AUSTRALIAN SCIENCE TEACHERS ASSOCIATION
The Journal of the Australian Science Teachers Association
Promoting our profession, enriching science teaching for 75 years
Volume 72 | Number3 | Sept 2026
Teaching Science is a quarterly journal published by the Australian Science Teachers Association. This journal aims to promote the teaching of science in all Australian schools, with a focus on classroom practice. It acts as a means of communication between teachers, consultants and other science educators across Australia. Opinions expressed in this publication are those of the various authors and do not necessarily represent those of the Australian Science Teachers Association or the editorial advisory committee. Academic contributions to Teaching Science are peer reviewed.
PUBLISHED BY:
Editor
Australian Science Teachers Association Level 14, 275 Alfred St, North Sydney NSW 2060 Tel: 02 9346 9600 Email: communications@asta.edu.au www.asta.edu.au
Editorial Advisory Committee
Design/layout: Josh Fartch Sub-editor: Josh Fartch © Copyright 2025 Australian Science Teachers Association. ISSN 1839-2946 Contents indexed in Australian Education Index (ACER) and Current Index to Journals in Education (ERIC).
Unattributed images supplied by ASTA or from Adobe Stock.
John Glistak
As/Prof. Christine Preston, The University of Sydney, NSW Dr. Joe Ferguson, School of Education, Deakin University, VIC Prof. Ange Fitzgerald, RMIT University, VIC Sonia Hueppauff, Just Think Cognition, WA As/Prof. Rekha Koul, Curtin University, WA As/Prof. Kieran Lim, Deakin University, VIC As/Prof. Reece Mills, QUT, QLD Geoff Quinton, Pearson Australia Richard Rennie, Fremantle Light and Sound Discovery Centre, WA Dr. Emily Rochette, The University of Melbourne, VIC Julie-Anne Smith, Eye for Detail, WA Dr. Emma Stevenson, The University of Melbourne, VIC Dr. Fiona Trapani, St Columba’s College, VIC Prof. Russell Tytler, School of Education, Deakin University, VIC As/Prof. Dr Peta White, School of Education, Deakin University, VIC
Contents 2
From the Editor John Glistak
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From the President Paula Taylor
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Ruth Dircks 2026 Scholarship winners
6 Ruth Dircks 2026 Scholarship winner ConASTA 73 article Ruby Davey 7 Ruth Dircks 2026 Scholarship winner ConASTA 73 article Sarah Todd 10
ASTA iCubed 2026 Science Teacher Awards
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News from the State and Territory Science Teachers Associations
19 Launching catapults across the primary STEM curriculum Jane Watson, Noleine Fitzallen, Bruce Duncan and Caroline Smith 32 Fostering Experimental Skills: Intense Hands-On Microbiology activities through Peer Collaboration for High School Students (Part Three) Shruthi Srinath Chakravarthy and Venkata Krishna Bayineni 52
White paper: Science Education: Fit for the Future
The Australasian Science Education Research Association (ASERA)
The Journal of the Australian Science Teachers Association Volume 72 | Number3 | Sept 2026
John Glistak
From the Editor
Welcome to Issue 72.3 of Teaching Science. Since our last issue, ASTA held its annual conference – ConASTA 73 – in Brisbane, exactly 75 years after its inaugural conference, also held in Brisbane. A summary of the key events in ConASTA 73 are featured in the ASTA President’s Report. ASTA has recently joined and supported the Australasian Science Education Research Association with their formal launch of their white paper, Science Education: Fit for the Future. This paper sets out a bold, research-informed vision for strengthening science education across Australia and New Zealand and is included in this edition. Two articles are featured in this issue. The construction of catapults is often used to engage primary and secondary students in an engineering challenge in the Science classroom as a means of addressing STEM education outcomes. Activities include working with readily obtainable materials such as rubber bands, ice-cream sticks, and tape with the aim of making a catapult that can throw light objects the furthest. Such activities address the goal of engaging students in the engineering design process but often, improvements made in the re-design stage, are made on a trial-and-error basis. Including data collection and analysis via the statistical investigation process adds the opportunity for students to make evidence-based decisions rather than making changes on an ad hoc basis.
In their article, Jane Watson, Noleine Fitzallen, Bruce Duncan and Caroline Smith explore catapults as a useful context to illustrate the opportunities for activities based on the three strands of the Science curriculum and their close links to the Statistics component of the Mathematics curriculum, as well as to Technology and Engineering. It then extends to considering the opportunities for pre-service teachers and the questioning related to the science concepts across the later curriculum. The second article is the third instalment from Shruthi Srinath Chakravarthy and Venkata Krishna Bayineni entitled, Fostering Experimental Skills: Intense Hands-On Microbiology activities through Peer Collaboration for High School Students. It introduces students to key concepts in food safety, focusing on food spoilage, food storage, and disease prevention. By examining fresh and spoiled samples of bananas and tomatoes, students explore the microbial factors responsible for food spoilage and contamination, leading to food poisoning. The activity also highlights various food preservation techniques, including the use of heat and cooling to inhibit microbial growth. Additionally, the exercise emphasises the critical role of hygiene in preventing diseases caused by microorganisms. This hands-on approach helps students understand the real-world implications of microbiology in maintaining food safety and public health. In closing, have you considered submitting a paper to Teaching Science? If not, your potential contribution will be most welcome.
John
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From the President
Paula Taylor impact deserve to be celebrated. You can read more about the winner and finalists in this edition.
It was a pleasure to connect with so many passionate educators at ConASTA 73 in Brisbane this month. It also marked a historic moment – when ASTA held its inaugural conference exactly 75 years ago in Brisbane. This made the Roy Stanhope Oration a little more special where we recounted how the first conference and the formation of ASTA began in Brisbane with 43 attendees present. At this gathering in 1951, ASTA’s draft constitution was developed. Seventy-five years later, we are back in Brisbane, being hosted by the dedicated and capable Science Teachers Association of Queensland (STAQ). My sincerest thanks to our wonderful hosts for an outstanding conference. The quality of the sessions, the sincerity and warmth of the Acknowledgement of Country, and the professionalism of the entire organising team made for a memorable and energising event. Huge thank you to Dr Mary Rafter and Dr Gurion Ang for convening such a successful event and for being recognised for your outstanding service at the annual ASTA Awards. At ConASTA 73, we were proud to acknowledge several other outstanding contributors to the ASTA community. Geoff Quinton and Annabel Kanakis were awarded ASTA Service Awards for their leadership and tireless work as convenors of ConASTA 72 in Perth – a mammoth task delivered with care and professionalism. We also honored Anthea Ponte with a Distinguished Service Award for her service to ASTA, recognising her tenure as our valued treasurer. We also honored Margaret Shepherd with a Distinguished Service Award for her years of representing ASTA as our respected national president. At ConASTA each year, we also announce the ASTA iCubed Science Teacher Award winners. This national award recognises science educators who exemplify excellence, leadership and innovation in teaching. We also acknowledged the impressive work of the award finalists, whose dedication and
A highlight of the event was to welcome KatherineBennell Pegg, Australian of the Year and Australia’s first astronaut to be trained under the Australian banner. She provided an inspiring keynote address where she shares her personal journey into STEM while providing wise words to science educators to keep ‘Students in STEM’. She is a remarkable advocate for young people to pursue STEM pathways and in my humble opinion, is the Australian of the Century. At this conference, Katherine along with the Australian Space Agency in partnership with Swinburne University unveiled the Mission Sprouts Program. They are offering a free kit for students to conduct experiments with seeds from the Space Station to every school in Australia. This edition also coincides with National Science Week, a nationwide celebration of science and discovery. Congratulations to all the schools that received an ASTA Science in Schools grant to support their Science Week activities –your creativity and commitment help bring science to life for students across Australia. View the full list of grant recipients. We also recently joined and supported ASERA – the Australasian Science Education Research Association – with their formal launch of their white paper, Science Education: Fit for the Future. This paper sets out a bold, research-informed vision for strengthening science education across Australia and New Zealand. The paper is included in this edition – or you can download it here. Looking ahead, we’re excited to confirm that next year ConASTA 74 will be held in Darwin, hosted by the Science Teachers Association of the Northern Territory. We look forward to another inspiring and memorable gathering in 2027 on the majestic lands of the Larrakia Nation. Save the date: Sunday 4 July – Thursday 8 July 2027. Thank you for your continued support of ASTA and your commitment to advancing science education across Australia.
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Ruth Dircks Scholarship Ruth Dircks was an honorary life member of ASTA and is Australia's innaugural recipient of the Prime Minister's Prizes for Excellence in Science Teaching, receiving this honour in 2002 at the age of 62. Ruth donated her $35,000 prize money to ASTA to help boost the training and development of new science educators. Her kind gesture, which has now become the Ruth Dircks Scholarship, is a grant program managed by ASTA in perpetuity. This fund supports teachers with travel, accomodation and registration costs to attend their first ConASTA. Ruth began her teaching career in Dungog, New South Wales and went on to become a well respected educational leader contributing and advancing science education at the highest level. She went on to become the first female ASTA president and was instrumental in establishing the ASTA secretariat in Canberra and the new era of ASTA. Ruth was a strong advocate for women in STEM and for developing initiatives that would promote science education in primary schools. Her remarkable contribution was recognised by the ASTA Council by unanimously awarding her Life Membership at the Council meeting in Alice Springs CONASTA in 1990. Ruth's achievements in science education had been widely recognised. She has been awarded life membership of New South Wales, the Australian Science Teachers' Association Distinguished Service Award, the Dr Alice Whitley Award for Science Education and, in 1990, a Medal of the Order of Australia for service to science education.
Ruth Dircks Scholarship 2026 recipients:
Ruby Davey Executive Teacher Academy of Future Skills - ACT Education Directorate
Sarah Todd Primary Teacher Coromandel Valley Primary School South Australia
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Reflecting on ConASTA 2026: Gratitude, Growth, and Systemic Impact Attending ConASTA 2026 as the recipient of the Ruth Dircks ConASTA Scholarship was an immensely enriching milestone in my professional journey. I extend my sincere gratitude to ASTA and the legacy of Ruth Dircks, whose lifelong dedication to science education continues to empower teachers to learn, innovate, and lead. As a STEM Lead Teacher with the Academy of Future Skills (ACT Education Directorate) and a SEAACT Council Member, attending ConASTA was not merely an opportunity for individual professional growth, but a chance to gather national insights to bring home to the Australian Capital Territory. Immersing myself in the cutting-edge pedagogy, curriculum developments, and innovative hands-on workshops at ConASTA has provided a wealth of knowledge that will directly inform my work across ACT public schools. Over the coming terms, I am excited to translate these experiences into tangible outcomes for our local teaching community through: System-Wide Professional Learning: Incorporating key conference insights and emerging inquirybased methodologies into the professional learning workshops delivered through the Academy of Future Skills, ensuring teachers across all year levels benefit from national best practices. Curriculum & Unit Design: Embedding fresh context, contemporary science stories, and rich STEM strategies directly into the unit planning support and team-teaching initiatives I deliver in schools. Resource Expansion: Utilising insights gained from the trade display and workshops to inform our Academy’s equipment hire library, ensuring ACT schools have access to the most effective, futurefocused tools for learning. Local Network Engagement: Collaborating with my fellow SEAACT Council members to disseminate highlights, key contacts, and practical classroom ideas through our territory-wide networks and events. ConASTA reminded me of the extraordinary power of our national collective—a network of passionate educators working together to inspire the next generation of scientifically literate citizens. Thank you once again to ASTA and the family of Ruth Dircks for this invaluable opportunity. I look forward to paying it forward by elevating STEM education across the ACT.
Ruby Davey STEM Lead Teacher, Academy of Future Skills (ACT Education Directorate) Council Member, Science Educators' Association of the ACT (SEAACT)
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This year, I was a lucky recipient of the Ruth Dircks Scholarship. It was my first opportunity to attend ConASTA interstate, and what better opportunity than to head to Brisbane for ASTA’s 75th birthday!
As a regular participant in SASTA conferences, I already knew the value of connecting with other passionate science educators. However, ConASTA offered that same sense of community on a much larger scale. It was an opportunity to meet teachers and educators from across Australia, share ideas, listen to different perspectives and, perhaps most importantly, step away from my own classroom and reflect on why I teach science.
It is easy, particularly when faced with curriculum requirements, limited lesson time and the many competing demands placed on teachers, to focus on what needs to be covered. ConASTA reminded me that science education is about more than covering content. It is about creating opportunities for students to ask questions, investigate, make connections and develop a genuine sense of wonder.
It also felt quite serendipitous that Katherine Bennell-Pegg was one of the keynote speakers. I had recently worked with students to handwrite letters to Katherine, inspired by her journey to become an astronaut. The students had been engaging with the Australian Space Agency/Makers Empire Kids in Space Mission, and her story had captured their imagination. To then attend ConASTA and hear Katherine speak in person made the experience even more meaningful. It was a wonderful reminder that the people we introduce to our students through science can inspire them to imagine possibilities far beyond the classroom.
My drive is to encourage and nurture that curiosity and wonder so that it lasts well beyond students' primary schooling years.
Why I Teach Primary Science Day 1 was a highlight. I particularly enjoyed the panel of experts and listening to their opinions and concerns about the teaching profession. I found myself feeling empathetic towards their struggles, while at the same time feeling increasingly confident in my choice to teach primary science. Listening to the panel reminded me of what I value most about teaching science to young people: their engagement, curiosity and wonder about the world around them.
From Conference to Classroom One of the most valuable aspects of ConASTA was being able to take ideas from professional learning sessions and implement them almost immediately in my classroom. I returned to school with practical strategies that did not require a major overhaul of my teaching but instead provided small changes that could make a meaningful difference. Chris Lambe’s 'Element of the Week' was one idea that particularly stood out to me. I have since prepared a permanent variables grid, which is now available and in use in my upper-primary classrooms. Students use it to identify variables and prepare for fair-test experiments. Having this resource permanently visible has helped make the language and process of planning a fair test more accessible to students. Rather than introducing the idea each time we investigate, students can return to the same framework and use it to organise their thinking.
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As a teacher, I often feel the pressure of time and the need to get everything done. There is always another activity, another concept or another part of the curriculum that needs to be addressed. Giving students more time to think gives them an opportunity to develop their own ideas before hearing the answer from someone else. It allows them to make predictions, consider possibilities, explain their reasoning and, sometimes, change their minds. I am becoming increasingly conscious that some of the most valuable moments in a science lesson may not be the moments when students are busy completing an activity. They may be the moments when they stop, wonder and think. For me, this has been one of the most important shifts in my practice following ConASTA. I am trying to become more comfortable with the silence that comes when students are genuinely thinking. Rather than seeing that silence as lost teaching time, I am learning to see it as an important part of learning.
It has become a familiar classroom tool that supports students to think more independently about how they can conduct a fair test. Dr Dana Burfiend’s session on symbol libraries also gave me something practical to take straight back to the classroom. I have encouraged students to use symbols more regularly when recording and communicating their scientific thinking. This has opened more opportunities for me to provide feedback, and the use of shared symbols has allowed that feedback to be more targeted and meaningful. It has also encouraged students to think about how scientists communicate ideas and information, rather than seeing recording as simply something they must complete in their science books.
Give Students Permission to Think Perhaps the most significant message I brought home from ConASTA came from Matt Dodds, the PM Prize for Science Teaching recipient, who reminded us to 'give students permission to think'. It sounds simple, but this idea has stayed with me. I have deliberately allowed more thinking time within my 50-minute lessons.
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The Value of Professional Community As always, just like at our SASTA conferences, ConASTA provided many opportunities to collaborate with other science teachers, learn from enthusiastic and knowledgeable educators and discover resources that are ready to implement in the classroom. There is something particularly powerful about being surrounded by people who share a passion for science education. Conversations in sessions, during breaks and between presentations often continued long after the formal sessions had finished. Ideas were shared freely, questions were asked and experiences compared. These connections are an important reminder that professional learning does not have to end when a conference does. The ideas we take away continue to develop as we discuss them with colleagues, adapt them to our own contexts and, most importantly, try them with our students. Looking back, the Ruth Dircks Scholarship gave me much more than the opportunity to attend my first interstate ConASTA. It gave me the opportunity to pause, connect with other passionate science educators, reflect on my own practice and return to my classroom with renewed enthusiasm.
As primary teachers, we have an incredible opportunity to nurture that curiosity and wonder from an early age. If we can encourage students to keep asking questions, making connections and wondering about the world around them, perhaps the impact of our science teaching can extend well beyond their primary school years. ConASTA 73 reminded me why I became a primary science teacher in the first place – and why I am so grateful for the opportunity to keep learning alongside others who share the same passion.
