Handbook of Informatics for Nurses & Healthcare Professionals, 6th edition Toni L. Hebda Solution Ma

Type:

Solution Manual

Handbook of Informatics for Resource: Nurses & Healthcare Professionals Edition:

6th Edition

Author(s):

Toni L. Hebda Kathleen Hunter Patricia Czar

Instructor’s Resource Manual For

Child Development A Cultural Approach Third Edition Lene Arnett Jensen, PhD, Clark University Jeffrey Jensen Arnett, PhD, Clark University Prepared by Regina Hughes, Professor of Psychology, Collin College

Lene Arnett Jensen/Jeffrey Jensen Arnett; Child Development: A Cultural Approach, 3e

CHAPTER 1: CHILD DEVELOPMENT TODAY: WHO, HOW, AND WHY CONTENTS LEARNING OBJECTIVES............................................................................................................ 1 LECTURE OUTLINE .................................................................................................................... 2 LECTURE LAUNCHERS, DISCUSSION IDEAS, AND ACTIVITIES.................................... 15 CRITICAL THINKING ACTIVITY ............................................................................................ 21 SUPPLEMENTAL READINGS .................................................................................................. 22 REVEL VIDEOS .......................................................................................................................... 22 HANDOUT ................................................................................................................................... 23 LEARNING OBJECTIVES Section 1 1.1 Describe the nature of the “global demographic divide” between developing and developed countries, and explain why the United States is following a different demographic path from other developed countries.

1.2 Distinguish between children in developing countries and developed countries in terms of income, education, and cultural values.

1.3 Explain why socioeconomic status (SES), gender, and ethnicity are important aspects of child development within countries.

1.4 Summarize the evolution of characteristics that make modern humans distinct from other primate species.

1.5 Identify the major changes in human cultures since the Upper Paleolithic period.

1.6 Apply information about human evolution to how child development takes place today.

Section 2 1.7 Provide some reasons why the field of child development primarily focused on younger children until about the mid-20th century.

1.8 Specify when the field of child development began to address adolescence in a notable way, and explain why the age range that Hall had designated for adolescence has been moved downward by contemporary researchers.

1.9 Explain why the field of child development has recently expanded to encompass emerging adulthood.

1.10 Describe the cultural-developmental model that will provide the structure for this text.

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Section 3 1.11 Recall the five steps of the scientific method.

1.12 Identify some key ethical standards for child development research.

1.13 Summarize the main measurements used in research on child development.

1.14 Distinguish between different types of research designs.

1.15 Describe the two major types of research designs used in research on child development.

1.16 Name and define the three general levels at which child development contributes knowledge.

1.17 Give examples of how scientific knowledge can be applied across contexts to improve children’s lives.

LECTURE OUTLINE I. Section 1: Child Development Across the Globe A. Children Today: A Worldwide Demographic Profile 1. Population Growth and Change LO 1.1 Describe the nature of the “global demographic divide” between developing and developed countries, and explain why the United States is following a different demographic path from other developed countries. a. Today, the average number of children per family is lower than at any other time in history, yet the number of children is at its highest and rising. b. Historically, most women gave birth to four to eight children, yet most of those children died in infancy or childhood due to inadequate medical care and nutrition. c. Medical advances facilitated a worldwide decline in rates but an increase in life expectancy due to the cure and eradication of deadly diseases such as smallpox, typhus, diphtheria, and cholera. d. The current total fertility rate (TFR), or number of live births per woman, is 2.5 worldwide. This is higher than the replacement rate of 2.1, seen in a stable population. The TFR is expected to decline to 2.1 by 2050. e. There is a “global demographic divide” between the wealthy, economically developed countries that represent about 20% of the world’s population. Most growth will occur in economically developing countries, while a decline is expected in wealthy, developed countries. f. Developed countries are the most affluent countries in the world as classified by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). g. These countries likely include Canada, the United States, Japan, South Korea, Australia, New Zealand, Chile, and most European countries. h. In contrast, developing countries have less wealth\ but an increasing economic presence in the global economy.

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i. According to the United Nations, nearly 50% of the population in developing countries is younger than 25 years of age, compared to less than 30% for developed countries. j. Many developing countries, such as India, are improving economically. Although most of its population lives on less than $2 a day, half of its children are underweight and malnourished, and half of the women and three-quarters of the men are literate, India is expected to lead the world in economic production by 2050. k. The population of developing countries is 6.3 billion or 80% of the world’s population, while developed countries represent 20% of the world’s population at 1.3 billion. l. The populations of most developed countries, except that of the United States, are expected to remain steady between now and 2050. i. The U.S. population is expected to have slight gains because the TFR is 1.8, close to the replacement rate of 2.1, and the United States has generous immigration laws compared to other OECD countries. Most immigration gains will come from Mexico and Latin America, with the Latino population in the United States. rising from 16% to 30%. m. The populations of some countries are projected to decline. i. Germany, Taiwan, and most eastern countries will experience population declines. ii. Japan is expected to decline the most due to low fertility and lack of immigration. n. Canada will experience increases in population due to open immigration policies.

2. Variations Across Countries LO 1.2 Distinguish between children in developing countries and developed countries in terms of income, education, and cultural values. a. There are large income and education differences between developing and developed countries. i. 40% of the world’s population lives on less than $2 per day. ii. 80% live on a family income of less than $6,000 per year, with Africa remaining the poorest region in the world. iii. 90% of individuals in developed countries are in the top 20% of the global income distribution. b. There is also an educational divide between developing and developed countries. i. Nearly 100% of children in developed countries are afforded a primary and secondary education, and about half go on to college or vocational school. ii. In developing countries, 80% of children attend primary school, but only half advance to secondary school; college attendance is for the rich.

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c. Developed countries tend to foster individualistic values, such as independence and self-expression, while developing countries prize collectivistic values, such as obedience and group harmony. d. Individuals in rural areas tend to have more traditional cultures where they more closely follow their culture, which is often collectivistic. e. Human development research tended to focus on universal principles and ignore culture f. Most child development research has been focused on approximately 20% of the world’s population in developed countries, especially the 5% of the world’s population living in the United States. g. This bias has been changing to be more inclusive of all cultures and recognize the importance of culture in development.

3. Variations Within Countries LO 1.3 Explain why socioeconomic status (SES), gender, and ethnicity are important aspects of child development within countries. a. Child development varies not only between developing and developed countries, but within each as well, particularly between rich and poor countries. i. In each country, the majority culture sets most of the norms and standards and holds most of the positions of political, economic, intellectual, and media power. ii. There are additional influences from the characteristics in common in minority cultures, such as ethnicity, religion, language. b. Child development varies within countries based on the contexts in which child development occurs. The variations in development pathways are based on the environmental setting and circumstances that surround the individual, such as family, peer groups, school, work, media, and civic and religious organizations. c. Three important variations in child development include socioeconomic status (SES), gender, and ethnicity. i. Socioeconomic status (SES) refers to social class and is based on educational level, income, and occupational status. SES shapes child development. A high SES is associated with positive developmental outcomes and a low SES is associated with negative outcomes. Differences in SES are sharp in developing countries and determine access to resources in developed countries. ii. Gender also shapes development. Gender role expectations vary within and between countries. In developed countries, gender roles have become more integrated over time with less differentiation.

This is not true in many other cultures. iii. Ethnicity—cultural origin and traditions, race, religion, and language—also influences child development. Ethnic minorities tend to be more collectivistic.

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B. Origins: The Rise of a Global and Cultural Species 1. Diversity of the human species is due to both ontogenetic development, development of individuals within a species, and phylogenetic development, development of an entire species.

2. From Africa to Distant Destinations LO 1.4 Summarize the evolution of characteristics that make modern humans distinct from other primate species. a. Charles Darwin proposed principles of evolutionary theory in his 1859 book On the Origin of Species. b. According to evolutionary theory, species change through the process of natural selection. i. Young are born with variations, and those with the best adaptations are the most likely to survive. ii. Natural selection results in species changing a little at a time over many generations. This can result in the development of new species. iii. Human evolution began about 6 million years ago, when a common primate ancestor split into one of three paths: humans, chimpanzees, or bonobos. iv. The human evolutionary line is called the hominin line. v. More than 200,000 years ago, the hominin line evolved into our species of modern humans, Homo sapiens. vi. The early Homo sapiens had an increased brain size and wider female pelvis. However, bipedalism (walking on two legs) required a pelvis narrow enough for stability in walking and running. a. Compared to chimpanzees, bonobos, and early hominins, Homo sapiens evolved with large brains and large brain capacity. b. Between 125,000 and 60,000 years ago, Homo sapiens migrated out of Africa, to many different environments from equatorial Africa to the Arctic, each adaptation requiring flexible cognitive skills.

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3. Early Cultures and Civilizations LO 1.5 Identify the major changes in human cultures since the Upper Paleolithic period. a. Homo sapiens have remained physically similar for the last 200,000 years. During the Upper Paleolithic period (50,000–10,000 years ago), evidence of culture first appeared. i. Burial of the dead began, and burial with objects alongside the dead indicates a belief in an afterlife. ii. Cultural differences, such as art and tools, appeared between groups of people. iii. Trade, industry, and migration across large bodies of water began after the invention of the boat. b. The Neolithic period followed about 10,000–5,000 years ago. i. In contrast to the Ice Age of the Upper Paleolithic period, the Neolithic period resulted in farming and animal domestication, a warmer climate, new tools, and permanent dwellings. c. Civilization as we know it began around 5,000 years ago. i. Civilization is characterized by the development of cities, the ability to write, divisions of labor, SES, and a centralized political system known as a state. ii. Pyramids built during this time still stand. iii. Civilizations and states arose due to agricultural efficiency, including irrigation, which led to the opportunity to create and work in different fields. As people spread, the state tended to infrastructure and trade development.

4. Evolution, Culture, and Child Development Today LO 1.6 Apply information about human evolution to how child development takes place today. a. Our human development is based in part on our evolutionary history.

Evolutionary psychology is an approach to the study of patterns of human functioning and behavior that has resulted from adaptions to evolutionary conditions. b. Biologically, little evolutionary change has occurred since the origin of Homo sapiens, but much has changed in terms of culture. c. Homo sapiens lived in small groups of hunters and gatherers. d. Our cultures shape our raw biological material, producing variations in development throughout the lifespan. e. Culture is what makes us unique from nonhuman animals. and it developed in part from our large brains and our ability to learn, create, and adapt.

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II. Section 2: The Field of Child Development: Past and Present A. The Emergence of a Science of Child Development 1. A Focus on Younger Children LO 1.7 Provide some reasons why the field of child development primarily focused on younger children until about the mid-20th century. a. G. Stanley Hall and the Child Study Movement i. The field of psychology is considered to have been established in 1880, when Wilhelm Wundt of Germany and William James in the United States established research laboratories. ii. James’s first PhD student, G. Stanley Hall, focused research on children and led the child study movement in the 1880s and 1890s. iii. Hall’s work centered on what children knew on entering primary school at around age 7. iv. Hall expanded his studies to childhood fears and advocated for the scientific study of children; by 1896, there was enough information for Frederick Tracy to write The Psychology of Childhood. v. While Hall believed parents and teachers were great sources of data, others criticized this approach, advocating for the empirical data derived in a laboratory setting. vi. Another criticism of Hall’s work was his belief that city life resulted in “soft” boys. He supported roughening them with cold baths, teaching them to box, and denying them excessive attention. b. Freud’s Focus on Early Childhood i. Sigmund Freud, a Viennese physician, was the first to devise a known scientific theory of psychological development. His theory was based on working with mentally ill patients who had experienced and repressed a traumatic childhood event. ii. He developed and used psychoanalysis to help patients uncover and heal from their traumatic pasts and used dreams as a source of unconscious memories. iii. The basis of Freud’s psychosexual theory was that sexual desire is the driving force behind human development. The locus of the sexual drive shifts around the body during early development, and the personality is complete at age 6. iv. Freud proposed five stages of development: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital. v.

Freud believed the first three stages and a child’s interactions with parents could explain a person’s motives underlying behaviors. vi. It was the dominant theory until the latter half of the 20th century, but most of Freud’s psychosexual theory has not held up over time.

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B. Expansions of the Field of Child Development 1. The Inclusion of Adolescence LO 1.8 Specify when the field of child development began to address adolescence in a notable way, and explain why the age range that Hall had designated for adolescence has been moved downward by contemporary researchers. a. G. Stanley Hall authored the first textbook on adolescence in 1904. i. Hall defined adolescence as ages 14 through 24. ii. Despite Hall’s work on adolescence, most research centered on younger children. b. Freud’s daughter, Anna Freud, wrote extensively about adolescence between the 1940s and 1960s and believed adolescence is fraught with turmoil and emotional upheaval. c. Erik Erikson proposed a lifespan theory of development and considered adolescence a critical time period for establishing identity, a theory still supported today. d. Today’s research suggests adolescence occurs between age 10 and through the late teens. e. Two reasons explain why conceptions adolescence have changed: i. The decline in the typical age of the start of puberty—the median age of menarche, a girl’s first menstrual period, experienced a steady decline between 1900 and 1970. Today’s median age of menarche in Western countries is 12.5 and puberty begins about 2 years earlier. ii. The growth of secondary school attendance as a normative experience—by 1985, enrollment in high school leveled out at 95%. Because high school typically ends at age 18, developmentalists consider this the end point of adolescence. a. During Hall’s era, marriage indicated the end of adolescence; hence, his designation of age 24 to mark the end of adolescence. b. As economic conditions improve in developing countries, secondary education becomes more common, marking the end of adolescence as in developed countries.

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2. The Inclusion of Emerging Adulthood LO 1.9 Explain why the field of child development has recently expanded to encompass emerging adulthood. a. Emerging adulthood is a new stage in developed countries between adolescence and young adulthood, occurring between age 18 through mid-20s. i. Enrollment in tertiary education in developed countries is above 50% and lasts into the 20s, thereby extending job stability, marriage, and parenthood. b. Emerging adulthood is a life stage in developed countries that is a transition from parental dependence to independence, but lacks the hallmarks of adulthood. c. In developing countries, emerging adulthood is reserved for the wealthy urbanites while the rural poor have no emerging adulthood and little time in adolescence before experiencing work, marriage, and parenting relatively early.

3. Today’s Field of Child Development LO 1.10 Describe the cultural-developmental model that will provide the structure for this text. a. The field of child development now includes research on adolescents and emerging adults. i. Professional organizations for instructors, practitioners, and researchers have experienced expanded growth, while international organizations such as UNICEF have expanded their focus on adolescents and emerging adults. b. The common developmental terms and age categories include: i. Prenatal development, from conception until birth ii. Infancy, birth to age 12 months iii. Toddlerhood, ages 12 to 36 months iv. Early childhood, ages 3 to 6 years v. Middle childhood, ages 6 to 9 years vi. Early adolescence, ages 10 to 14 years vii. Late adolescence, ages 15 to 18 years viii. Emerging adulthood, ages 18 to 25 years c. The cultural-developmental model is the study of development within and across cultures in order to understand both what is universal and what is culturally distinctive. i. The structure of developmental periods is affected by culture. ii. The only way to know whether research can be generalized from one culture to another is to study child development across diverse cultures. iii. Today’s globalized world means cultural change happens rapidly, migration and immigration continue, and many people identify with multiple cultures.

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III. Section 3: How and Why We Study Child Development A. The Scientific Method and Research Ethics 1. The Five Steps of the Scientific Method LO 1.11 Recall the five steps of the scientific method. a. The scientific method is a process of scientific investigation involving a series of five steps. b. Step 1: Identify a research question. c. Step 2: Propose a hypothesis. i. A hypothesis is the researcher’s idea about the possible answer to the question. d. Step 3: Choose a research measurement and a research design. i. The research measurement is the approach to data collection. ii. The research design is the plan for when, where, and with whom to collect data for a study. e. Step 4: Collect data. i. Data are collected from a representative sample, the participants in a research study who are intended to represent the population being studied. ii. Using a representative sample increases the generalizability of the findings so that conclusions may extend to the population. iii. The procedure details how the study is conducted and the data are collected, which should avoid bias. f. Step 5: Draw conclusions. i. Conclusions are based on results that have been statistically analyzed. ii. The researcher determines whether the data support or refute the hypothesis and interpret them based on relevant theories and previous research. iii. The research is usually disseminated by writing a manuscript that is submitted to a peer-reviewed journal so that the work can be assessed for accuracy and credibility by peer experts and then accepted by a journal editor, if it is deemed worthwhile. iv. Research may lead to the development or modification of theories.

A theory is an original framework to explain a set of interconnected ideas that inspires further research.

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2. Ethics in Child Development Research LO 1.12 Identify some key ethical standards for child development research. a. To prevent ethical violations, most institutions require that research proposals be approved by an institutional review board (IRB). b. IRBs usually require the following components as part of the research proposal: i. Protection from physical and psychological harm. ii. Informed consent prior to participation. Informed consent is a procedure that entails informing potential participants of what their participation would involve, including any possible risks, and giving them the opportunity to agree to participate or not. iii. The consent form includes important information about the study, such as expectations, risks, and benefits. It also lets the participant know that participation is voluntary, withdrawal at any time is permissible, and, for minors, parents must consent. iv. Confidentiality. Information about research participants is not shared outside the immediate research group, and they will not be identified by name. v. Deception and debriefing. Deception is sometimes required to study phenomenon that subjects might want to hide. If deception is used, the researchers must debrief that participant afterward. That is, they must tell the participant the true purpose of the study.

B. Research Measurements and Designs in Child Development 1. Research Measurements LO 1.13 Summarize the main measurements used in research on child development. a. Questionnaires i. Closed-question formats have specific responses, which makes it easy to collect and analyze the data; useful for large data sets. ii. An open-ended question format allows self-generated responses by the participant. iii. Closed questions provide quantitative data, information collected in numerical form. iv. Limitations: Closed questions that use an existing response set may miss the depth, complexity, and diversity of the participants. b. Interviews i. Interviews capture participants’ individuality and complexity by allowing them to describe their lives in their own words. ii. Interviews provide qualitative data that are not readily quantifiable because it is not in numerical form. Qualitative data are different from quantitative data, which are collected in numerical form. iii. Limitations: Interviews are difficult and time consuming to code into useful categories.

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c. Observations i. Observations involve making systematic observations and recording that information. a. They are conducted in a naturalistic and structured environment. b. Structured observations take place in a laboratory setting. c. Advantage: They involve actual behavior rather than selfreports of behavior. d. Limitation: Participants may change behavior when they have knowledge of observation. d. Biological Measurements i. Human development includes biological changes, so research includes biological measurements: a. These include hormonal functioning, brain functioning, and the genetic basis of development. b. These are often combined with other methods, such as an EEG or fMRI, to present a more complete picture. ii. Advantage: These measures allow for precise measurements and an investigation of the relationship between biological and other types of development. iii. Limitations: These measures are expensive, and relationships are far from exact. e. Reliability and Validity i. Reliability refers to the consistency of measurements—that is, getting the same measurements time and again. ii. Validity refers to the truthfulness or accuracy of a method. A valid measure is one that measures what it claims to measure. iii. Ecological validity describes the extent to which there is a fit between the measurement approach and the daily life of the people under study. iv. If a measurement is unreliable, it cannot be valid.

2. Research Designs LO 1.14 Distinguish between different types of research designs. a. Experimental Design i. The experimental design method is one that entails comparing an experimental group that receives a treatment of some kind to a control group that receives no treatment. ii. In an experiment, participants are randomly assigned to an experimental or control group to measure the difference between the groups after the treatment or manipulation. a. The experimental group gets the treatment or manipulation. b. The control group gets no treatment or manipulation.

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c. Random assignment assumes equality between the groups before the treatment or manipulation.

1. An independent variable is the variable that differs from the control group. It is the variable that is being manipulated.

2. A dependent variable is the measurable outcome of the experiment. d. Intervention programs are intended to change the attitudes or behavior of participants and are often measured experimentally to determine their effectiveness. e. Advantage: Experiments allow researchers control and gives the researcher the ability to make causal rather than correlational statements about the effectiveness of the experimental manipulation. f. Disadvantage: Experiments lack realism, which could compromise generalizability. b. Natural Experiment i. A natural experiment is a situation that exists naturally but provides interesting scientific information. Researchers can examine naturally occurring groups for differences while yielding the control that a lab and random assignment afford. ii. Natural experiments provide insight into naturally occurring events. c. Ethnographic Research i. Ethnographic research is in-depth observational research that occurs when the researcher lives and interacts with the participants over a long period of time. ii. The results of this research are usually published in a book called an ethnography. iii. Advantage: This research involves a naturalistic setting that more accurately captures daily life. iv. Limitations: This type of research is time consuming and expensive; researchers may develop observer bias due to personal relationships with participants. d. Case Study i. A case study is a detailed examination of the life of one person or a small number of persons. ii. Advantage: This is a detailed account of the whole person. iii. Limitation: There is limited generalizability.

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e. Correlational Design i. Correlation design allows the researcher to assess relations between naturally occurring variables with the goal of determining whether one variable predicts the other. A correlation is a statistical relationship between two variables such that knowing one of the variables makes it possible to predict the other. ii. Advantage: Correlational studies can be completed quickly and inexpensively. iii. Disadvantage: The correlation can be positive or negative, but it correlation does not imply causation.

