take great pride in rediscovering those things that are traditionally Korean and re-creating and shedding

new light on them today. It is also a source of satisfaction to know that the subtle color as well as the dignity and elegance of jade ware are sufficient to arouse the interest of people around the world.

Jade craft is the art of taking natural stone and then skillfully crafting it by hand into something beautiful. When such works aremade a part of daily life, they can provide peace of mind and comfort, and open our hearts to love.

Would it be incredulous to say that you can find peace of mind by looking at a jade work whenever you are angry, sad ¡ or having a difficult time? In this regard, jade features an unostentatious, unfath¡ omable sort of beauty. Jade can become a part of everyday life through the accessories used by men and women. Imagine waking up on a pillow made of jade, having your eyes wander over a jade glass and jade spoon on the table, and then finally over jac:le bedroom furniture.

It is said that if jade is made an integral part of everyday life, it can have a posi-

tive psychological effect on people and influence the body's flow of energy.

According to legend, people of the past ingested jade powder and believed that keeping a jade bead in their mouth could ensure peace of mind. These stories, whether true or not, show that jade was not merely a raw material for arts and -crafts but an intimate part of daily life. Accordingly, if you value jade with clarity, purity and elegance of jade itself, it can bring greater satisfaction and composure to your life.

In my case, when I treat a raw stone with loving care, this above all is especially fulfilling while putting me in close touch with my spiritual essence. I believe that by making jade a part of life through furniture, decorations or personal aceso ~-1 es (such as rings, norigae pendants, and brooches) we can enjoy peace of mind and a more positive outlook on life.

Pieces of Korean royal court jade exhibited: in the Don Bosco Museum of Natural History in Italy and the Vienna

Museum of Natural History in Austria have a pastel tone and warmth of opaque celadon. The stones contain proxene, ophiolite and calcite.

While observing the rings, necklaces, norigae and the natural stone of royal court jade in these museums and the subtle light they exuded, I felt the spirit of our ancestors close at hand. +

Brooch decorated with jade (below) Jade hairpins, with phoenix and dragon heads (bottom)

71

--<.

Cheonsuman reclamation site, which has now become a strategic rest stop along the migration route of countless birds.

Although not reported by the media, each year about 40 spoonbills (Platalea Jeucorodia), Natural Monument No. 205, fly south from their breeding grounds in Siberia to spend winter at Cheonsuman's Haemicheon Stream. In addition, about 50 pairs of black-winged stilts (Himantopus himantopus), considered by many to be the most attractive of the plovers, can be seen feeding in the reclaimed rice paddies, along with dozens of their nests scattered about the area. Each year in late fall, about 10 pairs of oystercatchers (Haematopus ostralegus osculans), Natural Monument No. 326, are regularly sighted on the rocks nearby the shoreline.

Each winter, Cheonsuman's swamps

Five or so white storks, included on the list of the world's endangered species, now spend their winters at Cheonsuman Bay.

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74

Cheonsuman is expected to become the most ideal rest stop for migratory birds in the next few years.

It is certain to offer ornithologists with once-in¡ a-lifetime opportunities to observe birds rarely seen anywhere else.

and its vast, shallow lake prove irresistible as a stopping off site for tens of thousands of migratory birds, including gec:'e, ducks, pintails, spotbill ducks, murres, re&throated divers, and little grebes.

The Baikal teal, the smallest and most beautiful of the ducks, is another species that migrates to Korea each winter. The

sight of these birds flying in formation at sunrise or sunset produces a magnificent scene that harmonizes naturally with the surrounding landscape.

In the past, about 2,000 Baikal teals used to winter at the Junam Reservoir in Changwon, Gyeongsangnam-do province, but with the creation of Cheonsuman in Seosan, they have found an even more desirable place to roost.

This year, only about 100 Baikal teals stopped by at the Junam Reservoir, with the remainder journeying on to the reservoir near the Hyundai Farm in Cheonsuman, where they create a spectacular sight blanketing the skies morning and night.

