The Inkwell - Issue 5

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Editors’ Note Welcome back to The Inkwell for 2024! Thank you to everyone who contributed this time around, and we are looking forward to the future editions!

Enjoy reading, Alice, Temi, and Marie Contents Page 3 – Uses of Stem Cells in Research and Medicine Page 4 – World Toilet Day Page 6 - Boquila Trifoliolata Page 7 – 9 – Is environmental degradation a greater threat to the international community than war?

Page 10 – 11 – 15-Minute Cities: Are They Worth It? Page 12 – 13 – Marine Protected Areas: What Are They and Do They Work?

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Uses of Stem Cells in Research and Medicine

By Temi Adeniji WARNING: SOME IMAGES USED IN THIS ESSAY CAN CAUSE READERS TO FEEL UNEASY Cells are the building blocks of life. They are constantly being replicated as they are needed for important processes such as growth and repair. In our body, our cells are specialised to perform a particular function, and when this happens, it cannot be reversed (this is known as differentiation). However, stem cells are the exception. Stem cells can develop into many cell types. They can be thought of as raw materials, used to make almost anything as they have not differentiated.

found in the eye and how they can be used to repair vision. There is only one clinically approved stem cell treatment currently for the eye because the treatments are difficult. It helps patients with damaged corneas regain their vision by transplanting lab-grown adult stem cells found in the eye into the eye of the patient.

An example of research that has been conducted to repair vision is the use of embryonic cells to be turned into different types of retinal cells in the lab (see figure 2). This is important as being able to repair the retina could also help repair damage in the optic nerve restoring vision. This research is still in its infancy and no clinical trials have been conducted (4).

There has been a rise in the use of stem cells because of their attributes making them important in research and in medicine. They can be used to: grow new cells in a laboratory to replace damaged tissues; research causes of genetic defects in cells; test new drugs for safety and effectiveness (5) and much more.

Lastly, stem cells can improve heart function by repairing damaged tissue in the heart. They have been shown to stimulate the growth of blood vessels and heart muscle cells, which improves blood flow and cardiac function. This is done by using adult stem cell therapy (which has less chance of the cells being rejected) this means it’s the patient’s cells that are used to curate more stem cells. The stem cells are then injected into the heart, and they differentiate to regenerate damaged tissue (see figure 3).

Repair damaged tissues Stem cells are used in regenerative medicine. This can be defined as the process of replacing human cells, tissues, or organs to restore or establish normal function. An example is cell therapy which involves the injection of stem cells to generate new tissue or promote the repair-response in injured cells (1). For example, stem cells can be used to treat a burn wound (see figure 1).

Figure 1: shows a burn wound which has been treated with stem cells. (7)

Alzheimer's and Parkinson’s

Stem cells have been shown to promote better and faster healing of burn wounds while reducing scarring and inflammation.

Stem cells hold immense potential to repair damaged tissues and are currently tested in some brain-related disorders, such as Alzheimer's Disease and Parkinson’s Disease. In patients with Parkinson’s, nerve cells in the part of the brain that

Moreover, there has been a rise in research using stem cell technology to discover treatments for loss of vision.

Researchers are working to understand these diseases, which stem cells can be

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Figure 2: shows research aims on how to produce retinal nerve cells to restore vision. (4)

controls movement die leading to symptoms such as tremors and problems walking. Alzheimer’s disease affects the memory, thinking and behaviour of patients. Individuals with Alzheimer’s may experience memory loss as well as losing the ability to perform daily activities (3).

activation (6). However, these are experimental processes and have not been put to trial.

Figure 3: shows how stem cells treat heart failure. (8)

Stem cell therapy for Alzheimer’s involves injecting stem cells from the bone marrow into the body and these can then find and repair inflammation within the body. This can aid an improvement in functional memory, regenerate neurons and replace damaged cells with healthy cells (3).

Another method is having a stem cell transplant which involves replacing the cells that cause the red blood cells to clump together from a donor. These new cells will attach to the patient’s bone marrow and start to make new blood cells. A bone marrow transplant is currently the only treatment available to cure sickle cell diseases and has a ninety percent chance of success (2).