3. Research Designs in Developmental Psychology LO 1.15 Describe the two major types of research designs used in research on child development. a. Cross-sectional Design i. The most common developmental research design is crosssectional design, wherein data are collected with a sample on a single occasion from people of different ages. ii. Advantage: This design is quick and inexpensive. iii. Limitation: This design yields correlational relationships only between variables without the ability to determine cause. b. Longitudinal Design i. A longitudinal design uses the same participants with data collected over time, at least twice but often more frequently. ii. These studies usually last a year or less but could last a lifetime. iii. Advantage: This design offers the ability to examine development over time as well as greater insight into possible causation. a. A cohort effect is an explanation of group differences among people of different ages based on the fact that they grew up in different cohorts or historical periods. iv. Limitations a. Studies with this design are costly and time consuming. b. They require more patience. c. Attrition, or participants leaving the study, can be a problem.

C. Two Central Purposes of Child Development Research 1. Contributing Knowledge LO 1.16 Name and define the three general levels at which child development contributes knowledge. a. Child development researchers aim to generate nomothetic knowledge, research that provides universal descriptions, predictions, and explanations of child development. b. A second type of research in the child development field is idiographic, research that provides knowledge of individual development. c. The third type of research is sociocultural, which is focused on what is distinctive about the psychology of particular cultural and social groups.

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2. Improving Children’s Lives LO 1.17 Give examples of how scientific knowledge can be applied across contexts to improve children’s lives. a. Applied contributions of child development research take place in the context of families, childcare institutions, schools, the media, government, and international nonprofit organizations such as UNICEF and WHO. b. Globalization refers to the increasing connections between different parts of the world in trade, travel, migration, and communication. c. It is important for students to be a part of the global village because they will be interacting with people from all over the world.

LECTURE LAUNCHERS, DISCUSSION IDEAS, AND ACTIVITIES Section 1 Activity: A Cultural Approach to Human Development The textbook takes a cultural approach to human development. It is important to frame this idea for students, as many of them have a very narrow view of culture. Introduce the Chinese concept of jing di zhi wa or “frog in the bottom of the well” story from the chapter introduction and the definition of culture. Have them generate examples of the culture, or cultures, to which someone may belong. Some of the categories that may be represented might include nationality, race, SES, family, college or university, religious affiliation, and so on.

Section 1 Lecture Launcher: What Is Culture?

Does it make sense to use the concept of race? Hector Betancourt and Steven Lopez (1993) caution against the tendency to confuse the concept of culture with the concepts of race, ethnicity, nationality, and social class. Help students understand the difference between these concepts. A great place to start this conversation is the PBS three-part documentary, RACE: The Power of Illusion (2003). You can order the video or find clips online on www.racepowerofanillusion.org. You can find transcripts on the PBS website (www.pbs.org; type the title of the series into the search bar). Zuckerman (1990) argues that the concept of race is particularly likely to be misused in social science research and provides evidence of greater within-group differences than between-group differences in characteristics of the three “races” (Caucasoid, Negroid, and Mongoloid). Betancourt and Lopez (1993) point out that even biological factors that have been found to vary with “race” (such as hypertension) may be attributable to cultural factors (such as diet, lifestyle, or psychological stress). Zuckerman cites cross-cultural studies in which findings of “racial differences” were a result of arbitrary sampling decisions. For example, several early studies of infant temperament reported cross-cultural differences based on a single sample from each of three different “racial” groups.

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Understanding the difference between race and ethnicity is critical, in particular as it relates to the process of counting the population in the United States via the U.S. Census. The Census is conducted every 10 years and is set to launch in 2020. Wang (2018) writes of the proposed revisions to the questions of race and ethnicity in the 2020 Census and notes the significant impact of these revisions on policy, laws, and overall statistics.

Sources: Betancourt, H., and Lopez, S. R. (1993). The study of culture, ethnicity, and race in American psychology. American Psychologist, 48, 629–637.

Wang, H. L. (2018, January 26). 2020 census to keep racial, ethnic categories used in 2010.

National Public Radio. www.npr.org. (Search for the article title on homepage.)

Zuckerman, M. (1990). Some dubious premises in research and theory on racial differences: Scientific, social, and ethical issues. American Psychologist, 45, 1297–1303.

Section 1 Discussion/Activity: What Is Culture?

Provide students with a list of different social groups and ask them to determine whether each is a culture by applying the criteria for culture described in the textbook. These might include such social groups as, for example, military veterans, women, emo music fans, Irish people, surfers, smokers, Canadians, or people in poverty. Then, have students write down which culture or cultures they are members of and how that may have influenced their development. Finally, in small groups of four to five students, have them discuss their cultural similarities and differences.

This is a good rapport-building activity for the first or second day of class. In an online class, this is a discussion board activity in which students respond to the same prompts and then read others’ replies and find three students with whom they have cultural similarities and differences to respond to on the discussion board.

Section 1 Lecture Launcher: Introduce Charles Darwin The Research Focus feature includes the story of Charles Darwin and the development of his thinking on evolution by means of natural selection. This extremely interesting story is best told in his own words (Darwin, 1887), but van Wyhe (2002)’s biography helps flesh out the picture.

As you present this information, elaborate on some of the points in Darwin’s autobiography that you find interesting and tie them to the larger picture of how science advances. Students will find this information compelling because it reveals the personal, human side of scientific endeavor.

Sources: Darwin, C. (1950/1887). Charles Darwin’s Autobiography. New York: Henry Schuman.

Van Wyhe, J. (Ed.). (2002). Charles Darwin: Gentleman naturalist. http://darwinonline.org.uk. (Click on “Biography.”)

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Section 1 Lecture Launcher: Evolution as an Integrative Theme in the Course Review Nisbet’s article, “Evolution in the College Classroom: Facilitating Conversations About Science and Religion” (2017). Nisbet provides some insight into how college students may respond to concepts that challenge their understanding of the world. Some students have a difficult time with the idea of evolutionary theory, which in part may be due to their own misconceptions. Others may be resistant to the theory because of religious beliefs. Peter Gray provides a brief article in the APS Observer with good teaching tips for using evolution by natural selection as a way to tie together the many theories and facts provided in a developmental psychology course (and other psychology courses). He also produced a more detailed article in the journal Teaching of Psychology (1996). Refer to Gray’s article and select several of the tips suggested. Pay attention to how students respond to your approach to the subject matter, and use it as an opportunity to further explore the importance of developing a scientific mindset.

Sources: Gray, P. (1996). Incorporating evolutionary theory into the teaching of psychology. Teaching of Psychology, 23(4). 207–214. DOI:10.1207/s15328023top2304_1.

Gray, P. (1996). Using evolution by natural selection as an integrative theme in psychology courses. APS Observer, 9(3). www.psychologicalscience.org/index.php/publications/observer/1996/may-june96/using-evolution-by-natural-selection-as-an-integrative-theme-in-psychologycourses.html.

Nisbet, M. (2017, September/October). Evolution in the college classroom: Facilitating conversations about science and religion. Skeptical Inquirer, 41(5).

Additional Resources: Barker, L. (2009). Teaching evolutionary psychology: An interview with David M. Buss.

Teaching of Psychology, 33(1), 69–73.

Prescott, S. (1984). An evolutionary model applied to teaching. Teaching of Psychology, 11(4), 198–202.

Section 2 Lecture Launcher: The Rise of the Global Economy and Adolescence G. Stanley Hall wrote the first textbook on adolescence, tirelessly advocating for the distinction of this age group and believing they were worthy of extensive scientific investigation. However, Hall believed this age period started at about the age of 14 and ended at 24. Many researchers, such as Anna Freud, believed adolescence was naturally fraught with turmoil and emotional upheaval. We know Erik Erikson believed adolescence included a search for identity. Ask students what biological, emotional, and mental signs indicate adolescence today.

Today, most developed countries identify adolescence as the time between the onset of puberty and about age 18. For a significant number of those in developed countries, high school graduation leads to tertiary education of some type. Many in developing countries marry young, become parents, and find jobs before their counterparts in developed countries graduate from high school.

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However, this trend is changing. Technological advances in many labor industries result in the increase of both secondary and tertiary education rates across the world. As in developed countries, the end of secondary education is the more commonly shared marker ending adolescence.

For an added layer of discussion, review the article by Hasse et al. (2019). Ask students to predict and/or imagine how the rise of machine learning, artificial intelligence, and automation might impact the future of work for adolescents. Will these changes positively or negatively impact experiences we now associate with adolescence?

Source: Hasse, A., Cortesi, S., Lombana-Bermudez, A., and Gasser, U. (2019). Youth and artificial intelligence: Where we stand. Berkman Klein Center for Internet & Society publication. https://dash.harvard.edu/handle/1/40268058.

Section 2 Activity: Developmental Comparisons Across Species The textbook authors mention some milestones related to the various major theories of development. In this activity, students will compare developmental milestones across species.

Have students choose a species for which there is a lot of information available (e.g., the various primates, any domesticated animal, most songbirds, many types of lizards). On their own, have students research their species to find ages of at least five different milestones they can compare to those of human development. For example, at what age does a chimpanzee infant take its first steps compared to when a human infant takes first steps? At what age does a puppy wean compared to when a typical human infant does? This can be assigned as an individual activity or to be done in small groups. Have students present their comparisons to the class.

Section 3 Lecture Launcher: Can Psychology Be a Real Science?

Most students starting in psychology bring to the course the misconception that psychology research is generally unscientific in nature. Students readily accept the notion that physics, chemistry, and biology are scientific disciplines; however, they find it difficult to accept the fact that psychological research can also be scientific. You can develop a lecture that sets forth the idea of the scientific method (i.e., observation, prediction via a hypothesis, confirmation or disconfirmation, revision of hypothesis as needed, development of overarching theory). You can discuss how the scientific method can be applied to one or more of the “hard science” disciplines. You can then show that hypotheses in psychological research can be tested in much the same way as in the hard sciences.

After your lecture, show the brief video Is Psychology a Science? (Search online for the video’s title.) The video offers an overview of the questions many might raise about how psychology can be a real science.

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Section 3 Lecture Launcher: Ways of Knowing Another way to engage students is to develop a lecture on how we acquire information. Most students have difficulty understanding why they need to understand research methods in order to study psychology. Many students have the idea that psychology is all “common sense.”

There are at least six ways to acquire knowledge, five unscientific and one scientific. The unscientific ways are tenacity, intuition, authority, rationalism, and empiricism (Jhangiani et al., 2019). Tenacity involves persistent superstition. This is where beliefs are reacted to as if they are fact. Intuition is not based on any known reasoning or inferring process (e.g., psychics).

Authority involves acquiring information from a respected source (e.g., a person, document).

The authority is often well known in one area, maybe even an expert, but is often not an expert in the area in which they are providing information. Rationalism involves gaining knowledge through reasoning processes and assumes that valid knowledge is acquired if correct reasoning processes are employed. Empiricism touts knowledge from experience. If something is experienced it must be valid and true. Each of the unscientific methods has obvious problems, but we use them every day to acquire information. We then use this information to make decisions that influence our lives and the lives of people around us.

The scientific method or process has two major advantages. It uses objective empirical observation that should be independent of opinion or bias. It also has a method for establishing the superiority of one belief or theory over another. The theory that is more precise (operational definitions), more parsimonious, and more testable is deemed the better theory. Skepticism, the philosophical belief that all knowledge is questionable, is assumed. No scientific fact can be known with 100% certainty, which is why we never use the word prove to refer to research findings in psychology.

It is often helpful to give the class examples of questions and ask them where they would seek the information to inform their answers. For example, what is the cause of the medical symptoms I am experiencing? What kind of car should I buy? What is the best reading program to teach children to read? How can we reduce the divorce rate? Should antidepressants be prescribed to adolescents? Do video games cause violence?

Source: Jhangiani, R. S., Chiang, I. A., Cuttler, C., and Leighton, D. C. (2019). Research methods in psychology (4th ed.). Kwantlen Polytechnic University. https://kpu.pressbooks.pub/psycmethods4e/.

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Section 3 Lecture Launcher/Discussion: Understanding Experimental Design To supplement students’ understanding of experiments from Chapter 1, you can provide them with a good visual demonstration by showing a very easy-to-understand video (14:58 minutes) on the basic research design of an experiment provided by Michael Britt, creator of www.thepsychfiles.com. On that site, search for Episode 45: Basic Research Design-Part 1 (2008). Although the video is not specifically related to developmental psychology, it does give excellent examples that students can understand. The basic terms your students should know are presented in the first 7:39 minutes of the video (independent variable, dependent variable, between groups t-test design, mean, dependent variable, sample size, control, experimental, etc.).

More detailed terms, such as confound, within groups design, ANOVA, and noise, are in the latter half of the video. After watching the video, you may want to provide students with another example of an experiment but one that is related to topics of interest in developmental psychology.

Section 3 Activity: Correlational and Experimental Research Many students have difficulty understanding the difference between correlational research and experimental research. It might be useful to walk through an example in which both kinds of research are illustrated with the same variables. Two examples that could be used this way are the relationship between violent television viewing and aggression and the relationship between similarity and likeness. In both examples, either variable could plausibly be caused by the other (or by some third factor), so the step up from correlational to experimental research, in which causality can be determined, can be seen as useful. Spend some time discussing how psychologists must be ingenious to turn concepts such as “likeness” into measurable variables (this will help students appreciate the scientific process). As examples, you can present actual studies that have been done in these two areas. Byrne (1971) discusses extensive research on the influence of similarity on attraction, and Liebert and Sprafkin (1988) discuss the effects of television on children.

Sources: Byrne, D. (1971). The attraction paradigm. New York: Academic Press.

Liebert, R., and Sprafkin, J. (1988). The early window: Effects of television on children and youth. New York: Pergamon Press.

Section 3 Activity: Designing a Research Study An appropriate collaborative learning activity for this chapter on research methods is to allow students the opportunity to design their own research. Arrange your class into groups of three to five students each. Explain that each group represents a team of researchers. The goal is to design a study in some area related to human development. Some suggestions are: What foods do infants prefer? Can energy drinks really help college students learn more efficiently and effectively? Why are children aggressive? Why do adolescents like to hang out at malls? What methods of smoking cessation are most effective? Why do we fall in love? Does having a pet increase the well-being of elderly people? Is CBD oil effective? Groups can brainstorm some ideas of their own. You may use Handout 1.1 with this to guide the activity. Ask students to bring their research design to class for sharing and further discussion.

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CRITICAL THINKING ACTIVITY Pseudoscience, Statistical Manipulation, and Magical Thinking Pseudoscience is fake science. Purported claims derived from pseudoscience are based on a lack of scientific evidence, or, at the very least, faulty evidence. Students are often unsure of the difference between science, pseudoscience, skepticism, and cynicism.

Search on the internet for the short video titled Karl Popper, Science & Pseudoscience: Crash Course Philosophy #8. The video runs about 9 minutes in length. After showing the video, be sure students understand the difference between these concepts: Science: An organized and systematic approach to discovering and expanding knowledge Pseudoscience: Fake science lacking scientific evidence Skepticism: Not believing things at face value and insisting on scientific evidence Cynicism: Believing that all science is wrong Once students understand the difference in the terms, discuss the importance of research outcomes and descriptive statistics. To set the stage, provide students with an overview of the terms mean, median, mode, and range. Using a thought experiment, ask students to consider the average annual income in the class. You don’t have to actually calculate it, but walk through the mental process with students. Talk about a possible range and the average annual income. Now, ask them to imagine that someone such as Bill Gates walks into the room. We ask Mr. Gates whether he would like to join our “thought experiment.” Ask students what they believe will happen if we include Mr. Gates’s annual income into our class average calculation. Quickly, students will understand they will become instant millionaires, on paper.

Now that students are familiar with and understand the scientific terms, have them complete Handout 1.2. Ask them to bring their completed activity to class for discussion. A nice way to wrap up this discussion is to view the rather entertaining and informative TED talk featuring Michael Shermer, Why People Believe Weird Things (2006). To access the video, go to www.ted.com and type the title of the video into the search bar.

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SUPPLEMENTAL READINGS Carpenter, S. (2012, March 30). Psychology’s bold initiative. Science, 335(6076), 1558–1561.

Darwin Correspondence Project. University of Cambridge. www.darwinproject.ac.uk.

Huff, D. (1993). How to lie with statistics. New York: W. W. Norton & Company.

John, L. K., Loewenstein, G., and Prelec, D. (2012). Measuring the prevalence of questionable research practices with incentives for truth-telling. Psychological Science, 23(5), 524– 532.

Maxwell, S. E., Lau, M. Y., and Howard, G. S. (2015, September). Is psychology suffering from a replication crisis? What does “failure to replicate” really mean? American Psychologist, 70(6), 487–498.

Novella, S. (2018). The skeptics’ guide to the universe: How to know what’s really real in a world increasingly full of fake. New York: Grand Central Publishing.

Open Science Collaboration. (2012). An open, large-scale, collaborative effort to estimate the reproducibility of psychological science. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 7, 657– 660.

Parry, M. (2006, July 1). G. Stanley Hall: Psychologist and early gerontologist. American Journal of Public Health, 96(7), 1161.

Prewitt, K. (2016). What is your race?: The census and our flawed efforts to classify Americans.

Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Shermer, M. (2002). Why people believe weird things. New York: Holt.

Zimring, J. C. (2019). What science is and how it really works. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.

REVEL VIDEOS Chapter Introduction: Child Development Today: Who, How, and Why The Demographic Divide Natural Selection Darwin’s Diary: A Case Study Early Learning Specialist Apply Your Knowledge as a Professional: Early Learning Specialist

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Handout 1.1: Design Your Own Research Study You and the other members of your group are considered a research team. Your team’s job is to design a scientifically sound study related to human development. Keeping the scientific method in mind, address the following questions: 1. What problem or question is the focus of your research?

2. Will you design a correlational design or an experimental design? (Refer to your textbook to identify the difference between the two designs.)

3. What are your variables? Is there a need to identify one as the independent variable and one as the dependent variable? If so, what are they? How are the variables operationally defined? Have you considered all possible confounding variables?

4. Define your hypothesis.

5. Are you incorporating longitudinal or cross-sectional methods into your research design? If so, identify which method.

Created by: Regina Hughes, Collin College. No third-party material included.

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Handout 1.1: Design Your Own Research Study (page 2) 6. Where will you draw your sample, and who is your population of research subjects? Will you have an experimental and control group? If so, how are subjects assigned to each group?

7. What data-gathering strategies and/or “treatment” will you use?

8. Describe, diagram, or explain your research methodology.

9. Based on your design, what do you predict will be the outcomes of your research?

10. How did you minimize bias in your study?

Created by: Regina Hughes, Collin College. No third-party material included.

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Handout 1.2: Pseudoscience, Statistical Manipulation, and Magical Thinking Can you read a magazine, watch the news, or visit a website without having some sort of statistic thrown at you? Everywhere, people try to persuade us with numbers. In most of our endeavors today, such as science, business, and medicine, we look to statistical operations to help us determine how valid, reliable, and predictive information is. We live in a world that demands we understand statistics well enough to make good decisions and to be more fool-proof!

Statistics is a field of mathematics that states information in numerical terms so it can be organized, analyzed, and interpreted. Statistics was originally considered the “science of kings.”

In the 1700s, statistics referred to the counting of goods, people, and soldiers available to the king. Today, the science of the king belongs to all of us and is still used to summarize past or present realities and to predict future possibilities.

Something as simple as an average can be misleading. Knowing the range, median, and mode before we make decisions based on averages can save us from serious error. Start noticing how often you are given just an average when numbers come your way.

Who is included in an average matters, too. A national average may not tell you much about your area of the country. A regional average would be more representative, a state average even more so, but a local average would be best if you want to know about your own city.

Activity 1 Before starting the activity, take a listen to Stochasticity, an astounding and informative podcast found at Radiolab. (To find the podcast online, search for “Stochasticity Radiolab.”) The focus is on randomness and the likelihood that even the most unlikely events occur. It is particularly helpful for reducing magical thinking about statistically improbable events.

Now, look in any media source for an article or advertisement with statistics. Jot down every statistic given. Analyze your data (the statistics) for missing information. If it is an average, do you know the range, median, or mode? If it is a simple count, do you have any information regarding how it was obtained or who it represents? What is the sample size? How might the missing information result in misleading you?

Activity 2 Use the same data or a new data set you find. In the previous exercise, you thought about missing information that might change the meaning of the data or the inferences you would make from it.

For this exercise, go two steps further: 1. Write down possible reasons the statistics were presented in the way they were. Is the author attempting to convince you to accept a certain belief or take a certain action? If so, what belief or action?

2. Write a list of the information you would need to be more confident the data represented the real situation accurately.

Created by: Regina Hughes, Collin College. No third-party material included.

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Handout 1.2: Pseudoscience, Statistical Manipulation, and Magical Thinking (page 2) Activity 3 Based on what you’ve learned thus far, we will take this to a practical application. Imagine you are about to make a big decision about a purchase, political issue, or school. (If not, choose one you might need to make in the future.) Using the internet, magazines, newspapers, Twitter, and so on, find statistics both pro and con related to your decision. Following the steps in the previous exercises, list all the statistics you find and identify ways they may be misleading. If you are comparing items, consider: Is it easy to compare them, or are the statistics stated too differently to compare A to B? Did all the statistics you found support the same conclusion?

Write up your experience, the difficulties you encountered, and how you might overcome them in order to make your best decision.

Created by: Regina Hughes, Collin College. No third-party material included.