Whistling swans (Cygnus col umbianus jankowskn), which used to winter at the mouth of the Nakdong River or the Junam Reservoir, are now also coming to Cheonsuman in increasing numbers. Whistling swans, Na tural Monument No. 201, are the birds made immortal through Swan Lake The other birds that annually migrate

to Korea, including wild geese, are likewise increasingly heading to the reclaimed rice paddies and the lake in Cheonsuman on the West Coast. As such, Cheonsuman is expected to become the most ideal rest stop for migratory birds in the next few years. It is certain to offer ornithologists with once-in-a-lifetime opportunities to observe birds rarely seen anywhere else.

Each spring, Cheonsuman resounds with the singing and chirping of birds, the most beautiful of which is that of the skylarks. And of all the skylarks in the world, few sing as magnificently as · those in Korea.

Until only about a decade ago, the rivers, coastal areas, and barley fields in all parts of Korea were home to numerous skylarks. But they lost their nesting grounds due to Korea's industrialization, , during which coastal areas and barley fields were cleared to make way for industrial plants and urban development.

Their number declined steadily due to the loss of their natural habitat and even-

tually, the skylark became a rare sight in Korea. But the number of skylarks has gradually recovered since the comple· tion of the nation's largest barley field in Cheonsuman B-district, with hundreds of skylarks now being sighted in the area, which reverberates with their beautiful singing. Another factor that has contributed to their rebound is the disap· pearance of their natural enemies such as the cat, wildcat, and weasel In early April, skylarks sing nonstop from early dawn until dusk It is invigorating indeed to hear skylarks singing while watching them flutter about the barley fields and soar into the sky.

April and May is when the migratory birds that are capable of flying the highest and the farthest begin arriving at the rocky are_as along the beaches near the Cheonsuill:an sea dike. More than 15 species, ' including dunlins ( Calidris alpinaf greater knots ( Calidris tenuirostJis), black-tailed godwit.s (Limosa limosa ··melanuroides), turnstones (Arenalia inte1pres inte1pres), and red-

A family of great reed warblers in a reed grove by the lake (below)

75

necked stints (Calid1is ruficollis), stop by here in search of food and respite. In early May, fishermen casting their lines by the lush reed field s can hear the si nging of th e great reed warbler (Acrocephalus arundinaceus), called galsae in Korean, which means reed bird.

Although not as lyrical as the singing of the skylark, the great reed warblers, which warble boisterously all day long, signal the passing spring.

The great reed warblers make their nests in reed fields. Carefully push aside the reeds and you will find about five pea-sized eggs with pretty dots in a nest the size of a large coffee cup of woven grass sprigs atop a strand of reeds reaching to a man's height. Because eggs are typically laid in mid:June, you can easily come upon eggs if you visit there at this tin1e of the summer.

In mid-May, you can also find kentish plovers (Charadrius alexandrinus) in Cheonsuman A-district. This bird used to fly across Korea in spring and fall to and 76

Cheonsuman is an ideal location to study nature and take pictures of birds throughout the four seasons.

The wide farm roads with hardly any signs of people are also perfect for a leisurely drive.

Although the roads are unpaved, they are wide and well-built.

Nonetheless, a jeep-type vehicle will ensure a more enjoyable view than that of a passenger car.

from North Siberia, its breeding grounds.

But unexpectedly, more than 50 pairs of kentish plovers suddenly appeared on the sand island in the middle of the Cheonsuman A-district in May this year.

Korea's biology and ecology specialists are currently cond ucting research to determine the cause of this unexpected visit.

June is the month when kentish plovers lay their eggs. Many nature photographers ca n be seen in the Cheonsuman area at this-time of the . year, busily clicking away on their cameras as they approach the birds as closely as possible to capture them in the process of laying eggs. The photographers also spread the reeds apart to search for the nests of great reed warblers. Using a telephoto lens, from a distance of 10 meters they attempt to take pictures of mother birds sitting on their eggs and feeding their young.

Cheonsuman's Ganwoldo is famous for salted oysters. Cuckoos and bull-head-

ed shr'ikes (Lanius bucephalus) are also a common sight on this island. And if you walk along the footpath between the fields near the mountain, you will soon come upon long-tailed buntings, yellowthroated buntings, daurian redstarts, stonechats, and rufous turtle doves. In the reed fields toward the coas~ you will find moorhens (Gallinula chloropus) belonging to the Rallidae family, while little bitterns (Ixobrychus sinensis) inhabit the more isolated areas of the reed thickets. From June to August, the lower reaches of the Haemicheon Stream in Cheonsuman are filled with little egrets belonging to the Ardeidae family, intermediate egrets, cattle egrets, gray herons, and night herons, all feeding on small fish.