For Parkinson’s diseases, stem cell therapy aims to curate stem cells that will be injected into the brain before they differentiate into new healthy cells to repair the brain. Even if it does not produce a total cure, it might slow the progression of the disease or help reduce the severity of symptoms. These benefits, however, remain theoretical as they have not been proved.

Overall, stem cells are very important in the world of medicine as they are not specialised cells. They can be used to help patients heal from a variety of injuries and have the potential to cure diseases such as Parkinsons, Alzheimer’s, and sickle cell. Researching them allows us to understand more about human biology and about certain diseases.

Sickle cell Sickle cell disease is a disease that occurs in the red blood cells. The red blood cells become hard and sticky causing them to clump together. As a result, they block blood flow and oxygen to organs. This can damage the nerves and organs making it very dangerous.

Bibliography 1.

2.

Gene therapy is a group of techniques which have been developed to treat diseases by getting to the root cause.

Research has been conducted to use gene therapy to treat sickle cell. This is done by taking the patient’s bone marrow, isolating the stem cells in the bone marrow and then ‘putting in’ the gene that prevents the red blood cells from sickling. This approach means the patients do not need to wait for a donor and instead can use their own cells. It also has low risk of off-target gene

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https://www.aabb.org/newsresources/resources/cellular-therapies/facts-aboutcellular-therapies/regenerativemedicine#:~:text=Regenerative%20medicine%20may% 20be%20defined,restore%20or%20establish%20norma l%20function.

BMT-for-sickle-cell-disease-web-friendly.pdf (evelinalondon.nhs.uk) https://www.dvcstem.com/post/stem-cells-reverseheartdisease#:~:text=Studies%20have%20shown%20that%2 0stem,reducing%20inflammation%20in%20the%20he art. https://www.eurostemcell.org/eye-and-stem-cellspath-treating-blindness - Figure 2 Hocking, S, Sochacki, F, Winterbottom, M (2015) OCR AS/A level Biology A, Pearson Education Limited https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC804 9447/ https://mirm-pitt.net/severe-burns-show-dramatichealing-after-being-sprayed-with-patients-own-stemcells/ Figure 1 https://www.mayoclinic.org/tests-procedures/bonemarrow-transplant/in-depth/stem-cells/art20048117#:~:text=These%20stem%20cells%20come% 20from,of%20cell%20in%20the%20body. – Figure 3

World Toilet Day

By Tianna Babatola Toilets are small but mighty: like a hummingbird, the symbol for World Toilet Day 2023.

Toilets may seem insignificant to you Interestingly, information published by since you have easy accessibility, but Dollar Street shows that a Kenyan 3.5 million people across the world still family who earns more than an defecate in street gutters, behind American family still have a pit latrine bushes and in open water due to nonwhile the American family have a fully existent or poor sanitation systems, working toilet. Shocking right? This is impacting their quality of life and because the USA is a post-industrial standards of living. country, a country more focused on the top service level of the SDG ladder.

According to WaterAid, one third of women worldwide risk diseases, shame, physical, sexual, and emotional violence because they don’t have a safe place to use the toilet. Children also suffer from diarrhoeal diseases such as Cholera and Dysentery and more serious diseases such as Polio as explained by the World Health Organization.

Poorer families are at a higher risk of getting illnesses due to a lack of appropriate sanitation services. For example, in Malawi, poorer households were found three times more likely to suffer from disease compared to the wealthiest household in the country.

Moreover, inaccessible toilets can force people with disabilities to wait until dark to defecate, wait for assistance or soil themselves.

The SDG (sustainable development goal) ladder for sanitation services have 5 service levels (Safely Managed, Basic, Limited, Unimproved and Open Defecation), and, according to this data, nine out of ten people in rural areas in sub-Saharan Africa and central and southern Asia have the lowest level of sanitation services.

Toilets are very important for socioeconomic growth of any nation as they can contribute to health, education, and wellbeing. Access to toilets will significantly improve the prospects of women and children, and more children will survive and grow up to become healthy adults.