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CHAPTER 2: DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES AND CONTEXT: PAST AND PRESENT CONTENTS LEARNING OBJECTIVES............................................................................................................ 1 LECTURE OUTLINE .................................................................................................................... 2 LECTURE LAUNCHERS, DISCUSSION IDEAS, AND ACTIVITIES.................................... 12 CRITICAL THINKING ACTIVITY ............................................................................................ 16 SUPPLEMENTAL READINGS .................................................................................................. 18 REVEL VIDEOS .......................................................................................................................... 19 HANDOUT ................................................................................................................................... 20 LEARNING OBJECTIVES Section 1 2.1 Compare four historical conceptions of development, and summarize their implications for contemporary theory.

2.2 Compare three stage conceptions from traditional cultures, and explain what insights they hold for current scientific theories.

2.3 Summarize key features of Erikson’s psychosocial theory, and name the first five stages.

2.4 Identify the main ideas that underlie cognitive-developmental theories.

2.5 Explain how learning theories account for children’s development.

2.6 Describe the different branches of biological theories and how they explain development.

2.7 Name two kinds of contextual theories, and summarize their main features.

2.8 Review the three points highlighted by cultural theories.

Section 2 2.9 Describe important cultural and historical characteristics of the family context.

2.10 Differentiate friends, peers, and romantic partners, and explain when they become most salient in development.

2.11 Explain why school is an important context in children’s development.

2.12 Compare developed and developing countries with regard to children’s and adolescents’ work participation.

2.13 Explain how media have changed children’s daily environments.

2.14 Identify features of importance in regard to the influence of civic and religious institutions on children’s development.

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Section 3 2.15 Describe the current scientific approach to early experiences.

2.16 Explain ways in which children are active agents in their own development.

2.17 Analyze the usefulness of stage conceptions.

2.18 Provide a brief history of views on the influences of nature (biology) and nurture (the environment) in the field of child development.

2.19 Describe how a focus on diversity has been added to the focus on universals in child development.

LECTURE OUTLINE I. Section 1: Developmental Theories A. Conceptions of Development Across Time and Traditional Cultures 1. Developmental Stages in History: Ancient Hindus, Greeks, and Jews and Medieval Europeans LO 2.1 Compare four historical conceptions of development, and summarize their implications for contemporary theory. a. Life stage concepts have been a part of human history for thousands of years i. The stages were written by and for men only, reflecting the secondary and subservient status of women in most cultures. ii. Stages were simply ideals for development but not reflective of how everyone developed. b. Ancient Hindu Conceptions i. The Dharmashastras, the oldest of the sacred law books of the Hindu religion, established childhood, the apprentice period, and a time of celibacy from birth to 25. ii. Each of the four stages of the ideal life span of 100 years represents a set of role-related duties. iii. Traditional Hindu rituals mark childhood substages, and the movement from substage to substage involves the entire family. c. Ancient Greek Conceptions i. Solon’s life stage conception, which was developed about 2,500 years ago in ancient Greece, divided life into 7-year increments from birth to age 70. ii. The first three stages focused on physical development, with the first 21 years being immaturity and ages 21 to 28 considered the time a person’s powers “ripen.” d. Ancient Jewish Conceptions i. The Talmud, written more than 1,500 years ago, includes instructions for ideals for each part of the life span. ii. The Bar Mitzvah, a ritual completed at age 13, marks the age of moral responsibility, while readiness for marriage and work occur at ages 18 and 20. iii. The ancient Jewish tradition centers on cognitive rather than physical development.

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e. Medieval European Conceptions i. Revival of the life stage concept occurred in the early 14th century and included the stages of infantia, ages 0 to 7 years; pueritia, ages 7 to 14, and adolescentia, ages 14 to 21 and upward to 35. ii. Adolescentia was considered the time of physical strength, vigor, and stature, along with cognitive maturity leading to rational judgment. f. Conclusions i. Life stage concepts reveal vast differences in how the life span is divided from the four stages in the Dharmashastras to 14 stages in the Talmud. ii. Conceptions of the four ancient life stage concepts suggest there are no distinct dividing lines in human development because our biology, culture, and social interactions all intertwine to make us who we are. iii. Similarities in the historical life stage concepts reveal that childhood and adolescence are a time of physical, cognitive, and socioemotional immaturity and preparation for adulthood. iv. Childhood is not afforded much attention in any of the four historical life stage traditions.

2. Developmental Stages Across Traditional Cultures: Three Examples LO 2.2 Compare three stage conceptions from traditional cultures, and explain what insights they hold for current scientific theories. a. Exploration of traditional cultures reflects varying life stage conceptions starting at birth and extending through the idea of an afterlife. b. The Gusii i. Infants are breast-fed and sleep beside their mothers until age 2, when weaning takes place. ii. From ages 2 to 6, children play most of the day but perform simple tasks. iii. Gender roles and life paths are different for males and females. iv. Age 6 comes with more involvement in child care and household work for girls and cattle herding and agricultural chores for boys. v. Initiation rites into adolescence occur at 9 for girls and 12 for boys and result in a host of daily duties that are similar to adulthood. vi. The omomura, or unmarried boys, sleep in a bachelor’s house and are expected to fight the young men in other cultural groups. vii. Boys and girls engage in sex play during adolescence, with girls marrying around age 15 while boys typically marry after age 20 and must pay bridewealth to their in-laws.

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c.

The Trobriand Islanders i. Infants and mothers live in seclusion for the first 2 months of life to protect infants from disease. ii. Weaning takes place at age 2 and is accomplished with the help of grandparents and the child’s father. iii. Fathers are very active in the caretaking of the children. iv. Childhood is spent playing games, while sex play begins at ages 7 or 8. v. Once puberty begins, adolescents are separated into same-sex living quarters, although leisure, freedom, and romantic and sexual adventures intensify until the transition to marriage. d. The Maya i. The Mayan culture is undergoing a significant change due to globalization. ii. An infant is often strapped to the mother’s back for the early months of life while weaning takes place around ages 2 or 3. iii. Children help with chores, and older sisters and grandmothers take care of the toddlers. iv. Play time related to future work with friends and family fills a child’s day until ages 6 or 7, when gender-specific chores begin. v. Adolescence marks a time when contributions to the family economy are significant, and ages 15 or 16 mark the transition to marriage and adulthood. e. Conclusions i. The similarities between the Gusii, Trobriand Island, and Mayan cultures include dependent infants given constant care, weaning as a marker of early childhood, middle childhood marked by play and gender-specific duties, and adolescence that is understood to serve as preparation for adulthood. ii. The differences between the three are noted in the terms used in each language, which show that each stage is distinct and separate from the others.

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B. Contemporary Scientific Conceptions of Development 1. Psychosocial Theory LO 2.3 Summarize key features of Erikson’s psychosocial theory, and name the first five stages. a. Erikson’s psychosocial theory of development posits that the drive to become integrated into our social and cultural environment drives development throughout the life span. b. Each of the eight stages of development is characterized by a distinctive developmental challenge or crisis a person must successfully resolve: i. Trust vs. Mistrust (Infancy) ii. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (Toddlerhood) iii. Initiative vs. Guilt (Early Childhood) iv. Industry vs. Inferiority (Middle Childhood) v. Identity vs. Identity Confusion (Adolescence) vi. Intimacy vs. Isolation (Early Adulthood) vii. Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle Adulthood) viii. Ego Integrity vs. Despair (Late Adulthood) c. The psychosocial theory that we develop across the life span with cultural and social influences is still widely accepted. d. Of all of the stages Erikson outlined, identity in adolescence and generativity in midlife have been most fully embraced.

2. Cognitive-Developmental Theories LO 2.4 Identify the main ideas that underlie cognitive-developmental theories. a. Jean Piaget centered his interests on cognitive development, including how thinking and problem-solving change over time. b. Piaget believed that infants’ cognitive development occurs in distinct stages and that cognitive abilities are organized into a coherent mental structure. c. Infants think through their senses and motor activities and gave rise to the first of several cognitive-developmental theories. d. Developmental maturation is innate and biologically based and is driven by the child’s progress in making sense of the environment through the use of schemes, which are cognitive structures for processing, organizing, and interpreting information. e. Piaget’s views inspired other cognitive-development theories.

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3. Learning Theories LO 2.5 Explain how learning theories account for children’s development. a. Social learning theory posits that children imitate behaviors they see performed by others who are rewarded or at least not punished. b. Bandura’s 1960s experiment is a well-known example of social learning theory. In this experiment, children watched an adult model kicking and punching a doll, resulting in children imitating the model’s aggressive behavior. c. Many studies looking at the relationship between television and aggression are examined using the social learning theory framework.

Additional research examines the relationship between media and its influence on sexual behavior, prosocial behavior, and daily habits. d. Behaviorism focuses on learning that occurs based on the responses or “conditioning” of those around them. e. Skinner’s behavioral theory suggested that children learn behaviors based on the responses of others in one of three forms: positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, and punishment. f. Reinforcement by others promotes the start or continuation of a behavior, while punishment is intended to reduce or stop a behavior.

4. Biological Theories LO 2.6 Describe the different branches of biological theories and how they explain development. a. Language development is both environmentally and biologically based and is influenced by the interaction between the two. b. Evolutionary Psychology i. Evolutionary developmentalists argue that language development is an innate characteristic that gave humans the evolutionary advantage over nonhuman primates. ii. Evidence for the biological basis of language development points to the ability of toddlers to understand and use complicated unlearned grammatical rules. iii. Bayesian theories argue that children use statistical probability to infer the meanings of words. c. Behavior Genetics i. Behavior genetics is a field of study that explores the extent to which genes, and the interaction of genes and the environment, influence development including behaviors, language development, intelligence, developmental disorders, and the even the timing of puberty. d. Neuroscience i. Neuroscience explores how characteristics of the brain influence human thought and behavior and what role environmental factors and culture play in brain development.

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5. Contextual Theories LO 2.7 Name two kinds of contextual theories, and summarize their main features. a. Ecological Theory i. The ecological theory of development (or bio-ecological theory) is a systems approach to development, not a stage theory, presented

by Urie Bronfenbrenner. ii. It focuses on five, interrelated social systems that influence development: a. Microsystem: immediate environmental settings and relationships b. Mesosystem: the network of the microsystems c. Exosystem: societal institutions with an indirect influence d. Macrosystem: shared cultural beliefs and values, including the economy and government e. Chronosystem: individual and historical changes in developmental circumstances iii. This theory differs from stage theories because of the focus on social environments, including cultural emphasis, recognition of historical contexts, and children as active participants in their development. b. Developmental Systems Theories i. The ecological framework inspired the developmental systems theories, which address how individual development and contexts mutually influence one another and the interactions between biology and diverse contexts. ii. These theories posit that the individual is an active agent and the developmental process is continuous throughout the life span.

6. Cultural Theories LO 2.8 Review the three points highlighted by cultural theories. a. Cultural theories posit culture shapes physical, cognitive, and socioemotional development. b. Research in human development has focused, overwhelmingly, on English-speaking nations such as the United States and Europe, while only 5% of research samples were representative of Africa, Asia, Israel, Latin America, or the Middle East. c. Classic and contemporary theories of development underemphasize the role of culture on all aspects of cognitive, physical, and socioemotional development. Variations on the value of such characteristics such as self-esteem and intelligence are distinctly culturally influenced, and research with this variation in mind is lacking. d. Measured against the standards of the majority cultures, minority cultures may appear deficient. This reflects an incomplete, narrow view of the true meaning and value of any particular characteristic of human development.

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II. Section 2: Developmental Contexts A. Traditional Research Contexts 1. Families LO 2.9 Describe important cultural and historical characteristics of the family context. a. Families are an important first context of child development, but they vary greatly in size and composition across cultures. b. Unlike European and North American countries, many children in China and India grow up among large, extended family homes, living with grandparents, aunts, uncles, and cousins. c. Americans have one of the highest divorce rates in the world and, thus, many American children are raised in smaller, single-parent or stepparent households. d. The majority of children 200 years ago would have grown up in rural, agricultural-centric households, reflecting a daily life filled with farmlife work and family-centered socialization, while today the role of the family is one of nurturance, love, and affection. e. In more than 80% of the world’s societies, mothers remain the primary caretakers for infants.

2. Friends, Peers, and Romantic Partners LO 2.10 Differentiate friends, peers, and romantic partners, and explain when they become most salient in development. a. Friends are present in all cultures and offer support, confidence, and a mutually valued relationship. b. Peers share some aspect of their status in common, often age or part of one’s daily environment. Some peers are friends, while others are not. c. Many romantic relationships in adolescence and emerging adulthood begin as friendships. d. Cultural norms dictate the depth of romantic and nonromantic relationships, particularly in relation to sexual behaviors.

3. School LO 2.11 Explain why school is an important context in children’s development. a. Schooling outside the home was rare 150 years ago. In contrast, with the increased shift to a knowledge-based society and the skills required to succeed, the lives of most children around the world are oriented around school. b. Age 7 typically meant the start of formal schooling. However, in developed countries, nearly 75% of children between ages 3 and 5 are enrolled in group childcare, preschool, or kindergarten. c. Full-time enrollment in school is expanding worldwide, with secondary education the norm in developing countries and tertiary education becoming the norm in developed countries.

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d. Academic achievement correlates to positive outcomes in income, occupational status, personal growth, and marital stability, yet gaps in academic achievement remain between developing and developed countries. e. Lack of financial support for tertiary education in the United States is a challenge for African American and Latino emerging adults.

B. Contemporary Research Contexts 1. Work LO 2.12 Compare developed and developing countries with regard to children’s and adolescents’ work participation. a. Children in the United States and most other developed countries spend their days in school and leisure activities and are typically restricted on formal wage-earning work before the age of 15. b. In contrast to most developed countries, adolescents in the United States stand out for their nearly 50% part-time employment rate at some point in high school. These monies are often used to purchase clothing and entertainment. c. By contrast, only a small proportion of European and Japanese adolescents work outside the home earning their own money. d. Children and adolescents in developing countries experience a stark contrast to their American and European peers. Of the 220 million 5to 17-year-olds working across the globe, 95% are living in developing countries. e. Nearly 70% of child and adolescent employment involves child labor, work that is deemed harmful to children’s development and is disruptive to their formal schooling.

2. Media LO 2.13 Explain how media have changed children’s daily environments. a. The term diffusion refers to the spread of products or people across space; in terms of media products, the “old-media” of TV spread from Europe and North America to the rest of the world in the course of 50 years. b. “New media,” such as the internet and mobile phones, have spread more rapidly across the globe than TV did, and social media seems to be diffusing at an even greater rate. c. Children are part of the new generation of digital natives, having been exposed to digital media since infancy, while their older counterparts, digital immigrants, have had to learn how to use media technologies in adulthood.

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3. Civic and Religious Institutions LO 2.14 Identify features of importance in regard to the influence of civic and religious institutions on children’s development. a. The youngest recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize, Malala Yousafzai, is a good example of how civic and religious institutions shape development. b. Civic activities include volunteer work, writing to political leaders, or joining an organization that is committed to a cause. Some of the activities take place in schools, religious institutions, or political groups. c. Religion tends to be an important part of most cultures. i. Religious teachings offer explanations of conception, death, and the afterlife and specify a code of conduct that adheres to the teachings of the religion. ii. Gender roles are typically spelled out in religious belief systems iii. For many believers, religion provides meaning and perspective on the significance of any one individual life. iv. Children, adolescents, and emerging adults are more religious in traditional cultures than in developed countries, and, compared to other countries, the United States stands out for its high levels of religiosity. v. In the United States, African American adolescents report greater religiosity than other ethnicities, while Asian American adolescents tend to be the least religious.

III. Section 3: Developmental Questions A. Determinism and Agency in Development 1. To What Extent Do Children’s Early Experiences Determine Later Development?

LO 2.15 Describe the current scientific approach to early experiences. a. Freud proposed that the first 6 years of life set the foundation for development throughout life. However, contemporary developmentalists do not embrace Freud’s all-or-nothing view. b. Contemporary developmentalists acknowledge the far-reaching impact of early experiences such as early deprivation. c. Sensitive periods, or periods through development in which the capacity for learning is especially pronounced, do exist. d. Learning a second language is much easier in early and middle childhood than trying to learn a second language later in life.

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2. To What Extent Do Children Contribute to Their Own Development?

LO 2.16 Explain ways in which children are active agents in their own development. a. Piaget believed that the curiosity inherent in most toddlers results in their tendency to intentionally try new behaviors to see what might unfold. b. In recent decades, researchers have shown interest in reciprocal or bidirectional effects in relation to the parent–child relationship. c. Children and adolescents make choices that ultimately result in their selection of who they spend time with and what they will spend time doing. d. Cultural limitations by gender impact the scope of children’s choices, often reflecting more restrictions on girls’ autonomy and more autonomy for boys.

B. Biology, Environmental Contexts, and Culture in Development 1. To What Extent Does Development Occur in Stages?

LO 2.17 Analyze the usefulness of stage conceptions. a. If environmental conditions are reasonably normal, biology prepares humans for inevitable changes at predictable ages. b. Current research has moved away from the differentiated stage approach and embraced a more continuous and less discontinuous approach. c. The end of a sensitive period may be considered the end of a stage therefore appearing more stage-like for characteristics such as language acquisition. d. Although stages may not be biologically based, they are psychologically meaningful, particularly in helping people locate themselves, and others, into a coherent and meaningful place in their social world.

2. To What Extent Do Nature and Nurture Contribute to Individual Development?

LO 2.18 Provide a brief history of views on the influences of nature (biology) and nurture (the environment) in the field of child development. a. Historically, child development has centered its energy on the debate between nature versus nurture. Much of the responsibility of child development was placed squarely on mothers. b. Psychoanalytic theory suggested that cold and uncaring mothering resulted in autism, causing profound mother guilt and pain and leading to inappropriate and often damaging therapeutic interventions. c. Early learning theories, such as those proposed by John Watson, aimed to counter other theories that emphasized biology by attributing behavior to a system of environmental rewards, punishments, and modeling.

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d. Early learning theory development, which focused on biology as destiny, contributed to laws permitting involuntary sterilization to prevent those with mental disorders from passing on their “faulty” genes to potential offspring. e. The involuntary sterilization of mentally ill patients in the United States ended in 1960.

3. To What Extent Does Development Follow Diverse Pathways Across Cultures?

LO 2.19 Describe how a focus on diversity has been added to the focus on universals in child development. a. Humans evolved to be a singularly cultural species and are capable of inhabiting nearly any part of the planet. b. The large brained human enables adaptation to most environments allowing the invention of new methods of survival which are then passed along to future generations as part of their culture. c. Humans across cultures share the same patterns of growth and upward of 100 human universals: i. No walking or talking in the early months of life. ii. Puberty and physical and sexual maturity typically occur after age 10. d. The variety of human development is vast due to many influences, with culture representing a very important influence. Thus, developmental psychologists have focused their field of research to include diverse research samples within and across countries.

LECTURE LAUNCHERS, DISCUSSION IDEAS, AND ACTIVITIES Section 1 Lecture Launcher: Freud’s Lasting Legacy Sigmund Freud is credited with a deep and lasting influence on the field of psychology and the origins of the human psyche. Ironically, many of the theories of human development that were proposed after Freud were inspired by doubts about Freud’s theories.

Despite the criticisms, Freud’s contributions to the field of human understanding cannot be underestimated. One such theory is the psychosexual theory, noted in the textbook, in which Freud argued that changes in sexual desire toward one parent or the other underlie children’s development. The psychosexual theory is often confusing, and, for some students, a bit unsettling. Thus, a video offers a great way to share the material. Search online for a video titled Psychosexual Stages of Development presented by Shorts in Psychology. Allow approximately 15 minutes for viewing the video.

For students interested in learning more about Freud’s influence, direct them to the articles “Why Freud Still Matters, When He Was Wrong About Almost Everything” (Dvorsky, 2013) and “Why Freud Survives” (Menand, 2017). The end of this lecture tends to inspire quite a bit of discussion, so be sure to take advantage of this teaching and learning moment.

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Sources: Dvorsky, G. (2013). Why Freud still matters, when he was wrong about almost everything.

Gizmodo. https://io9.gizmodo.com.

Menand, L. (2017). Why Freud survives. New Yorker. www.newyorker.com.

Section 1 Activity: Reinforcement and Punishment Remind students of the difference between positive and negative reinforcement and punishment.

According to Skinner, positive reinforcement happens when a caregiver encourages a child’s behavior by responding to it in a positive manner with praise or a reward. Negative reinforcement is the use of something considered negative, such as nagging or being grounded, to reduce or slow down a particular behavior. Punishment can be split into positive punishment, in which a caregiver discourages behavior by responding to it by adding something unpleasant, such as a spanking, and negative punishment, in which a caregiver discourages behavior by removing something desirable, such as car keys or a cellphone (Holth, 2005).

To explore these concepts, divide the class into groups of three to five students each. Distribute Handout 2.1, and instructing students to ask themselves what behavior is encouraged or discouraged in each scenario presented. Then have them label each scenario as PR (positive reinforcer), NR (negative reinforcer), PP (positive punishment), or NP (negative punishment).

When students are finished, discuss their responses as a class.

Answer key: (1) PP; (2) PR; (3) NP; (4) NR; (5) PR; (6) PP; (7) NR; (8) NP; (9) PR; (10) NR. Source: Holth, P. (2005). Two definitions of punishment. Behavior Analyst Today, 6(1), 43–47. dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0100049.

Section 1 Lecture Launcher: Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory Urie Bronfenbrenner (1989) developed the ecological theory of development as a model for studying the interactions among an individual’s social environments. The five basic structures of the model are the microsystem (family, peers, school, community, media); the mesosystem (interaction between two microsystems, such as parent conferences as an interaction between family and school); the exosystem (parents’ jobs, school boards, city council); the macrosystem (a person’s subculture or culture); and the chronosystem (involving the way the passage of time affects children’s development). Explaining Bronfenbrenner’s theory can stimulate a class discussion about the various interactions among the systems.