SarahTodd Primary Teacher Coromandel Valley Primary School South Australia
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ASTA iCubed Science Teacher Awards
Robyn Southall SEAACT
Each year ASTA recognises outstanding teachers in collaboration with the state-level Science Teacher Associations (STA). The associations develop and run their student science competitions and fairs, recognising and celebrating student-developed science investigations. Supporting young people to become young, emerging and talented scientists requires skilled and supportive teachers. Student projects often need additional resources, ongoing mentoring and one very special science teacher. This year, ASTA is proud to recognise the teacher finalists from our STA members for going above and beyond to assist their students to develop outstanding investigations. Congratulations to Robyn Southall for being the recipient of the. ASTA iCubed Science Teacher Award and to Casey Hoynes for being the recipient of the ASTA iCubed Regional Science Teacher Award. We are always proud and grateful to outstanding science teachers who are encouraging young people to participate and thrive in these competitions.
Casey Hoynes STANSW
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News from our State and Territory Associations
See all upcoming SASTA events at www.sasta.asn.au/professional_learning
Early Career Teachers Conference 2026 Shaping the Future: Building Strong Foundations for Early Career Science Teachers Friday 9 October 2026 Registrations are now open for SASTA’s Early Career Teachers Conference, designed for pre-service teachers, early career teachers and educators who are new to teaching science. The conference offers a supportive space to build confidence, connect with other science educators and take away practical ideas that can be used in the classroom. The program includes dedicated primary and secondary sessions, with experienced educators sharing strategies, resources and insights from across the profession. Whether you’re preparing to enter the classroom, finding your feet in your first few years of teaching, or have recently taken on science teaching, the conference is an opportunity to build your professional network and connect with your science teaching community. Registrations are now open. View the program and register: www.sasta.asn.au/professional_learning/early_career_teachers_conference
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News from our State and Territory Associations
See all upcoming SASTA events at www.sasta.asn.au/professional_learning
STEM for an Unwritten Future: Call for Workshops Friday 27 November 2026 | Marden Senior College, Adelaide SASTA, MASA, EdTechSA and DATTA SA are inviting educators and STEM professionals to contribute to the 2026 STEM Conference: STEM for an Unwritten Future. We’re looking for engaging workshops that share ideas, approaches and experiences from across STEM education. Whether you have a practical classroom activity, an innovative teaching approach, a project that brings STEM disciplines together, or insights from industry or research, we’d love to hear from you. The conference brings together educators from across science, mathematics, technologies and design, creating an opportunity to share practice and explore how we can prepare students for a future that is still being written. Workshop submissions close Monday 28 September 2026. Find out more and submit a workshop: www.sasta.asn.au/professional_learning/stem_conference
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News from our State and Territory Associations
See all upcoming STANSW events at stansw.asn.au/learning-events/
Working Scientifically Across 7–12: Building Inquiry, Data Skills and Depth Studies Wednesday 21 October 2026 Facilitator: Rebecca Collett, STANSW Teacher Fellow Date and time: Wednesday 21 October 2026 (10am – 1pm) Duration: Three-hour stand-alone professional learning workshop Mode of Delivery: Live online, via Zoom More info and registration: stansw.asn.au/event/2026-working-scientifically-across-7-12-building-inquiry-data-skills-and-depthstudies/
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News from our State and Territory Associations
See all upcoming STANSW events at stansw.asn.au/learning-events/
2026 STANSW Virtual Forum The STANSW 2026 Virtual Forum: Excelling Science across NSW is an online professional learning series accessible to all science teachers across NSW. Stay ahead of syllabus change with bite-sized, high-impact professional learning designed for primary teachers and high school science teachers across NSW. Delivered in convenient twilight sessions, this virtual forum lets you learn from leading educators and experts, without taking time away from your classes or travelling across the state. Full series tickets are still available, this includes the live sessions for days 2, 3 and 4. You’ll also have access to the full series recordings via the event hub. Alternatively, you can get day 2 tickets, day 3 tickets and day 4 tickets. Day One: Thursday 17 September, 4.30pm – 6.30pm (Recording available) Day Two: Thursday 8 October, 4.30pm – 6.30pm Day Three: Thursday 15 October, 4.30pm – 6.30pm Day Four: Thursday 29 October, 4.30pm – 6.30pm More info: stansw.asn.au/event/2026-virtual-forum-excelling-science-across-nsw-full-series/
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News from our State and Territory Associations
See all upcoming STANSW events at stansw.asn.au/learning-events/
2026 Biology 11 –12 (2025): Unpacking, Programming & Teaching the New Syllabus Facilitator: Rebecca Collett, STANSW Teacher Fellow Date and time: Wednesday 28 October 2026, 2pm – 5pm Duration: Three-hour stand-alone professional learning workshop Mode of Delivery: Live online, via Zoom Audience: Stage 6 Biology teachers, faculty leaders and early-career teachers The Biology 11–12 Syllabus (2025) will introduce significant changes to the structure, content and assessment of Stage 6 Biology. These changes will include a reorganisation of content from eight modules into seven focus areas, revised Working Scientifically outcomes and content, changes to depth study requirements, and strengthened integration of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander perspectives. This workshop will support Biology teachers to understand the key differences between the 2017 and 2025 syllabuses and consider what these changes will mean for programming, teaching, assessment and resource development. More info and registration: stansw.asn.au/event/2026-biology-11-12-2025-unpacking-programming-and-teaching-the-newsyllabus/
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News from our State and Territory Associations
See all upcoming STANSW events at stansw.asn.au/learning-events/
2026 Chemistry 11–12 (2025): Unpacking, Programming & Teaching the New Syllabus Facilitator: Rebecca Collett, STANSW Teacher Fellow Date and time: Wednesday 4 November 2026, 2pm – 5pm Duration: Three-hour stand-alone professional learning workshop Mode of Delivery: Live online, via Zoom Audience: Stage 6 Chemistry teachers, faculty leaders and early-career teachers The new NESA Chemistry 11–12 Syllabus introduces significant changes to the structure, content, assessment and delivery of Stage 6 Chemistry in NSW, with implementation beginning in 2028 and the first HSC examination in 2029. For Chemistry teachers, the challenge is not simply understanding what has changed, but deciding what those changes mean for programming, teaching, assessment and resource development. This practical three hour workshop will support teachers to navigate the new syllabus and begin planning for implementation with greater clarity and confidence. Participants will examine key differences between the 2017 and 2025 syllabuses and consider the implications for teaching Chemistry across Years 11 and 12. More info and registration: stansw.asn.au/event/2026-chemistry-11-12-2025-unpacking-programming-and-teaching-the-newsyllabus/
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News from our State and Territory Associations
See all upcoming STAV events at stav.org.au/events
STAVCON 2026: Beyond the Curriculum Exploring the future of science teaching and learning Tuesday 27 October 2026
University of Melbourne, Parkville Science education is about more than what is written in the curriculum. On Tuesday 27 October, science educators from across Victoria will come together at STAVCON 2026. With the theme Beyond the Curriculum: Exploring the Future of Science Teaching and Learning, STAVCON 2026 will consider how teachers can bring Victorian Curriculum 2.0 to life in ways that spark curiosity, develop critical thinking and prepare students for a rapidly changing world. Sessions will explore emerging priorities and proven approaches in science education, including futurefocused pedagogies, evidence-based teaching practices, interdisciplinary learning, technology and AI, wellbeing, sustainability, equity and authentic real-world connections. From practical classroom strategies to new ideas shaping the future of education, STAVCON is designed to provide teachers with inspiration they can take back into their classrooms – as well as opportunities to connect with colleagues and the wider science education community. Register today: stav.org.au/event/stavcon-2026
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Launching catapults across the primary STEM curriculum Jane Watson, Noleine Fitzallen, Bruce Duncan and Caroline Smith Introduction The construction of catapults is often used to engage primary and secondary students in an engineering challenge in the Science classroom as a means of addressing STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) education outcomes. Activities include working with readily obtainable materials such as rubber bands, ice-cream sticks, and tape with the aim of making a catapult that can throw light objects the furthest. Such activities address the goal of engaging students in the engineering design process but often, improvements made in the re-design stage, are made on a trial-and-error basis. Including data collection and analysis via the statistical investigation process – as described in a catapult activity implemented with Year 4 students reported in this article – adds the opportunity for students to make evidence-based decisions rather than making changes on an ad hoc basis. This article explores catapults as a useful context to illustrate the opportunities for activities based on the three strands of the Science curriculum and their close links to the Statistics component of the Mathematics curriculum, as well as to Technology and Engineering. It then extends to considering the opportunities for pre-service teachers.
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Catapults: context for learning The word 'catapult' is a general term that refers to a range of devices designed to throw objects. The most familiar are the siege machines used in ancient warfare, which have a fascinating history stretching over 2500 years, and are still employed in various fields today. The most famous simple form of a catapult is probably the slingshot David used to kill the giant, Goliath—a story from the Bible, where David is said to have used a rock as a projectile, which hit Goliath in the head (1 Samuel 17:50-53) (Figure 1).
Often, students only learn that catapults have been used for battle and warfare. Exploring this aspect of catapult history allows students to understand their use and development as a technology. There are, however, many opportunities for students to reflect on other, more peaceful applications. In a similar vein, Hourigan and Leavy (2020) challenged Year 6 students to make decisions about using catapults to deliver food to stranded campers across a swollen river to motivate a STEM investigation. In this activity the aim was to determine which of two different sized boxes of food had a better chance of making it across the flooded river. Integrated activities of this nature can readily be adapted for all levels of compulsory years of schooling.
Figure 1. David hits Goliath with a stone from a slingshot. (https://www.christianity.com/wiki/ people/who-was-goliath-in-the-bible-what-s-thestory-of-this-giant-philistine.html)
Connections to the curriculum Describing the catapult activity for Year 4 students, starts by exploring the topic of catapults across the three sub-strands of the Science curriculum: Science Understanding, Science as a Human Endeavour, and Science Inquiry (Australian Curriculum v9.0; Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority [ACARA], 2025) (see Figure 2), then moves to other learning areas across the Primary Curriculum, in particular, Statistics within the Mathematics curriculum. It also considers the connections among the STEM disciplines.
Figure 2. Strands of the Australian Curriculum: Science (ACARA, 2025)
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Within the 'Science Understanding' strand, students first learn about forces as pushes or pulls in Year 1, where they also associate force with movement. In Year 4, the learning area of Physical Sciences asks students to 'identify how forces can be exerted by one object on another and investigate the effect of frictional, gravitational and magnetic forces on the motion of objects' (ACARA, 2025; AC9S4U03). Although energy storage and transfer, important for full understanding of the mechanism of a catapult, are not addressed formally until Year 8 (i.e., 'classify different types of energy as kinetic or potential and investigate energy transfer and transformations in simple systems'; ACARA, 2025; AC9S8U05), an intuitive understanding of the concept of energy transfer in a catapult in Year 4 provides a useful advance organiser for studying this topic in detail in later years. The 'Science as a Human Endeavour' strand enables students to understand that science is a creative and collaborative process that involves people from many cultures and backgrounds. It recognises that science is influenced by society and culture, as well as noting that its concepts can be used to solve real-world problems. For the third strand of Science, 'Science Inquiry,' students learn how to collect and analyse data to answer questions, making a natural link to the 'Statistics' component within the Mathematics curriculum (ACARA, 2025). In fact, both learning areas use identical processes for investigations, the only difference being the more specific mention of 'natural and physical phenomena' in the Science curriculum. This is relevant because statistics is best learned in meaningful contexts, where students can see where data comes from and how it is used to answer questions (Zieffler et al., 2008). Science investigations can provide the impetus to motivate discovery, illustrate how and why statistical processes can be used, and motivate students to apply their learning more broadly across the curriculum. The Australian Curriculum: Mathematics (ACARA, 2025) recognises these parallel cognitive processes by distinguishing the components of the statistical investigation process as either in the 'real world' or the 'maths world'.
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Further STEM connections in the curriculum The increased focus on STEM in recent years has motivated research on how primary students can work within integrated STEM contexts (e.g., Hourigan & Leavy, 2020; Fitzallen et al., 2019). Specifically in relation to the catapult activity discussed here, in the Australian Curriculum (ACARA, 2025) the achievement standard for Year 4 Science includes '… identify forces acting on objects and describe their effect'; '… explain the role of data in science inquiry'; and 'identify key elements of fair tests.' Similarly, for the achievement standard for Year 3/4 Digital Technologies, 'students process and represent data for different purposes.' For the achievement standard for Year 3/4 Design and Technologies: Engineering principles and systems, 'students plan and sequence steps and use technologies and techniques to safely produce designed solutions,' as well as 'describe how forces and the properties of materials affect function in a product or system (AC9TDE4K02).' This connection to the 'engineering design process' is expanded by Ward et al. (2016), again reflecting the Science Inquiry process in Figure 2. For Year 4 Mathematics: Statistics, students 'conduct statistical investigations … record and display data using digital tools; interpret the data and communicate the results (AC9M4ST03)'. Hence, the Australian Curriculum v9.0 specifically supports the opportunity to link data and early analysis skills across the STEM curriculum by Year 4. Inspired by the enthusiasm of Fitzgerald (2001) and Surles et al. (2011) for catapults, the activity described here implemented in a Year 4 classroom integrates the Science and Statistics elements in the Australian Curriculum. Learning about the topics of force and energy to launch a ping pong ball from a catapult (Science understanding) is part of the activity. However, without the challenge/ opportunity to 'improve' the catapult to toss an object further, involving aspects of Technology and Engineering, the Science Inquiry process and the Statistical investigation process would not be complete. Figure 3 highlights the elements of STEM that are integrated into the activity.
Figure 3. Elements of STEM integrated into the catapult activity
Students’ Prior Experience of Data-based Activities The students who took part in the catapult activity had experienced three data-based activities previously in a project related to enhancing STEM learning in primary classrooms. In Year 3, they considered variation in detail as they created 'licorice sticks' from playdough by two methods— by hand and by machine—using the same data measurement criteria (e.g., Chick et al., 2018; Watson et al., 2020). They also were supported by providing special graphs to record data collected on the effect of insulation on the rate of cooling of hot water in plastic cups placed in cold water (e.g., Fitzallen et al., 2017). At the beginning of Year 4, the students devised questions for a survey of other students in the project, who lived in another Australian city, to share and compare characteristics of their respective lifestyles (e.g., Watson et al., 2019). Common to all these activities were opportunities for students to experience collecting data for themselves and combining their data with data collected by the rest of the class. Also inherent in all the activities was the comparison of two or more sets of class data.
The Catapult Activity The catapult activity implemented with Year 4 students utilised a device that would be considered a mangonel. For the purposes of the activity, the devices were referred to using the general term, catapult. This was done to take advantage of the students’ familiarity with the term catapult, to provide a learning context within which they could engage readily. The catapult activity took place across Terms 3 and 4 of the Year 4 school year. Because of the complexity of the plan, which was both to investigate and analyse the catapult’s operation and then to 'improve' the catapult’s performance, the activity was conducted in two stages. The first stage of the activity took place in Term 3 to provide the basic understanding of the working of the catapult in terms of the energy and force associated with the launching of ping pong balls. The catapult, as seen in Figure 4, was assembled by a member of the research team in front of the students. During the introduction, the process of operating the catapult was discussed: (i) T he throwing arm is pulled back and held in place with a finger on the spoon. (ii ) A ping pong ball is placed so that it sits on the spoon. (iii) T he spoon is released by moving the finger and the ping pong ball is launched.
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Figure 4. The catapult provided for the students (Photo taken by Bruce Duncan)
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The demonstration of the construction of the catapult included a discussion of twisting the string encompassing the throwing arm. Pulling back the throwing arm adds a force to the throwing arm, which increases the energy stored in the device. Letting go of the throwing arm releases the energy to fling the ping pong ball into the air. The students can reason that twisting the string more times increases the energy and force and, therefore, the distance the ball can be thrown. The students agreed that each catapult should have the same number of twists to be able to compare their data, from a 'fair test' perspective.
This variation meant that, rather than measuring performance with a single value, the students had to manage a data set that represented their catapult’s performance.
Given the investigation, 'How can we improve our catapult?', the activity was used to reinforce the emerging understanding of the statistical inquiry process, the Practice of Statistics (cf. Bargagliotti et al., 2020; Watson et al., 2018). To observe a potential improvement in their catapult’s performance, each group needed to measure the distance the ball was thrown before and after the improvement. In collecting the data, students realised that their catapult would not throw the ball the same distance each time.
There was much class discussion on minimising variation by making launching consistent, and on how to measure the distance travelled accurately. Each catapult was placed at the end of a measuring tape that was held in position on the floor. In their groups, each member launched four trials, as seen in Figure 5, while other members placed sticky labels on the tape measure where each ping pong ball landed.
The process followed the following steps: • Posing the research questions • How can we measure the catapult’s performance? (How far does the ping pong ball travel?) • How consistent is the launching process? • Planning and collect data
• Analysing the data
• Reaching a conclusion
Initially each student collected the data in a table and created their own representation of the 12 data values from the group by hand (see Figure 6). These were shared with others in the class, with much discussion of the different representations and the variation displayed in the data (cf. Fitzallen et al., 2018). As well, the class data were entered into TinkerPlots (Konold & Miller, 2015) to allow for different representations of whole class data to be explored and promote a class discussion of the variation shown, as seen in Figure 7.