Cheonsuman is an ideal location to study nature and take pictures of birds throughout the four seasons. The wide farm roads with hardly any signs of people are also perfect for a leisurely drive.

Although the roads are unpaved, they

T he whooper swan, which is the largest of the goose family, migrate to Cheonmusan every year in large groups (top).

A small number, of Korean Crested Lark, which is a very rare species, visit in summer (above).

Mallard (right).

are wide and well-built. Nonetheless, a jeep-type vehicle will ensure a more enjoyable view than that of a passenger car.

Although Cheonsuman is quite a distance from Seoul, it takes only two T7

hours to reach the Hongseong Tollgate in Chungcheongnam-do if you take the West Coast Expressway through Seongsan Grand Bridge. I have been visiting the Hyundai Farm in Cheonsuman at every available opportunity for the last 45 years. I have made eight visits so far this year alone because there is no better place to observe and take pictures of dozens of species of birds.

If you take the Seoul-Busan Expressway and then the road toward Onyang-Yesan-Deoksan-Seobu-myeon at the Cheonan Interchange and drive toward Anmyeondo Island, you will eventually come upon a large farm. You can also see a latge floodgate, the ocean, and a newly built dam. Keep driving until you reach Ganwoldo Island. Drive along the paved road and you will come to Chang-ri Village in Buseok-myeon,

Gray herons, the largest of the egrets, thrive in wetland areas.

78

§ ;;:: 0 0

8

Seosan-gun. This is the Hyundai Farm's A-district, which is connected to B-district by a short dam nearby.

The entire trip to Onyang-DeoksanSeobu by the expressway will take about three hours, except on holidays (about four to five hours). You can also "" stop off for the enjoyment of a bowl of hot soup, popular for relieving hangovers, across the street from the Onyang Tourist Hotel. If you also stop at the Haengdamdo Rest Stop, about halfway to the West Sea Grand Bridge, you can see dunlins, greenshanks, and blacktailed godwits that migrate to Korea in spring and fall.

After passing through the Hongseong Tollgate and going past Galsan and Deoksan, a popular hot spring, you will come upon a road sign that reads "Seosan Reclaimed Land A/B Districts."

Galsan is known as the home of General Kim Jwa-jin (1889-1930) and Han Yong-un (1879-1944), an independence fighter and Buddhist monk/ poet.

If you phone the Gungri Rest Area (045631-3535), situated at the entrance to the reclaimed districts, they can tell you what kinds of birds you can expect to see there.

Traveling to this area has become much more convenient since the opening of the Changri Inn (045-664-1369) and Union Motel (045-669-4466) in Chang-ri, Buseok-myeon, Seosan. There are also several private homes that take in visitors for the night on Ganwoldo Island, so you should not have much difficulty finding a place to stay. You can ¡also enjey fresh raw fish and fish stew at the restaurants in the vicinity; the proprietors personally catch the fish they serve. +

Mallards descend on Cheonswnan in vast flocks every winter (top, above right).

About 50 pairs of the handsome black-winged stilt breed here every year (right).

79

MASTERPIECES

Rock-carved uddha Triad in Seosan Yu Hong-june Professor of Art History, Yeungnam National University

here are very few statues of Buddha remaining from the Three Kingdoms period (1st century B.C.-AD. 7th century).

And except for a handful, most are very small gilt-bronze statues, whose size makes it difficult to determine their artistic value. Moreover, few have records of when and where they were produced. As such, discussions on Buddhist statuary of this era require considerable footnotes.

80

Among the Three Kingdoms statues, the rock-carved Buddha triad in Seosan, Chul}gcheongnam-do province, deserves spe~ial attention in light of its historical significance. It is large in scale, while its lo~atin clearly indicates Baekje Kingdom (18 B.C.-AD. 660) origin and its style distinctively points to about the yeai¡ 600, but above all, it features a unique appearance that is not found in statues of the Gogureyo or Silla kingdoms or even China or Japan.