Kenya, as a country, is a world leading Safari destination due to its beautiful natural landscape and glorious climate.

However, an estimated five million people still practise open defecation.

Kenya is a pre-industrial country where the majority of people have primary and secondary jobs with the standard of living 46.6% lower than United Kingdom.

To conclude, toilets have a lot more importance than just flushing waste they help the economy to grow and to bridge socio-economic disparities.

Proper sanitation at home, school and workplaces will promote safety and mental health, especially for people with disabilities and women who suffer from poor mental health as a result of having to find a safe place to urinate, defecate and manage menstrual hygiene.

Without quality toilets that everyone can use safely, families and communities are at an increased risk of diseases, anxiety, and violence.

Further research from Gapminder, shows that in 2019 only 39.4% of employees work in service industries.

This means that there may be shortage of skills and income to provide toilet aid and sanitary services for the 54.03 million population, leading to unsanitary lifestyles especially in the rural areas of Kenya.

Sources - https://www.who.int/ https://data.unicef.org/topic/water-andsanitation/drinkingwater/#:~:text=The%20SDG%20service%20ladder%20builds ,and%20packaged%20or%20delivered%20water. https://www.gapminder.org

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Boquila Trifoliolata

By Victoria Miller Boquila Trifoliolata, or the chameleon vine, is a type of non-parasitic vine which winds around its host, similar to ivy. It was first found in Chile at the beginning of the 20th century. However, it gets its name as the chameleon vine as it is the only known plant species to engage in mimetic polymorphism, or the ability to mimic its host. It can even mimic multiple plants at a time!

organic compounds. In order to test this, they set up chameleon vines next to two fake, plastic vines to see whether they would be able to mimic them without being able to sense any volatile organic compounds.

The majority of Boquila Trifoliolata leaves have three lobes with blunted tips, which is their original shape. In the wild, Boquila Trifoliolata is able to mimic the shapes, colours, leaf orientations, and even vein visibility and patterns of other plants. In the experiment, as the vine grew towards the artificial plant, the leaves took a different shape. The plants showed obvious attempts to mimic the closest leaves of the plastic vines, which were much longer and without any lobes.

Additionally, the leaves performing more mimicry were the newer, higher up leaves, as opposed to the older, more low-down leaves which looked more like the original leaves. This implied to White and Yamashita that lower leaves sample details of the leaves next to them and pass the obtained information to the next set of growing leaves, so new leaves are formed in the mimic shape.

This suggests that even the lower, nonmimicking leaves play some roles in the leaf mimicry.

This is called Batesian Mimicry, done more often by animals, when a harmless species imitates a harmful one in order to ward off predators. However, the most interesting feature of this plant is that it does not require contact with its host in order to mimic it. The process by which it mimics the host is unknown. Current leading theories include horizontal gene transfer (where bacteria take fragments of DNA which are loose in the environment and incorporates them into the plant); volatile organic compounds sensing (smelling which plants are in its surroundings and using that information to mimic them); and the use of eye-like structures to see and mimic plants in the surrounding environment.

In 2021, Jacob White and Felipe Yamashita released an article theorising that eye-like structures, or ocelli, are the mechanism for the mimicry. Other scientists preferred the theory of the plants sensing volatile organic compounds or horizontal gene transfer, but the absence of any plausible hypothesis for such a phenomenon left their reports unexplainable.

Although this study has been controversial, it is going to be further studied by White and Yamashita.

Currently, in cooperation with the group of Prof. Maximilian Weigend, they are growing several Boquila plants in the Botanical Garden of the University of Bonn, which will allow them to perform more experiments in future studies.

White and Yamashita decided to test the theory that the plant uses eye-like structures for mimicry. The basis for this is that the mimicry the plant performs is often so complex that it would need much more information than what is available from volatile

Sources: Boquila trifoliolata mimics leaves of an artificial plastic host plant (tandfonline.com) Boquila - Wikipedia The Sneaky Life of the World’s Most Mysterious Plant (nationalgeographic.com)

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Is environmental degradation a greater threat to the international community than war?