The various representations were used to reach a conclusion on how far the ping pong ball was thrown and the consistency achieved. The variation in the data collected required the students to consider a level of uncertainty/probability in their statements of their catapult's performance. This also presented the opportunity to introduce the idea of a measure of central tendency as the distance that the catapult was most likely to throw a ping pong ball.
Figure 5. Carrying out trials in the school hall (Photos taken by Suzie Wright, with permission)
Figure 6. Hand drawn representation from three students for their groups (Photos taken by Suzie Wright, with permission)
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Figure 7. Distance travelled by ping pong balls for one class in TinkerPlots After a class discussion of what the 'expected' or
Figure 8. Class testing their launching distance expectation (Photo taken by Suzie Wright, with permission)
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most likely distance travelled for the class would be, the class was arranged in a circle of that radius around a small tub of water, and each student given the opportunity to launch one ping pong ball to try to reach the tub, as seen in Figure 8. This fun activity acted as an application of each group’s measure of central tendency. In practice, it also reinforced the need to consider variation, as only two students were successful in landing their ping pong balls in the tub. This experience was also used to reinforce understanding of the variation shown in the representation in Figure 7.
In Term 4, the activity began by reviewing the initial trials, including a discussion of how the ball’s
They were instructed to carry out the trials as they had done in Term 3, carefully firing, measuring, and
movement was the result of a force, and that the energy needed to apply that force is stored in the wound-up string (torsion bundle). There was also reinforcement of the idea of carrying out a 'fair test', ensuring that only one aspect of the catapult setup is changed. Students appreciated that changing more than one aspect would make it impossible to determine which aspect had caused the observed change in performance. This is a key concept in the design of a science experiment. The operation of the catapult was carefully reviewed, and the students were given the same catapults to work with.
recording data of the catapult’s performance before any improvement was made. After initial trials were completed and data recorded as before, the students were tasked with answering two additional research questions: • How can we improve the catapult? • How much better is it? The students understood intuitively that the tighter the string, the more energy was stored, and consequently, the greater the force applied to the ping pong ball when the throwing arm was pulled back and released.
Therefore, the catapults were improved by increasing the tension on the string. To keep the test as fair as possible, each group was supervised to increase the string’s tension by the same amount, reasoned to correlate to the number of turns. The number of turns was agreed, and each group appointed a member to carefully carry out the change. The improved performance of the catapults was then determined as before. At the end of the data collection, students each had two sheets of paper with the data recorded from the two trials. There followed class discussion on what changes had occurred in the distances the students observed in their data, and again many comments were made about the variation seen in the data. The research team then collected the
The second day of the Term 4 activity took place in the school’s computer lab where each student had access to a file of their group’s data to create a representation of the change in distance experienced with the increase of the force launching the ping pong balls. As an introduction, students were shown how to create a basic plot from the data cards, colour multiple variables, and manipulate the graphical representation of the data in some way to indicate the change that took place over the two trials. The range of the student creations is seen in Figure 9, illustrating not only the variation in the data, but also the wide range of variation in the creations to tell the story of how a catapult works.
recording sheets and entered the data for each group in TinkerPlots.
Figure 9. Initial student representation of their group data for fair test trials (Photos taken by Suzie Wright, with permission)
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Also, the class data were combined and shown to students in two formats in TinkerPlots to illustrate the opportunities for representation (Figure 10). There was considerable discussion of the increased variation shown in the second trials, with students appreciating that although they were very careful in increasing the turns in the pegs, increasing the tension in the string had compounded the variation that they had discussed from the initial trials. Various anecdotes were told by students such as how a mis-launching of the ping pong ball resulted in it going straight up in the air and landing only 20 cm from the start. This led to the introduction and discussion of the term 'outlier'.
Figure 10. TinkerPlots representation for one class’s data after the two sets of trials In concluding the activity, it was felt important to express explicitly with the students and teachers how the activity demonstrated both the potential and the necessity to integrate the STEM disciplines. This is illustrated in Figure 11, expanded from Figure 3, where the progress through the activity was highlighted by the research questions that the students explored. The importance of Mathematics, and in particular Data Analysis, is in building understandings that will transfer across other Science, Technology, and Engineering contexts. Hopefully, there will be times when the students say, 'Oh yes, we analysed data like this in Year 4!'.
Figure 11. The relationships and opportunities across the STEM disciplines
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A month after the activity, 36 students were interviewed about their experience. To complete the fair test investigation, students had to reason about what variation was caused by the increased string tension. The analysis of the interviews showed students had an increased appreciation of three aspects of variation that are important in statistical investigations and were highlighted by the STEM activity (Watson et al., 2023). First, was the contextual variation, related to the personal relationship with the experiments and to the general opportunities provided by TinkerPlots. Second, was the specific variation that came from analysing the data using the software graphical representations (e.g., location, range, and outliers). Third, was the general variation related to the overall distribution and spread, and use of the language of approximation to describe their uncertainty when analysing the data.
Pre-service Teachers Wherever possible, it is important for pre-service teachers to carry out activities that are also being used in the classroom (e.g., Smith et al., 2019). As part of a first year Master of Teaching program, in small tutorial groups, pre-service primary teachers were given the opportunity to carry out the same Catapult activity from three perspectives, to gain experience in modelling teaching approaches that were appropriate for primary-aged children. In their Science and Technology Education unit, the pre-service teachers were introduced to the catapults and encouraged to explore the potential for changing aspects, or variables, that might affect each catapult’s performance. For each variable, they were asked to predict what affect it would have and why they thought that, thus engaging in engineering design as an application of science understanding. These pre-service teachers also had to present evidence in their investigation, in the form of data, which required the application of their understanding of statistics. Figure 12 shows the preservice teachers in their Science and Technology Education unit creating, launching, and adjusting the catapults to try to make them go further.
Figure 12. Pre-service teachers carrying out the catapult activity in the Primary Science and Technology Education unit (Photos taken by Jane Watson, with permission)
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In the following semester, the same pre-service primary teachers revisited the catapults as an activity in their second Mathematics unit. With the focus on the Mathematics curriculum, they analysed the Catapult activity for opportunities to explore Geometry in the function of the rectangular shaped base to distribute force evenly between the two cross pieces. Also, the importance of right angles that make a stable structure in the four rectangular prisms that make up the base was emphasised. Measurement was investigated in the design of a procedure for determining the distance thrown, and Statistics was used to analyse and interpret data sets as evidence of their catapults’ changed performance.
Some of the pre-service teachers also had the opportunity to visit a local primary school for a day where they carried out the activity with several classes, thus being able to teach what they had experienced in their university classes in an authentic school setting. In this situation, each group of school students was allowed to choose what specific aspect of the catapult’s setup they would change and then compare the results to decide if the desired change had been achieved. As well as tightening the string, options included throwing heavier objects, changing the length of the throwing arm, and removing the stopping bar. Figure 13 shows a pre-service teacher demonstrating the process and a group of three students conducting a launch.
Figure 13. Moving into a primary school classroom (Photos taken by Bruce Duncan, with permission)
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Concluding Remarks The outcomes of the Catapult activity with Year 4 students showed that young students can make evidence-based decisions using data collected from hands-on experiences with catapults. It also showed that the students can describe and discuss the aspects of forces and energy related to the performance of a catapult from an intuitive perspective to create a story of how a catapult works. As a context for learning about forces and energy in later years of compulsory education, the Catapult activity has great potential for developing and extending students’ understanding of these science concepts. It also has the potential to motivate pre-service teacher educators to include data collection across the curriculum, as advocated by the American Statistical Association (Franklin et al., 2015). There are many further questions which could be posed for discussion related to this activity, with both students and pre-service teachers when ageappropriate and relevant to the curriculum. These are specifically related to Energy, Force, Velocity, and Acceleration, and further links can be made to famous historical personalities, such as Joule and Newton.
Acknowledgement Thanks go to Suzie Wright and Ben Kelly, who provided valuable classroom support when implementing the Catapult activity and in analysing the data collected as part of the research.
About the Authors Prof Jane Watson is Professor Emerita in Mathematics Education in the School of Education, University of Tasmania. Her interest is statistics education across the curriculum. Assoc Prof Noleine Fitzallen is an Adjunct Statistics Education Researcher at the Peter Underwood Centre for Educational Attainment, University of Tasmania. Dr Bruce Duncan is a Lecturer in Mathematics and Science Education in the School of Education, University of Tasmania. He often works with local schools doing hands-on science activities. Dr Caroline Smith is an Adjunct Senior Lecturer at the University of Tasmania, specialising in Science and Sustainability Teacher Education Research.
References Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority. (2025). Australian Curriculum v9.0. https://v9.australiancurriculum.edu.au/ Bargagliotti, A., Franklin, C., Arnold, P., Gould, R., Johnson, S., Perez, L., & Spangler, D.A. (2020). Pre-K–12 Guidelines for Assessment and Instruction in Statistics Education II (GAISE II). American Statistical Association. https://www.amstat.org/asa/files/pdfs/GAISE/ GAISEIIPreK-12_Full.pdf Chick, H., Watson, J., & Fitzallen, N. (2018). 'Plot 1 is all spread out and Plot 2 is all squished together': Exemplifying statistical variation with young students. In J. Hunter, P. Perger, & L. Darragh (Eds.), Making waves, opening spaces (Proceedings of the 41st annual conference of the Mathematics Education Research Group of Australasia, pp. 218–225). https://merga.net.au/Public/Publications/ Annual_Conference_Proceedings/2018-MERGA-CP. aspx
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Fitzallen, N., Watson, J., & Wright, S. (2017). The heat is on! Using a stylised graph to engender understanding. Australian Primary Mathematics Classroom, 22(2), 3–7. https://search.informit.org/ doi/10.3316/aeipt.218954 Fitzallen, N., Watson, J., Wright, S., & Duncan, B. (2018). Data representations in a STEM context: The performance of catapults. In M. A. Sorto & K. Makar (Eds.), Looking back, looking forward (Proceedings of the 10th International Conference on the Teaching of Statistics, Kyoto, Japan, July 8–14, 2018). International Statistical Institute. https://iase-web.org/icots/10/proceedings/pdfs/ ICOTS10_4B2.pdf. Fitzallen, N., Wright, S., & Watson, J. (2019). Focusing on data: Year 5 students making STEM connections. Journal of Research in STEM Education, 5(1), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.51355/jstem.2019.60 Fitzgerald, M. (2001). Katapultos: Teaching basic statistics with ballistics. Tech Directions, 61(4), 20–23. Franklin, C., Bargagliotti, A., Case, C., Kader, G., Scheaffer, R., & Spangler, D. (2015). Statistical Education of Teachers. American Statistical Association. Konold, C., & Miller, C. D. (2015). TinkerPlots: Dynamic data exploration [Computer software, Version 2.3.2]. Learn Troop. Hourigan, M., & Leavy, A. M. (2020). Using integrated STEM as a stimulus to develop elementary students’ statistical literacy. Teaching Statistics, 42, 77–86. Smith, C., Fitzallen, N., Watson, J., & Wright, S. (2019). The practice of statistics for STEM: Primary students and pre-service primary teachers exploring variation in seed dispersal. Teaching Science, 65(1), 38-47. https://search.informit.org/ doi/10.3316/aeipt.222720
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Surles, W., Crosby, J., McNeil, J., Zarske, M. S., & Samson, C. (2011). Launch into learning: Catapults! College of Engineering and Applied Science, University of Colorado. https://www. teachengineering.org/lessons/view/cub_catapult_ lesson01 Ward, L., Lyden, S., & Fitzallen, N. (2016). Eggstreme egg crashes. Australian Mathematics Teacher, 70(2), 10–15. Watson, J., Fitzallen, N., English, L., & Wright, S. (2020). Introducing statistical variation in year 3 in a STEM context: Manufacturing licorice. International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology, 51(3), 354–387. https://doi.org/10.1080/0020739X.2018.1562117 Watson, J., Fitzallen, N., Fielding-Wells, J., & Madden, S. (2018). The practice of statistics. In D. Ben-Zvi, K. Makar, & J. Garfield (Eds.), International Handbook of Research in Statistics Education (pp. 105–137). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-66195-7_4 Watson, J., Fitzallen, N., & Wright, S. (2019). Practicing statistics in Year 4. In G. Hine, S. Blackley, & A. Cooke (Eds.), Mathematics education research: Impacting practice (Proceedings of the 42nd annual conference of the Mathematics Education Research Group of Australasia, pp. 739–746). MERGA. Watson, J., Fitzallen, N., Wright, S., & Kelly, B. (2023). Characterizing the ways in which young students recognise describe, explain and employ variation when analysing data in a STEM context. International Journal in Science and Mathematics Education, 21, 943–968. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10763-022-10281-7 Zieffler, A., Garfield, J., delMas, R., & Reading, C. (2008). A framework to support research on informal inferential reasoning. Statistics Education Research Journal, 7(2), 40–58. https://doi.org/10.52041/serj.v7i2.469
Fostering Experimental Skills: Intense Hands-On Microbiology activities through Peer Collaboration for High School Students Shruthi Srinath Chakravarthy and Venkata Krishna Bayineni Department of Life Sciences, Prayoga Institute of Education Research, Ravugodlu, Bangalore South, Karnataka, India – 562112 Key words: Microbiology education, high school, hands-on learning, peer collaboration, experimental skill, scientific inquiry skills, microbial diversity Part three of a three-part series.
Abstract Microorganisms play essential roles in healthcare, food production, and environmental management, making their study crucial for understanding impacts on food safety, spoilage, and disease prevention. This research introduces hands-on activities designed for high school students (aged 14-15) to explore microbial growth and diversity. This workshop was conducted with seven Grade 8 students as part of an outreach program by the Prayoga Institute of Education Research, Bangalore, India. It was facilitated by experts in microbiology. Aimed at fostering awareness and critical thinking in microbiology, the workshop engaged students in investigating microorganisms from various indoor and outdoor samples, observing colony morphology and studying their roles in fermentation, spoilage, and foodborne disease prevention. Peer collaboration was encouraged to enhance learning, reflecting the benefits of student-led interactions. The data was collected through direct observation, activity reports, and reflective writing to assess experimental skills and concept understanding. A five-level rubric, adapted from Yoshihiro et al. (2017) was used to evaluate students’ progress. Results indicated significant improvement in their ability to plan, conduct, and analyse experiments, deepening their knowledge of microbial diversity, fermentation processes, hygiene, and food safety. Reflective writing provided insights into misconceptions, allowing instructors to refine instruction. Students reported enjoyment and improved lab skills, suggesting that early exposure to active microbiology learning can effectively build scientific literacy and interest in related academic and career paths.
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Figure 1. Study design
Introduction High school students frequently look up to scientists with great admiration, but their enthusiasm often diminishes when it comes to actually studying science (Swarat et al., 2012). This disconnect may be due to the complexity of subjects like biology, which requires substantial memorization and understanding of intricate concepts (Crispim et al., 2020). In most countries around the world, the primary method for studying biology is through reading textbooks (Sithole et al., 2017). However, biology presents a unique challenge as it requires a significant amount of memorization and understanding of intricate concepts, which can make the subject seem daunting and less appealing to students. This complexity can hinder their interest and engagement, making it harder for them to fully appreciate the subject's value and relevance (Crispim et al., 2020).