Source: Bronfenbrenner, U. (1989). Ecological systems theory. In R. Vasta (Ed.), Annals of child development (Vol. 6). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.

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Section 2 Activity: The Importance of Belonging: Friends, Peers, Social Networks, and Beyond Friendships provide some of the most important aspects of our socioemotional development.

Humans are social beings and the need to belong is a primal force (Baumeister and Leary, 1995).

Peer groups include friends and acquaintances and often form as a result of where we live, socioeconomic status, gender, and age. Culture, ethnicity, religion, and political affiliation as well as similarities of interests can influence peer group affiliations.

Divide the class into groups of three to five students each. Ask students to consider all of the possible characteristics they share. This activity requires them to share information about themselves. They can start comparing and contrasting the observable and then move to questions about where they live, sports or activities they engage in, culture, favorite music, hobbies, major, age, student organizations, social network affiliations, and community organizations. The idea is to determine what types of information about each other could constitute a peer group. Have each group list any characteristics they have in common. Next, have each group report their commonalities to the class. Determine whether the students in the groups in the classroom have similarities between them that would be considered a peer group. The point of the discussion is to identify the various pathways that lead to the formation of friendships, peer groups, and social networks.

Source: Baumeister, R. F., and Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 117(3), 497–529.

Section 2 Lecture Launcher and Discussion: Schooling 9 to 5 Ask students whether they believe extending the length of the school day would have a negative or positive impact on students’ achievement. Most of them will suggest more hours in school would work against students. The research suggests the opposite may be true: some states have instituted extended learning time (ELT) to address poor student performance. In fact, at least one middle school in Massachusetts has experienced a positive correlation between hours spent in school and student achievement rates. In 2005, the Massachusetts state legislature created and funded the Massachusetts Expanded Learning Time Initiative (Walker, 2016).

As noted in the textbook, both how long children stay in school and how well they perform have significant and lasting impact on future prospects. The Massachusetts ELT initiative is one such effort to assist students in achieving successful outcomes. Increasing the school day by as little as 25% resulted in a 5% to 10% improvement in test scores (Walker, 2016). Ask students to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of an extended school day.

Source: Walker, T. (2016, November 22). A 9 to 5 school day: Are longer hours better for students and educators? neaToday. http://neatoday.org/2016/11/22/longer-school-days/.

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Section 3 Lecture Launcher: Now You’re Speaking My Language Developmentalists believe there are certain times in human development in which the capacity for learning is especially pronounced. These are referred to as sensitive periods and are particularly influential on language skill development. This is a great opportunity to share the TED lecture by Patricia Kuhl, The Linguistic Genius of Babies, in which Kuhl describes one such sensitive, or critical, period of infant development in which language acquisition unfolds.

Another point to be made is the impact of deprivation and neglect on language development in the early years of infancy and toddlerhood. Research indicates the profound negative impact of neglect, including delays in cognitive function, motor development, and language acquisition (Weir, 2014). To emphasize this particular point, search online for short videos that describe the late 1980s discovery of the neglected and deprived children in Romanian orphanages. Several report on the early findings of the children, while others interview those orphans as emerging adults. Both perspectives illuminate the short-term and long-term impact.

Sources: Kuhl, P. (2010, October). The linguistic genius of babies. TedxRainier. www.ted.com/talks/patricia_kuhl_the_linguistic_genius_of_babies.

Weir, K. (2014, June). The lasting impact of neglect. APA Monitor on Psychology, 45(6), 36.

Section 3 Activity: Piagetian Literature Review Piaget continues to have a lasting impact on the field of child development, despite some of the criticisms about his methodology and the move away from stage theory to development as a continuous and less discontinuous process. Instruct students to locate three journal articles that relate to the application and testing of Piaget’s cognitive development. Each article should appear in a peer-reviewed journal. Articles can support or criticize Piaget’s work. Ask students to summarize the readings and prepare a brief presentation of their findings to the class.

Section 3 Lecture Launcher: Biology as Destiny One of the more impactful proclamations of the “debate” on nature versus nurture ultimately resulted in a wave of involuntary sterilizations. The 1927 U.S. Supreme Court case Buck v. Bell shined a spotlight on the debate. The eugenics movement, the “science of improving humanity through better breeding” (Cohen, 2017), ultimately bolstered the Court’s decision to restrict Carrie Buck from reproducing. During this time, which coincided with John Watson’s view emphasizing the importance of biology, many individuals were denied the right to have children of their own. These sterilization laws started in the United States in 1907, were permitted by 30 states by 1930, and continued until 1960. Share the story of Carrie Buck and the two familial generations following her. This story can be found from National Public Radio (NPR) by searching online for Emma, Carrie, Vivian: How a Family Become a Test Case for Forced Sterilizations (2019).

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Discuss the implications in John Watson’s 1930 proclamation, “Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I’ll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select—doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors.” In what way does the eugenics movement dismiss or diminish environmental influences on development?

Sources: Cohen, A (2017). Imbeciles: The supreme court, American eugenics, and the sterilization of Carrie Buck. London, England: Penguin Books.

Schmidt, J., and Lu, T. (Producers). (2019, February 18). Emma, Carrie, Vivian: How a family became a test case for forced sterilizations. [Audio podcast]. www.npr.org/templates/transcript/transcript.php?storyId=695574984.

Watson, J. B. (1930). Behaviorism. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company.

CRITICAL THINKING ACTIVITY Nature and Nurture: Who We Are and How We Become Remind students of the difference between nature and nurture as it relates to human development. Nature refers to biological influences as determined by our genetic predispositions, while nurture centers on the influence of environment on learning and development. The socalled debate between nature and nurture explores the extent to which specific aspects of who we are can be more readily explained by inheritance or experience. For example, is Max shy and reserved because he comes from a family of reserved males, or did something happen to him in early childhood that can explain his rather quiet and reserved demeanor? To gauge students’ understanding of the nature versus nurture debate, ask them to consider their own propensities.

Ask them to draw a line on a piece of paper with the word Nurture written to the left side of the line and the word Nature to the far right. The line will look something like this: Nurture _______________________________________________________________ Nature

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Ask students to consider the following traits and place them on the line, closer to one end or the other, depending on whether they think the trait is due more to genetics or more to environmental influence.

• Intelligence/IQ • Temperament • Mental illness • Athleticism • Musicality • Gender identity • Political views • Religious beliefs • Mathematical ability • Language • Resilience • Height • Weight • Sexual orientation Once students finish, discuss their placement and reasoning for each trait. Explain the importance of studying fraternal and identical twins as a window into the impact of nature versus nurture. Due to twin research, the influence of nature and nurture on many traits is better understood (Richards, 2018). For instance, studies show heritability of IQ or intellect between 57% and upward of 86% (Panizzon et al., 2014).

One controversial topic caught in the crosshairs of this debate is sexual orientation and gender identity. At this point, the scientific community has yet to agree on one causal theory of sexual orientation as most of the theories are challenging to test. Currently, more evidence exists supporting causal explanations due to nonsocial causes than social causes (Bailey et al., 2016).

However, researchers agree that sexual orientation and gender identity are likely a complex combination of genes, environment, hormones, and nonsocial environmental influences (Bailey et al., 2016). Given the societal sensitivity and public debate on the origins of gender identity and sexual orientation, this is an opportune time to share the story of Dr. John Money, Dr. Milton Diamond, and the tragic case of the John/Joan, a story of a twin born male but raised female due to a botched circumcision that resulted in the loss of his penis. One way to share this gender reassignment story is by showing a video interview of John (aka David Reimer). Search online for a video of David Reimer and/or Dr. Milton Diamond speaking about the case.

After reviewing the video, open a class discussion and invite students to share their responses to the John/Joan case. Ask whether their views on the origins of sexual orientation and gender identity have changed at all, and, if so, in what way. Wrap up the discussion by reminding students that some aspects of personality are more genetically influenced while others are less so.

However, science no longer views the discussion in terms of a debate but supports origins of human development as a proposition framed in terms of nature and nurture rather than nature versus nurture.

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Sources: Bailey, J. M., Vasey, P. L., Diamond, L. M., Breedlove, S. M., Vilain, E., and Epprecht, M. (2016). Sexual orientation, controversy, and science. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 17(2), 45–101.

Gaetano, P. (2017). David Reimer and John Money gender reassignment controversy: The John/Joan Case. Embryo Project Encyclopedia. https://embryo.asu.edu/.

Panizzon, M. S., Vuoksimaa, E., Spoon, K. M., Jacobson, K. C., Lyons, M. J., Franz, C. E., Xian, H., Vasilopoulos, T., and Kremen, W. S. (2014). Genetic and environmental influences on general cognitive ability: Is g a valid latent construct? Intelligence, 43, 65– 76.

Richards, S. E. (2018, September). Scientists see twins as the perfect laboratory to examine the impact of nature vs. nurture. Washington Post.

SUPPLEMENTAL READINGS Beilen, H. (1992). Piaget’s enduring contribution to developmental psychology. Developmental Psychology, 28, 191–204.

Colapinto, J. (2000). As nature made him: The boy who was raised as a girl. New York: HarperCollins Publishers.

Elkind, D. (1988). The hurried child: Growing up too fast too soon. New York: AddisonWesley.

Gopnik, A. (2010). The philosophical baby: What children’s minds tell us about truth, love, and the meaning of life. London, England: Picador.

Legerstee, M., Haley, D. W., and Bornstein, M. H. (2013). The infant mind: Origins of the social brain. New York: Guilford Press.

Levine, A., and Heller, R. F. (2011). Get Attached. Scientific American Mind, 21(6), 22–29.

Lourenco, O. (2011). Piaget and Vygotsky: Many resemblances and a crucial difference. New Ideas in Psychology, 30(3), 281–295.

Mooney, C. G. (2013). Theories of childhood: An introduction to Dewey, Montessori, Erikson, Piaget & Vygotsky (2nd ed.). St. Paul, MN: Redleaf Press.

Nelson, C. A., Fox, N. A., and Zeanah, C. H. (2014). Romania’s abandoned children: Deprivation, brain development, and the struggle for recovery. Cambridge, MA, and London, England: Harvard University Press.

Pearson, H. (2016). The life project: The extraordinary story of 70,000 ordinary lives. New York: Soft Skull Press.

Piaget, J. (1965). The moral judgment of the child. New York: The Free Press.

Piaget, J. (1990). The child’s conception of the world. New York: Littlefield Adams.

Shwalb, D. W., Shwalb, B. J., and Lamb, M. E. (2013). Fathers in cultural context. New York: Routledge.

Singh, L, and Seet, S. K. (2019, September). The impact of foreign language caregiving on native language acquisition. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 185, 51–70.

Stromswold, K. (2006). Why aren’t identical twins linguistically identical? Genetic, prenatal, and postnatal factors. Cognition, 101, 333–384.

Vygotsky, L. (1986). Thought and language. Boston: MIT Press.

Williams, J. L., Corbetta, D., and Guan, Y. (2015). Learning to reach with “sticky” or “nonsticky” mittens: A tale of developmental trajectories. Infant Behavior and Development, 38, 82–96.

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REVEL VIDEOS Chapter Introduction: Developmental Theories and Contexts: Past and Present Research Focus: Beyond Deficiency: Civic Development in Immigrant Youth What My Friend Means to Me From Preschool to College A Boy in Congo Sells Cakes Media Use by Children Across Cultures Religion in the Lives of African American Adolescents Apply Your Knowledge as a Professional: Child Development Expert

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Handout 2.1: Reinforcement and Punishment Determine whether the following scenarios reflect positive reinforcement (PR), negative reinforcement (NR), positive punishment (PP), or negative punishment (NP). Fill in each blank indicating the correct answer: 1. ________ Mr. Holland yells at Simone because she is talking to her classmates rather than completing her silent reading assignment.

2 _________ After completing her cello lesson, Talia receives praise and a hug from her father.

3. ________ Jaslyn’s curfew was midnight, and she arrived home at 12:20 a.m. Jaslyn’s new curfew is 11:00 p.m.

4. ________ Mason’s new car sets off an annoying buzzing sound if he does not buckle his seat belt. Once he securely buckles the seat belt, the buzzer stops.

5. ________ At the grocery store, 2-year-old Jett kicks and cries while in the grocery cart. In frustration, Jett’s mother gives Jett her cell phone, and he immediately stops crying.

6. ________ Alexis and Sam finally had a date night after a long several months of working overtime at their law firm. They normally watch movies at home and were excited to attend the premiere of a long-anticipated movie sequel in a theater. The teens sitting behind them kicked the back of Sam’s chair multiple times while the guy sitting next to Sylvia talked with his friends throughout the movie. Alexis and Sam now agree that watching movies in a theater is not worth the money.

7. ________ Gomez has a severe headache. He reaches for the aspirin bottle, takes a dose, and in 20 minutes he feels his headache subsiding.

8. ________ Jackson’s mother took his cell phone after he repeatedly spent time scrolling social media rather than completing his math homework.

9. ________ Admiral Raven was presented with the Presidential Medal of Freedom for his philanthropic efforts in assisting veterans’ families.

10. _______ Phillipe is very anxious and nervous about his job interview. Before meeting the interview team, Phillipe inhales several times from his vaping pen, and his anxiety quickly goes away.

Created by: Regina Hughes, Collin College. No third-party material included.

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CHAPTER 3: GENETICS AND PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT CONTENTS LEARNING OBJECTIVES............................................................................................................ 1 LECTURE OUTLINE .................................................................................................................... 2 LECTURE LAUNCHERS, DISCUSSION IDEAS, AND ACTIVITIES.................................... 13 CRITICAL THINKING ACTIVITY ............................................................................................ 17 SUPPLEMENTAL READINGS .................................................................................................. 17 REVEL VIDEOS .......................................................................................................................... 17 HANDOUT ................................................................................................................................... 18 LEARNING OBJECTIVES Section 1 3.1 Distinguish between genotype and phenotype, and identify the different forms of genetic inheritance.

3.2 Describe the sex chromosomes, and identify what makes them different from other chromosomes.

3.3 Explain how behavior geneticists use heritability estimates and concordance rates in their research.

3.4 Describe the concept of epigenetics and reaction ranges, and indicate how they illustrate gene–environment interactions.

3.5 Explain how the theory of genotype → environment effects casts new light on the old nature–nurture question.

3.6 Outline the process of meiosis in the formation of reproductive cells, and specify how the process differs for males and females.

3.7 Describe the process of fertilization and conception.

Section 2 3.8 Describe the structures that form during the germinal period, and identify when implantation takes place.

3.9 Outline the major milestones of the embryonic period, and identify when they take place.

3.10 Describe the major milestones of the fetal period, and identify when viability occurs.

3.11 Compare and contrast prenatal care in traditional cultures and developed countries.

3.12 Identify the major teratogens in developing countries and developed countries.

Section 3 3.13 Explain how chromosomal disorders occur.

3.14 Identify the four main techniques of prenatal testing and diagnosis, and explain why some prospective parents seek genetic counseling.

3.15 Describe the psychological and social implications of infertility.

3.16 Review major causes of and treatments for infertility.

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LECTURE OUTLINE I. Section 1: Genetic Influences on Development A. Genetic Basics 1. Genotype and Phenotype LO 3.1 Distinguish between genotype and phenotype, and identify the different forms of genetic inheritance. a. In the human genome, there are 46 chromosomes, which are organized into 23 pairs and composed of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). Our DNA is organized into 19,000 segments called genes, or units, of hereditary information. b. The totality of an individual’s genes is the genotype, and the person’s actual characteristics are called the phenotype. c. Genotype and phenotype may vary due to dominant–recessive inheritance, incomplete dominance, and environmental influences. i. In dominant-recessive inheritance, only the dominant gene influences the phenotype, while the recessive gene does not. Each form of the gene is called an allele. ii. Incomplete dominance exists when the phenotype is influenced primarily, but not entirely, by the dominant gene. a. Sickle-cell anemia is a result of incomplete dominance. d. Most human characteristics are the result of polygenic inheritance, meaning that they are influenced by multiple genes rather than just one.

2. The Sex Chromosomes LO 3.2 Describe the sex chromosomes, and identify what makes them different from other chromosomes. a. Among the 23 pairs of chromosomes, one pair is different from the rest, the sex chromosomes. b. The sex chromosomes determine whether the person will be male or female. c. In the female, this pair is called XX; in the male, XY. i. All eggs from the female donate only an X chromosome. ii. Males will donate either an X or Y chromosome to the pairing, ultimately determining the sex of the child. iii. Beliefs about how to predict a baby’s sex vary by culture. There are unscientific examples from Mayan and Chinese cultures. iv. A strong preference for boys persists in many cultures although census data indicate the bias against girls is decreasing, particularly as seen in China and South Korea. d. The biological consequences of having only one X chromosome makes males more vulnerable than females to a variety of recessive disorders, such as hemophilia, learning disabilities, and intellectual disability, that are linked to the X chromosome—referred to as Xlinked inheritance.

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B. Genes and the Environment 1. The nature-nurture question is the battle between genetics or the environment as the explanation for development. Currently, it is agreed that both play a role, but the amount of influence from each is still debated.

2. Principles of Behavior Genetics LO 3.3 Explain how behavior geneticists use heritability estimates and concordance rates in their research. a. Behavior genetics is the study of how genes contribute to human development, especially focusing on the heritability of various characteristics and concordance rates between people with different degrees of genetic similarity. b. Identical or monozygotic (MZ) twins have 100% of their genes in common (including sex genes), while fraternal or dizygotic (DZ) twins and siblings have 40% to 60% of their genes in common. c. Heritability is an estimate, ranging from 0 to 1.00, of the extent to which genes are responsible for individual differences. Higher heritability may indicate more genetic influence. d. Heritability estimates also measure how much the environment allows genes to be expressed, thus measuring phenotype. e. The concordance rate indicates the degree of similarity in phenotype among pairs of family members, ranging from 0 to 100 percent.

3. Gene–Environment Interactions: Epigenetics and Reaction Ranges LO 3.4 Describe the concept of epigenetics and reaction ranges, and indicate how they illustrate gene–environment interactions. a. The environment does influence gene expression; the resulting developmental process, epigenetics, is created from the bidirectional interactions between genotype and the environment. b. Genes establish a reaction range of possible developmental paths established by genes; environment determines where development takes place within that range.

4. The Theory of Genotype→Environment Effects LO 3.5 Explain how the theory of genotype → environment effects casts new light on the old nature–nurture question. a. Scar and McCartney developed the theory of genotype → environment effects that note that both make essential contributions but that we create our own environments based on our genotypes. b. The Three Forms of Genotype→ Environment Effects i. Passive genotype →environment effects: Parents provide both genes and environment to their children. ii. Evocative genotype →environment effects: Children evoke responses from those who care for them. iii. Active genotype →environment effects: Children seek out an environment that corresponds to their genotype, known as nichepicking.

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c. Genotype →Environment Effects Over Time i. The three types of effects operate throughout the life span, and their relative balance changes with time based on how much control individuals have over their environment. ii. Evocative genotype →environment effects remain relatively stable over time.

C. Genes and Individual Development 1. Ova and Sperm Formation LO 3.6 Outline the process of meiosis in the formation of reproductive cells, and specify how the process differs for males and females. a. Cell replication occurs through the process of mitosis. Gametes, or reproductive cells, are called sperm in the male and ovum (egg) in the female. Their formation is referred to as meiosis. b. In meiosis, cells that begin with 23 pairs of chromosomes split and replicate repeatedly until they form four gametes, each with 23 individual chromosomes. i. In males, the outcome of completed meiosis is four viable sperm. ii. In females, meiosis produces only one viable ovum, but the process is not completed until the ovum is fertilized. The viable ovum stores cytoplasm, which is the main source of nutrients immediately following conception. iii. Crossing over is a process whereby genetic material from the parents is mixed, resulting in sibling differences. c. Males produce millions of sperm each day (100 to 300 million per ejaculation), but females have all of the ova they will ever have while still in utero (about 2 million). Ova amounts decline from 300,000 by puberty to 400 that will reach maturity during the childbearing years.

2. Conception LO 3.7 Describe the process of fertilization and conception. a. Conception generally begins with sexual intercourse between a man and woman. Sperm must travel a long distance to make it to the ovum, and only a few hundred survive the difficult journey. i. Each ovary alternates monthly with an ovum release. ii. A follicle consists of the ovum and the supporting cells. iii. About 14 days into a woman’s cycle, an ovum is released into the fallopian tube from one of the ovaries, a process called ovulation. b. Fertilization can only occur during the 24 hours following the ovum release, so conception is most likely to take place on the day of intercourse or up to 48 hours before. Although most sperm only last 2 days after entering a woman’s body, some last 5 days. c. A new cell, the zygote, is formed from the two gametes. d. The zygote’s 46 paired chromosomes constitute the new organism’s unique genotype, set once and for all at the moment of conception. e. Variations in the process and conditions can result in MZ or DZ twins.