The Seosan Buddha triad is carved onto Inbawi, deep in the Yonghyeon Valley, or as the locals call it, Gangdaengigol. It is assumed that this was the site of a Buddhist terpple from long ago, based on the Goryeo Dynasty (918-1392) five-tier stone pagoda nearby with sarira and the former site of the Bowonsa Temple.

The Seosan Buddha rock carving depicts a triad, which was the trend in the Three Kingdoms period. There are

conflicting views on interpreting the arrangement of the deities, but as in the Ghandara triad, the Sakyamuni Buddha is in the center with Avalokitesvara on the left and the Maitreya Buddha on the right. All three Buddhas are smiling, which also was common in Buddha images of the era In terms of sculptural aesthetics, the Seosan triad's charm lies in the expressive smiles of the Buddhas. The contented faces, with bulging eyes like gingkoes, look as if they are about to break into laughter. In their faces, we can see both an innocent, straightforward human - being as well as a benevolent deity. The late archaeologist Kim Won-yong called , this the "Baekje smile."

Today, the Seosan triad is preserved safely within a protective frame, but at the time of its discovery amid the natur' al surroundings, it reflected a subtle harmony between nature and the manmade. Its seemingly natural harmony was not achieved accidentally but rather through mathematical calculations and scientific considerations of location and direction.

The Seosan triad faces 30 degrees east by southeast, the direction from which the sun rises on the winter solstice. This _ direction thus exposes the carving to a maximum amount of sunlight, having the same orientation as the stone " Buddha in the Seokguram grotto shrine on Mt. Toamsan in Gyeongju.

Directly facing the Seosan triad is a folding screen-like mountain ridge, which prevents the wind from blowing straight onto the carving. And atop the cliff above the carving is a huge boulder that juts out like the visor of a cap that shields the triad from rain like the eaves of a house, which is all the more effective because of the cliff face's SO-degree downward slant. As such, the site where the image was carved is exposed to maximum sunlight and at the same time protected from direct wind and rain Since the rock surface of the Seosan triad is higher on the left than the right, the right shoulder of the center Buddha

An information center of the Seosan RockcalVed Buddha Triad (above) A Buddhist sculpture on the road to the Seosan Rock-caiVed Buddha Triad (above right) The shelter that protects the Seosan RockcalVed Bud~a Triad (right)

was carved in shallow relief while higher relief was used for the left shoulder.

Because of this difference, the perspective is natural to viewers. The most delicate technical balance was achieved through painstaking consideration of the demands of such an outdoor relief carving, especially the relationship between the viewing distance and the depth of the relief. Hence, the face is carved in high relief while toward the lower half of the body, the relief is shallower. This is an extraordinary feat indeed.

After being discovered in April 1859

by Hong Sa-jun, the Seosan triad was unveiled to the world. The protective frame was installed in 1965. Jeong Jangok, who has been watching over the carving for the past 30 years, came to notice that the three Buddhas of the triad take on different appearances as the sunlight changes throughout the day, a phenomenon that he struggles to explain to visitors.

According to Jeong, the smiles are the most attractive in autumn. The morning smiles are bright and peaceful, whereas the evening smiles are subtle and compassionate. These are subtleties that only someone who has observed the triad for

30 years can be aware of.

Nearby, in Taean there is a Buddha rock carving, and in Yesan, a four-sided stone Buddha, both from the Baekje period. The prevalence of Baekje Buddhas in this region is likely related to the fact that the Taean peninsula was along the route between Korea (Baekje) and China. And when Gongju and Buyeo were the capitals of the Baekje Kingdom, the peninsula was along the route to Yesan, Seosan andBusan.

Those who admire Baekje and -seek to bask¡ in the aura of the kingdom should visit Gongju and Buyeo. But it is the Seosan triad, with its gentle Baekje smile, that most distinctively reflects the Baekje sentiment. This is not my personal opinion but the observations of the numerous visitors who have viewed the triad firsthand, including Robert Anderson, the director of the British Museum who visited Seosan last year and described his reaction to the carving in an interview with a daily newspaper. + 81