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Microorganisms are ubiquitous, inhabiting diverse environments like soil, water, and the human body. They surpass plants and animals in species diversity and biomass, playing vital roles in Earth's biogeochemical cycles (Pedrinaci et al., 2013). Additionally, microbes are essential in industries such as food, medicine, sewage treatment, and biofuels, underscoring their importance in both ecosystems and human applications (Waites et al., 2001). Despite their ubiquity, high school students often view microorganisms as little more than invisible agents of disease or food spoilage, without grasping their omnipresence and essential roles in ecosystems and human life (Crispim et al., 2020; Lago et al., 2022). This limited perspective may stem from a lack of understanding, causing some students to overlook the broader importance of microorganisms. The post-COVID-19 era presents a critical opportunity to reshape this view, as negative perceptions may have become more ingrained. A key educational challenge lies in preventing the crystallization of this mindset in young people. To counteract this, teaching should
provide a balanced, comprehensive understanding of microorganisms, helping students appreciate their crucial role in everyday life and on Earth (Raichvarg, 1995). Therefore, the examination and description of the microbes found in different environments are crucial to understanding the major biological processes in our biosphere. By introducing active learning experiences during formative years, we can address misconceptions and foster a more accurate and informed perspective on microbiology, preparing students for future academic and career opportunities (Jones & Rua, 2006; Handelsman et al., 2004). Microbiology education across the globe varies significantly in terms of teaching methodologies. In many cases, the focus has traditionally been on rote learning and factual instruction (Struwig et al., 2016). Even at the undergraduate level, students frequently encounter the subject through textbooks, illustrations, and basic laboratory experiments, which may not foster deep engagement or critical thinking (Duncan et al., 2011). When students can relate microbiological concepts to their daily lives, they are more likely to find the material engaging and relevant. This approach not only enhances microbiology education but can also enrich broader scientific learning (Lloyd & Berry, 2022). In addition to traditional teaching methods, educators and researchers have explored various alternative strategies. Digital games, for example, have gained traction as an educational tool. These games often include engaging narratives that immerse students in the subject matter, making learning more enjoyable and potentially leading to better retention of knowledge (Bowling et al., 2013; Miller et al., 2004). Such interactive methods, when integrated into the curriculum, create a dynamic and effective learning environment that fosters exploration and critical thinking (Rowe et al., 2011). Hands-on laboratory work plays a crucial role in developing students’ experimental skills and scientific understanding, especially during their formative years in education. Research shows that peer interaction significantly enhances learning (Topping, 2017). The concrete operational stage of
cognitive development, typically between the ages of 10-12, is when students begin to grasp scientific concepts more effectively through observation and experimentation. Laboratory activities not only reinforce theoretical knowledge but also enhance critical skills such as planning, equipment handling, and result analysis (Piaget, 1976). Several studies have emphasized the importance of structured evaluation methods to track and improve students’ experimental abilities. For instance, rubrics have been increasingly used to provide standardized assessment criteria, ensuring a consistent measurement of skills across various experimental domains. This study employs a fivelevel rubric developed by Yoshihiro et al. (2017) to evaluate the progression of students’ experimental competencies through a series of laboratory exercises. Activity-based learning has become a cornerstone of modern science education. Educators around the globe are employing a variety of strategies, ranging from small-scale experimental activities to comprehensive project-based learning (Kokotsaki et al., 2016; Lux, 2002). These hands-on approaches to teaching science not only enhance students' understanding of complex concepts but also help them develop essential soft skills such as problem-solving, teamwork, and communication (Bourner et al., 2001). In addition to hands-on and practical learning experiences, incorporating reflective writing encourages learners to recall and evaluate their learning processes. This not only enhances critical thinking but also fosters metacognitive awareness, enabling students to recognize and develop their own learning strategies (Al-Rawahi & Al-Balushi, 2015). Reflective activities support the internalization of scientific concepts and allow learners to connect theory with real-world applications. Research also shows that experiential learning environments can significantly increase students' interest and engagement in science, science inquiry skills, ultimately fostering a deeper appreciation for the subject (Ash et al., 2005).
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Building on this foundation, involving high school students in hands-on activities and projectbased learning can deepen their understanding of microbial growth, its significance, and its many applications. By engaging directly with the subject matter, students can gain insights into the roles of microorganisms in areas such as body flora, food fermentation, disease prevention, and food preservation (Petersen & Chan, 2020). This research article introduces three specific activities designed to allow students to explore microbial growth in various real-world contexts, helping them appreciate the broader implications of microbiology in both scientific and everyday settings. This workshop adheres with microbiology teaching best practices outlined in the Science ASSIST guidelines, produced by the Australian Science Teachers Association (ASTA). These guidelines emphasize safe, inquiry-based, hands-on activities, and our workshop fully complies with them.
Learning objectives
Learning Time Overview
1. Recognize the ubiquity of microorganisms and understand their colony morphology and types.
The entire activity spans 4 hours, with sampling kits and an introduction to the experiments distributed the day before. It is divided into three sections (Figure 2):
2. Comprehend the applications of microorganisms in food production and fermentation. 3. Explain the significance of hygiene and proper food handling to prevent spoilage and disease spread.
Figure 2. Learning time overview
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Day 1 1.Microbial Diversity (Exercise 1): A 1-hour session where students collect swabs, plant, water, soil, and plate exposure samples and transfer them to agar plates. 2.Microbiology in Industry (Exercise 2): A 1-hour session where students test milk, grapes, and bread fermentation and study the effect of antibiotics on common bacteria like E. coli through inoculation and incubation. 3.Food spoilage, preservation and disease prevention (Exercise 3): A 1-hour activity analysing microbial content in fresh and spoiled bananas, tomatoes, preserved and raw milk, and washed/unwashed hands.
Day 2 The second phase focuses on result observation, analysis, and reporting. On Day 2 (30 min), students will analyse bacterial load, morphological features of bacterial colonies, the zone of inhibition, and sensory attributes of milk and curd. Students particularly interested in bacterial growth can be asked to select and inoculate one bacterial isolate on Day 2 to study growth patterns and calculate generation time (1 day, approx. 8–10 hours). Students will need to read absorbance every hour until they get two consecutive stable readings. The total time required for this will depend on the selected bacterial isolate.
Day 5 On Day 5 (30 min), yeast/mould count and alcohol percentage in fermented wine will be evaluated.
Reflective writing exercise After completion of each exercise, students were asked to fill out their reflection questionnaire. The reflective questions for each exercise were thoughtfully designed to assess and enhance students' critical thinking
skills and understanding of microbiological concepts using keywords from Bloom’s revised taxonomy.
Intended Audience This laboratory activity was designed for a year 8 and 9 biology class and is ideal for students with no prior experience in microbiological laboratory work. It is well-suited for classes of up to 35 students in 5 batches.
Interactive lectures to orient the students A day before the activity, two preparatory sessions are conducted to introduce students to key microbiology concepts and basic laboratory techniques. The first session covers the classification and diversity of microorganisms—bacteria, archaea, fungi, and viruses—highlighting their interactions with humans and the environment. Students learn about the beneficial applications of microbes in food production (fermentation, probiotics), healthcare (antibiotics, vaccines), agriculture (soil fertility, pest control), biofuel production, bioremediation, and water treatment. The session also addresses the negative impacts of microbes, including food contamination, spoilage, and disease, emphasizing strategies for preventing foodborne illnesses and infections through hygiene and safe food handling practices. This provides students with a balanced view of the roles microbes play in human health and industry. The second session focuses on essential laboratory techniques, such as aseptic methods to prevent contamination, and common microbial culturing techniques like the spread plate method. Students are introduced to various culture media, including Violet Red Bile Agar (VRBA) for coliform detection, Nutrient Agar (NA) for bacterial growth, and Yeast Glucose Chloramphenicol Agar (YEGCA) for yeast and mould counts. Additionally, they practice simple and Gram staining methods to differentiate bacteria by cell wall structure
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and are introduced to bacterial growth curves, turbidimetric measurements, fermentation tests, and alcohol concentration analysis, offering a comprehensive blend of theoretical and practical microbiology skills.
Instructions for Teachers Teachers conducting these exercises should have a solid grasp of basic microbiology techniques and be well-versed in aseptic laboratory practices. This includes proficiency in microbial culturing, staining, and identification, along with the ability to handle microorganisms without introducing contamination. Mastery of aseptic techniques is critical, especially for procedures like inoculation and maintaining sterile environments during experiments. In addition to technical expertise, instructors should be adept at troubleshooting common laboratory issues, ensuring correct equipment use, and effectively teaching students how to follow safety protocols and aseptic procedures.
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Teachers should also guide students through experiments, help interpret microbial growth results, and emphasize the significance of sterility and precision in microbiological research. Maintaining sterile conditions throughout these exercises is essential for the successful execution of microbial experiments. Teachers must take standard precautions when preparing materials. Data collection worksheets should be distributed before the start of the activities to guide students in recording their observations. The materials and equipment needed for one batch of students for various activities, along with a brief overview of protocols, are outlined in tables 1, 2, 4 and 7. The detailed protocols for conducting the experiments are introduced to students during interactive lectures. These detailed instructions, along with worksheets, are also distributed to the students.
Exercise III: Food Spoilage, Food Storage and Disease Prevention This exercise introduces students to key concepts in food safety, focusing on food spoilage, food storage, and disease prevention. By examining fresh and spoiled samples of bananas and tomatoes, students explore the microbial factors responsible for food spoilage and contamination, leading to food poisoning. The activity also highlights various food preservation techniques, including the use of heat and cooling to inhibit microbial growth. Additionally, the exercise emphasizes the critical role of hygiene in preventing diseases caused by microorganisms. This hands-on approach helps students understand the real-world implications of microbiology in maintaining food safety and public health (Jay et al., 2005).
Preparation for the exercise Provide fresh milk, fresh and spoiled tomato and banana, and hand sanitiser along with collection kits.
Methodology Part I: Food spoilage Students investigate food spoilage by swabbing a fresh tomato and banana before and after rotting (Table 7). After 20 hours of incubation, they measure CFU and analyse colony morphology, including colour, diameter, elevation, and form. Part II: Food preservation Students test boiling and freezing for food preservation, assessing effectiveness by measuring pH changes, gas production, spoilage smell, and lump formation (Table 7). Part III: Importance of hygiene in disease prevention Students culture swabs from unwashed, washed, and sanitized hands to compare CFU and morphology, assessing the effectiveness of different hand hygiene methods (Table 7). They record data on standardized worksheets, incubate the plates, and record observations as discussed in Exercise 1 (Part I).
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Table 7. Evaluation techniques for Eeffectiveness of food preservation and hygiene practices
Sample
Sample preparation and incubation Materials required
Food spoilage
Add approximately
Fresh and spoiled
1 g of sample in 9mL sterile diluent tubes and then inoculate to NA, VRBA and YEGCA plates using spread plate technique
Preservation by heat
1. Incubate 10 mL each of raw and boiled milk in test tubes with Durham tubes at room temperature for 24 hours.
tomato, fresh and spoiled banana
Raw milk
Boiled milk
Preservation by cold Raw milk
Importance of hygiene Swab: unwashed hands; hands washed with soap and water; hands sanitized with antibacterial gel.
2. Place 10 mL of raw milk in a test tube with Durham tube and refrigerate at 4 °C for 24 hours.
Fresh and spoiled tomato and banana 4 NA plates 4 VRBA plates 4 YEGCA plates 3 test tubes with cap 3 Durham tubes pH paper Milk Refrigerator
3. Observe gas production in the Durham tubes and assess samples for spoilage smell, acidity using pH paper, and lump formation.
Collect the swabs of the entire palm using a fresh sterile cotton swab and inoculate to NA, VRBA and YEGCA plates using the spread plate technique.
4 Sterile swabs 4 NA plates 4 VRBA plates 4 YEGCA plates
Experimental results: Part I: Food spoilage Food spoilage occurs when microbial activity or chemical changes degrade food quality, making it unsafe or undesirable for consumption. Understanding food spoilage is crucial for ensuring food safety, preventing waste, and developing preservation methods. Learning about spoilage helps students grasp the importance of proper food handling, storage, and microbial control in maintaining food quality and extending shelf life. Table 8 presents a comprehensive microbial analysis of fresh and spoiled tomatoes and bananas, assessing total bacterial count (TBC), coliforms, and yeast and mould count (YMC). In fresh tomatoes, students reported a moderate TBC of 1130 CFU/g, minimal coliform contamination with two types of colonies, and a YMC of 280 CFU/g with four types of yeast and mould colonies. In contrast, spoiled tomatoes exhibited significantly higher microbial contamination, with a TBC that was "Too Numerous to Count" (TNTC), Total coliform (TC) levels also marked as TNTC with three colony types, and a YMC of 260 CFU/g across eight colony types, indicating extensive fungal
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contamination. Similarly, fresh bananas had a low TBC of 100 CFU/g, with only one coliform colony type at 30 CFU/g and no detectable yeast or mould. However, spoiled bananas showed elevated contamination, with a high TBC, coliforms, and a YMC of 180 CFU/g and nine colony types (Figure 7). Figure 7. Sample-specific microbial images showing Total Bacterial Count (TBC), Total Coliform (TC), and Yeast and Mould Count (YMC) in fresh and spoiled food samples
Table 8. Comparative Microbial Counts and Colony Types in Fresh vs. Spoiled Foods, Reported by Students
Samples
Total Bacterial Count
Total Coliforms
Yeast and mould count
CFU/g
No. of CFU/g colony types
No. of CFU/g colony types
Fresh tomato
1130
2
0
0
280
4
Spoiled tomato
Bacterial load
3
TNTC
3
260
8
Fresh Banana
100
1
30
1
0
0
1
TNTC
2
180
9
Spoiled Banana
TNTC
No. of colony types
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These findings illustrate the dramatic increase in microbial load and diversity in spoiled produce compared to fresh samples, underscoring the importance of proper storage to prevent spoilage and contamination. Spoiled produce is prone to higher microbial proliferation, which could pose significant risks for foodborne illnesses (Ravindran & Jaiswal, 2019). Part II: Food preservation Food preservation refers to the processes used to prevent food spoilage and extend shelf life, ensuring that food remains safe and nutritious for consumption. Understanding preservation techniques—such as refrigeration, drying, canning, and fermentation—helps minimize waste and maintain food quality. Learning about these methods is crucial for food safety, reducing health risks associated with spoiled foods, and enhancing food security. Additionally, knowledge of preservation techniques can inform sustainable practices in food production and consumption. Students conducted a comparative analysis of two milk preservation techniques, specifically boiling (heat treatment) and refrigeration (cold treatment), to evaluate their effectiveness in mitigating spoilage indicators such as pH changes, gas production, odour, and lump formation under different incubation temperatures.
The results revealed that boiled milk stored at room temperature (RT) maintained a neutral pH, indicating freshness, with no gas production in the Durham tube, which suggests minimal microbial activity. Furthermore, the absence of spoilage odour and lump formation demonstrated that boiling effectively preserves milk by significantly reducing or eliminating microbial content, aligning with findings by Dash et al. (2022) regarding the efficacy of heat treatments in extending milk shelf life. In contrast, raw milk stored at RT exhibited an acidic pH, indicative of fermentation or other microbial activities, as evidenced by gas production in the Durham tube and the presence of spoilage odour and lump formation. This underscores the rapid spoilage of raw milk at room temperature due to the proliferation of spoilage microorganisms, consistent with the observations of O’Connell et al. (2016). Conversely, raw milk stored at four degrees Celsius retained a neutral pH and exhibited no gas production, odour, or lump formation, suggesting that refrigeration effectively inhibits spoilage by limiting microbial growth. These findings highlight the critical role of preservation techniques in enhancing milk quality and shelf life (Table 9).
Table 9. Effectiveness of food preservation methods (heat vs. cold treatments) on microbial growth, based on student reports
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Preservation Technique
Heat treatment
No treatment
Cold treatment
Sample
Boiled milk
Raw milk
Raw milk
Incubation temperature
Room temperature
Room temperature
40 C
pH (colour change)
Neutral
Acidic
Neutral
Gas production (Durham’s tube)
No
Gas produced
No
Spoilage smell
No
Yes
No
Lumps formation
No
Yes
No
Part III: Importance of hygiene in disease prevention Maintaining proper hygiene is crucial for preventing the spread of diseases, as it minimizes the risk of infection by eliminating pathogens from surfaces, hands, and food. Good hygiene practices, such as regular handwashing and sanitation, are essential in breaking the chain of transmission for contagious diseases. Furthermore, hygiene education plays a vital role in public health initiatives, empowering individuals and communities to adopt healthy habits (Priyadarsini, 2024). Overall, promoting hygiene is a fundamental strategy in reducing illness and improving overall health outcomes.
The TBC for unwashed hands was recorded as TNTC, indicating a significant level of bacterial contamination. Students identified three types of bacterial colonies, which were described as minuscule, yellow, with entire and irregular edges. Coliform levels were also TNTC, with one colony type noted as minuscule, entire, and yellow. The YMC was measured at 64 CFU/ mL, featuring two colony types that varied in colour (black, yellow, orange, brown) and were moderate in size. These results suggested that unwashed hands harbour a high burden of bacteria, coliforms, and moderate levels of yeast and mould, consistent with findings from previous studies on hand hygiene (Burton et al., 2011) (Figure 8).
Following the exercise, students conducted a microbial analysis of samples taken from unwashed hands, hands washed with soap, and hands sanitized with antibacterial gel. The analysis focused on three key parameters: TBC, TC, and YMC, expressed in colony-forming units per millilitre (CFU/mL) (Table 10).
Figure 8. Microbial analysis images showing Total Bacterial Count (TBC), Total Coliform (TC), and Yeast and Mould Count (YMC) from swabs taken across common hygiene practices
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Table 10. Microbial counts and colony morphologies from samplescollected through various hand hygiene Practices, as reported by students
Total Bacterial Count
Total Coliforms
CFU/g
No. of colony types
CFU/g
No. of colony types
CFU/g
No. of colony types
TNTC
3; minuscule. yellow, entire, irregular
TNTC
1; minuscule, entire, yellow
64
2; moderate, black, yellow, orange, brown, circular
Hands washed 110 with soap
4; yellow and white colonies, circle
10
1; flat, red, only one oval
10
10
Hands sanitized with antibacterial gel
3; medium, filamentous, circular, yellow
460
2; medium, mini, round, clear, grew in groups
0
0
Samples
Unwashed hands
42
240
Yeast and mould count
TNTC: Too Numerous to Count, CFU: Colony Forming Unit
Notably, no yeast or mould colonies were detected (0 CFU/mL).