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II. Section 2: Prenatal Development and Prenatal Care A. Prenatal Development 1. The Germinal Period (First 2 Weeks) LO 3.8 Describe the structures that form during the germinal period, and identify when implantation takes place. a. During the germinal period, the zygote travels down the fallopian tube, and cellular division begins. The result is a ball of about 100 cells called the blastocyst, which has two layers. i. The trophoblast, or outer layer, will form the supporting structures of the amnion, placenta, and umbilical cord. ii. The embryonic disk that will become the embryo of the new organism is the inner layer. b. During Week 2, implantation occurs, and a protective, fluid-filled membrane, the amnion, forms around the trophoblast. The nutrienttransmitting placenta forms between the uterus and the embryonic disk, and the umbilical cord begins to develop. c. Only about half of all implantations are successful. If implantation fails, then the uterine lining will shed during the women’s next menstrual period.

2. The Embryonic Period (Weeks 3 to 8) LO 3.9 Outline the major milestones of the embryonic period, and identify when they take place. a. During the embryonic period of gestation (the time elapsed since conception), nearly all the major organ systems are formed initially. b. The embryonic disk differentiates into three layers: the outer layer is known as the ectoderm; the middle layer, the mesoderm; and the inner layer, the endoderm. c. The neural tube, which later becomes the spinal cord and brain, develops first and fastest. Billions of neurons or nerve cells are produced by the neural tube in a process called neurogenesis. d. The heart begins beating during Week 4. e. By the end of the eighth week, the embryo is about an inch long; all main body parts and organs have formed, except for the sex organs. It looks like a human.

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3. The Fetal Period (Week 9 to Birth) LO 3.10 Describe the major milestones of the fetal period, and identify when viability occurs. a. During the fetal period (9 weeks after conception to birth), organ systems continue to develop, and there is immense growth in size. b. This period is divided into three 3-month periods called trimesters. i. By the end of the third month, the genitals have formed, and the fetus weighs 3 ounces and is 3 inches long (“three times three”). ii. During the second trimester, the fetus becomes more active and responsive, which is felt by the mother at 4 months. It is covered with a slimy, white substance called the vernix and downy hair called lanugo. By the end of the second trimester or 6 months, it weighs 2 pounds and is 14 inches long. iii. Viability, the ability to survive outside the womb, is rare before the third trimester because of the immaturity of the lungs. Survival before 22 weeks is rare and only 50% by 26 weeks, and those who do survive tend to have disabilities. iv. Those born early in developed countries or those with access to advanced medical care have the best chance of survival. v. During the third trimester, the fetus experiences rapid brain development during the last 2 months. c. The brain is still very immature at birth compared to those of other animals. d. By 28 weeks, the fetus has sleep-wake cycles similar to those of a newborn baby and can remember and respond to sound, taste, and the mother’s movements.

B. Prenatal Care 1. Cultural Variations in Prenatal Care LO 3.11 Compare and contrast prenatal care in traditional cultures and developed countries. a. Some pregnancy advice is practical and sensible based on the collected wisdom of the culture over time. Some advice may seem odd to those from other cultures, particularly when it is not scientifically based. i. The Beng people of Africa have women avoid palm wine based on bad outcomes but are also told not to eat bushbuck antelope or they could have striped babies. ii. In Bali, pregnant women are to avoid “hot” foods among other things and to avoid those who are spiritually impure. b. These prenatal customs may emerge from an awareness that pregnancy and childbirth can be life-threatening to the mother and fetus and a desire for a successful outcome. c. In developed countries, prenatal care has come a long way in recent decades. Previously, women were instructed to limit weight gain during pregnancy, but now they are told to gain 25 to 35 pounds, with women who gain less than 20 pounds or too much weight experiencing more complications.

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d. Pregnant women should receive regular prenatal care from a skilled health care worker, such as a physician, nurse, or midwife. This is more likely in developed countries, but some poorer regions may not have access.

2. Teratogens LO 3.12 Identify the major teratogens in developing countries and developed countries. a. Prenatal care includes a focus on avoiding teratogens. b. A teratogen is a behavior, environment, or bodily condition that can have damaging influence on prenatal development. b. Vulnerability to teratogens varies based on the age of the organism at the time of exposure, known as the critical period. The embryonic period is an especially critical period of development. c. Malnutrition i. Malnutrition is the most common teratogen in the world. ii. Lack of financial means to buy food and varying availability are major contributors to malnutrition. iii. Nutritional deficiencies can lead to prenatal disorders. Lack of folic acid has been shown to cause anencephaly or spina bifida. iv. Folic acid is so important that governments have begun requiring supplements be added to foods, especially grain products. Ideally, women should begin taking folic acid when they start trying to get pregnant. v. Iron and iodine are two other common nutritional deficiencies, but is remedied with the right foods and supplements. d. Infectious Diseases i. Infectious diseases are most common in developing countries with limited access to vaccinations. ii. Rubella, or German measles, is a serious disease that when contracted by the mother is a teratogen during the embryonic period. a) It can render embryos blind and deaf, with cognitive and physical deficits. b) Fetal effects of rubella can include low birth weight, hearing problems, and skeletal defects. iii. AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome) is a sexually transmitted infection caused by HIV that damages the immune system. a) HIV/AIDS can be passed from mother to child. b) The likelihood of contracting it can be reduced by giving pregnant mothers, and later the infants, effective medications, delivering by C-section, and using infant formula.

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e. Alcohol i. Alcohol is the most prevalent and damaging teratogen in developed countries. ii. Even small amounts of alcohol can compromise a child’s prenatal development. iii. Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD) occurs when mothers drink heavily during their pregnancies. It can cause severe birth defects and cognitive deficits in a fetus. f. Tobacco i. Nicotine from smoking is the leading cause of low birth weight in developed countries. ii. Pregnant women who smoke put themselves and their fetuses at risk for miscarriage, premature birth, and low birth weight. iii. The child’s later development is also compromised from maternal cigarette smoking. Negative outcomes, such as poor health, cognitive impairment, and behavior problems are increased. iv. Exposure to secondhand smoke is also problematic. g. Other Teratogens i. Drugs other than alcohol and tobacco (such as cocaine, heroin, and marijuana) are known teratogens and can cause physical, cognitive, and behavioral problems in infants. Prescription medications can also cause harm; for example, Accutane, which is used to treat acne, can cause severe damage to major organs during embryonic development. ii. Certain work environments include potential teratogens, such as exposure to X-rays, hazardous chemicals, or infectious diseases. iii. Severe maternal stress due to a death of a spouse or close family member can result in premature delivery. iv. Environmental pollution, including toxins in food, water, and air, can result in premature delivery and low birth weight.

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III. Section 3: Pregnancy Problems A. Prenatal Problems 1. Chromosomal Disorders LO 3.13 Explain how chromosomal disorders occur. a. Sex Chromosome Disorders i. These disorders are commonly involved in chromosomal disorders in which a person may have an extra X or Y chromosome or may be missing one. ii. Two common consequences include cognitive deficits and an abnormal reproductive system. b. Down Syndrome i. This disorder occurs when there is an extra chromosome on the 21st pair. ii. It is marked by distinct physical features, such as short, stocky build, flat face, large tongue, and an extra fold of skin on the eyelids. iii. Cognitive and physical deficits are also prevalent. iv. Social development varies widely and can be fostered by supportive families and intervention programs. v. Those with Down syndrome have lower life expectancy than the general population. c. Parental Age and Chromosomal Disorders i. Chromosomal disorders most commonly occur to children whose mothers are of advanced age. ii. The risk climbs over time—low for mothers in their 20s, rises in the 30s, but steeply rises over 40 and beyond. iii. Recent research has suggested paternal age is linked to multifactorial disorders, such as autism spectrum disorder. iv. Further research is needed; there is some thought that genetic mutations in the sperm are involved.

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2. Prenatal Testing and Counseling LO 3.14 Identify the four main techniques of prenatal testing and diagnosis, and explain why some prospective parents seek genetic counseling. a. Techniques of Prenatal Monitoring i. Those in developed countries are likely to have access to techniques of prenatal monitoring. Common techniques include ultrasound, amniocentesis, maternal blood screening, and chorionic villus sampling (CVS). ii. Ultrasounds may be performed throughout pregnancy with no risk to the fetus. High-frequency sound waves are directed toward and bounce off of the mother’s abdomen, producing a computer image.

It is used to measure fetal size, shape, and activities and to screen for chromosomal disorders and determine the sex of the child. iii. Administered in the first or second trimester, often in combination with an ultrasound, maternal blood screening is noninvasive and highly accurate. Proteins, hormones, and genetic DNA fragments found in the maternal blood are screened for spina bifida and Down syndrome. iv. Amniocentesis is the extraction of amniotic fluid using a long, hollow needle to analyze fetal cells from the placenta, allowing possible prenatal problems to be detected. a. It is usually conducted at 15–20 weeks’ gestation for women 35 years and older or those with a family history of problems. b. It carries a small risk of triggering a miscarriage. c. It is very accurate in detecting 40 different fetal defects. v. In chorionic villus sampling (CVS), a sample of the forming umbilical cord cells is taken at 5 to 10 weeks’ gestation for analysis of genetic materials. a. CVS carries risks similar to an amniocentesis. b. CVS is used with women who are 35 years old and older, as well as those with a family history of genetic abnormalities. b. Genetic Counseling i. Genetic counseling involves analyzing the family history and genotypes of prospective parents to identify possible risks of having children with genetic disorders. ii. Making the decision to get genetic counseling can be difficult, but those who proceed can make informed decisions.

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B. Infertility 1. Psychological and Social Implications LO 3.15 Describe the psychological and social implications of infertility. a. Infertility is the inability to attain pregnancy after at least a year of regular intercourse without contraception. U.S. infertility rates over the last century are consistently 10% to 15% of couples. Worldwide infertility rates between 1990 and 2010 were about 9% to 13%. b. Infertility is a source of frustration and distress. i. Infertile couples in individualistic cultures of the West experience feelings of sadness and loss. ii. Swedish couples experienced a negative impact on their sexual relationship. iii. Infertility in cultures outside of the West, those considered collectivistic, is deeply stigmatized, particularly for the women. iv. In Asian and African cultures, the inability for the oldest son to carry on the family tradition results in lowered family status for the wife. Women are often still considered inadequate if able to conceive a daughter but not a son. c. Women try all kinds of methods to overcome infertility, such as herbal remedies or supernatural remedies. In some cases, if infertility persists, a man may divorce his wife or take another wife.

2. Causes and Treatments LO 3.16 Review major causes of and treatments for infertility. a. Over human history, women have carried the burden and blame for infertility i. Historically speaking, experts considered female orgasm as necessary for conception to occur. ii. Treatments such as bloodletting and surgery were both dangerous, harmful, and ineffective. b. Causes i. Men and women contribute equally to infertility. ii. Male infertility may be due to low sperm production, poor quality of sperm produced, or low motility of the sperm. Sources of male infertility may be attributable to drug abuse, alcohol abuse, or cigarette smoking, or problems may be genetic or age-related. iii. Female infertility is most often caused by problems in ovulation, with age being the most common cause of inability to ovulate.

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c. Treatments: Assisted Reproductive Technologies i. Assisted reproductive technologies (ART) reflect methods for overcoming infertility, including intrauterine insemination (IUI), fertility drugs, and in-vitro fertilization (IVF). a. Intrauterine insemination (IUI) is a procedure for injecting sperm directly into the uterus, timed to the woman’s ovulation. i. It is most typically used when there are problems with poor quality or quantity of sperm; thus, donor insemination may be used. ii. IUI is the most expensive and simplest reproductive technology with a success rate of 10% to 20% per trial, depending on a woman’s age. b. Fertility drugs are most commonly used when the primary problem is a woman’s lack of ovulation. They are used to control hormone levels and stimulate the quality and quantity of follicles in each cycle. i. Depending on the fertility drugs used, pregnancy success rates (up to four trials) are 22% to 35%. ii. Fertility drugs may work but come with serious risks, such as blood clots, kidney damage, and damage to the ovaries. iii. Multiple birth rates are 10% to 25%, depending on the drug used. Multiple births carry risks, such as miscarriage, premature birth, and developmental difficulties. c. In vitro fertilization (IVF) involves stimulation of female ovaries to produce numerous follicles. The follicles are extracted from the ovaries and the ripe ova are combined with the sperm outside the body. i. Resulting zygotes are placed back into the uterus with the hope that one will implant and continue developing. ii. The likelihood of one cycle of IVF resulting in a live birth is close to 50% for women under age 35; 24% for women between ages 38 and 40; and about 4% for women ages 42 or older.

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LECTURE LAUNCHERS, DISCUSSIONS, AND ACTIVITIES Section 1 Activity and Discussion: The Human Genome Project Many of your students will have heard of the Human Genome Project (HGP), but they might not understand what it is. This activity is designed to expand students’ understanding of the Human Genome Project and how the project was coordinated and the completion goals were met. The primary goals of the project were to identify all of the genes in human DNA and to determine the sequences of the three billion chemical base pairs that make up human DNA. Have students visit the Human Genome Project website (search online for “Human Genome Project Information Archive, 1990–2003”) to learn more about the history of the project, the goals, and the applications of the findings thus far. Then discuss the merits of the HGP. What should be done with this information? Do the students believe that the high cost of the project (nearly $3 billion over 13 years) was justified?

Ask students to note how the number of projected genes changed dramatically from 2000 to 2007. Go to the website of the National Human Genome Research Institute (www.genome.gov) for the most recent estimate of genes in the human genome. Ask students to give their estimate before revealing the answer (30,000).

Section 1 Lecture Launcher: Gene–Environment Interaction You might ask students to speculate on possible outcomes for a child with a high genetic endowment for IQ who is born into an environment that is not intellectually rich. One possibility they might come up with is that the child will seek environments that are more suitable for his or her genetic tendency (e.g., spending time in the library). This “niche picking” is an example of an interaction between genes and environment. Another way to elaborate on this issue is to point out that the heritability of some traits, such as general cognitive ability or antisocial behavior, tends to increase with age (Goldsmith and Gottesman, 1996; Rutter et al., 1997). Challenge students to speculate on why this might be. One possible explanation is that genetic tendencies encourage the individual to seek out environments (e.g., peer groups) that foster the development of those traits. What other explanations can students come up with?

Sources: Goldsmith, H. H., and Gottesman, I. I. (1996). Heritable variability and variable heritability in developmental psychopathology. In M. F. Lenzenweger and J. J. Haugaard (Eds.), Frontiers of developmental psychopathology (pp. 5–43). New York: Oxford University Press.

Rutter, M., Dunn, J., Plomin, R., Simonoff, E., Pickles, A., Maughan, B., ... and Eaves, L. (1997). Integrating nature and nurture: Implications of person–environment correlations and interactions for developmental psychopathology. Development and psychopathology, 9(2), 335–364.

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Section 2 Activity: Life’s Greatest Miracle Life’s Greatest Miracle (53:41) is a video that originally aired on November 20, 2001, on PBS. Find the video by searching the PBS website (www.pbs.org), and have students watch this video online or in class; it comes with a complete transcript as well for students with hearing disabilities. This excellent video details the process of conception through birth. If you are unable to access the video online, ask your librarian to find out where it can be accessed.

Ask students whether they were surprised by what they learned in the video. What preconceptions did they have that were dispelled by information learned in the video?

Section 2 Activity: Podcast on Improving Maternal Health In 2000, the United Nations created Millennium Goals, one of which included improving maternal health in developing countries. In fact, the goal was for maternal health care to become a universal right by the year 2015. In the podcast, available on the PBS website (www.pbs.org), then-president of the International Women’s Health Coalition, Adrienne Germain, is interviewed. She notes the importance of addressing this issue in developing countries using a holistic approach of prevention and intervention beyond medical care to include societal problems of poverty, malnutrition, and women’s rights.

More detailed information on this and other related Millennium Development goals is available on the UNICEF website (www.unicef.org; search for “maternal health”) while recent information about maternal and newborn health can also be found on UNICEF’s site (search for “maternal and newborn health”).

In an article in the journal Reproductive Health, Esamai et al. (2017) provide updates on the progress, including the many challenges facing the Millennium Development goals in Kenya.

Source: Esamai, F., Nangami, M., Tabu, J., Mwangi, A., Ayuku, D., and Were, E. (2017). A system approach to improving maternal and child health care delivery in Kenya: Innovations at the community and primary care facilities (a protocol). Reproductive Health, 14(1), 105.

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Section 3 Discussion: At-Home Genetic Testing Kits The recent explosion of knowledge about genetics raises many interesting practical and ethical questions about genetic testing. The rise of customized, predictive medical treatment is being bolstered by the proliferation of consumer genetic testing. The personal genomic direct (DTC) testing industry has become a billion-dollar industry. For more information, go to www.genome.gov and search for “genomic direct testing.”

Initiate a discussion about the pros and cons of such testing. Do students believe that people should be tested to determine their susceptibility to certain diseases? When should this testing be done? At birth? Prenatally? Should parents be allowed to test their unborn children for the presence or absence of certain traits? Should they be allowed to make decisions about continuing the pregnancy on the basis of the results? If one member of a family discovers through genetic testing that she or he is susceptible to certain genetic disorders, is that person obligated to inform other family members (who might share that susceptibility)? Who should have access to this information? Health insurance companies? Potential employers?

Excellent lesson plans, videos, and quizzes expanding this discussion can be found on the website of the Personal Genetics Education Project (https://pged.org). More information is also available on the DNA Science Blog (go to https://blogs.plos.org and search for “DNA”).

Section 3 Activity: Genetic Counseling A series of case studies can be an excellent way to explore the scientific and ethical issues surrounding genetic counseling. Have students work in teams to discuss how they would counsel various couples who might talk to a counselor. What questions would be important to ask? What advice might they give? What emotions might be likely to come up? Some examples of case studies might include the following: • A couple who has just learned that a prenatal screening test (e.g., the alpha fetoprotein test) has yielded an abnormal result • A couple who has not yet conceived a child, but who has a history of Tay-Sachs disease in the wife’s family • An unmarried woman who is 39 years old who wishes to have a child through artificial insemination • An African American couple who is expecting a baby; they have no history of sickle-cell anemia in the family, but they are concerned about the possibility of this disorder for their child • A couple with four sons who desperately want a daughter; they are planning a fifth pregnancy.

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Section 3 Lecture Launcher: Infertility Infertility is defined as the inability to get pregnant after one year or more of regular sexual activity without the use of contraception or the inability to carry a pregnancy to a live birth.

Contrary to popular opinion, infertility rates are not on the rise and have remained fairly consistent over the last 100 years, hovering at 10% to 15% of couples in the United States and a global infertility rate between 9% and 13%. Men tend to experience infertility due to problems with low rates of sperm production, poor sperm quality, or slow motility of the sperm. Women experience infertility due to problems with ovulation as a result of age, weight, or environmental teratogens.

Common infertility treatments include (Rutter, 1996): • in vitro fertilization (IVF) • gamete intrafallopian transfers (GIFT) • intrauterine insemination (IUI) • zygote intrafallopian transfer (ZIFT) • intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) There are some pros and cons about the new reproductive technologies. For example, before the 1970s, only donor insemination—injection of sperm from an anonymous man into a woman— was available for infertile women. Today, in vitro fertilization is a common choice. In this procedure, hormones are used to stimulate the production of several ova, which are removed.

The eggs are placed in a dish of nutrients, sperm are added, and then the fertilized eggs are injected into the mother. Ova can be screened for genetic defects, and fertilized ova can also be frozen for use in the future. Both sperm and eggs can also be frozen. Few states have legal guidelines for these procedures.

Source: Rutter, V. (1996, March/April). Who stole fertility? Psychology Today, 46–47, 65–70.

Section 3 Discussion: Ethics of Assisted Reproductive Technology (ART) Fertility and conception have changed drastically in the last several decades as medical interventions to enhance fertility and to assist in conceiving a child have become much more common. There are many ethical issues that are relevant to this topic. In 2009 the pregnancy of Nadya “Octomom” Suleman brought this issue to the forefront of the news once again. (Search online for a recent video interview with Ms. Suleman. Preface your discussion with students by showing this video). Ms. Suleman, a single, unemployed mother of 6 children, used assisted reproductive technology to become pregnant again. She gave birth to octuplets. She now has 14 children. This case, and others like it, has caused much debate. For example, should a woman with such limited resources be allowed to use ART? Is it ethically defensible for a mother to choose not to selectively reduce the number of fetuses? What if there were serious developmental risks to the fetuses? What if there were serious health risks to the mother? What if the family will be unable to care for the children after they are born? There are other issues related to assisted reproductive technology as well. For example, with ART it is possible for considerably older women to have children. Are there any ethical objections to this?

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Section 3 Activity: Infertility and Assisted Reproductive Technology Have students investigate what medical options currently exist for people who are unable to conceive children naturally. What are the success rates of these options? What are the costs of these options? What are the risks? You might suggest that they focus on the more common treatments (e.g., hormone treatments, IVF) rather than the more exotic (GIFT, ZIFT).

CRITICAL THINKING ACTIVITY Fake News vs. Real News: How to Tell the Difference As educators, we emphasize to students the importance of critical thinking and the need to become a good critical thinker. Ask students to define the concept of critical thinking. What does it mean to be a critical thinker? One aspect of applied critical thinking is developing media literacy skills. Invite students to define their understanding of media literacy. This activity guides students through a series of articles and videos designed to explore myriad ways of developing media literacy. Given that the majority of students indicate that they get their national news via social media, it’s important that they learn how to discern truth from fiction and recognize that there are intentional efforts aimed at spreading lies and falsehoods that ultimately impact behaviors. Provide students with Handout 3.1 and instruct them to complete the pre-reading and pre-watching before attempting the written part of the activity. Take the time to discuss student thoughts in class after students complete the activity. completion. challenge of determining what is factual, what is make believe, and what are intentional falsehoods.