lAr t

Rev i e Y\j

Exhibition ofPaintings ofHowers,

Plants, Birds, and Animals Baikln-san Curator, Kansong Arts Museum

·-

his past autumn, the Kansong Arts Museum held an exhibition of paintings depicting flowers, plants, birds and animals, a genre known as hwahweyeongmohwa in Korean. The subjects of these paintings are neither idealistic and intellectual like ancient scholars wandering about the mountains reciting poetry, nor are they majestic like the grand landscapes of mountains and rivers. They are simple, ordinary subjects, to such an extent that they almost seem insignificant. However, they emanate a natural beauty as well as providence of nature and the universe. In Chinesebased cultures, plants and animals have long been popular subjects of painters, with such paintings being regarded as a genre in their own right, as much as landscapes or portraits. Common examples include hwajo, paintings of birds and flowers; chochung, plants and insects; yeongmo, birds and animals; and eohae, fish and sea creatures.

The exhibition featured about 100 works, the majority from the Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910). It was not just an exhibition of paintings of similar subject matter, however, but a display designed to enable visitors to examine the life of their ancestors during the 500-year Joseon Dynasty through these paintings.

Among the early paintings of the Joseon Dynasty, the most notable include

]igoksonghak (Pine Trees and Cranes in a Valley of Sacred Mushrooms) by Yu 82

Ja-mi (?-1462) and Chochungdo (Plants and Insects) by Sin Saimdang (1504-1551).

Because there are so few paintings existing from the early Joseon Dynasty, it is difficult to discuss the legitimacy and integrity of these paintings. However, t~ey are both painted in primary colors, called jinche, with a strong decorative qu~lity, indicating that they had inherited the· characteristics of Goryeo painting, which was patterned after the royal court paintings of the Northern Sung Dynasty of China.

Of the mid:Joseon period, the most prominent painters of this genre were Gim Si (1524-1593), his grandson Gim Sik (1579-1662), royal descendent Yi Gyeongyun (1545-1611), his younger brother Yi Yeong-yun (1561-1611), his son Yi Jing (1581-?), and Jo Sok (1595-1668). Most of their paintings were simple ink on paper depictions of the distinctive features of their subjects. Therefore, rather than being a detailed portrayal of their subjects, the paintings were expressions of ~ s inner thoughts. Referred to the painte · as sumok sauihwa, such paintings of inner thoughts rather than physical forms were in the tradition of the literatistyle paintings called sadaebuhwa, which was established during the early Joseon Dynasty under the influence of royal court painting of the Southern Sung Dynasty. The most representative work of this type is Gim Si's Yauhanwa (Ox Lying Down at Leisure), which features a cow lying down with its chin propped

up and a detached look on its face, with a low mountain in the background. The distant mountain and grass were rendered with a technique called seonyeom, which involves a thick brushstroke at one end that gradually tap,ers away toward the opposite end. There is a slightly green tint to the painting, but otherwise it is black and white.

In looking at this painting, however, even those with no special knowledge of art will realize that there is something unusual about it the cow in the painting is not a Korean ox but a Chinese water buffalo from the southern region of China. As such, this painting is a prime example of how Korea had adopted Chu Hsi neo-Confucianism without properly digesting it and localizing it to K01:ean conditions. Chu Hsi NeoConfucianism was established and developed in the southern part of China. It was not until the 18th century, the socalled latter golden age of Korean art, or Jingyeongsidae (age of realistic land. scapes), when the Korean ox replaced the Chinese water buffalo. Jingyeongsidae was the height of Joseon Dynasty culture and the time when Jeong Seon (1676-1759) developed realistic landscape painting while Gim Hong-do (1745-1806) and Sin Yun-bok (1758-?) produced their best genre paintings.

The distinguishing feature of paintings from this period is their real-life depiction based on a new consciousness of reality. This new consciousness

Yu]a-mi,]igoksonghak (Pines Trees and Cranes in a Valley ofSacred Mushrooms), 34 ern x 40.5 ern (top) Gim Si, Yauhanwa (Ox Lying Down at Leisure), 20 em x 25.8 em (above) Jeong Seon, Seogwatuseo (Watennelon and Mice), 20.8 em x 30.5 em (right)

emerged when the foundation for Korea's cultural development moved from China to Korea, in that most Korean culture had previously originated in China. Around the time that Chu Hsi Confucianism began to take root as the ruling ideology of Joseon, the Ming Dynasty, the period when the Chinese regained their sovereignty, collapsed and was succeeded by the Qing Dynasty, established by the Manchus. Such turmoil within China, led to Korea's shift in focus from China to itself. Although Korea had been a self-proclaimed subordinate of China, it now assetted its own authority and sought to establish a uniquely Korean framework for its ere-

ative endeavors.