In contrast, the TBC for hands washed with soap significantly decreased to 110 CFU/mL, with four different colony types observed. Coliform levels dropped dramatically to 10 CFU/mL, with a single flat, red oval colony type. The YMC was also reduced to 10 CFU/ mL, featuring one moderate-sized black colony. These findings highlight that washing hands with soap effectively lowers bacterial and coliform contamination, as well as yeast and mould presence, compared to unwashed hands. Conversely, the TBC for hands sanitized with antibacterial gel was recorded at 240 CFU/mL, with three colony types described as medium, filamentous, circular, and yellow. Coliforms were present at 460 CFU/mL, exhibiting two colony types that were mediumsized, mini, round, and clear, growing in groups.
While antibacterial gels proved effective in eliminating yeast and mould, their effectiveness against bacteria and coliforms was lower compared to handwashing with soap. This underscores the importance of proper hand hygiene practices in effectively reducing microbial load (WHO, 2020). Overall, the results emphasize that while sanitizers have their place in microbial reduction, handwashing remains the most reliable method for minimizing bacterial contamination.
Responses to reflective writing exercise For each reflective question (Q1–Q5), one student response has been highlighted as an example. A summary of all student responses follows these individual examples. Q1. Propose effective ways in which microbial communities can be harnessed to enhance food production. Response by Harshitha – 'Currently we use fermentation to enhance food production' Q2. If bacterial growth was observed on sanitized hands, how would you evaluate the accuracy of the claim 'Kills 99.9% of bacteria' used by many antibacterial hand gel brands? Response by Mukunda – 'Bacteria was clearly visible on our media. Clearly this defies the logic of killing 99% bacteria through hand sanitizers.' Q3. Analyse the potential health impacts of excessive preservative use in food products. Response by Surabhi – 'Our health would drop and we would get sick often.' Q4. Can cold preservation techniques eliminate microorganisms? Explain the mechanisms and limitations of such techniques. Response by Shrirama – 'Yes, in cold temperatures, bacteria can't live. But as an exception, some can live and are called extremophiles.' Q5. Compare spoilage and fermentation in terms of microbial activity and outcomes. How are they different in principle and purpose? Response by Bhargava – 'Spoilage is unintentional and unbeneficial growth of bacteria whereas fermentation is intentional and beneficial.' After completing this exercise, students proposed several strategies to enhance food production through microbial communities. They suggested sterilizing production facilities, employing fermentation techniques, and utilizing microbial products to protect food from harmful microorganisms. Additionally, the students emphasized the importance of isolating beneficial microbes to optimize production processes. However, observations of bacterial growth on sanitized hands led them to question the effectiveness of antibacterial hand gels that claim to "kill 99.9% of bacteria," as some bacteria were still present and multiplied after application. This raised concerns about the potential health impacts of excess preservatives in food, highlighting risks such as illness, organ damage, and the suppression of beneficial bacteria. Students engaged in discussions regarding the efficacy of cold preservation techniques, debating whether these methods kill microorganisms or merely inhibit their growth. They clarified the distinction between fermentation, which occurs under controlled anaerobic conditions for beneficial purposes, and spoilage, which results from the unintended proliferation of harmful microorganisms, leading to food deterioration. This discourse underscores the need for a more nuanced understanding of microbial interactions in food production and preservation.
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Assessment of student learning This workshop was designed with three primary goals: to foster awareness, deepen understanding, and develop reasoning skills in microbiology. Additionally, it aimed to increase student interest in the subject while sharpening their laboratory procedural skills. Throughout the workshop, students also had the opportunity to develop soft skills, such as communication and teamwork, which are essential in scientific research. This activity was not evaluated using traditional pre- and post-tests, as the 8th-grade students had limited prior knowledge of microbiology, making a pretest ineffective for meaningful data collection. Instead, to assess the activity’s impact, students completed a reflective writing exercise consisting of sixteen questions aligned with the learning objectives after the laboratory sessions. Their responses were qualitatively analysed to gauge understanding and engagement. Additionally, their learning was evaluated through direct observations during the activities and analysis of their activity reports. Observing student participation and review of these reports provided valuable insights into their procedural skills, awareness, and reasoning in microbiology. The reflective writing allowed students to express personal insights and thoughts on their tasks, offering a deeper look into their interest and understanding of the subject. This method also helped instructors identify misconceptions during interactive sessions. Comparing these with student reflections provided a holistic view of their learning journey, helping to evaluate both content comprehension and areas needing further clarification.
Experimental skills The experimental skills of students were assessed during the workshop involving seven sets of experiments. These evaluations were conducted using a five-level rubric established by Yoshihiro et al (2017), which measures skills across three main areas: planning and implementation, preparation and operation of equipment, and result analysis. 1.
Planning and Implementation: Students’ ability to design and execute experiments.
2.
reparation of Equipment, Apparatus, and Operation: Students' competence in setting P up and using laboratory equipment.
3.
esult Analysis and Consideration: Students' proficiency in analysing and interpreting R experimental results.
The rubric categorizes student abilities into five evaluation levels: Level 5: Independent experimentation without guidance. Level 4: Occasional reference to the experimental text. Level 3: Regular need for the experimental text. Level 2: Dependence on the text and facilitator’s advice. Level 1: Reliance on text and facilitator’s guidance.
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Initial evaluations using the rubric revealed that students struggled with planning, equipment preparation, and result analysis during the first activity. At the beginning, most students were at Level 1 (Knowledge and Memorize) or Level 2 (Understanding), relying heavily on experimental texts and facilitator support. However, as students progressed through the workshop, their reliance on the facilitator decreased, and they began to require less guidance. By the end of the workshop, many students had achieved Level 4 (Analysis) and Level 5 (Evaluation), demonstrating autonomy in conducting experiments (Figure 9). The laboratory works reinforced learning through direct experimentation, aligning with cognitive development theories that suggest students in the concrete operational stage (ages 10–12) learn better through hands-on experiences (Piaget, 1976). This experiential learning allowed students to understand scientific concepts more deeply, apply them in practical situations, and improve their overall experimental competence. Figure 9. Evaluation results of experimental skills assessed using rubric criteria
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Discussion Microorganisms are essential to life, yet many students have significant misconceptions, viewing them primarily as harmful, diseasecausing germs and overlooking the vital roles they play in ecosystems and human wellbeing. These misunderstandings can create barriers in the learning process for both students and teachers (Struwig et al., 2016). These misconceptions align with findings from previous studies and can be difficult to correct, as they form the foundation of how students perceive microbiology (Jones & Rua, 2008; Karadon & Sahin, 2010, Byrne et al., 2009). The experiment conducted by Simard (2023) with secondary school students growing microorganisms in petri dishes shows they often collect samples from places they assume are dirty, like bathrooms or their bodies. To challenge this misconception, it is essential to encourage diverse sample collection and provide feedback on the wide variety of microorganisms' habitats. This could create cognitive conflict, broadening pupils' understanding of where microorganisms thrive (Simard, 2023). To address this, it is crucial to develop educational tools and strategies that encourage critical thinking and hands-on, student-centred learning (Handelsman et al., 2004). Therefore, in this workshop, students were allowed to isolate microbes from all possible habitats in and around them, broadening their understanding of where microorganisms thrive. As noted by Sancho et al. (2006), such workshops create an environment that is conducive to active learning, enabling students to engage deeply with microbiological concepts. The hands-on nature of these workshops allows students to connect theoretical knowledge with practical applications, reinforcing their understanding of essential microbiological processes. Recent studies emphasize the importance of contextualizing microbiology within real-world applications. For instance, microbial fermentation is crucial not only for food production but also for enhancing food 46
safety and shelf life (Marco et al., 2021). By investigating these applications, students gain insight into the critical roles microbes play in various sectors, fostering a sense of relevance and urgency in their learning. Furthermore, the interactive nature of the workshops encourages students to link microbiology with their daily lives, which has been shown to enhance motivation and retention of knowledge (Fatton et al., 2021). When students recognize the implications of microbial processes in food spoilage, preservation, and human health, they are more likely to engage in the subject matter meaningfully. This relevance not only piques their interest but also prepares them for informed decision-making in their future lives, such as understanding the implications of food safety or antibiotic resistance. Incorporating laboratory techniques, such as bacterial culturing and the spread plate method, not only bolsters practical skills but also promotes scientific inquiry. Research indicates that hands-on experiences in the lab are crucial for developing scientific reasoning and critical thinking skills among students (Hofstein & Lunetta, 2004). Engaging in these techniques allows students to observe and manipulate the processes they study, making the learning experience more tangible and memorable. The emphasis on culture media types further enriches students' experimental knowledge, paving the way for more advanced studies in microbiology and related fields. By introducing active learning experiences at a young age, we can help students better understand the diverse and beneficial roles of microorganisms, fostering a more accurate and informed perspective on microbiology (Kose, 2008, Duit & Treagust, 2003). Observational assessments conducted during the workshops reveal significant engagement levels among students. The reflections and analyses provided by the students serve as qualitative indicators of their cognitive processing and understanding
of microbiological concepts. The ability of students to articulate their insights and propose innovative solutions during the workshops underscores the effectiveness of this immersive learning approach. Research supports the notion that engaging students in critical thinking and problem-solving enhances their scientific literacy, preparing them for future academic and career pursuits (Roth & Lee, 2002). The integration of peer interaction played a pivotal role in the success of this workshop. Students were encouraged to work collaboratively, facilitating an active engagement that promoted deeper understanding. Previous research has consistently demonstrated the advantages of peer interaction in learning environments, particularly in science education (Topping, 2017). Research shows that when students collaborate with peers, they are more likely to resolve conceptual conflicts, question each other’s thinking, and actively engage in the learning process—factors that contribute to significant cognitive gains (Tenenbaum et al., 2020). These findings align with constructivist theories of learning, which emphasize the role of social interaction in cognitive development (Vygotsky, 1978). The rubric-based evaluation effectively demonstrated a marked improvement in students' experimental skills across various exercises. Initially dependent on experimental texts and facilitator guidance, students progressively gained autonomy in planning, operation, and result analysis. The structured rubric allowed for consistent assessment, revealing that most students transitioned from basic understanding to advanced evaluation stages, mirroring findings in previous educational research (Yoshihiro et al., 2017). Students were able to investigate the presence of microbes across various habitats through hands-on experiments that are simple, and this workshop could be completed within a short timeframe—typically
2 days for most activities, except for fungal counts and alcohol estimation in wine, which require about 5 days. This workshop allowed learners to explore a wide range of microbial applications, including their benefits and potential drawbacks.
Conclusion As educational paradigms continue to evolve, the implementation of intensive workshops in microbiology education emerges as a promising avenue for inspiring the next generation of scientists. By fostering critical thinking and scientific inquiry, these workshops equip students with the tools necessary for navigating the complexities of the microbial world and its implications for human health and the environment. Future research should explore the long-term impact of such workshops on students' academic performance and career trajectories in the sciences. The proposed hands-on activities provide high school students with an engaging and practical approach to understanding microbiology. By observing microorganisms, performing Gram staining, and exploring their applications in food production and disease, students will develop a deeper appreciation for the role of microorganisms in our daily lives. These activities not only enhance scientific knowledge but also foster critical thinking and curiosity, essential skills for future scientific endeavours. The use of rubrics in this study enhanced the assessment of students’ experimental progress. Students displayed significant improvement in conducting experiments autonomously, supporting the value of rubrics in fostering scientific competencies. This method holds potential for application in broader educational contexts
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Possible Modifications The primary objective of this activity is to allow students to actively participate in basic cultivation techniques within a constrained timeframe. Instructors can select samples based on their availability and guidelines, ensuring that students have access to a diverse range of materials for hands-on learning.
About the Authors Dr. Krishna Bayineni, Senior Researcher at Prayoga, specializes in microbiology, biotechnology, and science education, mentoring high school students in innovative, publishable research projects. krishna.bayineni@prayoga.org.in Ms. Shruthi Srinath Chakravarthy, Research Associate at Prayoga, specializes in biotechnology, therapeutics, and exosome research, holding advanced degrees from Monash University and Dayananda Sagar University. shruthi.c@prayoga.org.in
Funding and Acknowledgments The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support and laboratory facilities provided by the Prayoga Institute of Education Research Trust, which were essential for the success of this work. They also extend their gratitude to Mr. Vallish Herur (Samvida School Management) for encouraging the students to participate, fostering a valuable learning experience.
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References Burton, M., Cobb, E., Donachie, P., Judah, G., Curtis, V., & Schmidt, W.-P. (2011). The effect of handwashing with water or soap on bacterial contamination of hands. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 8(1), 97–104. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph8010097 Byrne, J., Grace, M., & Hanley, P. (2009). Children’s anthropomorphic and anthropocentric ideas about micro-organisms: Educational research. Journal of Biological Education, 44(1), 37–43. https://doi.org/10.108 0/00219266.2009.9656190 Dash, K. K., Fayaz, U., Dar, A. H., Shams, R., Manzoor, S., Sundarsingh, A., Deka, P., & Khan, S. A. (2022). A comprehensive review on heat treatments and related impact on the quality and microbial safety of milk and milkbased products. Food Chemistry Advances, 1, 100041. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.focha.2022.100041 Duit, R., & Treagust, D. F. (2003). Conceptual change: A powerful framework for improving science teaching and learning. International Journal of Science Education, 25(6), 671–688. https://doi.org/10.1080/09500690305016 Fatton M, Schneiter A, Allisiardi M, Hänni L, Hauser G, Gonçalves-Fernandes Y, Pessina A, Pijnenburg M-L, Vaudroz C, Bshary A, Bindschedler S and Junier P (2021) Microbes Go to School: Using Microbiology and ServiceLearning to Increase Science Awareness and Fostering the Relationship Between Universities and the General Public. Front. Educ. 6:735297. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2021.735297 Handelsman, J., Ebert-May, D., Beichner, R., Bruns, P., Chang, A., DeHaan, R., Gentile, J., Lauffer, S., Stewart, J., Tilghman, S. M., & Wood, W. B. (2004). Education. Scientific teaching. Science (New York, N.Y.), 304(5670), 521–522. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1096022
Hofstein, A., & Lunetta, V. N. (2004). The Laboratory in Science Education: Foundations for the Twenty-First Century. Science Education, 88(1), 28–54. https://doi.org/10.1002/sce.10106 Jay, J. M., Loessner, M. J., & Golden, D. A. (2005). Modern Food Microbiology (7th ed.). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/b100840 Jones, M. G., & Rua, M. J. (2008). Conceptual Representations of Flu and Microbial Illness Held by Students, Teachers, and Medical Professionals. School Science and Mathematics, 108(6), 263–278. Karadon, H. D., & Şahin, N. (2010). Primary school students’ basic knowledge, opinions and risk perceptions about microorganisms. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 2(2), 4398–4401. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2010.03.700 Köse, S. (2008). Diagnosing Student Misconceptions: Using Drawings as a Research Method. World Applied Sciences Journal 3 (2): 283-293. Marco, M.L., Sanders, M.E., Gänzle, M. et al. The International Scientific Association for Probiotics and Prebiotics (ISAPP) consensus statement on fermented foods. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol 18, 196–208 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41575-020-00390-5 O’Connell, A., Ruegg, P. L., Jordan, K., O’Brien, B., & Gleeson, D. (2016). The effect of storage temperature and duration on the microbial quality of bulk tank milk. Journal of dairy science, 99(5), 3367-3374. Piaget, J. (1976). Piaget’s Theory. In B. Inhelder, H. H. Chipman, & C. Zwingmann (Eds.), Piaget and His School: A Reader in Developmental Psychology (pp. 11–23). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-46323-5_2
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Priyadarsini, L. (2024). Empowering through Knowledge the Significance of Health Education. Health Science Journal, 18(4), 1-3.