By Nellie Dabliz Environmental degradation is the deterioration of the natural environment which breaks down the local habitat and economy. The effects of damage to our environment are visible and unfolding daily in our newspapers. Looking at the implications of war, we see similar outcomes to the effects of environmental degradation: destroyed habitats, economic suffering, and significant social costs.

Different countries will cope with the impairment of war differently, some may even make profits from the cruel trade; however, with environmental degradation, countries may never find the funds to deal with the issue or rebuild. War and environmental degradation are sometimes linked: degradation can cause war, and war can cause degradation. When looking at the impact of war compared to the impact of environmental degradation in the international community, many factors must be assessed: the size of countries alongside previous and current socio-economic conditions.

reach for countries without a sufficient proportion of GDP allocated for development.

During times of war significant restrictions are imposed which can have many additional negative effects on international community and global economics. In rural areas such as South Sudan, war has bought physical lockdowns on the area and the violation of human rights has led to an extension of the country’s sanctions from the UN (press.un.org, 2022). At the Security Council meeting, Gabon highlighted that Sudan is the youngest state in the UN and stated how the people of Sudan have been living under sanction for the past seven years. This state of war is found in other regions of the world and under these dire conditions, it is near impossible to progress. Gabon also stressed that ‘the international community must focus its efforts on post-conflict reconstruction’ to rebuild the country (press.un.org, 2022).

Postwar rebuilding can drain a country’s resources and, if aid is given from abroad, it can cause tensions within the aid-giving countries as their residents may not support overseas contributions. This is evident in America where the democrats are pro-Ukraine and have given $75 billion in aid, yet much of the American population does not support the decision to give such significant funds to a country over 5,500 miles away. Many believe that supporting war is an excessive cost and the money poured into the operation could be better spent on protecting the environment and finding ways in which governments could collaboratively work together in order to reduce the effects of such degradation.

Some countries are still heavily reliant on strong harvests in order to develop stable economies. A damaged environment will lead to soil erosion and poor weather conditions, which consequently yield poor crops that lack nutrients and value. This means that the crops will be sold in small quantities for little profit, giving the farmers less disposable income.

Furthermore, through the circulation of nutrient-lacking crops, we will see decreased health standards and this malnutrition renders many unemployable, leaving them with no income. This is particularly evident in LICs (lower income countries), where the standard of living is low and ‘nutrition is the main cause of death and disease’ (World Health Organization, 2019). In South Asia, it is reported that 45% of deaths among children under five are linked to malnutrition. The solution to frequent poor harvests would be an investment in new arable technology such as hydroponics. However, techniques like these, such as clay pebble farms, can cost from ‘$31,500 to $54,000 per acre’ (World Health Organization, 2019), a cost beyond

Many people believe that environmental degradation is a greater threat than war.

Damage to the environment has long-term implications whereas towns, villages and countries can physically be rebuilt once war is over. Furthermore, environmental degradation is not contained by borders.

There are four main types of environmental degradation; soil, air, marine-life, and forest, all of which are

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evident across the globe. One of the most well-known types of environmental degradation is deforestation, and in recent years this has expanded rapidly despite legislation attempting to slow down the sabotage of forests. For example, in Malaysia and Indonesia, forests are cut for palm oil and cattle rearing. A study by the BBC shows that ‘deforestation increased by 22% in the last year’ (Reality Check Team, 2021) and as forests are destroyed for their materials, exporters move to different regions. Conversely, despite the imposition of sanctions on neighbouring countries, war remains within the disputed government’s jurisdiction. This is due to organisations such as the UN and NATO, which protect its members and prevent war spreading like wildfire. The cost of rebuilding towns and communities is immense, often more than the cost of conflict. In March 2023, the cost of rebuilding Ukraine was estimated at ‘$411bn over the next 10 years’ (www.aljazeera.com, 2023). The cost of rebuilding after war is so great as it involves political reconstruction, restructure of armed forces and the reconstruction of infrastructure.

impact of war on GDP per capita is unclear’ (Thies, 2021). Although we cannot establish an exact figure for the economic impact of either war or environmental degradation, considering that the environment budget is a tenth of the defence budget, clearly war is seen as the larger threat.