A new creative approach of observing one's surroundings with affection and an independent recognition of ego also applied to hwahweyeongmohwa paintings. This transformation in creative outlook was first revealed in the eightpanel folding screen painted by Jeong Seon in his twilight years. Jeong's realistic landscapes represented the uniqueness

of Joseon Dynasty art. This folding screen features the painting Seogwatuseo (Wate1melon and Mice), which captures a mouse digging into a red ripe watermelon while another mouse stands by as a lookout. If such a scene were to be actually seen in the countryside, most people would cringe with momentary fright. But this painting provokes not fright but a feeling of warmth,¡ because 83

~ ~

§

possess a lyrical quality that cannot be found in the works of Byeon. Hwang-

~

myonongjeop (Yellow Cat Playing with a Butterfly) shows this quality particular-

ro

3

Byeon Sang-byeok, Gukjeongchumyo

(Autumn Cat in a Garden ofBlooming Cfuysanthemums), 22.5 em x 29.5 (above) Gim Su-cheol,]ahwangyangguk (Red and Yellow Cluysanthemums), 45 em x 23.1(left)

the artist's creative disposition has been conveyed through the painting.

The realistic style of painting reached its peak during the generation following Jeong Sean with Byeon Sang-byeok (1730-?) and Gim Hong-do. Byeon is credited with some 100 portraits, starting with a portrait of the king, and was thus . the leading portrait painter of the late joseon Dynasty. Byeon used realistic depiction and character representation in 84

his paintings of birds and animals as well while being recognized for having pushed realism in this genre to its high point during the joseon Dynasty. The exhibition included Byeon's paintings jaungjangchu (Hen and Rooster Looking after their Chicks) and Gukjeongchumyo (Autumn Cat in a Garden of Blooming Chrysanthemums). These

paintings are not only finely detailed but also reveal a subtle psychological depiction of the subjects, representing the epitome of skill in this genre.

Gim Hong-do inherited the realism of the preceding generation but his works

ly well. The detailed depiction of the cat and the butterfly carries on the tradition of Byeon, however the flowers and rocks, which had previously been treated as incidental background objects, and the long, lush plants were rendered with extreme care and effort, creating a leisurely and comfortable sense of late spring. To interpret this painting, the cat and the butterfly are called myojeop in Chinese characters, similar in sound to the Chinese characters for mojil, which refers to elderly people in their 70s and 80s, while the superb pink flowers represent youth and the rocks are symbolic of durability. Accordingly, overall, the painting represents a wish for. the blessings of youth and good fortune to continue on into old age. It was probably created to wish a friend or acquaintance good health and long life. In light of the painting's inte~ it is not possible to view this painting without admiring the creativity of the artist in expressing such a peaceful and comfortable sentiment.

The work of Gim Hong-do represented the peak of Joseon Dynasty painting.

However, Neo-Confucianism, which had firmly anchored joseon culture, could not adapt to the global trends of modernization and imperialism, thus falling into turmoil and widespread confusion.

Under such circumstances, Gim jeonghui (1786-1856) adopted the highbrow literary painting style of Qing China in an attempt to establish a new painting ¡ tradition, but without much success. The painting of his student Gim Su-cheol (ca.

1800-1862) entitled jahwangyangguk (Red and Yellow Chrysanthemums)

captures the mood of those times particularly well. Into the next generation, up to the time of jang Seung-eop (1843-1897), painters relied heavily on technique while their painting become flat and decorative, which reflected the decline of a unique culture and absence of a ruling ideology. +

JOURNEYS IN KOREAN LITERATURE

ng]i-you11g 85

Searching for the Writer's Road

Gong Ji-young's Dreams Hwang Kwang-soo Literary Critic

oday, Gong Ji-young appears to be going through another critical -phase in her life. From the time she began her literary career in 1988 with a short story saturated with the agony and sor. row of a young person fighting against dictatorship, "The Breaking Dawn," until recently when she published a book that explores the depth of the soul, Travelogue to Monaste1ies, her literature and life have shown extreme latitude.