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Science Education: Fit for the Future
A White Paper by The Australasian Science Education Research Association
01/07/2026
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Title: Science Education: Fit for the Future. A White Paper by the Australian Science Education Research Association First published 01/07/2026 Prepared by Carol Aldous, Russell Tytler, Vaille Dawson, David Treagust, Linda Hobbs, Tanya Doyle, Carrie Swanson, and Tabetha Spiteri This report was published by the Australasian Science Education Research Association Ltd. (ASERA) QUT School of Teacher Education and Leadership 149 Victoria Park Road Kelvin Grove 4059 https://www.asera.org.au/ © 2026 Australasian Science Education Research Association Ltd. PRINT ISBN: 978-1-7646430-1-6 E-ISBN: 978-1-7646430-0-9 Available: Full Report: https://www.asera.org.au/position-papers-publications/ Table of Recommendations: https://www.asera.org.au/position-papers-publications/ Recommended citation: Aldous, C., Tytler, R., Dawson, V., Treagust, D., Hobbs, L., Doyle, T., Swanson, C., & Spiteri, T. (2026). Science Education: Fit for the Future. A White Paper by the Australasian Science Education Research Association Science and STEM Working Group. Author details: Carol Aldous, Flinders University Russell Tytler, Deakin University Vaille Dawson, The University of Western Australia David Treagust, Curtin University Linda Hobbs, Deakin University Tanya Doyle, James Cook University Carrie Swanson, Auckland University of Technology Tabetha Spiteri, Monash University About ASERA: The Australasian Science Education Research Association (ASERA) is a long-standing, respected global community for science education researchers from Australia, New Zealand, and around the world. Committed to high-quality research, ASERA advances science education and research in all contexts and at all levels of education. Through its annual conference and world-class journal, Research in Science Education (RISE), ASERA generates and disseminates evidence vital for bridging the gap between policy and practice. Its research leadership and international connections position ASERA to guide informed, innovative, and future-focused policy and practice in the rapidly evolving global landscape of science education. Acknowledgement of Country: ASERA acknowledges the First Nations Peoples as the Traditional Custodians of the lands, skies and waterways on which we live, learn and teach. As the first educators and first scientists, we recognise the deep histories, knowledges, and contributions of all Indigenous Peoples globally. We pay our respects to their Elders both past and present, as well as their future generations of emerging leaders. Australasian Science Education Research Association Ltd. Registered Charity | Not-for-Profit Public Company Limited by Guarantee ACN: 092 482 329 | ABN: 85 092 482 329
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TABLE OF CONTENTS Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Executive Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Curriculum & Pedagogy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 1 .1 Statement Of The Issue or Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 1 .2 Vision Statement Linking to ASERA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 1 .3 The Science Curriculum: Key Dimensions & Contestations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 1 .4 Pedagogy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 1 .5 Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 1 .6 Indigenous Knowledges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 1 .7 Climate Change Education & Sustainability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Positioning the Sciences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 2 .1 Statement of the Issue or Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 2 .2 Vision Statement Linking to ASERA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 2 .3 Role of Disciplines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 2 .4 Role of Cross-Disciplinary Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 2 .5 Role of Sciences in ‘Futures Thinking’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Communities of Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 3 .1 Statement of the Issue or Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 3 .2 Vision Statement Linking to ASERA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 3 .3 Fostering Teacher Professionalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 3 .4 Activating a Science Identity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 3 .5 Valuing Evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
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FOREWORD As the national federation for science teachers, ASTA applauds this timely paper . ASTA proudly supports and aligns itself with ASERA to ensure that education remains a research-based profession that continues to meet the moment that we find ourselves in. In this era of rapid change, this paper highlights the need for science curricula to remain future-focussed to address a changing world that is rapidly being shaped by AI, quantum technologies, climate change, and mis- and dis-information . Activating a science identity is a necessary and welcome direction . We look forward to being involved in policy and practice discussions that are aimed at strengthening science literacy and education for teachers and students . Paula Taylor President, Australian Science Teachers Association (ASTA)
This white paper is positioned as responding to a ‘policy moment’: a time when science education policies are due to be renewed in both Australia and Aotearoa New Zealand . Even more urgently, the paper presents a nuanced and evidenceinformed response to a critical ‘planetary moment’: a time when a reimagined science education could play a pivotal role in supporting young people to understand and act on the multiple crises of the Anthropocene . The clear, carefully sequenced recommendations are testament to the insightful, strategic thinking generated by members of ASERA collective . I look forward to seeing these ideas translated into government policy in both nations . Rosemary Hipkins, Emeritus Chief Researcher, New Zealand Council for Educational Research (NZCER)
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The workforce and broader society are changing faster than can be imagined . On the one hand, the changes wrought by artificial intelligence (AI) will improve national and global productivity and economic output . On the other hand, AI is disrupting jobs from the menial to the most intellectually demanding . No one knows what new jobs for humans will emerge, but we certainly know that to be successful in the AI driven world young people will need to be critical thinkers . The reality is that you cannot be a critical thinker if you do not have facts and knowledge at your fingertips. No matter how powerful the supporting AI, researchers and industry experts of the future will need to be deeply competent in maths, technology and science so that they can frame the prompts, evaluate the answers and create their own novel solutions to problems . This means that the obligation to train young people to understand the science of how our world works and the skills to analyse and use what they have learned must continue to be front and centre for curriculum designers and educators . In particular, imparting scientific knowledge and critical thinking skills will be even more relevant in the world of AI . We must never resile from this teaching responsibility . Ensuring the currency and relevance of science education in a world where knowledge is increasing at a rapid rate and analytic tools such as AI are evolving at a speed that is almost beyond imagination is difficult. It requires energetic and effective research into science education, such as the work that underpins this ASERA report . My congratulations to ASERA and the report authors for describing a modern science education system to suit the needs of our rapidly changing knowledge domain and work environment . Alan Finkel Formerly Australia’s Chief Scientist, Chancellor of Monash University, and President of the Australian Academy of Technology and Engineering (ATSE).
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY In a rapidly changing globalised world, STEM education is a critical resource for shaping the future. This future will require an ongoing professional STEM workforce capable of the innovation and technological professional knowledge so central to a contemporary economy. Furthermore the future will necessitate a citizenry with access to, and an appreciation of, scientific knowledge and practices critical for local and global challenges. These challenges include climate change and other global crises, biodiversity loss, energy transition, AI and the fourth industrial revolution, changing perspectives on Indigenous knowledges, a rise in mis- and dis-information about science, particularly on social media, and global health crises. The STEM disciplines are crucial in understanding and responding to these challenges, yet science is undergoing a participation crisis in schools and is increasingly questioned or subverted in popular media. These wide-ranging challenges require a considered and innovative policy and practice response concerning science education in schools and higher education institutions. The Australasian Science Education Research Association (ASERA), through the world leading research of its membership and its connections with the international research community, has an important role to play in advising on policy and practice responses that will render science education ‘fit for the future’. The purpose of this white paper is to advocate for and advance policy settings for science education appropriate to the increasingly rapid changes and challenges of the twenty first century, within Australia and New Zealand. The paper responds to a ‘policy moment’ resulting from the impending expiration in 2026 of the Australian National STEM Schools Education Strategy (Education Council 2015) as well as the New Zealand strategy A nation of curious minds: He Whenua Hihiri I te Maha (New Zealand Government, 2014). It seeks to provide direction for the development of a new ‘National Science Education Strategy’ in each country, capable of providing the policy and practice drivers for science education across all levels, into the foreseeable future. Within this context, this white paper documents a series of recommendations related to science learning and teaching with respect to ‘Policy’, ‘Practice’ and ‘Research’ fit for the future. These recommendations relate to three distinct areas: Curriculum and Pedagogy; Positioning the Sciences; and Communities of Practice Curriculum and Pedagogy includes the identification of knowledges (e.g. sustainability, climate change, indigenous perspectives) important for future challenges. The requirements of Pedagogy are related to and essential for classroom practices, human relations and the support of learning. The importance of Assessment focuses on what should be valued as the purposes of science education. Positioning the Sciences within society and within different levels of education is framed to highlight the role that science disciplines play in shaping future participation in STEM careers as well as the role that science education can play in positively fostering futures thinking among young people in a world where among other things, AI and quantum technologies are creating diverse ethical dilemmas. Communities of Practice emphasise the importance of context in teacher professionalism, the need to activate a science identity among the nations’ citizenry, especially for females and marginalised groups, and the importance of recognising evidence from multiple sources, spanning socio-cultural, cognitive and neuroscientific fields, in framing policy and practice. The policy recommendations prioritise developing inclusive and future-focused curricula that prepare students as science-informed citizens capable of critical and creative engagement with global challenges. Policies should enhance students’ Science identity,
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promote interdisciplinary STEM education, inspire the integration of Indigenous knowledges and align classroom practice with teacher accreditation and professional learning. In practice, this policy means empowering teachers through evidence-based professional development, mentorship, and collaboration with universities and industry. Teacher learning should focus on both content knowledge (CK) and pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) in each discipline of science, integrating emerging technologies such as AI, and promoting student engagement with critical thinking and decision-making based on deeper knowledges and values. The research priorities identified call for building diverse and coordinated evidence bases to inform curricula, assessment, and pedagogy. Key areas include climate change education, the integration of emerging technologies, the development of science identity, investigation of teacher identity, instructional models, and Indigenous ways of knowing. Collectively, the advocated strategies aim to foster scientific literacy for all, a culture of innovation across education systems, and strengthening of the research–policy–practice nexus. The recommendations from this paper can be summarised as five key messages:
Science Education as a Community Endeavour Collaborative partnership Locally relevant curriculum Teacher learning Context matters
Curriculum and Valued Knowledge
Science for Futures Thinking
Respect for Evidence
Valued societal knowledge Human endeavour of science Indigenous perspectives Critical reasoning Global relevance
Future-orientated thinking Resilience and adaptability Evidence-based dialogue Tackling global challenges Scientific integrity Student agency and hope
Evidence-driven decisions Research-informed practice Accessible research translation Policy relevance Mutual benefit
Science Identity and Citizenship
Science identity Informed citizenship Complex challenge readiness Respect for science Misinformation awareness Policy-driven education
Science Education – Fit for the Future
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OVERVIEW The Australasian Science Education Research Association (ASERA), whose membership comprises internationally regarded science education researchers and educators, promotes science education and science education research in all contexts and at all levels of education. Right now, it is apparent that children, young people, and adults across the globe are navigating complex changes to their societies, their environment, and economies because of globalisation, climate change and accelerated technological developments. The knowledge, skills, and tools of science (e.g. Artificial Intelligence [AI], and Quantum computing) are rapidly changing. But what should be the role of science education in relation to these changes? What kind of science education will position children and young people to respond to the challenges they face with hope and with resilience? The OECD’s (2019) position paper, The Future of Education and Skills 2030: The future we want, encouraged countries to find answers to two questions: ●
What knowledge, skills, attitudes, and values will today’s students need to thrive and shape their world?
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How can instructional systems develop these knowledges, skills, attitudes, and values effectively?
How should countries such as Australia and New Zealand respond to these questions in a manner that leverages governments in unified action for science education that is fit for the future? In Australasian science education, we find ourselves at a policy moment that presents both challenges and opportunities. The national decadal plan for the Australian National STEM School Education Strategy, as outlined by the Education Council (2015), is set to conclude in 2026. Similarly, New Zealand’s 10-year strategy A Nation of Curious Minds He Whenua Hihiri i te Maha (New Zealand Government, 2014), concluded in 2024. ASERA recognises the opportunity to seize this policy moment to articulate a range of imperatives that must shape the next iterations of national science education policy. These relate to multiple critical components of curriculum design and delivery; content, processes and contexts as well as non-cognitive elements related to science learning and teaching. Indeed, as noted in the rapidly changing landscape of research in science education taking place in Australia and New Zealand (Wang, van Driel & Treagust, 2025), attending to these imperatives is essential for the successful and productive futures of science education and science education research in both countries. Three cross-cutting themes of strategic significance to the future of Australasian Science Education have emerged from discussions held between the ASERA policy working group members, as well as through a symposium held at the 2024 ASERA 55 conference held in Albany, New Zealand. The themes are: 1.
Curriculum and Pedagogy;
2.
Positioning the Sciences; and
3.
Communities of Practice.
In this position paper, we explain the significance of each theme and the role that diverse research methods play in enabling an approach to science education that develops scientific literacy and fosters curiosity, confidence, resilience, creativity, innovation and hopefulness in the lives of all young people of Australasia.
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CURRICULUM & PEDAGOGY 1 .1
01
Statement Of The Issue or Context
The purposes and practices of science education must adapt to the changing circumstances and needs of 21st-century societies. There have been persistent and growing calls for education more generally to focus on the development of 21st-century or ‘STEM’ skills. Curriculum and pedagogy are fundamentally implicated in these changes, and contested as multiple demands are made of schools to prepare students for rapidly changing futures. This theme includes: curriculum, representing the focus on what knowledges are appropriate and for what purposes; pedagogy, referring to classroom practices and relations; assessment, including questions of what is valued and how learning is supported; Indigenous knowledges and how they are viewed, reflecting a growing recognition of the need for an inclusive curriculum that values Indigenous perspectives; and sustainability and climate change education, concerning the role of science education in pursuing a sustainable and just future.
1 .2
Vision Statement Linking to ASERA
The ASERA research community has a long and internationally recognised history of worldleading research into curriculum and pedagogy, playing a key international role in moving the field forward as our understandings of the teaching and learning process have diversified and deepened and the purposes of education have been progressively widened beyond traditional knowledge transmission models. A key commitment of ASERA researchers is to science teacher education, and research into curriculum, pedagogy, assessment and Indigenous knowledges looks towards establishing new knowledge, informing professional practice and influencing and often advising on policy prescriptions. As the community itself has increasingly expanded beyond our traditional European roots to include researchers from the global south, particularly the Asia Pacific region, ASERA research has increasingly taken on and represented multiple and enriched perspectives on these issues. This can only benefit our future teaching community and the teacher education and research policy settings that drive renewal. Recently, all these foci — curriculum, pedagogy, assessment, Indigenous knowledges and climate change education — have been the subject of political and media contestation around fundamental education and science education purposes. We make no apology that these position statements and recommendations reflect the professional, research evidence-informed views of a community that is a key part of international thinking and policy framing on these issues.
1 .3
The Science Curriculum: Key Dimensions & Contestations
Science curricula change and adapt to reflect changing times and changing perspectives on its fundamental purposes. Science education has always had a mandate to prepare the next generation of STEM professionals to attend to the needs of advanced economies, but also a mandate to educate citizens more generally to operate in a critically informed way when interacting with science and technology ideas and processes. Running through these demands is a need to ensure just, equitable access to the important knowledges and practices of the sciences and their relation to societal agendas. The balance between these is frequently contested at a worldview and a political level.
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Currently, the Australian Curriculum: Science includes the major themes that one would expect of a contemporary curriculum, at a general level. There are, however, significant omissions, and the detailed framing and translation of a 21st-century curriculum into classroom practice requires further elaboration and support for teachers, particularly regarding the representation of contemporary scientific practices and knowledges. This is needed across all levels from K-12, noting the under-representation of science in Early Years Education frameworks. Current global research perspectives advocate for a contemporary science curriculum that: ●
Develops knowledge of the major canonical ideas of science that both inform the STEM professions and our personal lives and societal practices.
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Engages students with scientific ideas and practices in an informed progression from early childhood through to the end of formal education.
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Develops students’ science-related competencies in critical reasoning, decisionmaking and action, including an appreciation of how science engages with socioecological challenges (Dawson, 2025).
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Develops knowledge and competencies relating to the ways science builds knowledge through evidential processes, including peer review.
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Develops skills in searching out and making considered and critical judgments using publicly available scientific knowledge.
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Develops skills in the critically informed use of AI and critical media literacy.
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Engenders knowledge of and respect for Indigenous scientific practices and ways of knowing, and the connection of these to Western scientific practices.
1 .3 .1
Recommendations
Recommendations for Policy →
Develop science curricula and resources that focus on preparing young people from the earliest age as both science-informed citizens and future professionals who can engage critically with contemporary scientific thinking, practices, and values, including their interactions with broader social purposes.
Recommendations for Practice →
Ensure that science teachers have targeted access to professional learning associated with contemporary curriculum developments, including the use of AI.
→
Develop further elaboration and support for teacher educators, translating scientific knowledge and skills into practice in early years settings.
Recommendations for Research →
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Build a curriculum research evidence base that recognises multiple science curriculum purposes appropriate for changing global contexts, across the K-adult education continuum.
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1 .4
Pedagogy
There has recently been considerable public and policy-framing debate about the relative merits of explicit teaching and inquiry. The presentation of these positions as binary is unhelpful in understanding the findings of a vast body of research in science education focused on effective pedagogies, which indicate a more complex and nuanced position (de Jong et al., 2023; Tytler et al., 2025). ASERA researchers are engaged in research using a variety of well-established methodologies that produce reliable evidence informing both policy and classroom practice. ASERA does not recognise any one pedagogy as pre-eminent, but argues that the question of effectiveness is necessarily an interaction between purposes, pedagogy and context. The implications for effective pedagogies in science classrooms are: ●
Teachers explicitly but flexibly frame the disciplinary knowledge and practices of science. This includes the strategic framing and support of student-led activity relating to conceptual learning, developing inquiry competencies, and reasoning in socio-scientific contexts.
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A structured approach is used to develop student competencies in scientific epistemic practices, involving a mix of student-led and teacher-framed inquiry activities.
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Students are actively engaged in reasoning through the discursive practices of science, including, for example, critically informed questioning, argumentation, modelling, and data analysis (Dawson, 2025).
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Teacher contextual judgments are crucial in stimulating, framing, supporting and extending students’ science knowledge and practice.
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Teacher classroom practice is informed by contemporary theoretical advances in learning, using evidence from recent findings of neuro and cognitive science, and from classroom-based studies utilising a variety of methodologies and forms of evidence.
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Classroom practices place a strong emphasis on supporting students to reason using the multimodal languages of scientific knowledge-building practices, involving the generation and interpretation of text, diagrams, mathematical representations, and material artefacts (Pham & Tytler, 2021).
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Teachers engage with students’ worlds, interests and language to extend these towards scientific ways of thinking and practising (Duit & Treagust, 2003).
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Science in early childhood engages students’ interest and curiosity through a strategic mix of exploratory play and intentionally guided experiences.
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Teaching practices encompass a focus on equitable and socially just access to achievement in science.