In the same way that environmental degradation comes in multiple forms, there are numerous ways war can occur between or within countries; global, civil, trade, nuclear or even preventing wars e.g. the war on terror. A trade war is an economic conflict often resulting in high tariffs and strong barriers created by other parties. They are a ‘side effect of protectionist policies and are controversial’ (Chen, 2022). One famous example of a trade war is the Opium Wars of 1839 between China and Britain, who attempted to ban opium. Trade wars have far-reaching effects on the global economy and international trade, disrupting supply chains, hindering growth, inducing inflation, and posing a major threat to countries who rely on exporting goods.

Another type of war is the war on terror, seen in the US following the attacks on 11th September 2001. Brown University estimates that the ‘global war on terror stands at $8 trillion and 900,000 deaths’ (Kimball, 2021) and these costs still have a lingering effect on the US economy.

However, for many countries, supporting a war on terror is an inefficient allocation of resources. According to ‘Statista’.

Bolivia, Finland, and Portugal, alongside many other countries claim ‘no impact’ of terrorism (Armstrong, 2023).

To governments, the case for prevention against environmental degradation is much weaker than the case for preventing war, and, therefore, the defence budget is significantly larger than that for the environment. Over 2023/24, the UK is estimated to have allocated ‘£50 billion’ (Kirk-Wade, 2023) on defence, whereas the ‘Total Comprehensive Net Expenditure’ of the Environmental Agency in 2021 was ‘£1,964 million’ (Environment Agency Annual Report, 2021). The insufficient funds dedicated to the Environment Agency makes the government ill-equipped to deal with protection schemes or reinforcements in times of environmental disaster, making environmental degradation a larger threat than it should be.

In the case of war, individual countries can decide policy on their own terms, however the effects of environmental degradation do not stop at national borders but have the potential to cause harm in every region, wealthy or not.

Climate change poses a larger threat to international community by stripping countries of natural resources and their ability to be self-sufficient. For many rural countries, such as Argentina or Uruguay, the struggle comes when their supply of goods, specifically food, collapses whilst demand stays high. Furthermore, this can also cause major disruptions in food distribution worldwide, as shown in Argentina where 20% of the ‘5.7 million tonnes of meat’ they produce is

However, for the countries who export the resources needed to combat the threat of environmental degradation, they can capitalise on the demand and become richer as a result. However, the market for protection in war is far larger than the market for environmentally sustainable goods. The financial benefits some countries are able to extract from war and the loss in other markets means that ‘the

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distributed to ‘112 countries worldwide’ (Stenn, 2021). Environmental degradation can spread over borders as it disrupts major trading systems, and there is not sufficient money set aside in order to protect affected countries. Whereas, with significant funds allocated to war, it is evident that attempts are made to control the potential damage.

placed on both by governments, it is evident that international communities direct greater funds towards war (and its prevention), and therefore see it as the larger threat, but in doing so leave themself exposed to the even greater threat of environmental degradation.

References Armstrong, M. (2023). Infographic: The Impact of Terrorism Around the World. [online] Statista Infographics. Available at: https://www.statista.com/chart/26970/global-terrorism-indexworld-map/.

Chen, J. (2022). What is a Trade War? [online] Investopedia.

Available at: https://www.investopedia.com/terms/t/tradewar.asp.

Environment Agency Annual report and accounts for the financial year 2020 to 2021 HC 768. (2021). Available at: https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/s ystem/uploads/attachment_data/file/1036016/EA_Annual_Rep ort_2020.21.pdf.

Kimball, J. (2021). Costs of the 20-year war on terror: $8 trillion and 900,000 deaths. [online] Brown University. Available at: https://www.brown.edu/news/2021-09-01/costsofwar.