This is the result of the struggle between her temperament that does not evade the call of the era and given social conditions. From the era that demanded a struggle against dictatorship to the current era that desperately demands the prospects for transcending the ideals of both capitalism and socialism, she has always stood at the heart of problems and constantly struggled to secure the identity of women in Korean society that has been male-oriented for thousands of years. At each critical moment in time, she came out with literary works that captivated the interest of her contemporaries. ''Dreams;' the subject of this review, is painted in dark tones to project the anguish of a writer who has set out on a search for a road that has vanished

T

86

from her sight after collapse of the military dictatorship and the breakdown of communism.

Courtesy Toward Humans (1994), a collection of short stories, contains stories that are more of a reflection of the authot0 S serious search for her own life than an experiment with short-story techniques. Of the greatest interest among them is the short story ''Dreams," which appears to have totally ignored the formative framework of short stories-not that a standardized framework exists in the genre of short stories but from the viewpoint of the most typical composition techniques-and which thus can be said to feature "a form of formlessness."

This short story consists of five different time slots, and the start of each slot is presented like a subtitle. The story begins with the base time slot, followed by the slot immediately preceding the base time slo~ and then the time slots following the base time zone are set out consecutively.

Each of the five time slots appears to reflect the author's life and the sayings and doings of fellow intellectuals just as they are without any processing. The a novelist, a shott story introduces a poe~ critic, a movie director, and a composer

that the narrator "I," who appears to be the author herself, has met. Except for the critic who is also a university professor, the rest have a hard time pursuing their career, as intellectuals are often prone to do during an unstable period of transition. The poe~ who has been drinking non-stop for two days and three nights, speaks of the feelings that one might experience after falling into a gutter: "The feeling that you can't get any filthier, the peace of knowing you can't be insulted any more ... It's good. And that's where we really should start" In this short story, the novelist, who was once a labor activist, has been rewriting the same story for five years, and the movie director condemns the film industry that shuns the directors who produce artistically accomplished movies.

The composer, another character in the story, has failed to play the piano for a month as he suffers the humiliation of seeing his planned recording contract being kept on the back burner indefinitely due to the recordings of popular singers. The movie director, the composer, and "I" go on a night-fishing trip together, and each has a nightmare during a short sleep. The movie director dreams of gangsters chasing him and

threatening him to disclose the whereabouts of a criminal on the wanted lis~ and the composer vividly re-lives, like a scene from a movie, the death of a distant cousin, whose death he has only heard about. The narrator finds soldiers chasing her, gets into a car, and drives it up a steep hill when she suddenly realizes that the car is not driving along a road but on a road sign. Waking up at three o'clock in the morning on the last day of the fishing trip, the narrator realizes that she has failed to write in spite of having so many things she wants to write about, because she has failed to find "the vitality to thread them togethei0 ' and because her life itself is "a mess," not because of any problem with her writing skills.

The format Gong Ji-young adopts in this short story can be regarded as having two efficacies: that of effortlessly disclosing the bleak conditions of life and the mental anguish of the intellectuals of this era, and the efficacy of discarding the possibility of making subjective errors by showing fragments of the lives of several persons just as they are without particular processing, much as though she were writing a diary, in spite of the first-person voice.

Based on the self-reflection that takes place through this process, the narrator reaches the realization-one that may be . _ characterized as ordinary-that the cause of her problems lies in her life, not in her writing proficiency, and that she therefore has to find the real road to travel instead of the road sign. In the middle of this story, the narrator reaches the conclusion that she has to write from "outside the lines, like the one who seeks in hide-and-seek;' or like an alienated person who imagines the life of others. But it does not appear that the narrator reaches this decision as a direct result of the realization that her problems stem from her life rather than from her writing skills, because if such a weight is to be given to life, then the author has to work to remove the boundary between life and writing instead of remaining

"outside the lines," or else she has to open new possibilities of life itself by constantly going back and forth between the two. And therefore, the attitude the narrator "T' decides to adopt may be regarded as an extension of the realization that she has to have a clearer self-awareness as a writer instead of remaining submerged in everyday life comprised of vulgarity and rashness.