SUPPLEMENTAL READINGS American Baby Magazine. (1995). As your baby grows, 4(2).

Dorris, M. (1990). The broken cord. New York: HarperCollins.

Freiberg, K. L. (Ed.). (2002). Annual editions: Human development 2002/2003 (30th ed.).

Guilford, CT: Dushkin/McGraw-Hill.

La Marca-Ghaemmaghami, P., Dainese, S. M., Stalla, G., Haller, M., Zimmermann, R., and Ehlert, U. (2017). Stress, 20(3), 231–240.

Lamb, M. E. (2003). The role of the father in child development (4th ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Murkoff, H. (2016). What to expect when you’re expecting (5th ed.). New York: Workman.

Nilsson, L., Ingelman-Sundberg, A., and Wirsen, C. (1990). A child is born (2nd ed.). New York: Delacorte Press.

REVEL VIDEOS Chapter Introduction: Genetics and Prenatal Development A Preference for Sons Research Focus: Twin Studies: The Story of Oskar and Jack Key Events in Prenatal Development Pregnancy and Prenatal Care Across Cultures Apply Your Knowledge as a Professional: Reproductive Endocrinologist

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Handout 3.1: Fake News vs. Real News: How to Tell the Difference As critical thinkers, we need to consciously develop strategies that compel us to examine evidence with the appropriate level of skepticism and open-mindedness. In today’s world of selfselecting news feeds, the “Twitterization” of content, and the variety of outlets for “news,” all of us are faced with the challenge of determining what is factual, what is make-believe, and what are intentional falsehoods.

Select a topic you are interested in learning more about, something that came up in the last national election cycle, where much “news” was generated. For instance, examples might be the “electoral college” or “Russia’s influence on U.S. elections.” Of course, you may also select any topic of current news for your search, such as “global warming.” The possibilities are endless, and they do not have to be politically oriented. However, the topic must be relevant and something that has generated a lot of press.

Your task is to view the topic from a variety of news sources in order to see how it is presented.

Let’s start with some background before you begin your search Critical Thinking Prompt #1: Why Should We Be Concerned?

Read: “Confirmed: Echo Chambers Exist on Social Media, But What Do We Do about Them?”

Go to the website of the Washington Post (https://www.washingtonpost.com/) and search for the article title.

Watch: The Colbert Report: “The Word Truthiness” (video, 2:40 min.). Go to Comedy Central’s website at www.cc.com and search for the title of the video.

Listen: NPR: Fresh Air: “How False Stories Spread and Why People Believe Them” (Audio).

Go to the National Public Radio website at https://www.npr.org and search for the podcast title.

Critical Thinking Prompt #2: Who Is Generating Fake News Stories and Why? Watch: Who Is Writing the Fake News Stories? (video). Go to the website of NBC News and search for “Fake News in Macedonia: Who Is Writing the Fake News Stories?”

Watch: Full Frontal with Samantha Bee. Go to www.tbs.com and search for “Fake News, Real Consequences | Full Frontal with Samantha Bee.” (Disclaimer: Contains language some may find offensive)

Created by: Regina Hughes, Collin College. No third-party material included.

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Handout 3.1: Fake News vs. Real News: How to Tell the Difference (page 2) Critical Thinking Prompt #3: Where Fake News Is Often Posted Read: The Daily Dot: “Here Are All the “Fake News” Sites to Watch Out for on Facebook” Go to www.dailydot.com and search for the article’s title.

View: A Plus, “New Chart Tries to Break Down Real and Fake News Outlets—How’d It Do?” Go to www.aplus.com and search for the article’s title. Read the article and view the graph.

Critical Thinking Prompt #4: How to Avoid Misleading News Read: “False, Misleading, Clickbait-y, and/or Satirical “News” Sources.”

Go to www.google.com and search for the document’s title.

Critical Thinking Essay After reviewing the resources above, select your topic. Identify an article/video from each of the following: a news site deemed conservative, one deemed liberal, one deemed in the mainstream, one deemed fake, and one considered to be a “fact check” site.

1. Name your topic.

2. Currently, what news sources do you regularly read/view?

3. List the five resources you located (headlines and accompanying URLs):

Created by: Regina Hughes, Collin College. No third-party material included.

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Handout 3.1: Fake News vs. Real News: How to Tell the Difference (page 3) 4. Were you surprised by what you found? In what way?

5. How might personal bias influence your selection of the news sources you read and how you respond to news that is in opposition to your beliefs?

6. Did you learn a different perspective about the topic after reviewing it from a variety of sources?

7. Be prepared to bring your findings to class for discussion.

Created by: Regina Hughes, Collin College. No third-party material included.

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CHAPTER 4: BIRTH AND THE NEWBORN CHILD CONTENTS LEARNING OBJECTIVES............................................................................................................ 1 LECTURE OUTLINE .................................................................................................................... 2 LECTURE LAUNCHERS, DISCUSSION IDEAS, AND ACTIVITIES.................................... 15 CRITICAL THINKING ACTIVITY ............................................................................................ 19 SUPPLEMENTAL READINGS .................................................................................................. 19 REVEL VIDEOS .......................................................................................................................... 20 HANDOUT ................................................................................................................................... 21 LEARNING OBJECTIVES Section 1 4.1 Identify the three stages of the birth process.

4.2 Name two common types of birth complications, and explain how they can be overcome.

4.3 Review the costs and benefits of obstetrics to child and mother.

4.4 Describe cultural variations in whom may assist with births.

4.5 Describe cultural variations in approaches to diminishing danger and pain during birth.

4.6 Summarize the differences in maternal and neonatal mortality both within and between developed countries and developing countries.

Section 2 4.7 Identify the features of the two major scales most often used to assess neonatal health.

4.8 Distinguish the neonatal classifications for low birth weight, and describe the consequences and major treatments.

4.9 Describe neonates’ patterns of waking and sleeping, including how and why these patterns differ across cultures.

4.10 Specify the neonatal reflexes, including those that have a functional purpose and those that do not.

4.11 Describe the neonate’s sensory abilities with respect to touch, taste and smell, hearing, and sight.

Section 3 4.12 Describe the cultural customs surrounding breast-feeding across cultures and history.

4.13 Identify the advantages of breast-feeding and where those advantages are largest.

4.14 Describe neonates’ crying and how crying patterns and soothing methods vary across cultures.

4.15 Critique the claim that human mothers must “bond” with their neonates immediately after birth.

4.16 Explain the reasons for postpartum depression and its consequences for children.

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LECTURE OUTLINE I. Section 1: Birth and Its Cultural Context A. The Birth Process 1. The birth process is triggered by the release of the hormone oxytocin.

2. Stages of the Birth Process LO 4.1 Identify the three stages of the birth process. a. The birth process is divided into three stages: labor, delivery of the baby, and delivery of the placenta and umbilical cord. b. The First Stage: Labor i. The first stage is the longest and hardest stage, lasting about 12 hours for first births and 6 hours for later births. ii. During labor, the contractions of the muscles in the uterus cause the mother’s cervix to dilate in preparation for the baby’s exit. iii. By the end of labor, the cervix has opened to about 10 centimeters (4½ inches). iv. As time passes, contractions get stronger, more painful, and closer together; at their peak, contractions last 60 to 90 seconds. v. After the cervix opens, there may be a bloody discharge called the bloody show. vi. Back pain, nausea, and trembling of the legs are common during labor. c. The Second Stage: Delivery i. During delivery, the woman spends about 30–60 minutes (although time varies) pushing the fetus through the cervix and out of the uterus. ii. Contractions are less frequent than during labor but remain about 60–90 seconds long. iii. Crowning occurs, when the baby’s head appears. If a vaginal opening is too small and could or does tear, an episiotomy may be performed to make the vaginal opening larger and to speed the birth process. iv. Rates of episiotomies in the United States declined from 90% in 1970 to 15% in 2012. African American women are 50% less likely to have an episiotomy than women in other ethnic groups. d. The Third Stage: Expulsion of Placenta and Umbilical Cord i. The third stage of the birth process is the delivery of the placenta and umbilical cord. ii. Contractions continue, although they are mild and last about a minute each. iii. Breast-feeding the newborn triggers contractions that help expel the placenta. iv. Mothers having an episiotomy or tear during delivery will be stitched during this time.

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3. Birth Complications and Cesarean Delivery LO 4.2 Name two common types of birth complications, and explain how they can be overcome. a. Failure to Progress and Breech Presentation i. If a woman has begun the birth process but it is taking longer than normal, the situation is known as “failure to progress.” Walking around, taking a nap, or taking a warm bath may stimulate progress. Forceps or a “vacuum” may be needed to help pull the baby from the birth canal. ii. A fetus is said to be in a breech presentation if positioned feet or buttocks first rather than headfirst. This can be dangerous.

Abdominal massage may help ease the fetus into the headfirst position. b. Cesarean Delivery i. A cesarean delivery or C-section involves cutting open the mother’s abdomen and retrieving the baby directly from the uterus. ii. Today, it is generally safe for mothers and infants when a Csection is performed, although recovery from a C-section incision takes longer than from a vaginal birth. iii. The World Health Organization recommends that no country’s Csection rate should exceed 10% to 15%. Critics suggest that some C-sections are not medically necessary. iv. Some countries with the lowest rates of C-sections also have low rates of birth complications. v. Many women who give birth after a C-section go on to have another C-section, but there is a possibility of a vaginal birth called VBAC (vaginal birth after cesarean section); it is generally safe for nearly all women.

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B. Historical and Cultural Variations in the Birth Process 1. The Peculiar History of Birth in the West LO 4.3 Review the costs and benefits of obstetrics to child and mother. a. Throughout history, except during the 15th century witch hunting fervor, midwives facilitated birth. b. Midwives were again challenged in the 18th century by medical doctors, who thought they should deliver the babies. c. A new field of medicine developed called obstetrics, which focuses on prenatal care and birth. d. By the end of the 19th century, 50% of American births involved the use of forceps. Before the 20th century, doctors did not wash their hands and so spread deadly infections to mothers unwittingly. In one Boston hospital, 1 in 20 women died of childbed fever or puerperal sepsis. e. Doctors increasingly used drugs to relieve pain during birth and many drugs had dangerous side effects. f. In the early 20th century, a new drug resulted in Twilight Sleep; a woman in Twilight Sleep became less inhibited and more relaxed but still felt pain. This and other drug methods became standard practice in hospitals in Western countries. g. In the past 50 years, most of the West has moved toward a middle ground, seeking to minimize medical intervention but make it available when necessary. This produced resurgence in the use of midwives. h. Natural childbirth was advocated by critics of the medical approach to childbirth; however, each approach has been established as producing equally healthy outcomes. i. Natural childbirth methods for at-home births are much riskier for the mother and baby than in a hospital setting and are not recommended for high-risk pregnancies. j. In developed countries, an anesthetic drug called an epidural, which is injected into a woman’s spinal fluid, is used to help manage the pain during labor. Its use is very common in the United States but rates of epidural use vary greatly across developed countries. k. Approximately 85% of births in the United States include the use of electronic fetal monitoring (EFM), a method used to monitor the fetus’s heartbeat during the birth process. l. The natural childbirth movement has resulted in birth less as surgery and more like a collaboration between doctors, nurses (or midwives), and mothers.

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2. Birth Across Cultures: Who Helps?

LO 4.4 Describe cultural variations in who may assist with births. a. In traditional cultures, the older women in the family and older women who have specialized training, known as midwives, consistently assist in the birth. Men most often do not assist or are completely excluded. b. A woman may become a midwife if she has received a “calling,” had a mother who was a midwife, or just wanted to volunteer. c. It requires years of apprenticeship and is generally a highly respected position. d. Now, across developing countries, midwives remain the most common assistants with births. Births to women with the highest socioeconomic status usually take place in a medical setting and health professionals provide the care. Among the less wealthy, home birth remains the norm, with or without a midwife. e. In developed countries, midwifery has experienced a revival in recent decades. Many midwives are formally trained, certified, and licensed as nurse-midwives. About 10% of U.S. babies are delivered by midwives, while in Norway, nearly all births are midwife-assisted.

3. Birth Across Cultures: Practices Aimed at Diminishing Danger and Pain LO 4.5 Describe cultural variations in approaches to diminishing danger and pain during birth. a. Cultural practices regarding birth vary from celebrating the mother and child to segregating them during and after the birthing process because the mother is unclean or to keep her from endangering the infant. b. The placenta is often disposed of with care in traditional cultures because of beliefs that it is potentially dangerous or even semihuman. c. In developing countries, disposal techniques include burial, burning, or throwing it away. d. The motivation for such beliefs appears to be the desire for control. e. In developed countries, placentas (which are nutrient-rich) may be donated to research or sold to cosmetic companies. Although rare, some people eat the placenta, even though reviews of placenta eating have yet to establish general benefits and risks. f. In developing countries, a midwife is the primary person to ease the birth, along with family support, usually female relatives who provide advice, encouragement, instructions, and imagery to ease the pain and speed up the labor. g. Most cultures also encourage the mother to be upright or somewhat upright during the process to make use of gravity. h. Sometimes a shaman or religious leader provides spiritual assistance. i. Invoking magic does not directly provide medical relief, but the placebo effect can be powerful. j. In developed countries, emotional and social support are also common. k. Health professionals suggest a variety of methods to ease discomfort, such as walking, slow breathing, massage, listening to music, and taking a shower or bath.

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4. Cultural Variations in Neonatal and Maternal Mortality LO 4.6 Summarize the differences in maternal and neonatal mortality both within and between developed countries and developing countries. a. Rates of infant and maternal mortality are vastly higher in developing countries than in developed countries. b. Neonatal and maternal mortality decreased by nearly half in developing countries over the past 25 years due to improvements and access to health care. c. The most vulnerable time for a child’s survival is the neonatal period, defined as the first 28 days of life. d. Neonatal mortality is twice as high in the United States than in the Czech Republic, Finland, Japan, and Portugal. e. Due to increased rates of poverty and lower access to medical care, more than twice as many African Americans than Whites experience neonatal and infant mortality. f. Infant mortality rates in the United States are inexplicably on the rise.

II. Section 2: The Neonate A. The Neonate’s Health 1. The average newborn is 20 inches long and weighs about 7.5 pounds at birth.

2. Neonatal skulls are not one solid, hard bone, but several pieces joined together. The two soft spots on the top and toward the back of the head are called fontanels. These soft spots will disappear at about 18 months of age.

3. At birth, the baby may be covered by fine, fuzzy hair called lanugo and/or a white substance called vernix.

4. Neonates are at risk of developing neonatal jaundice due to an immature liver. A telltale symptom of jaundice is a yellowing of the skin and eyes during the first few days of life.

5. Phototherapy is a common and simple treatment for jaundice.

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6. Measuring Neonatal Health LO 4.7 Identify the features of the two major scales most often used to assess neonatal health. a. Neonatal health is often measured immediately after birth and again in the first few minutes of life or up to one day to 2 months later. b. One important indicator of health is the newborn’s ability to breathe on his or her own. The inability to breathe can quickly result in damaging oxygen deprivation called anoxia. c. Two common Western methods to test neonatal health are the Apgar Scale and the Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale (NBAS). d. The Apgar Scale i. The Apgar comprises five tests to check the newborn’s Appearance, Pulse, Grimace, Activity, and Respiration, each rated on a scale from 0 to 2, for a total possible score of 10. A score of 7 or above is excellent, while a score of 4–6 is a cause for concern, and 3 or less is life-threatening. The test is given at 1 minute after birth and again at 5 minutes after birth. e. The Brazelton Scale i. The Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale (NBAS) is used to rate neonates on 27 items, such as reflexes, physical states, responses to social stimuli, and central nervous system instability.

Newborns are rated as worrisome, normal, or superior. Ideally, this test should be administered one day and one week after birth, but can be administered up to 2 months after birth. ii. The NBAS is a good predictor of future development and can promote a good relationship between parents and their infants. iii. According to research on the NBAS, quick, loving, attentive parenting promotes healthy development, especially for babies who were rated as worrisome a day after birth.

7. Low Birth Weight LO 4.8 Distinguish the neonatal classifications for low birth weight, and describe the consequences and major treatments. a. Neonates with low birth weight weigh less than 5.8 pounds. b. Low birth weight is common for preterm neonates who were born 3 or more weeks early; others may be small for date because they weigh less than 90% of other neonates of the same gestational age. c. Low birth weight varies by world region, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and levels of maternal stress. Rates of low birth weight worldwide is 15%. d. Causes of low birth weight in developing countries include malnourished mothers, poor health, and lack of prenatal care; cigarette smoking and use of alcohol and other drugs are the leading causes of low birth weight in developed countries. e. Other causes include multiple births and maternal ages of younger than 17 or older than 40.

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f. Consequences of Low Birth Weight i. Low birth weight babies are at high risk of death; it is the second most common cause of infant death in developed countries, next to genetic disorder. ii. Very low birth weight describes neonates weighing less than 3.5 pounds while extremely low birth weight is defined as less than 2.3 pounds. iii. Very-low-birth-weight and extremely-low-birth-weight babies are at great risk of death; even in the United States 24% of neonates born weighing less than 3.5 pounds die in the first year compared to 1% born at 3.5 to 5.8 pounds. iv. Preterm neonates are not fully developed and may have a host of related problems, such as immature immune systems and lungs. v. They do not have the ability to regulate their body heat and are often placed in special cribs called incubators. vi. Preterm neonates have not yet developed surfactant, a coating in the lungs that keeps the organs from collapsing and helps the neonate breathe. With advanced medical care, surfactant can be administered and increases these babies’ chances for survival. g. Treatment for Low-Birth-Weight Babies i. Daily, close physical contact in which the infant and caregiver are skin-to-skin is called kangaroo care. This technique stabilizes and regulates body temperature, heart rate, breathing, and sleep-wake cycles. ii. Infant massage can also help ameliorate low birth weight problems, especially when the neonate is placed in an incubator for protection. Infant massage can relieve isolation, improve weight gain, and increase activity and alertness. iii. Low-birth-weight babies are at greater risk for physical problems such as asthma and cognitive problems in childhood; low intelligence test scores and repeating a grade in adolescence; and brain abnormalities, attention deficits, and low educational attainment in adulthood. iv. Neonates weighing less than 3.5 pounds are likely to have enduring problems in multiple respects.

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B. The Neonate’s Physical Functioning 1. Neonatal Sleeping Patterns LO 4.9 Describe neonates’ patterns of waking and sleeping, including how and why these patterns differ across cultures. a. Neonates sleep an average of 16 to 17 hours a day (in segments of a few hours each). This sleep pattern is not very compatible with adults and often results in sleep deprivation. b. By 4 months old, the typical infant sleeps for 14 of every 24 hours, including about 6 hours at night. c. Infants’ REM sleep is different from that of adults. REM stands for rapid eye movement. i. Neonates spend about 50% of sleep in REM compared with 20% for adults. By 3 months of age, REM sleep drops to 40%. ii. Neonates enter REM immediately on sleeping, while adults take about an hour; it is a dreaming phase for adults, but likely a brain development stimulation phase for neonates. iii. Developed countries have produced most of the sleep-wake research with neonates, but infant caregiving practices vary by culture, and this influences the sleep-wake pattern. In traditional cultures where babies are closely held by mothers, the infants nap and doze more and have fewer long periods of sleep.

2. Neonatal Reflexes LO 4.10 Specify the neonatal reflexes, including those that have a functional purpose and those that do not. a. There are 27 reflexes (automatic responses to stimuli) present at birth or shortly after, including some related to early survival (such as the sucking reflex, rooting reflex, and Moro reflex). b. Some reflexes are precursors of voluntary movements that will develop later, such as the stepping and swimming reflexes, and others have no apparent function (such as the Babkin and Babinski reflexes). c. Reflexes fade after a few months, but they are important indicators of normal, healthy neurological development and functioning early on.

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3. Neonatal Sensation and Perception LO 4.11 Describe the neonate’s sensory abilities with respect to touch, taste and smell, hearing, and sight. a. Sensation is the ability to experience environmental stimuli through the physical senses. b. Perception is the process of interpreting or understanding sensations. c. Touch i. Touch is the earliest sense to develop in utero (at 2 months gestation). ii. By 7 months gestation, all the fetus’s body parts respond to touch. iii. Research on touch demonstrates that newborns do feel pain similar to adults, contrary to previously held beliefs. Pain relief is now provided for medical procedures. iv. A combination of neonate sucking and administration of sugar water can alleviate pain during blood tests and eye examinations. d. Taste and Smell i. The sense of taste is well developed in the womb. ii. Neonates show a preference for tastes they experienced in utero. iii. Infants prefer sweet over bitter or sour tastes. In fact, breast milk is slightly sweet. Sweet tastes have a calming effect on pain. iv. Neonates also quickly begin to discriminate smells after birth, showing a preference for the smell of their mother’s breast and other sweet smells. e. Hearing i. Hearing is also quite mature at birth, and babies can recognize their mothers’ voices and other familiar sounds heard in the womb. ii. They are sensitive to human speech and show a preference for their mother’s voice and their native language. iii. They can even recognize subtle differences in speech sounds, including differences in two- and three-syllable words. iv. Neonates like the sound of music and prefer the music and songs they heard while in the womb. v. Hearing is good at birth but improves over time, as does sound localization.

