Historical Overview of Landscape Architecture

Later, after World War II, in the 1960s, licensure to practice landscape architecture was established in a few states. Today nearly all states in America and the Canadian provinces require licensure to practice. One is eligible to take a state licensing exam in landscape architecture after meeting two requirements: (1) graduation with an accredited university landscape architecture degree; and (2) serving an apprenticeship period. Licensure is administered by individual states while the exam is a national examination administered by the Council of Landscape Architecture Registration Board. Currently there are approximately 80 university programs in North America offering bachelor’s and master’s degrees and certificate programs. Close to all 50 states and Canadian provinces require licensure for an individual or firm to offer professional landscape architect design services.

The profession as a distinct discipline was recognized in the United Kingdom and later France, Germany, and the Netherlands in the midtwentieth century. Most other countries in the European Union have subsequently recognized the profession and established university degrees in landscape architecture. Several European countries (Spain and Italy, for instance) are still in the process of considering recognition of landscape architecture as a distinct profession from architecture or engineering. In these countries, architects and in some cases engineers (engineering agronomists) are required to perform the services legally while those who consider themselves landscape architects by education or training must provide their services under the supervision of an architect or engineer. The profession exists in other regions of the world with significant university programs in many countries, particularly in Asia and to a lesser degree in Latin America. While landscape architects are active in many parts of the world, each country and each region have their own history in terms of recognizing these professionals. Keep in mind landscape architecture is a relatively new profession, compared to architecture and engineering. Given the unique set of skills and knowledge base, particularly the emphasis on the incorporation of natural system thinking in the design process, landscape architects are providing a valuable contribution and thus finding acceptance in increasing numbers in other regions of the world.

At the end of the twentieth century with the launch of the Le Nôtre initiative, members of the profession in the European Union worked to establish a universal landscape architecture curriculum. The goal of this initiative is to allow anyone who successfully graduates with a degree in landscape architecture to practice in any of the member countries of the European Union. Similarly, other professions (architects, engineers, doctors, to name a few) have established a parallel initiative under the aegis of the European Union.

The term as opposed as to the practice of landscape architecture came into common usage in the twentieth century. The practice of garden, park, and public spaces design, irrespective of what the designers were called (gardeners, horticulturists, and the like) from a Western perspective began symbolically with the Garden of Eden

in the regions bordered by the Mediterranean. The concept of a garden, a space created (designed) for some purpose other than the production of food developed as civilizations accumulated excess agriculture production and wealth and their economies and society structure diversified. Gardens with the embellishment of spaces served as the physical manifestation of one’s power, role, and wealth in society. Gardens—so-called pleasure gardens—were for personal use and enjoyment as opposed to communal agricultural production. The predominant use of geometrical patterns in these gardens might suggest man’s dominion over the Earth or simply an expression of an individual’s or group’s power and control over others. This expression of dominion translates into one’s leadership role over others. Gardens as cultural artifacts were created to symbolize one’s status and provide pleasure for the owner. The design of these gardens might be representational of another world, imagined or symbolic.2

The Garden of Eden or Paradise was the dominant model that was adopted in the Western Judeo-Christian-Islam ethos. The interpretation of the spatial organization of Eden with its four rivers (as described in the Book of Genesis) was expressed in the geometric forms organized using bilateral symmetry. In the West, gardens of paradise were laid out in geometric patterns while in Asia natural and asymmetric forms were adapted to create a composition filled with symbolism meant to represent their ideals of paradise. Paradise did not have the connotation of a working environment such as agricultural fields. Paradise was a place to enjoy oneself, not necessarily to labor in. Therefore, the concept of garden was that of a place of refuge, a place to find enjoyment, for pleasure, and to entertain. In some cases a garden was meant for contemplation as opposed to undertaking practical matters.

The Garden of Eden is one of the starting places representing one of the garden ideals that permeate throughout Western garden traditions. In this chapter we will survey the history of garden design with the later establishment of the landscape architecture profession and areas of practice that include urban and community design; management and restoration of landscapes, sustainable approaches to storm-water management; parks, including neighborhood, city, and regional parks; all types of sports fields, including golf courses; and special venues such as the London 2012 Olympic Park. Landscape architects are also contributors to large-scale infrastructure and land reclamation projects.

This historical overview will include periods of ancient, Islamic, Renaissance, Italian, French, and British garden design traditions, followed by an overview of the industrial period and the rapid growth of cities with the emergence of the Garden City movement, Modernism in the early twentieth century, and post-WWII urban expansion developments. The profession gained increasing influence as concerns about the reduction of environmental quality and biodiversity created emerging areas of emphasis. Increasingly landscape architects apply scientific-based principles of sustainability and best management practices3 as an important aspect of their professional contributions.