Kirk-Wade, E. (2023). UK Defence Expenditure. [online] https://commonslibrary.parliament.uk/. Available at: https://commonslibrary.parliament.uk/research-briefings/cbp8175/#:~:text=In%202021%2F22%2C%20the%20UK%20spent% 20%C2%A345.9%20billion%20on,higher%20after%20accountin g%20for%20the%20effects%20of%20inflation%29.. press.un.org. (2022). Security Council Extends Sanctions on South Sudan, Adopting Resolution 2633 (2022) by 10 Votes in Favour, with 5 Abstentions | UN Press. [online] Available at: https://press.un.org/en/2022/sc14908.doc.htm.

Reality check team (2021). Deforestation: Which countries are still cutting down trees? BBC News. [online] 2 Nov. Available at: https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/59136545.

Ryzhkov, A. (2023). Hydroponics Farm Costs: A Comprehensive Breakdown. [online] finmodelslab.com. Available at: https://finmodelslab.com/blogs/operating-costs/hydroponicsoperating-costs.

Stenn (2021). Argentina’s Meat Trade: A Cut Above the Rest (Factoring Advice). [online] www.stenn.com. Available at: https://www.stenn.com/news/argentina-meat-exportindustry#:~:text=In%202020%2C%20Argentina%20produced%2 0over%205.7%20million%20tons [Accessed 20 Dec. 2023].

The Economist. (2018). Which countries are most likely to fight wars? [online] Available at: https://www.economist.com/graphicdetail/2018/11/08/which-countries-are-most-likely-to-fightwars.

Thies, C.F. (2021). The Effect of War on Economic Growth. [online] Cato.org. Available at: https://www.cato.org/catojournal/winter-2020/effect-war-economic-growth#war-andgdp-per-capita.

World Health Organization (2019). Malnutrition is a world health crisis. [online] www.who.int. Available at: https://www.who.int/news/item/26-09-2019-malnutrition-is-aworld-health-crisis. www.aljazeera.com. (2023). World Bank says $411bn cost to rebuild war-torn Ukraine. [online] Available at: https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/3/23/cost-ofrebuilding-ukraine-due-to-russian-war-411bn-world-bank.

The significance of locations and the selfsufficient nature of communities plays a role in whether environmental degradation poses a larger threat than war. For many wealthy countries, such as Greenland, the likelihood of war is reduced. In comparison ‘middle income countries are more war-like than very poor or rich ones’ (The Economist, 2018).

However, there are multiple factors which cause countries to enter a war and GDP per person will not stop them. It is clear to see that despite high income countries being viewed as stable and reliable, superpowers can be the ones directing wars at home and abroad. For countries where war is uncommon, the threat of environmental degradation is far larger and damaging, destroying habitats and supplies of natural resources. Tim Marshall’s book, ‘Prisoners of Geography’ highlights the impact geography and landscape has on a country’s development, economy, and international relations. For example, he discusses the difficulties Africa as a continent has faced due to its landscapes. Covering all the major regions, Marshall uses history to display the effects of war and the risk of environmental degradation in countries such as Angola, and especially the landlocked states. Therefore, the history and politics of the international community can determine the likelihood of war, whereas the threat of environmental degradation appears inevitable, predetermined by the landscape of a country.

To conclude, it could be argued that environmental degradation poses a larger threat to the international community.

However, it is also conceivable that with increasingly polarising politics, the frequency of war will increase amongst both high and low-income countries.

When considering the monetary value

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15 Minute Cities: Are They Worth It?

By Marie Weisheimer What is a 15-minute city?

bringing neighbourhoods closer, car dependency is reduced which helps to promote physical activity.

Furthermore, less transport means reduced carbon emissions, and more green spaces ease the urban heat-island effect, reduce the flood risk, and they also improve biodiversity. Moreover, the concept results in a much more equitable planning decision. Over time, it is likely to make transportation investments less costly, as pedestrians and cyclists are much cheaper to provide infrastructure for.