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1 .4 .1
Recommendations
Recommendations for Policy →
Ensure that policy formulation recognises a variety of methodologies and forms of evidence as needed to inform science teacher education and system policy with regard to pedagogical advice and prescription.
→
Develop instructional design recommendations at the system level that flexibly respond to multiple curriculum outcomes, drawing on research evidence generated by the ASERA and wider global science education research community.
Recommendations for Practice →
Ensure that science teacher educators are supported to recognise, represent and advocate flexible evidence-based pedagogies that reflect a variety of student outcomes and to effectively develop the professional judgments of teachers in responding to students’ diverse and complex learning needs.
Recommendations for Research →
1 .5
Build a research evidence base to establish teaching and learning theories and practices that inform a variety of science education competency outcomes, that can inform both teacher education practice and system policy prescriptions.
Assessment
Assessment regimes must reflect the multiple purposes of science education, but a major focus needs to be on scientific literacy, emphasising the induction of all students into the knowledge and practices of science that will inform them as adults in an increasingly technological world. Currently, there is a sense that a focus on large-scale assessments, while useful for ascertaining strengths and weaknesses in the system, can distort what we know about effective teaching and learning in science for diverse outcomes. The implications for effective assessment practices include:
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Assessment processes serve the dual purposes of supporting favoured learning outcomes and credentialing students. These are aligned so that summative assessments do not undermine what is understood about quality learning.
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Summative assessments support higher-level thinking and encourage and support students to engage in the discursive practices and major conceptual frameworks of science.
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A crucial aspect of responsive planning and teaching involves teachers monitoring and responding to students’ ideas.
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Science assessment practices are framed to support differentiation and to ensure equitable outcomes for diverse populations.
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Science assessment practices focus on the knowledge-building (epistemic) practices of science and not just its knowledge products.
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1 .5 .1
Recommendations
Recommendations for Policy →
Promote the establishment of system-wide assessment and reporting practices designed to accommodate a variety of science learning outcomes consistent with international best practice, including critical and creative reasoning, decision making and agency.
Recommendations for Practice →
Ensure that initial teacher education (ITE) courses and professional learning workshops promote differentiated assessment practices reflecting multiple student learning outcomes.
Recommendations for Research →
1 .6
Coordinate a systematic research agenda focused on flexible assessment practices that target a variety of science learning outcomes, for system-wide application in ITE.
Indigenous Knowledges
There are multiple ways of understanding the world around us. Science is one knowledge system that draws upon particular epistemological underpinnings, assumptions, and canonical knowledge structures (Tolbert et al., 2024). Juxtaposed against Science knowledge systems are Indigenous sciences and neo-Indigenous knowledge systems. Indigenous knowledges are “part of the lifeways, knowledges and cultures of Indigenous peoples” and connected to the world around us (Johnson, 2024). Thus, Indigenous Science (or Indigenous ways of knowing) can be described as both a way of being in nature and knowledge about nature. While Indigenous Science is a growing area of research in Australasia and beyond, it has been challenged by some scientists who deem science should be value and culture-free. Stewart (2024) advocates that multiple ways of knowing nature are valuable and that Indigenous knowledges and Science can act as mirrors to hold each other to account. Utilising multiple knowledge systems, including Indigenous knowledges, can support diverse learners, including Māori, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders, and Pacific Islanders, as it enhances relevance, and positions the knowledges as valuable while supporting the development and enactment of epistemic agency for Indigenous and non-Indigenous students (Tolbert et al., 2024). Incorporating Indigenous knowledges into a science program should be done responsibly under the guidance of Indigenous experts and not be tokenistic. The implications for the representation of Indigenous knowledges include: ●
Change is led by Indigenous researchers and experts in the field.
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Indigenous knowledges that are shared are honoured and taken up in value-added, rather than tokenistic ways.
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Educators listen to tribal experts about how they can support Indigenous students best in learning.
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Support is given to non-Indigenous teachers in terms of training and resources to help students learn about different ways of knowing.
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Initial teacher educators model how to teach in culturally affirming ways in science.
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Care is taken by educators and policymakers to not recolonise learning particularly through inappropriately aligning or subsuming Indigenous knowledge systems with scientific conventions.
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Science educators are supported to adhere to Te Tiriti O Waitangi in New Zealand, and other policy documents supporting Indigenous students in both Australia and New Zealand.
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Indigenous ways of knowing are honoured for the insight they bring to relational ways of knowing and valuing the natural world.
1 .6 .1
Recommendations
Recommendations for Policy →
Ensure responsible and respectful collaboration between Indigenous scholars and science educators to ensure significant and critically informed representation of Indigenous knowledges in the science curriculum.
Recommendations for Practice →
Implement curricula in ways that recognise and promote the value of Indigenous knowledges and collaborate with local Indigenous Elders, knowledge holders and Indigenous-led organisations to embed respect for Indigenous ways of knowing in the science curriculum.
Recommendations for Research →
1 .7
Support and drive research, and outcomes of research into Indigenous ways of knowing to advocate for policy formulation.
Climate Change Education & Sustainability
A global survey of science teachers (OUP, 2021) ascertained that 1) only 31% agreed that science was ‘fit for the future’ and 2) over 90% identified climate change and environmental threats as a key concern. Associated with international concerns about anthropogenic climate change, biodiversity loss, and resource depletion that threaten significant changes to our global systems, is a call to incorporate a strong strand of Climate Change Education into the science curriculum, given that science is profoundly implicated in identifying, monitoring and responding to this Anthropocene polycrisis. It has been recognised (OECD, 2023) that developing science knowledge and practice in these contexts enriches its relevance and can promote enhanced learning outcomes (Monroe et al., 2019). The implications for embedding climate change education within school science include:
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School science reflects that many contemporary scientists working on climate change-related phenomena are driven by and engage with broader societal needs and agendas, involving competing values and interests.
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The science curriculum engages strongly with reasoning about complex systems, such as those involved with green chemistry, material life cycles and circular economy, or human environment interactions associated with biodiversity threats.
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Dealing with climate change needs to involve a recognition of challenges as socioecological in nature and not addressed simply by technical solutions. Thus, the aims of science education include responsible decision making and action that takes account of multiple perspectives and knowledges (White et al., 2024).
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The science curriculum reflects the specific disciplinary ideas and tools related to anthropogenic climate change, but represents these in interdisciplinary ways that acknowledge other knowledge systems and values.
1 .7 .1
Recommendations
Recommendations for Policy →
Frame key science concepts and practices in the context of addressing contemporary socio-ecological challenges, including climate change and biodiversity loss, energy transitions, circular economy and misinformation.
Recommendations for Practice →
Develop targeted professional learning workshops that support teachers to promote student decision-making skills and action in relation to a variety of socio-ecological challenges related to anthropogenic climate change.
Recommendations for Research →
Build and coordinate research programs focused on Climate Change Education in science across the K-12 spectrum and beyond, as a matter of urgency.
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POSITIONING THE SCIENCES 2 .1
02
Statement Of The Issue or Context
Science and STEM are often positioned by government policy and industry groups as critical to national economic prosperity and technological competitiveness. In contrast, discourses within the science, STEM education, and research communities often align with more inclusive and socially oriented agendas, such as scientific literacy. The continued decline in student interest and enrollment in senior secondary science subjects and university science is a significant issue. This trend can lead to a decline in the number of students pursuing careers in science teaching, which in turn affects the overall quality and availability of science education. Enrolments in STEM-related Vocational Education and Training courses have been falling since 2015 (Department of Industry, Science & Resources [DISR], 2024). Across the university and vocational education and training (VET) sectors, women and other diverse groups are still underrepresented compared to men (DISR, 2024). A critical issue for science education revolves around how science is positioned by policy, research, and schools, and the interaction between competing agendas. This consideration of the positioning of science includes the role of scientific disciplines in shaping school curricula, teacher preparation and specialisation, and the identities of both teachers and students. It also encompasses the cross-disciplinarity within scientific practice that influences schools and initial teacher education (ITE), particularly through STEM initiatives. Additionally, it considers the role of science disciplines as enablers of innovation, especially in relation to critical and emerging technologies that are central to the nation’s aspirations for economic diversification, and which are integrated into school curriculum.
2 .2
Vision Statement Linking to ASERA
The ASERA research community addresses critical questions about the positionality of the sciences, focusing on whose research is valued and for what purposes. It also examines how schools and universities can be positioned as enablers and drivers in determining and enacting science for the future. Critical to science education research in Australasia is understanding how science and STEM are positioned in political discourse, as well as the challenges and opportunities that arise. ASERA seeks to influence policy on the sciences and how they are represented in educational settings, and to generate research that furthers our understanding of the impact of the sciences on students of all ages, in schools and other educational settings, and the broader community, ultimately leading to transformed educational practice and better-informed societies. Three foci have been identified within this theme. These are ‘role of disciplines’, ‘role of cross-disciplinary studies’ and ‘role of sciences in futures thinking.’
2 .3
Role of Disciplines
The disciplines have traditionally been the organising subject and curriculum structures for contemporary schooling. “Science” is taught as a composite subject in early childhood, primary and lower secondary years. Subjects also form the basis of accreditation of ITE programs and teachers’ subject specialisations, particularly at the secondary school level. There is, however, often a disconnect between the science degree, science education preparation, and the conditions that teachers face once employed. Also, the positioning of science in primary schools and early childhood education is a constant struggle to ensure the quality and quantity of science instruction. Furthermore, most science teachers teach
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science disciplines for which they have a limited formal background (teach out-of-field), and many (19%) are not qualified to teach science (AITSL, 2022). Furthermore, early-career teachers are those who are most often teaching out of field (Productivity Commission, 2022; Weldon, 2016).
2 .3 .1
Recommendations
Recommendations for Policy →
Ensure that across K-12, sufficient classroom time is allocated for sequences of science teaching focused on conceptual and skill development.
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Support the implementation of a variety of evidence-based models for the development of teachers of science in early childhood and K-6 settings, including dedicated science specialist teachers, integrated STEM specialist teachers, and professional learning provision for generalist classroom teachers.
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Implement policies that build teachers’ disciplinary backgrounds and strengths by incentivising pathways for non-science teachers to re-specialise in a science discipline.
Recommendations for Practice →
Develop initiatives to build resilience in the system for early career teachers by creating stronger links between schools and universities, including, for example, mentorship programs, ongoing professional development, and collaborative projects.
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Support teachers to engage with STEM professionals to integrate contemporary research and industry applications into their teaching practices
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Foster ongoing relationships between science teacher educators and schools to create opportunities for pre-service teachers to engage with well-informed and resourced science teaching experiences
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Foster relationships between schools and faculties of education and sciences at universities and TAFE institutions to support authentic, well-informed, and wellresourced science teaching and learning opportunities.
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Ensure that science content units in ITE are closely aligned with the school curriculum to better prepare teachers for the realities of the classroom.
Recommendations for Research →
Conduct research to investigate the relationships between science degrees, science education preparation, and the conditions teachers face once employed to identify effective practices, specific gaps, and to develop targeted strategies to address them.
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Assess how these changes influence teacher preparedness, identity, and commitment to the science subject culture.
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Investigate the impact of different models of science instruction (such as a dedicated science specialist teacher, an integrated STEM specialist teacher, and a generalist classroom teacher) on the quality and quantity of science instruction in primary schools.
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2 .4
Role of Cross-Disciplinary Studies
While STEM has sparked interest in cross-disciplinary studies, its effective incorporation into the curriculum has been challenging, typically appearing as project-based learning to tackle an ‘authentic’ problem. Primary and secondary school STEM (and often STEAM) may focus on disciplinary content, but more often focuses on problem-solving, design activities, and digital technology activities. Despite growing interest in STEM education, a challenge remains in effectively supporting teachers in implementing interdisciplinary or multidisciplinary STEM learning.
2 .4 .1
Recommendations
Recommendations for Policy →
Develop a clear framework for interdisciplinary STEM education to ensure consistent but flexible implementation that allows schools to capitalise on teachers’ strengths and interests.
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Encourage policies that support the integration of cross-disciplinary studies in the science curriculum, moving beyond siloed subject offerings.
Recommendations for Practice →
Provide professional development for teachers to build confidence and competence in delivering cross-disciplinary and project-based STEM education.
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Implement project-based learning approaches that tackle real-world problems, ensuring that STEM education is relevant and engaging for students.
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→
Investigate effective methods for assessing students’ conceptual development in STEM projects, ensuring that assessments capture the depth and breadth of student learning.
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Conduct research to evaluate the effectiveness of different STEM programs and approaches, identifying best practices for curriculum alignment, promoting student engagement, and building and leveraging teacher capabilities.
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2 .5
Role of Sciences in ‘Futures Thinking’
Science is globally recognised as a driver of innovation, with emerging technologies central to national goals for economic growth and diversification. Governments often frame the future in terms of workforce productivity, placing education at the heart of skills development. Yet, this narrow focus can miss the deeper role science education can play in helping young people engage with the future. Today’s youth often view the future with anxiety, especially in the face of climate change and technological disruption, including the ethical dilemmas caused by GenAI in science and society (OECD, 2023). Science education can counter this by fostering futures thinking—helping students see the future as a space they can shape through informed action. As Levrini et al. (2020) note, futures studies explore trends and patterns to create possible and desirable scenarios. Science classrooms should also adopt this approach, especially since many students’ fears are tied to science and technological change (Rasa & Laherto, 2022). By drawing on interdisciplinary resources, including those that integrate other areas such as the arts, science education can empower students to navigate uncertainty and imagine better futures.
2 .5 .1
Recommendations
Recommendations for Policy →
Develop policies that integrate futures thinking into the science curriculum, ensuring that students are equipped with skills for higher-order thinking and future-oriented problem-solving.
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Incorporate critical and emerging technologies, including GenAI, and future scientific advancements, into the curriculum to prepare students for future economic and technological landscapes.
Recommendations for Practice →
Develop and implement science curriculum and pedagogy designed to tackle feelings of despondency and directionlessness in some young people in response to uncertain and unimaginable futures.
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Represent science as future-oriented in the science curriculum, with modelling and prediction as essential to science.
Recommendations for Research →
Conduct research to assess the impact of futures thinking in the science curriculum on students’ preparedness for future challenges and their engagement with science.
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Investigate the effectiveness of integrating critical and emerging technologies into science education and its impact on students’ skills development and career readiness.
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COMMUNITIES OF PRACTICE 3 .1
03
Statement Of The Issue or Context
Sustainable science learning takes place within, and alongside different communities of practice, be they early childhood, primary, secondary and/or tertiary education centres, university research teams, centres of innovation, business and industry and Government departments. The issues and concerns raised in previous sections of this document all occur within a specific context. Environmental, historical, cultural, and social factors, along with individuals’ needs and differences, interact with the processes of science teaching and learning at all levels of education (i.e., early childhood through to tertiary). These factors cannot be ignored when framing a science education policy that is fit for the future. Science education aims not only to develop future scientists but also to improve scientific literacy within society. Consequently, responsible decision-making within any future science education requires recognition and understanding o f the multitude of learning contexts, in addition to the variety of pedagogical processes involved.
3 .2
Vision Statement Linking to ASERA
ASERA is a model example of a community of practice where members are both engaged in and informed by research practices and outcomes in the field of science education. ASERA members use a range of quantitative, qualitative, and mixed-methods approaches to produce quality research that contributes to ensuring that all individuals (from early childhood to tertiary) have equitable access to an evidence-informed, robust science education. Our members provide research leadership through mentoring, supervision, teaching, and dissemination of our research. Research contexts range from global (e.g. large comparative studies) to local (e.g. a single teacher). Initial teacher education now, and in the future, is a particularly important context for many ASERA members as they use their research findings and knowledge to prepare future generations of teachers and support teachers of science. With this collective expertise, ASERA members need to have input into public debate and future policies impacting science education. Three foci have been identified within this theme. These are ‘fostering teacher professionalism’, ‘activating a science identity’ and ‘valuing evidence’.
3 .3
Fostering Teacher Professionalism
There are multiple facets to developing science teacher professionalism. Important to initial teacher education (ITE) and early career teachers is the acquisition and application of pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) specific to a discipline of science. First proposed by Shulman (1986, 1987), pedagogical content knowledge is at the heart of ways by which teachers in the process of teaching transform content to make science content knowledge (CK) accessible and comprehensible to their students. The development of PCK is a valuable indicator of science teacher expertise (van Driel et al, 2014, 2023). Consequently, serious attention needs to be given to teacher professionalism that is grounded in teacher practice that not only values science discipline-specific content knowledge (CK) but also science pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) that builds teacher capacity and quality learning. Recognising these knowledges and backgrounds in relation to science is critical, particularly within the senior years of secondary science teaching (e.g., Senior Chemistry, Senior Physics, other), where graduate teachers are more likely to leave the teaching profession within the first five years.
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One example of a professional learning opportunity that has been shown to enhance preservice teachers’ views of STEM and their science teaching is the provision of a brief STEM industry engagement experience within studies of science curriculum (Aldous et al., 2024). By bringing together different communities of practice (viz pre-service teachers, university research scientists, university departments of science teacher education, secondary schools, STEM businesses and industry and government departments) in the solving of an identified science industry problem meaningful to students in schools, deep learning was promoted, science identity enriched and teacher professionalism enhanced.