"Dreams," the title of this short story, merges the meaning of two layers. One is the process of the writeJ0S gaining an awareness of having lost her way amid the confusion of the era being revealed with a comparatively clear symbolism through her dream, a physiological phenomenon, and the other is clearly bringing the prospects for the future into life itself, as.' the definition of the word dream means in everyday language.

Based on the strength of the mutual effects 'of these two layers, this story succeeds in merging the writer's anxieties about ti¡er :existence and her desire to find a clear road into one. In this respect, "Dreams" may be considered representative of the "writeJJs story" that the writers of the 1990s often attempted in order to confirm their raison d'etre in the changing world. +

¡ ~

From the era that demanded a struggle against dictatorship to the current era that desperately demands the prospects for transcending the ideals of both capitalism and socialism, she has always stood at the heart of problems and constantly struggled to secure the identity of women in Korean society, which has been male-oriented for thousands of years.

At each critical moment in time, she came out with literary works that captivated the interest of her contemporaries.

87

NEW

FELWWSIITP PROGRAMS

The Korea Foundation is pleased to announce the establishment of its Advanced Research Grant and Postdoctoral Fellowship programs in Korean studies starting from January

2002.

ADVANCED RESEARCH GRANT The Advanced Research Grant program is designed to provide support for the scholarly research and writing activities of Korean studies scholars related to the humanities and social sciences fields, which will advance scholarship in Korean studies. Eligible projects involve research efforts that result in scholarly publications, which are to be disseminated in languages other than Korean.

• ELIGIBILITY: Overseas Korean studies scholars with a Ph.D. degree in a subject related to Korea and who are currently engaged in Korea-related teaching and research activities

• ELIGIBILITY: Non-Korean scholars who have received their Ph.D. degree in a subject related to Korea within five years of their application but do not currently hold a regular faculty position • FELLOWSHIP GRANT: Stipend support for a 12-month period • FELLOWSHIP PERIOD: A 12-month period in accordance with the academic year of the affiliated institution • OBLIGATIONS OF FELLOWS: - Fellows shall be in residence at the affiliated institution during the academic year, and are requested to participate in the affiliated institution's activities.

- Fellows shall revise their doctoral dissettation in the field of Korean studies to produce a publishable manuscript.

•INSTITUTIONAL AFFILIATION: A formal affiliation is required with a university or research institution, other than that from which the applicant has received his/her Ph.D, that includes faculty and reference resources related to the applicant's research field.

• APPLICATION DEADLINE: March 15, 2002 For further information, please contact: Fellowship Program Team The Korea Foundation Seocho P.O. Box 227 1376-1 Seocho 2-dong, Seocho-gu Seoul 137-072, Korea Tel: +82-2-3463-5614 Fax: +82-2-3463-6075 E-mail: fellow@kf.or.kr http://www.kf.or.kr

The Korea Foundation"s other fellowship programs include:

• GRANT TERMS: Personal remuneration and project-related research expenses • GRANT PERIOD: Six to twelve consecutive months

Fellowship for Korean Language Training: Designed to enhance practical use of the Korean language among overseas Korean studies scholars, graduate students, and professionals in Korea-related fields, by providing an opportunity to undertake intensive Korean-language training at a leading Korean university.

• REQUIREMENTS: Grantees are expected to devote full-time effort to the research and writing during the grant, period.

The Foundation fully expects that the proposed research will result in the publication of its results.

Fellowship for Field Research (formerly Fellowship for Korean Studies): Intended to promote Korean studies and facilitate research work by Korea-related scholars and specialists by supporting their on-site study and research activities in Korea.

POSWOCfORAL FELLOWSIDP The Postdoctoral Fellowship program provides promising and highly qualified recent Ph.D. recipients with the opportunity to conduct research at leading universities in the field of Korean studies so that they can further develop their scholarship as well as have their dissertations published as manuscripts.

Fellowship for Graduate Studies (formerly Graduate Scholarship): Aimed at fostering an expanded pool of young scholars majoring in Korean studies by providing scholarship assistance for graduate students in Korea-related fields at various universities in North America, Europe and Asia.

Publication Subsidy Program: Provides financial support for the publication of Korea-related books by major university presses and leading academic publishers worldwide.

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