The 15-minute city is an urban planning concept in which most daily necessities and services, such as workplaces, shopping opportunities, education, healthcare, and leisure facilities can easily be reached by a 15minute walk, bike ride, or public transit ride from any point in the city. This approach aims to reduce car dependency, promote healthy and sustainable living, and improve wellbeing as well as quality of life for city dwellers. The concept gained significant traction in recent years after Paris mayor Anne Hidalgo included a plan to implement the 15-minute city concept during her 2020 reelection campaign. Since then, we have seen this urban planning scheme grow and there are numerous UK cities that have implemented this concept, including Birmingham, Canterbury, and Ipswich.

Additionally, Oxford is currently in the process of becoming a 15minute city, although this has created a lot of controversy.

Criticisms of 15-minute cities A coalition of anti-vaxxers, conspiracy theorists and far right influencers have positioned the 15minute city concept as a totalitarian plot. These groups often make false claims about the policy, like the idea that people will be stopped from travelling more than fifteen minutes away from their home, and as a scheme, it will remove their rights. 15-minute cities are often lumped together with low-traffic neighbourhoods, a concept that originated in the UK and was popularised during Covid19. These allow streets to be blocked off for pedestrian or cycle use, and conspiracy theorists have come to see them as part of a broader "war on drivers" designed to curtail their freedom. In February 2023, thousands of

Benefits of living in a 15-minute city There are multiple advantages of this concept. Access towards living, working, commerce, healthcare, education, and entertainment is enhanced, and by 10

people joined a protest in Oxford against a plan to introduce low traffic neighbourhoods in the city, which was part of the local government's wider 15-minute city scheme. Those against the plans said they believe 15-minute cities are an infringement of residents' rights and threaten the freedom of motorists, as well as affecting local businesses. The 15-minute city has also been fiercely criticised by Great British news, with presenter Mark Dolan calling the idea "dystopian". He said, "creepy local authority bureaucrats would like to see your entire existence boiled down to the duration of a quarter of an hour".

local school was only a five-minute walk. The concept of a 15-minute city has been described by some as a "return to a local way of life", similar to life in southern Manchester in the 1950s. The idea has been presented by leading academics and urban planners in recent years, who promote a world where walking would once again be our most common mode of transport.

The future of the 15-minute city in the UK The UK government has recently shifted its position on Net Zero and climate change policy. Over recent years, the Conservative Party's goal has become less ambitious and included measures like a shift from a 2030 deadline for sale on new petrol and diesel cars to a 2035 deadline. Therefore, it is highly unlikely that this concept will persistently be encouraged, although this urban planning concept is an important strategy to improve life in urban areas and benefit society by increasing social, economic, and environmental sustainability.

Transition back to a "local way of life" In the 1950s, southern Manchester could be considered a 15-minute city, with greengrocers, newsagents, and sweet shops on the same road. Around the corner, there were the local butcher, hairdresser and post office.

Furthermore, bread and milk were delivered in a van, laundrymen took the bedsheets away, and the

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Marine Protected Areas: What are they and do they work?

By Alice Read-Clarke Global heating and associated climate change is one of the biggest threats facing our planet today, and the ocean is no exception to this.

The world’s population is massively reliant on the ocean: as a carbon sink and oxygen producer, as a food source and for its economic opportunities. One of the UN’s Sustainable Development Goals is the protection of life below water. As one strategy to tackle this, many governments are implementing Marine Protected Areas (MPA’s).

Positive Effects of Marine Protected Areas Marine Protected Areas can have a multitude of positive impacts on marine ecosystems. Highly protected MPAs can have a positive effect on the number, size, and variety of organisms within them. It is harder to protect large marine mammals and highly mobile marine animals, as they often move outside the boundaries of protected areas.

However, it has been proven by the case of the Hawaiian humpback whale that these large creatures can be effectively protected, if their breeding grounds are protected.

After this type of intervention, the Hawaiian humpback whale population has increased so greatly that they were delisted as an endangered species in 2016. Marine Protected Areas also have a positive impact on coral populations. Whilst there is initially a decline in coral populations during the early years of implementation, this trend does change, and populations increase again.

What is a Marine Protected Area?