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f. Sight i. Sight is the least developed of the senses at birth, due to the physiological immaturity of the visual system, but reaches maturity by the end of the first year. ii. At birth, neonates’ vision is estimated to range from 20/200 to 20/600. Visual acuity, or clarity of vision is best when the infant is about 8 to 14 inches from the targeted object. iii. Infants perceive both size constancy and shape constancy within the first week of life. iv. By about 3 to 4 months of age, infants develop binocular vision— that is, combining information from both eyes for perceiving depth and motion, as well as the ability to detect colors as an adult would. v. Newborns’ most preferred visual stimuli are human faces. vi. Infants’ vision reaches 20/20 at some point in the second half of the first year.

III. Section 3: Caring for the Neonate A. Nutrition: Is Breast Best?

1. Historical and Cultural Perspectives on Breast-Feeding LO 4.12 Describe the cultural customs surrounding breast-feeding across cultures and history. a. A mother’s breasts change during pregnancy to prepare for milk production. For example, the mammary glands expand as milkproducing cells multiply and mature. b. A lactating mother’s let-down reflex is activated when she hears an infant cry, sees her infant’s hunger signs, or imagines breast-feeding. c. Historically, infants were solely breast-fed for about 2 to 3 years and occasionally for another 2 to 3 years. d. In traditional cultures (even in modern times), infants are bound or close to their mothers almost constantly and so are fed very frequently. e. This practice is time consuming and demanding on mothers.

Sometimes they use nonhuman animal milk as a substitute or hire another lactating mother, a wet nurse, to feed the infant. f. The American Academy of Pediatrics discourages the use of cow’s or goat’s milk due to their lack of balanced nutrients and risk of digestion problems. g. In developed countries, synthesized milk products were used beginning in the late 1800s and continue to be used today because of their convenience. h. In the United States, breast-feeding rates dropped to as low as 20% to 30% in the 1940s, but with the surge of research supporting the efficacy of breast-feeding, rates are up to more than 80% today in the United States and Canada. i. In developed countries, the higher the mother’s age, educational level, and socioeconomic status, the more likely she is to breast-feed.

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j. In the United States, rates of breast-feeding are higher among Latinos and Whites than among African Americans, but less than half of infants are still breast-fed at 6 months of age.

2. Benefits (and Limitations) of Breast-Feeding LO 4.13 Identify the advantages of breast-feeding and where those advantages are largest. a. Breast-feeding is beneficial to infants in many ways, including offering protection from disease in infancy, healthy cognitive development, reduced obesity if breast-fed for at least 6 months, and better health in childhood and adulthood. b. Breast-feeding also has benefits for the mother, such as promoting uterine contractions, weight loss, and bone strength. In addition, it can reduce their risk of ovarian and breast cancers and it suppresses ovulation while breast milk is the infant’s sole source of food. c. The thick yellowish liquid the mother produces in the first few days is called colostrum. It is like liquid gold for the newborn because it is rich in protein and immunity-boosting antibodies. d. Breast-feeding is especially important in developing countries due to the risk of disease and infection from mixing infant formula with contaminated water, which could result in infant death. e. There are fewer benefits of breast-feeding in developed countries. f. Breast-fed infants in developing countries have at least a six times greater chance of survival in the early months than non-breast-fed babies. g. Some mothers experience difficulties with breast-feeding, such as improper latching or a lack of milk supply. Other obstacles may include a mother’s work schedule and an unsupportive work or social environment. Desire to include the father in the feedings also impedes breast-feeding, but the mother can pump and store her milk as an alternative. h. A small percentage of mothers who have infectious diseases, such as HIV/AIDS or the Ebola virus, are advised not to breast-feed because they could transmit the disease to the infant. i. Rates of breast-feeding declined because of the availability of formula, but it is still not as good as breast milk. j. The WHO/UNICEF initiative to promote breast-feeding was successful at increasing rates, but, unfortunately, only about half of all infants worldwide are breast-fed even for a short time.

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B. Social and Emotional Aspects of Care for the Neonate and Mother 1. Crying and Soothing LO 4.14 Describe neonates’ crying and how crying patterns and soothing methods vary across cultures. a. Crying is the infant’s way of signaling that their needs are not being met. b. Patterns of Crying i. Reasons for crying vary and include hunger, loneliness, pain, being tired, temperature extremes, the need for a diaper change, or any other kind of discomfort or frustration. ii. Until recently, babies’ cries were characterized as an anger cry or a pain cry. New research suggests a babies’ cry indicates the degree of distress but not necessarily the source of the distress. iii. Universally, crying frequency follows a “crying curve,” rising steadily and peaking by the end of the second month and then declining. iv. The duration and intensity of crying is lower in cultures in which young infants are held or carried throughout much of the day and night. c. Soothing and Responding to Cries i. In studies, the frequency and duration of crying was reduced in babies who were held more and responded to quickly. ii. In traditional cultures, babies who cry are usually offered the breast for feeding or suckling comfort or they are swaddled in a tightly wrapped cloth that binds their arms and legs. iii. For most babies, gentle, repetitive motions like rocking and patting are soothing because it offers a new source of sensory stimulation.

Recordings of nature sounds, a warm-water bath, a pacifier, or other distraction may soothe crying that has no apparent source. iv. When a baby cries for more than 3 hours a day for 3 days in a row for more than 3 weeks, the baby is said to have colic. This is most common in Western cultures.

2. Bonding: Myth and Truth LO 4.15 Critique the claim that human mothers must “bond” with their neonates immediately after birth. a. Humans do not imprint, an instant enduring bond that develops with the first moving object seen, as with goslings. b. Some physicians have claimed on the basis of animal studies that the first few minutes and hours after birth are critical to mother-infant “bonding.” This has now been shown to be false, but the claims had the beneficial effect of changing hospital policies to allow more contact between mothers, fathers, and neonates.

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3. Postpartum Depression LO 4.16 Explain the reasons for postpartum depression and its consequences for children. a. Many mothers experience low emotional states in the days following birth as their hormones return to normal levels. b. Approximately 9% to 16% of mothers experience a series of depressive episodes, with mood symptoms first appearing during the first 6 months following delivery that are so intense they interfere with the mothers’ ability to carry out simple tasks. This is known as postpartum depression. c. Postpartum depression often peaks about a month after birth but can go on for 6 months. i. More than half of women who develop postpartum depression suffer symptoms a year later. ii. Across developed countries, prevalence rates vary from 7% to 13%. iii. Across developing countries, rates vary from 5% in Nepal to 50% in Guyana. d. Women are more likely to develop postpartum depression if they have a genetic vulnerability, a history of psychopathology, and a lack of social support. e. Postpartum depression has been reported in about 4% to 6% of fathers. f. Psychotherapy is often effective, especially if paired with interventions such as peer support, counseling, and partner support. Antidepressants may also be helpful. Other ways to alleviate symptoms include exercise, acupuncture, bright light therapy, and massage. g. Infants and children who have or had a parent(s) with postpartum depression are at risk for poor developmental outcomes. When cared for by a mother or father with postpartum depression, infants are more likely to have behavioral and emotional problems and to have problems later on.

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LECTURE LAUNCHERS, DISCUSSION IDEAS, AND ACTIVITIES Section 1 Lecture Launcher: Midwife Training in the United States There are three professional associations related to the midwife profession. They are the American College of Nurse-Midwives (ACNM), the Midwives Alliance of North America (MANA), and the National Association of Certified Professional Midwives (NACPM). The ACNM’s certifying organization is the American Midwifery Certification Board (AMCB), while the MANA and NACPM are certified by the North American Registry of Midwives (NARM).

These most highly recognized and rigorous programs are accredited by the American College of Midwifery Education (ACME). Qualified applicants have a variety of backgrounds, but the majority of them are already registered nurses. For those, the midwife program is usually 2 years of graduate education, including clinical training. Once they pass the American Midwifery Certification Board (AMCB) exam, graduates can be licensed in all states, the District of Columbia, and U.S. territories as certified nurse-midwives. Certified nurse midwives have prescription privileges, can practice in all medical and private settings, and are eligible to accept insurance.

Source: American College of Nurse Midwives. www.midwife.org.

Section 1 Lecture Launcher: Childbirth Options Methods of childbirth have changed dramatically over the last 50 years. As noted in the textbook, as an alternative to medical-induced delivery, critics advocated for the concept of natural childbirth and developed a method of teaching women about reproduction, pregnancy, delivery, and exercises in breathing, relaxation, and fitness. In the 1950s, Ferdinand Lamaze developed a method called prepared childbirth, in which expectant mothers are taught to breathe and concentrate on sensations other than contractions (Sullivan and Weitz, 1988). This is facilitated by a “coach,” usually the father, who attends classes with the mother and helps time her breathing. Fathers then became a part of the childbirth process, and by the 1970s, hospitals were beginning to allow them into the delivery room to assist (Sullivan and Weitz, 1988). Now, most fathers elect to participate in the birth of their children.

A recent article in Scientific American (2016) provides information detailing the percentage of babies born in hospitals in the United States. However, some women elect to have their babies at home with the services of either a physician who specializes in home births or a midwife.

Typically, this option should be used only by women whose pregnancies are low-risk. Hospitals have responded to the home-birth movement by offering birthing centers—with rooming-in facilities that permit mothers and babies to be together all day—and allowing sibling visitations.

Sources: Doyle, K. (2016, March 28). Out-of-hospital births on the rise in the U.S. Scientific American.

Sullivan, D. A., and Weitz, R. (1988). Labor pains: Modern midwives and home birth. New Haven, CT: Yale University.

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Section 1 Lecture Launcher: Are There Too Many Cesarean Section Deliveries?

More C-sections are performed in developed countries than in developing nations (Gibbons et al., 2012). The Dominican Republic has the highest percentage of deliveries via C-section of any country: 58.9% (Hosseinpoor et al., 2018). A mother undergoes a C-section because labor is progressing poorly, she has had a previous C-section (although many women can successfully deliver vaginally after a previous C-section), the baby is in the breech or transverse position, the mother has an active case of genital herpes, or medical personnel perform the procedure to avert a potential malpractice suit. Some critics argue that the use of a fetal monitor has increased the incidence of C-sections (Stafford, 1990). It is possible that many C-sections are actually medically unnecessary (Gibbons et al., 2012). Babies born by C-section miss out on the stress hormones released during birth (catecholamines) (Stafford, 1990). These hormones are believed to help in the post-birth breathing process. The effects on mothers are the results of the major abdominal surgery involved, which is associated with a longer hospital stay, longer recovery, higher rates of postpartum depression, and a greater risk of infection. As a result of criticisms, the rate has dropped since the 1980s.

Sources: Gibbons, L., Belizan, J. M., Lauer, J. A., Betran, A. P., Merialdi, M., and Althabe, F. (2012).

Inequities in the use of cesarean section deliveries in the world. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 206(4), 331.e1–331.e19.

Hosseinpoor, A. R., et al. (2018, January 24). Within country inequalities in caesarean section rates: Observational study of 72 low and middle-income countries. British Medical Journal, 360.

Stafford, R. S. (1990). Alternative strategies for controlling rising cesarean section rates.

Journal of the American Medical Association, 263, 683–687.

Section 1 Activity: Students’ Ideas about Birth and the Neonate Divide the class into several groups. Each group should discuss one or more of the following: 1. List the pros and cons of a home birth versus a hospital birth.

2. What key factors should a woman consider in deciding whether or not to return to work after having a baby?

3. What are the pros and cons of having fathers and siblings more involved in childbirth?

4. What are reasons that people have children? Why do many cultures prefer male children?

5. Have a representative from each group present the group’s findings to the class.

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Section 2 Lecture Launcher: Infant Mortality According to the textbook authors, the primary causes of low birthweight in developed countries are: 1. Maternal cigarette smoking 2. Use of alcohol 3. Use of drugs other than alcohol According to research by the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), an estimated 15% of neonates born in developing countries are low birth weight; Asia and sub-Saharan Africa have the highest rates (UNICEF, 2019). The largest contributors to low birth weight in these countries are poor maternal nutrition, poor maternal health before conception due to illness and diseases, and a lack of sufficient prenatal care (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention). However, these statistics may underreport the problem, as many neonates in these regions are not weighed at birth because they are not born in a medical facility.

Sources: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Infant mortality. www.cdc.gov/.

UNICEF. (2019). National, regional, and worldwide estimates of low birthweight in 2015, with trends from 2000: A systematic analysis. https://data.unicef.org.

Section 2 Activity: Kangaroo Care and the Neonatal Intensive Care Unit (NICU) Kangaroo care describes a type of skin-to-skin contact between caretaker (usually mother and father) and infant, recommended with preterm and low-birth-weight babies. As noted in the textbook, the World Health Organization (WHO) recommends and supports the use of kangaroo care. To learn more about kangaroo care, students can arrange an interview with a NICU nurse and pose the following questions: 1. Under what circumstances are parents encouraged to engage in kangaroo care?

2. What are the benefits of kangaroo care for an infant?

3. What are the benefits of kangaroo care for parents?

4. Are there disadvantages to using kangaroo care?

5. What percentage of hospitals in the United States use kangaroo care?

6. Can I volunteer to provide kangaroo care to infants?

For an added beneficial experience, ask students to consider volunteering their time in a NICU.

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Section 3 Lecture Launcher: Supporting Breast-Feeding As the textbook authors note, extensive research has shown that breast milk is very healthy for infants, with few exceptions. The text includes the benefits of breast-feeding. How does the United States stack up when it comes to breast-feeding?

In developed countries, particularly the United States, there can be many obstacles to breastfeeding. Mothers without a good support network and a lack of education about the importance of breast-feeding may quickly be discouraged and switch to formula. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) produces the annual “Breast-Feeding Report Card.” Look for statistics on the percentage of new mothers in the United States who attempt to breast-feed, what percentage begin to supplement with formula, and what percentage are still breastfeeding at 3, 6, and 12 months of age.

As more women remain in the workforce following the birth of a child, worksite support for breast-feeding is critical. The CDC evaluates several process indicators to determine how well breast-feeding is supported in the United States. These indicators include support from the birth facility, the amount of professional lactation support at worksite settings, the type of and amount of infrastructure provided by the state, and support in child care settings.

Baby-Friendly USA provides information regarding how many U.S. employers report offering a separate onsite lactation room/mother’s room. Customize your lecture by providing additional information on how your state is doing compared to the national averages.

Sources: Baby-Friendly USA. (2019). www.babyfriendlyusa.org.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2018). Breast-feeding report card–United States, 2018. www.cdc.gov/.

Section 3 Lecture Launcher: Colic The percentage of babies who experience colic vary although the textbook authors suggest about 10% of Western babies suffer from extended periods of extreme crying attributed to colic. The commonly agreed-on definition of colic follows the rule of threes: crying more than 3 hours a day, for more than 3 days a week, for at least 3 weeks. The onset of colic is usually evident when the infant is just a few weeks old and typically ends by the time the infant is 3 to 4 months old.

Although the causes of colic are not known, medical experts note it is more typical in Western cultures where infants receive the least amount of carrying time. You can search Gupta’s article at kidshealth.org for other suggested causes of colic. It is important to have infants medically evaluated to make sure that what they have is colic as there are several severe medical conditions that could cause sustained periods of inconsolable crying. Treatments for colic vary although you might want to search kidshealth.org to read more about possible treatments. Colic is not a sign of bad parenting, and maintaining a strong support system is important. Securing child care respite is helpful for maintaining a positive attitude and good mental health.

Source: Gupta, R. C. (2016). Colic. https://kidshealth.org.

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Section 3 Activity: Breast-milk Donation Students might be surprised to learn of the human milk donation industry. Ask them to look at the website of the Human Milk Banking Association of North America and search for a milk bank close to them. Students should write a summary of the process of milk processing and describe the steps taken to ensure milk safety. Additional information students can explore includes: 1. How much milk can a person donate and how often?

2. Do some organizations pay for breast milk? If so, how much does the mother receive?

3. Where does the milk go, and to whom?

4. What are the criteria and what is the screening process for becoming a breast milk donor?

5. What risks are associated with informal or casual sharing of breast milk?

6. What is a wet nurse, and under what circumstances are wet nurses most likely used?

7. What are the disadvantages of using a wet nurse?

Source: Human Milk Banking Associates of North America. https://www.hmbana.org.

CRITICAL THINKING ACTIVITY Evaluating Periodicals and Journals for Academic Use Provide Handout 4.1 to students. This exercise works well as an individual assignment followed by class or small-group discussion, if time allows. You may wish to select your own set of periodicals or websites. The Journal of the American Medical Association provides full-text articles at no cost. If your students have access to free databases, the selection of journals you wish to use will be larger.

The exercise transfers most easily to online discussion if you preselect periodicals available online for free. For a forum, have students use the table as a guide and submit their written summary and comments in the discussion board.

SUPPLEMENTAL READINGS Bardacke, N. (2012). Mindful birthing: Training the mind, body, and heart for childbirth and beyond. San Francisco, CA: HarperOne. Bean, C. (1990). Methods of childbirth (rev. ed.). New York: Quill.

Brazelton, T. B., Nugent, J. K., and Lester, B. M. (1987). Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale. In J. D. Osofsky (Ed.), Handbook of infant development (2nd ed.). New York: Wiley.

Buckman, R., and Ezzo, G. (2019). On becoming babywise: Giving your infant the gift of nighttime sleep. Sisters, OR: Hawksflight & Associates.

Feldman-Winter, L., and Goldsmith, J. P. (2016). Committee on Fetus and Newborn, Task Force on Sudden Infant Death Syndrome. Safe sleep and skin-to-skin care in the neonatal period for healthy term newborns. Pediatrics, 138(3), e20161889.

Frey, D. (July 9, 1995). Does anyone here think this baby can live? The New York Times Magazine, 22–47. This article presents a true story of a 24-week-old fetus who is born prematurely and discusses the decisions involved in whether to use medical technology to keep the baby alive.

Hogg, T. (2005). Secrets of the baby whisperer: How to calm, connect, and communicate with your baby. New York: Ballantine Books.

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Karp, H. (2015). The happiest baby on the block. New York: Bantam.

Karr-Morse, R., Wiley, M., and Brazelton, T. (1999). Ghosts from the nursery: Tracing the roots of violence. This book details recent research about the importance of a healthy prenatal environment.

Leboyer, F. (1975). Birth without violence. New York: Knopf.

Lordier, L., et al. (2019, June). Music in premature infants enhances high-level cognitive brain networks. National Academy of Sciences, 116(24), 12103–12108.

Murkoff, H., Hathaway, S., and Eisenberg, A. (2002). What to expect when you’re expecting.

This book covers important topics such as exercise, childbirth options, multiple births, choosing a caregiver, and common (and uncommon) problems. It’s a comprehensive, straightforward guide to labor, delivery, postpartum care, breast-feeding, and more. There is a section for fathers-to-be also.

Murkoff, H., and Mazel, S. (2014). What to expect the first year. New York: Workman Publishing.

Smith, R. (March, 1999). The timing of birth. Scientific American. Scientists have recently discovered a hormone in the human placenta that tells the pregnant woman’s body to begin labor.

Warrick, P. (1992, March 1). The fantastic voyage of Tanner Roberts. Los Angeles Times, E1, E12–13. This fascinating article relates the story of a typical birth.

REVEL VIDEOS Chapter Introduction: Birth and the Newborn Child Labor & Delivery How to Ease Pain and Danger During Birth Reflexes Taste Cultural Focus: Breast-Feeding Practices Across Cultures Research Focus: Breast-Feeding Benefits: Separating Correlation and Causation Soothing Methods Apply Your Knowledge as a Professional: Instructor of Maternity Nursing

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Handout 4.1: Evaluating Periodicals, Academic Journals, and Websites One of the greatest challenges new college students face is how to navigate the sea of information they encounter over a short amount of time. As a student, you must learn how to discern scholarly resources from unsubstantiated opinion. When writing an essay or a paper and when supporting perspectives in college, you must be aware that not all resources are of equal quality. How do you identify resources that are considered appropriate, credible, or academic?

This exercise introduces you to the differences between sources written for the general public and scholarly journals with peer-reviewed articles for academic use.

1. Begin by examining an article on postpartum depression in a periodical, one in an academic journal, and one from a website. You can go to your college or public librarian and access free copies of periodicals such as Parenting Magazine, Working Mother, Parents, or Family Circle. Or you can go to https://jamanetwork.com and enter “postpartum depression” in the search box. Choose an article and click on “Full Text.”

2. Compare each source in the following table and total the scores.

Periodical 1. Who is/are the author/s?

Author credentials?

2. Did the article go through a Peer Review?

3. Does the article include appropriate citations?

4. Are references included?

5. Sample size (n) is noted in study.

6. Research methodology is described in detail.

7. Article contains ads for products related to article subject matter.

8. Article clearly details conflict-of-interest disclaimers.

9. Alternate views or weaknesses in the information are presented.

10. Fact, theory, and opinion are easy to tell apart.

Academic Journal Article

Website Article

( )Yes +5

( )No

( )Yes +5

( )No

( )Yes +5

( )No

( )Yes +5

( )No

( )Yes +5

( )No

( )Yes +5

( )No

( )Yes +5 ( )No ( )Yes +5 ( )No ( ) NA, no study included. ( )Yes +5 ( )No ( ) NA, no research included. ( )Yes -5 ( )No

( )Yes +5 ( )No ( )Yes +5 ( )No ( ) NA, no study included. ( )Yes +5 ( )No ( ) NA, no research included. ( )Yes -5 ( )No

( )Yes +5 ( )No ( )Yes +5 ( )No ( ) NA, no study included. ( )Yes +5 ( )No ( ) NA, no research included. ( )Yes -5 ( )No

( )Yes +5

( )No

( )Yes +5

( )No

( )Yes +5

( )No

( )Yes +5

( )No

( )Yes +5

( )No

( )Yes +5

( )No

( )Yes +5

( )No

( )Yes +5

( )No

( )Yes +5

( )No

Total Points

Created by: Regina Hughes, Collin College. No third-party material included.