3 .3 .1
Recommendations
Recommendations for Policy →
Ensure that science teacher education policy recognises and values the need for teachers of science to be skilled in science content knowledge (CK) and science pedagogical content knowledge (PCK).
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Develop a program of targeted support, including resource development and professional learning, to enhance the content and pedagogical content knowledge of teachers of science.
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Ensure that any resource development initiatives focused on science teaching and learning have a strong emphasis on teacher professionalism and learning.
Recommendations for Practice →
Enhance teacher PCK by providing professional learning opportunities for early career and in-service science teachers to increase their capacity to know, decide and select the enactment of a range of pedagogies relevant to science learning and teaching appropriate to context.
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Develop instructional advice and resources to support teachers of science that reflect science education research into topic-specific aspects of PCK.
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Ensure that for each discipline of science, training in both science CK and science discipline-specific PCK takes place and is a necessary requisite of teacher registration for the purposes of enabling the practice of science teaching to take place successfully.
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Enhance teacher CK by providing professional learning opportunities for early career and in-service science teachers to grow their knowledge base, keeping abreast of new scientific developments for the purposes of enriching science teaching and learning and engaging students.
Recommendations for Research →
Develop programs of research investigating the relationship between teacher CK and PCK in science learning and teaching, early career teacher retention, students’ future career trajectories and science identity.
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3 .4
Activating a Science Identity
Prospering nations, research has found, are among those whose citizens understand and value scientific knowledge, who are able to draw on and use this knowledge in their personal lives, who can apply science knowledge in community decision making and in pursuing science-related careers. In essence, their citizens have and can activate a self-sustaining identity with science. This begs the question, “How can we get children and young adults to grow in a science identity”? Expressed simply, the concept of identity involves knowing who you are and where you belong (OECD, 2022). This is no different to developing an identity in science. Identity can be built through community, influential others, and the recognition of one’s own abilities by oneself and others (Kim & Sinatra, 2018; Vincent-Ruz & Schunn, 2018). Having a well-developed science identity is known to play a pivotal role in students’ subject choices and future career trajectories (Vincent-Ruz & Schunn, 2018). This is particularly the case for girls and other under-represented groups within science (Kim et al, 2018). Consequently, any activity that works to build science identity must activate personal understanding about who one is in the world of science, as well as provide a sense that one can belong in the field of science. There is an abundance of research evidence that the early and primary years are important in the development of science identity and future aspirations in science (Hobbs et al., 2017; Tytler & Ferguson, 2023).
3 .4 .1
Recommendations
Recommendations for Policy →
Promote the activation of a science identity among citizens, beginning in early childhood and continuing throughout adult life.
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Support and fund evidence-based models of best practice that effectively foster positive science identity in all students, from early childhood through to tertiary education.
Recommendations for Practice →
Activate science identity development at all levels of schooling to support students’ subject choices and long-term career pathways, particularly for girls and other underrepresented groups.
Recommendations for Practice →
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Develop programs of research into supporting science identity development for all students to ensure equitable access to science career choices.
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3 .5
Valuing Evidence
Neither within education generally, nor in science education, can the notion of one size fits all be applied to educational purposes and classroom practices. Curriculum and pedagogy in science must focus on multiple competencies (OECD, 2023), including conceptual, procedural, and epistemic knowledge, as well as the ability to design, analyse, and interpret scientific investigations, and to seek out, critically analyse, and make decisions drawing on scientific reports. Consequently, a diversity of approaches to science curriculum development and pedagogy is needed, based on multiple evidence bases involving a variety of theoretical perspectives and associated research methodologies. This variety is essential if we are to develop a responsible and expert teaching force with a rich understanding of science teaching and learning.
3 .5 .1
Recommendations
Recommendations for Policy →
Develop policies that value and leverage multiple evidence bases to advocate for layered teaching strategies targeting 1) a variety of learning outcomes, 2) differentiated learning needs of students, and 3) different contexts in science.
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Develop alignment between policies related to science classroom practice, teacher registration and accreditation requirements for tertiary institutions offering science teacher education courses.
Recommendations for Practice →
Ensure science teacher education practices include the explicit representation of multiple research evidence bases that inform different science education purposes, multiple competencies, and the differentiated needs of students and schools.
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Promote research as a valuable tool for schools by empowering teachers and school leaders to act as co-researchers who generate knowledge about practice, learning, leadership, and curriculum.
Recommendations for Research →
Value and promote diversity in science education research, including traditional and emerging methodologies and contemporary theoretical perspectives from multiple fields, including socio-cultural theories, cognitive science and neuroscience.
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CONCLUSION This White Paper outlines strategic recommendations for a science education fit for a future marked by multiple global and local STEM-related challenges. Focusing on Australia and New Zealand, it outlines policy, practice, and research priorities aimed at strengthening science education through collaborative curriculum development and research. These strategies seek to future-proof science education across all levels of schooling by helping students connect science to their personal lives and the wider world, fostering active participation and a sense of belonging, and equipping them with the knowledge and skills to contribute as STEM professionals or citizens to help shape a positive future. The recommendations from this paper can be summarised as five pillars of a science education that is fit for the future:
Science Education as a Community Endeavour Collaborative partnership Locally relevant curriculum Teacher learning Context matters
Curriculum and Valued Knowledge
Science for Futures Thinking
Respect for Evidence
Valued societal knowledge Human endeavour of science Indigenous perspectives Critical reasoning Global relevance
Future-orientated thinking Resilience and adaptability Evidence-based dialogue Tackling global challenges Scientific integrity Student agency and hope
Evidence-driven decisions Research-informed practice Accessible research translation Policy relevance Mutual benefit
Science Identity and Citizenship
Science identity Informed citizenship Complex challenge readiness Respect for science Misinformation awareness Policy-driven education
Science Education – Fit for the Future
Pillar 1 . Science Education as a Community Endeavour Science education is strengthened through collaboration among schools, communities, governments, universities and scientific organisations, including business and industry. Locally relevant curriculum must be co-developed with young people’s needs and lived experiences in mind. Teacher professional learning is essential, especially in out-of-field areas, due to changing demands and purposes of the science curriculum. Context matters – local realities, shared goals, and the collective expertise of all stakeholders must inform curriculum decisions. Elevating the status of science educators and promoting evidenceinformed, enriched teaching approaches strengthens its relevance and impact.
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Pillar 2 . Curriculum and Valued Knowledge Science curriculum must reflect the knowledge, skills, and practices valued by society and the science community. It should portray science as a human endeavour and include diverse perspectives, especially Indigenous knowledges and the multiple perspectives that inform contemporary STEM challenges. The curriculum must evolve in response to rapidly changing global contexts, empowering students to think deeply, reason critically, and develop the science competencies necessary to make informed and responsible decisions in their work and lives.
Pillar 3 . Science Education for Futures Thinking Science education must play a vital role in preparing students for uncertain futures by fostering higher-order thinking, resilience, and adaptability – skills essential for tackling global challenges such as climate change, AI, and misinformation. Science needs to encourage respectful dialogue, collaboration across diverse views, and evidence-based reasoning. By engaging with future-oriented problems, students can develop agency and hope. An informed science education equips them to enter debates with integrity, applying knowledge and understanding of how evidence is used to shape decisions and solve complex, real-world issues.
Pillar 4 . Respect for Evidence Respect for evidence must underpin school decision-making and classroom practice. Science education research should be practical, context-driven, and directly relevant to schools. Science teachers, as professionals and scientists, bridge theory and practice and are vital partners in co-creating knowledge. Co-research partnerships foster mutual benefit, translating research into accessible formats that inform classroom practice and policy. These collaborative efforts create new knowledge, enhance teaching, and align shared goals with local contexts.
Pillar 5 . Science Identity and Citizenship Science education plays a crucial role in students’ development as informed citizens and future professionals. It helps activate a science identity, shaped by context and curiosity. Students must be equipped to address complex global challenges such as climate change, biodiversity loss, AI, and misinformation. We need citizens who understand and respect science, not just practitioners but advocates. This white paper reflects ASERA’s call for urgent policy responses. Science education must evolve to meet societal needs and inspire young people to shape the future. It’s not an option to just keep doing the same thing!
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REFERENCES Aldous, C. R., Aviyanti, L., Dunlop, A., Palumbo, K., & Stephenson, H. (2024). Improving student interest in STEM through pre-service teacher industry engagement: Bridging the gap (Research Report No. 5). Flinders University Press. https://doi.org/10.25957/n5tj-jm35 Dawson, V. (2025). Using socioscientific issues to teach argumentation to Year 7 science students in a low socioeconomic rural Australian school. Research in Science Education, 55, 1–16. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11165-024-10224-y Department of Industry, Science and Resources. (2024). STEM equity monitor data [Data set]. Australian Government. https://www.industry.gov.au/publications/stem-equity-monitor de Jong, T., Lazonder, A. W., Chinn, C. A., Fischer, F., Gobert, J. D., Hmelo-Silver, C. E., & Zacharia, Z. C. (2023). Let’s talk evidence: The case for combining inquiry-based and direct instruction. Educational Research Review, 39, Article 100536. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2023.100536 Duit, R., & Treagust, D. F. (2003). Conceptual change: A powerful framework for improving science teaching and learning. International Journal of Science Education, 25(6), 671-688. Education Council. (2015). National STEM school education strategy 2016–2026. Australian Government. https://www.education.gov.au/australian-curriculum/resources/nationalstem-school-education-strategy Hmelo-Silver, C. E., Duncan, R. G., & Chinn, C. A. (2007). Scaffolding and achievement in problem-based and inquiry learning. Educational Psychologist, 42(2), 99–107. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520701263368 Hobbs, L., Jakab, C., Millar, V., Prain, V., Redman, C., Speldewinde, C., Tytler, R., & van Driel, J. (2017). Girls’ future—Our future: The Invergowrie Foundation STEM report. http://www. invergowrie.org.au/girls-future-our-future-the-invergowrie-foundation-stem-report/ Johnson, S. (2024). The importance of learning with/on/from land and place while honouring reciprocity in Indigenous science education. Cultural Studies of Science Education, 19, 163–187. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11422-023-10205-z Kim, A. Y., & Sinatra, G. M. (2018). Science identity development: An interactionist approach. International Journal of STEM Education, 5, Article 51. https://link.springer.com/ article/10.1186/s40594-018-0149-9#citeas Kim, A. Y., Sinatra, G. M., & Seyranian, V. (2018). Developing a STEM identity among young women: A social identity perspective. Review of Educational Research, 88(4), 589–625. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654318779957 Levrini, O., Tasquier, G., Barelli, E., Branchetti, L., & Turrini, A. (2021). Recognition and operationalization of future-scaffolding skills in climate change education. Science Education, 105(2), 281–308. https://doi-org.ezproxy-f.deakin.edu.au/10.1002/sce.21612 Monroe, M. C., Plate, R. R., Oxarart, A., Bowers, A., & Chaves, W. A. (2019). Identifying effective climate change education strategies: A systematic review. Environmental Education Research, 25(6), 791–812. https://doi.org/10.1080/13504622.2017.1360842 New Zealand Government. (2014). A nation of curious minds: He Whenua Hihiri i te Maha. https://www.mbie.govt.nz OECD. (2022). Trends shaping education 2022. OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/6ae8771a-en OECD. (2023a). PISA science framework 2025. OECD Publishing. https://pisa-framework.oecd.org/science-2025/
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OECD. (2023b). OECD digital education outlook 2023: Towards an effective digital education ecosystem. OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/c74f03de-en Oxford University Press. (2021). The evolution of science education. https://www.oup.com.au Pham, L., & Tytler, R. (2021). The semiotic function of bridging representations in solution chemistry. Research in Science Education, 51, 1–19. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/ s11165-021-10022-w Prain, V., & Tytler, R. (2022). Theorising learning in science through multimodal representations. Research in Science Education, 52, 805–817. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11165021-10025-7 Productivity Commission. (2022). Review of the National School Reform Agreement. Australian Government. Rasa, T., & Laherto, A. (2022). Young people’s technological images of the future. Journal of Futures Studies, 10, Article 4. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s40309-022-00190-x Shulman, L. S. (1986). Those who understand: Knowledge growth in teaching. Educational Researcher, 15(2), 4–14. Shulman, L. S. (1987). Knowledge and teaching: Foundations of the new reform. Harvard Educational Review, 57(1), 1–22. Stewart, G. (2024). Mātauranga Māori and the school of science. Te Kaharoa, 16(1). https://doi.org/10.24135/tekaharoa.v16i1.406 Tolbert, S., Hipkins, R., Cowie, B., & Waiti, P. (2024). Epistemic agency and Indigenous knowledge in school science. International Journal of Science Education. https://doi.org/10.1080/09500693.2024.2356229 Tytler, R., & Ferguson, J. (2023). Student attitudes, identity, and aspirations toward science. In N. G. Lederman et al. (Eds.), Handbook of research on science education (Vol. 3, pp. 158–192). Routledge. Tytler, R., Prain, V., & Salimpour, S. (2025). Going beyond a singular “science of learning” framework. New Zealand Journal of Educational Studies. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40841025-00414-1 van Driel, J. H., Berry, A., & Meirink, J. A. (2014). Research on science teacher knowledge. In N. G. Lederman & S. K. Abell (Eds.), Handbook of research on science education (Vol. 2, pp. 848–870). Routledge. van Driel, J. H., Hume, A., & Berry, A. (2023). Exploring the frontiers of socioscientific issues. In N. G. Lederman et al. (Eds.), Handbook of research on science education (Vol. 3, pp. 1123–1161). Routledge. Vincent-Ruz, P., & Schunn, C. D. (2018). The nature of science identity. International Journal of STEM Education, 5, Article 48. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40594-018-0140-5 Wang, X., van Driel, J., & Treagust, D. F. (2025). The changing landscape of science education research in Australia and New Zealand. Research in Science Education. https://doi. org/10.1007/s11165-025-10308-3 Weldon, P. R. (2016). Out-of-field teaching in Australian secondary schools (Policy Insights, Issue #6). Australian Council for Educational Research. https://research.acer.edu.au White, P. J., Ardoin, N. M., Eames, C., & Monroe, M. C. (2024). Agency in the Anthropocene. The Lancet Planetary Health, 8(2), e117–e123. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2542-5196(23)00271-1
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Engage your students with hands-on science! Looking for a fun and engaging way to spark a love of science in students? Spectra is a hands-on, nationally recognised program designed to inspire curiosity and encourage scientific exploration in students from Years 1 to 10. Whether used in the classroom, with extension students, in science clubs or by homeschooling groups, Spectra provides a structured yet flexible approach to learning through experiments, research, and hands-on investigations. With vibrant, full-color activity cards – featuring Spike the Echidna in Junior Spectra (Yrs 1–4) – students can explore a wide range of science topics at their own pace. Plus, they’ll be awarded a certificate upon completion! Available as digital downloads, Spectra cards are continuously updated to align with the Australian Curriculum: Science, ensuring fresh and relevant content. Explore the full range of topics and order today at asta.edu.au/spectra
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AUSTRALIAN SCIENCE TEACHERS ASSOCIATION
ASTA Executive Committee President Paula Taylor ACT
Vice President Annabel Kanakis QLD
Executive Director Margaret Shepherd Science Education Consultant NSW
Member Associations Science Teachers Association of Northern Territory (STANT)
Science Teachers Association of Tasmania (STA) President: Averil Dare info@stat.org.au www.stat.org.au
Science Teachers Association of NSW (STANSW)
President: Jaqueline McCarthy PO Box 699,Lidcombe NSW 1825 Tel: 02 9763 2751 office@stansw.asn.au www.stansw.asn.au
South Australian Science Teachers Association (SASTA) President: Dina Matheson 249 Henley Beach Rd Torrensville SA 5031 Tel: 08 8354 0006 office@sasta.asn.au www.sasta.asn.au
Science Educators Association of ACT (SEAACT) President: Martha Guillen PO Box 1205, Canberra ACT 2601 Tel: 0421 874 809 council@seaact.act.edu.au www.seaact.act.edu.au
Science Teachers Association of Western Australia (STAWA) President:Dr Siew Fong Yap PO Box 7310, Karawara WA 6152 Tel: 08 9244 1987 admin@stawa.net www.stawa.net
Science Teachers Association of Victoria (STAV) President: Alexandra Abela PO Box 109, Coburg VIC 3058 Tel: 03 9385 3999 stav@stav.vic.edu.au www.stav.org.au
Science Teachers Association of Queensland (STAQ) President: David Geelan C/O School of Education, UQ St Lucia QLD 4072 Tel: 0490 950 249 staq@staq.qld.edu.au www.staq.qld.edu.au
President: Justine Small PO Box 1168, Nightcliff NT 0814 Tel: 08 8944 9324 Fax: 08 8922 2181 stanorthernterritory@gmail.com www.ptant.org.au/stant
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