According to the Joint Nature Conservation Committee, Marine Protected Areas are a ‘clearly defined geographical space, recognised, dedicated, and managed, through legal or other effective means, to achieve the long-term conservation of nature with associated ecosystem services and cultural values’.

Essentially, they are defined area in which some activities are restricted or banned with the intention of protecting marine ecosystems. There are many different classifications of MPAs; ranging from proposed to actively managed and minimally protected to fully protected (The MPA Guide, 2023). MPAs can restrict a variety of human activites, namely mining, fishing, and tourism among others. These can be restricted to different levels: no take zones where no human activities are permitted, zoned usage areas where activites are allowed in some places, and areas where activites are permitted with some conditions.

As well as protecting the environment, MPAs also have economic and social benefits. MPAs, created in conjunction with nearby sustainable fisheries, can lead to increased catches, which creates jobs and provides income for local people. They can also increase opportunities for tourism, for example in the Gili Matra Marine Tourism Park, which encourages sustainable local interaction with the protected area. When implemented well, MPAs create 12

economic opportunities and foster a better relationship between the ocean, its ecosystem and the people living near to and relying on it.

limiting factors which can prevent MPAs from reaching their full potential of protection, their use is vital if we are to ensure the longevity of ocean ecosystems.

Problems of Marine Protected Areas

Sources Agardy, T., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G. & Christie, P., 2010. Mind the gap: Adressing the shortcoming of marine protected areas through large scale marine spatial planning. Elsevier.

Marine Protected Areas are not always the most effective way to protect marine ecosystems as they are prone to failure for a variety of reasons. Marine Protected Areas can either be too large, and only implemented to protect a required percentage of a country’s ocean (rather than a specific ecosystem or species), or too small and unable to protect on the scale which marine ecosystems exist. MPAs, despite best efforts, cannot stop the impact of large-scale marine events – including pollution, diseases, and weather events such as El Niño – on marine ecosystems. This is evident in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, where in the early days of its establishment, there were serious issues with eutrophication as a result of fertiliser run off. The efficacy of MPAs is also limited when they are put in place for purely political reasons. They can be misclassified, ignore the interests of people in these areas, and be placed in remote areas which are not in need of protection.

Artis, E. et al., 2020. Stakeholder perspectives on large-scale marine protected areas. PLoS One. Conners, M. et al., 2022. Mismatches in scale between highly mobile marine megafauna and marine protected areas. Frontiers in Marine Science.

Giakoumi, S. et al., 2018. Revisiting “Success” and “Failure” of Marine Protected Areas: A Conservation Scientist Perspective. Frontiers in Marine Science.

Goni, R. et al., 2010. Net contribution of spillover from a marine reserve to fishery catches. Marine Ecology Progress Series.

Joint Nature Conservation Commitee, 2023. About Marine Protected Areas. [Online] Available at: https://jncc.gov.uk/our-work/aboutmarine-protected-areas/ Lester, S. E. et al., 2009. Biological effects within notake marine reserves: a global synthesis, s.l.: InterResearch.

O'Leary, B. C. et al., 2018. Adressing Criticisms of Large-Scale Marine Protected Areas. BioScience, pp.

359-370.

Pendleton, L. H. et al., 2018. Debating the effectiveness of marine protected areas. ICES Journal of Marine Science, pp. 1156-1159.

Relano, V. & Pauly, D., 2023. The 'Paper Park Index': Evaluation Marine Protected Area effectiveness through a global study of stakeholder perceptions.

Elsevier.

Selig, E. R. & Bruno, J. F., 2010. A Global Analysis of the Effectiveness of Marine Protected Areas in Preventing Coral Loss. PLoS One.

Should we be using Marine Protected Areas?

The MPA Guide, 2023. The MPA Guide. [Online] Available at: https://mpaguide.protectedplanet.net/

Marine Protected Areas are important tools to protect marine ecosystems from harm by human activities. Whilst there are some

Tomas, E. G. & Sanabria, J. G., 2022. Comparative analysis of marine-protected area effectivness in the protection of marine mammals: Lessons learned and recommendations. Frontiers in Marine Science, 24 November.

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