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Handout 4.1: Evaluating Periodicals, Academic Journals, and Websites (page 2) 3. Summarize in writing the differences you see between the periodicals and the website article and their weaknesses or strengths as appropriate academic sources for information. Which of the three resource types do you believe is the most credible? Least credible? Why?

Created by: Regina Hughes, Collin College. No third-party material included.

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CHAPTER 5: INFANCY CONTENTS LEARNING OBJECTIVES............................................................................................................ 1 LECTURE OUTLINE .................................................................................................................... 2 LECTURE LAUNCHERS, DISCUSSION IDEAS, AND ACTIVITIES.................................... 18 CRITICAL THINKING ACTIVITY ............................................................................................ 21 SUPPLEMENTAL READINGS .................................................................................................. 22 REVEL VIDEOS .......................................................................................................................... 23 HANDOUTS................................................................................................................................. 24 LEARNING OBJECTIVES Section 1 5.1 Describe changes in weight and height during the first year, and explain the two basic principles of physical growth.

5.2 Identify the key parts of the brain, and describe how the brain changes in the first few years of life.

5.3 Describe how sleep changes in the course of the first year, and evaluate the risk factors for sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS), including the research evidence regarding cosleeping.

5.4 Summarize how infants’ nutritional needs change during the first year of life, and identify the reasons for and consequences of malnutrition in infancy.

5.5 List the major causes of infant mortality, and name some cultural approaches to protecting infants.

5.6 Summarize the major changes in gross and fine motor development during infancy.

5.7 Specify when and how infants develop depth perception and intermodal perception.

Section 2 5.8 Describe the sensorimotor stage, and explain how object permanence develops over the course of the first year.

5.9 Summarize information-processing approaches, and describe how attention and memory change during infancy.

5.10 Outline the Bayley Scales of Infant Development (BSID-III), and explain how habituation assessments are used to predict later intelligence.

5.11 Describe the course of language development over the first year of life.

5.12 Compare how cultures vary in their stimulation of language development.

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Section 3 5.13 Define infant temperament, and name its main dimensions.

5.14 Explain how the idea of goodness-of-fit pertains to temperament on both a family level and a cultural level.

5.15 Identify the primary emotions, and describe how they develop during infancy.

5.16 Describe infants’ emotional perceptions and how their emotions become increasingly social over the first year.

5.17 List the main features of infants’ social worlds across cultures.

5.18 Compare and contrast the two major theories of infants’ social development.

LECTURE OUTLINE I. Section 1: Physical Development A. Growth and Change in Infancy 1. Growth Patterns LO 5.1 Describe changes in weight and height during the first year, and explain the two basic principles of physical growth. a. Accelerated growth occurs during the first year of life. b. By 5 months, an infant’s birth weight is expected to double, and by a year it triples to an average of 22 pounds. c. Babies have fat to help them regulate their body temperature. A normal baby looks plump but loses much of the baby fat by a year old. d. Height increases from about 20 inches to 30 inches in the first year.

Babies grow about an inch a month but in spurts, not evenly. e. Babies’ heads tend to be large compared to the rest of their bodies.

Their growth, according to the cephalocaudal principle, begins with the head and proceeds downward to the rest of the body. In addition, the proximodistal principle states that growth occurs from the center or trunk outward.

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2. Brain Development LO 5.2 Identify the key parts of the brain, and describe how the brain changes in the first few years of life. a. The majority of brain development for species other than humans takes place prenatally while humans experience similar brain development over the first year of life. b. Brain Growth i. Neuronal development starts by Week 7, and the majority of neurons that a person will ever have are produced by the middle of prenatal development. ii. There is tremendous brain growth during the first year of life.

Although an infant’s brain is only a quarter of the size of an adult’s brain at birth, it grows to about 70% of the size by 2 years of age. iii. Infants have billions of brain cells or neurons that are separated by synapses or tiny gaps. The first year is peak time for development of connections among neurons. iv. Chemicals called neurotransmitters flow between neurons from the axon of one neuron to the dendrite of another neuron to communicate. v. Brain growth occurs in three ways: one, by decreasing the number of neurons by about one-half of what it was at birth; two, by increasing numbers of dendritic connections called overproduction or synaptic exuberance; and three, by the process of myelination, whereby axons are sheathed in a fatty material (myelin sheath) to increase the speed of communication.

Myelination is extremely active in the first year of life but slows past the age of 40. vi. As the neural network develops with use, the strength, accuracy, and precision of the connections increases. Following a “use it or lose it” principle, the unused connections wither away in a process called synaptic pruning. This process continues through childhood and is pronounced in both adolescence and emerging adulthood.

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c. Brain Specialization i. The three major parts of the brain are the hindbrain, the midbrain, and the forebrain. ii. The hindbrain and midbrain maintain basic biological functions like lungs breathing, heart beating, and balanced movements. iii. The forebrain is divided into two main parts, the limbic system and the cerebral cortex. a. The limbic system includes several structures, such as the hypothalamus, which monitors and regulates basic functions; the thalamus, which relays information from the body to the brain; and the hippocampus, which is vital to memory function. b. The cerebral cortex is the outermost part of the forebrain.

1. It is much larger in human animals than in nonhuman animals and is the center of brain growth during infancy. It represents 85% of the total weight of the human brain.

2. The cerebral cortex facilitates speaking and understanding language, problem solving, and thinking about concepts, ideas, and symbols.

3. It is divided into the right and left hemispheres, which are connected by a band of fibers called the corpus callosum, that allows hemispheric communication.

4. Lateralization is the term for the specialization of the two hemispheres: left for language and sequential information processing and right for spatial reasoning and holistic information processing. Although myths prevail, no one is mainly a “left-brain” or “right-brain” thinker.

5. Each hemisphere has four lobes with distinct functions. The visual processing system is in the rear occipital lobes, while auditory processing takes place in the temporal lobes located near the ears. The parietal lobes process bodily sensations, and the frontal lobes deal with more advanced processes. The prefrontal cortex is the most recently evolved and allows for planning and organizing information to influence behavior.

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d. The Plasticity of the Infant Brain i. As the infant brain matures, it is high in plasticity, meaning that it is highly responsive to environmental influences and thus very adaptable but also vulnerable. ii. One benefit of plasticity is that brain damage due to early deprivation before 6 months of age is often reversible or reparable.

However, plasticity decreases with age. Consequently, as children age, they are less able to overcome poor environmental conditions that result in cognitive impairment, as seen with Romanian orphans in the early 1990s. In this case, the age of adoption of the Romanian orphans determined later cognitive recovery. Children adopted before 6 months of age showed very little negative effect in cognitive ability, while those 6 to 42 months had what appeared to be irreparable cognitive impact.

3. Sleep Changes LO 5.3 Describe how sleep changes in the course of the first year, and evaluate the risk factors for sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS), including the research evidence regarding cosleeping. a. Newborns sleep about 16–17 hours a day, but by 3–4 months of age, they are mostly sleeping through the night with 40% of the time spent in REM. b. At 6 months, cultural practices influence the amount of sleep an infant gets from 12 hours a day in Kenya to 14 hours in America to 16 hours in the Netherlands.

c. Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS) i. Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) occurs when an infant falls asleep and dies with no known reason. ii. It is the leading cause of death in developed countries for infants 1 to 12 months of age. iii. SIDS involves the convergence of a critical developmental period, a vulnerable infant, and environmental risks. iv. Theoretically, infants may be most at risk during the 1– to 4-month age range because this is when they should transition from reflexive behaviors (like clearing an obstruction to breathing) to intentional behaviors. If they are not able to engage in the intentional behavior and have a breathing problem, they might die. v. Risk factors include low birth weight and low APGAR scores, an immature or dysfunctional cardiorespiratory system, prenatal smoking mother or intake of secondhand smoke, being too warm, soft bedding, or sleeping stomach-down. vi. The BACK to Sleep program dramatically reduced the number of deaths due to SIDS in developed countries. vii. SIDS rates are higher in the United States than in other developed countries, with rates highest for Native American and African American infants, especially those who have had poor prenatal care.

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d. Cosleeping: Helpful or Harmful to Babies? i. Cosleeping, or bed-sharing, is a term used to describe times when an infant sleeps in the same bed as the parent(s). ii. Cosleeping is common worldwide, except in Western countries.

The Western practice of isolating infants is frowned on by most of the rest of the world and is often considered a form of child neglect. iii. The benefits of cosleeping are thought to include easy breastfeeding, protection of the infant from illness and injury, and parent-child bonding. iv. Cosleeping, in non-Western cultures, usually occurs until the next child is born, or about 2–4 years. v. Cosleeping is an example of a custom complex because it is a distinctive cultural pattern of behavior that is based on underlying cultural beliefs. vi. Collectivist cultures believe members of the culture are closely bound to each other, thus the belief in cosleeping, whereas individualistic cultures such as the United States fear cosleeping results in overdependence on parents. vii. SIDs is almost unknown in cosleeping cultures, and SIDs rates are high in the United States, especially if the parents are obese or impaired while cosleeping. viii. Cosleeping is a common practice among African Americans and Latinos in the United States.

B. Infant Health 1. Nutritional Needs LO 5.4 Summarize how infants’ nutritional needs change during the first year of life, and identify the reasons for and consequences of malnutrition in infancy. a. Introduction of Solid Foods i. Because infants grow at such a rapid rate, they need to eat a lot of quality, high-fat food with great frequency. This can be achieved by feeding breast milk and, later, solid foods. ii. There is some cultural variation in the timing of the introduction of solids to the infant diet, but 4–5 months of age is common, although in the West it is 46 months of age. iii. Even at 4–5 months old, infants resist solids due to a gag reflex; chewing and swallowing effectively does not develop until after 6 months. iv. Commonly, the first solid foods are actually mashed, pureed, or pre-chewed. In the United States, babies start with thinned rice cereal or oatmeal cereal, which is an important source of iron (because it has been fortified). Then they eat pureed vegetables and fruits, and, finally, pureed meats.

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b. Malnutrition in Infancy i. Developing countries have experienced a decline in malnutrition rates but this problem remains elevated in developing countries. ii. Malnutrition can lead to severe and enduring negative developmental outcomes, including physical and cognitive deficits. iii. Because breast milk is readily available to most infants, malnutrition usually occurs only when a mother is unable or unwilling to breast-feed due to being ill, malnourished, or diseased or the use of formula may have limited availability or belief that it is better, or in the case of the mother’s death, there may be no one else who can breast-feed the baby or otherwise provide adequate nutrition. iv. Marasmus is a disease that affects malnourished infants by limiting their growth and causing fatigue and eventually death. If the child lives, he or she will always have impairments. Even using some form of nutritional supplements can be very helpful in avoiding the consequences of starvation.

2. Infant Mortality LO 5.5 List the major causes of infant mortality, and name some cultural approaches to protecting infants. a. Worldwide, the highest risk of death over the human life span occurs in the first year of life. b. Causes and Prevention of Infant Mortality i. Most often infant mortality in the first month is the result of neonatal issues, such as severe birth defects, low birth weight, or maternal death. ii. Infant mortality is much higher in developing countries than in developed countries. iii. In months 2–12, infant deaths in developing countries are most likely due to diarrhea, malnutrition, and diseases and illnesses like malaria and dysentery. iv. Diarrhea, primarily as a result of unsafe water, inadequate sanitation, and insufficient hygiene, can be treated easily with oral rehydration therapy (ORT), when available. v. Infant deaths have been significantly reduced in the last half century with the introduction of vaccines, but there is great variability in the rate of vaccinations by country. Vaccination rates for major infant vaccines was about 90% worldwide but less than 50% in some African countries. vi. The claim that vaccines are harmful to children and should be avoided has been completely debunked by recent scientific studies.

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c. Cultural Beliefs and Practices to Protect Infants i. In traditional cultures, parents are acutely aware that infants are vulnerable and must be protected to increase the chances of survival. ii. Historically, and even currently, many cultures in developing countries with limited access to medical care will use magic to protect their infants. iii. Cultural practices range from secluding infants in the early weeks, cosleeping with them, carrying them all of the time and placing a sharp knife near the infant at all times to making derogatory comments about them to ward off evil spirits who might want to take them and covering them in many cloths to hide them from evil spirits.

C. Motor and Sensory Development 1. Motor Development LO 5.6 Summarize the major changes in gross and fine motor development during infancy. a. Gross motor development is the development of motor abilities including balance and posture, as well as whole body movements that use large muscle groups, such as crawling. Fine motor development is the development of motor abilities involving finely tuned movements of the hands, such as grasping and manipulating objects. b. Gross Motor Development i. Skills like holding the head up without support, rolling over, sitting without support, crawling, standing, cruising, and walking are major gross motor milestones that usually occur in this sequence, but the timing is variable within a normalized range. ii. Gross motor development is greatly influenced by genetics but also includes environmental influences. The interaction of genetics and the environment contributes to the variability we see within and between cultures. It is a combination of genetics, brain maturation, support and assistance, and individual effort. iii. Some cultures restrict gross motor movement early in life to protect the infant, while others encourage it. Swaddling is common as is strapping the infant for long periods of time to the mother’s back. Encouraging walking at 2 and 3 months includes holding infants up and bouncing their feet on the ground. “Tummy time” is encouraged in the United States in an effort to promote strength and growth. iv. In the long run, restriction or promotion of gross motor development usually does not impact the infants’ developmental timeline significantly.

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c. Fine Motor Development i. The basis of fine motor development is our opposable thumb, which enables us to do things like make tools, pick up small objects, and thread a needle. ii. Reaching and grasping are the essential fine motor tasks infants must master. Before 2 months of age, infants will reflexively prereach for and grasp objects. Later, as these reflexes fade, they learn to be skilled at reaching and grasping, which becomes smoother and more direct, and infants deliberately make adjustments by the end of their first year. iii. As these skills become more advanced, 5-month-old infants can reach for, pick up, and transfer an object from one hand to the other or, more commonly, to their mouths. iv. By the end of the first year, this ability culminates in the “pincer grasp,” whereby the child is able to pick up a small object between his or her thumb and forefinger.

2. Sensory Development LO 5.7 Specify when and how infants develop depth perception and intermodal perception. a. Depth Perception i. Depth perception is the ability to discern the relative distance of objects in the environment by using binocular vision. ii. Binocular vision, the ability to combine the images of each eye into one image, is necessary for depth perception. iii. This important aspect of vision is essential for babies who are on the move to help them stay safe. iv. Gibson and Walk’s 1960 visual cliff experiment provides strong evidence of the development of depth perception in infants. v. Using a glass-covered table with a checked pattern just below the surface on one half and about 2 feet below on the other half, they tested their theory of depth perception. vi. The infants (6–14 months) who had developed binocular vision saw the visual “cliff” and refused to crawl across it, even when encouraged to do so by their mothers. vii. Crawling and walking may influence an infant’s understanding of depth and, thus, their willingness to take environmental risks. A degree of depth perception exists before mobility. b. Intermodal Perception i. Intermodal perception is the ability to integrate and coordinate incoming sensory information. ii. One-month-olds can integrate touch and sight. iii. By 4 months, infants can integrate visual and auditory stimuli. iv. Eight-month-olds begin to coordinate visual and auditory information. v. Intermodal perception helps infants learn about their physical and social world.

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II. Section 2: Cognitive Development A. Theories and Assessments of Cognitive Development 1. Piaget’s Stage Theory of Cognitive Development LO 5.8 Describe the sensorimotor stage, and explain how object permanence develops over the course of the first year. a. The Sensorimotor Stage i. The sensorimotor stage occurs during the first 2 years of cognitive development. Children can successfully move through this stage when they are able to coordinate their senses with their motor activities; this would include moving from reflex behavior to intentional behavior. ii. Infants’ schemes for processing, organizing, and interpreting information are based on their motor and sensory activities. iii. Intentional behaviors allow infants to adapt to their behavior through assimilation and accommodation. iv. Assimilation is the cognitive process of altering new information to fit an existing scheme. Accommodation is the cognitive process of changing a scheme to adapt to new information. b. Object Permanence i. Object permanence is the awareness that objects (including people) continue to exist even when we are not in direct sensory or motor contact with them. ii. Infants less than 8 months old generally do not have an awareness of an object’s permanence. However, between 8 and 12 months of age, they begin to develop a rudimentary awareness of object permanence. iii. Infants’ object permanence was limited to the A not B error, which occurred when the simple task of hiding an object under a blanket was complicated by adding a second blanket and hiding the object under there. c. Motor Coordination and Object Permanence i. Critics argue that infants’ cognitive abilities may have been underestimated. Their inability to locate a missing object may have been due to a lack of motor coordination rather than cognitive immaturity. ii. Baillargeon and colleagues developed experiments to test infants’ development of object permanence using the “violation of expectations method.” When the researcher failed to meet the infants’ expectations for the location of an object, this demonstrated that they had an awareness of the object. iii. After much research, evidence suggests young infants perceive objects as permanent and whole. iv. The engagement of infants and adults in the universally played peek-a-boo game supports the belief that object permanence develops earlier than Piaget claimed.

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2. Information-Processing Approaches LO 5.9 Summarize information-processing approaches, and describe how attention and memory change during infancy. a. Information-processing approaches view cognitive change as a continuous, gradual process that is broken down into components, such as attention, processing, and memory. b. Information-Processing Concepts i. The computer served as the original model for informationprocessing approaches. ii. Current models suggest the brain is more complex than any computer due to the simultaneous nature of human thought. iii. Attention and memory have been the focus of traditional research of information-processing, while recent research is focused on executive function. c. Attention i. For information to be processed to any degree beyond sensory memory, one must pay attention to that stimulus information. ii. Attention research with infants has focused on habituation and dishabituation. iii. Habituation is the gradual decrease in attention to a stimulus after repeated presentations. Dishabituation occurs when the infant’s attention is recaptured with the introduction to a new stimulus after repeated presentations of an old stimulus became boring. iv. Habituation and dishabituation are measured by monitoring heart rate and sucking rate. Heart rate declines in the presence of a new stimulus and rises as habituation takes place. Sucking rates increase in the presence of a new stimulus and decrease with habituation. v. The time it takes for habituation to occur decreases as the age of an infant increases. Although there are individual differences in the rate of habituation, it tends to be stable over time. Infants who habituate quickly are later found to have good memory abilities and higher intelligence. vi. After 6 months of age, infants’ attention becomes more social.

That is, infants not only pay attention to sensations that are stimulating to them, but they also pay attention to the stimuli that seem of interest to significant others. This is referred to as joint attention, which is important for learning language and understanding emotional cues.

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d. Memory i. Infants’ short-term memory and long-term memory expands greatly during the first year of life. Short-term memory is the capacity to retain information for a brief time. ii. Improvement in the object permanence task is a reflection of short-term memory. iii. Researchers have shown that infants’ ability to hold and recall information from long-term memory is about a week for a 2month-old but about 3 weeks for a 6-month-old. However, recognition memory is triggered by prompts even with very young infants, even when there was no recall memory initially.

3. Assessing Infant Development LO 5.10 Outline the Bayley Scales of Infant Development (BSID-III), and explain how habituation assessments are used to predict later intelligence. a. The Bayley Scales i. The Bayley Scales of Infant Development (BSID-III) assess development from the age of 3 months to 3½ years, which measures infant development of mental abilities, use and understanding of language, and fine and gross motor skills. ii. The result is a developmental quotient (DQ) as an overall measure of infants’ developmental progress. iii. The Bayley scales do not predict later IQ or school performance well. iv. The Bayley scales have become a screening tool to catch serious developmental delays in infants. b. Information-Processing Approaches to Infant Assessment i. Information-processing approaches to infant assessment have primarily focused on habituation. ii. Longitudinal research supports the reliability and validity of this approach as infants who were quick to habituate, or short lookers, were later shown to be quick learners who succeeded academically, compared to long lookers, who did not habituate quickly. iii. This approach was also found to effectively assess developmental problems, and the Bayley III scales include a measure of habituation. iv. Media stimulation or watching educational media products such as Baby Einstein videos do not enhance infant cognition, v. Infants learn best from real-life experiences and interactions.

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B. The Beginnings of Language 1. First Sounds and Words LO 5.11 Describe the course of language development over the first year of life. a. Cooing, at 2 months, and babbling, at 4–6 months, are the first sounds an infant makes that will eventually develop into language. b. Babbling has been shown to be universal, and infants produce the same sounds initially but then lose sounds that are not relevant to the language they are learning. By 9 months of age, infants’ babbling becomes very distinctive to their own culture. c. Babbling may initiate turn-taking between infants and caregivers and may also suggest the infant is ready to have a conversation. d. Gestures, as a method of communication, generally begin at about 8 to 10 months of age. e. An infant’s first words are usually uttered just before 12 months of age and commonly include mama, dada, dog, car, milk, and bye-bye. f. Language production is very limited at this age, but language comprehension is much better. g. Infants’ ability to discriminate different sounds is apparent within their first few weeks of life and continues along the same developmental trajectory as babbling.

2. Infant-Directed (ID) Speech LO 5.12 Compare how cultures vary in their stimulation of language development. a. In developmental science, what you may think of as “baby talk” is referred to as infant-directed (ID) speech. That is when the pitch of the voice becomes higher, intonation is exaggerated, and grammar is simplified when speaking to an infant. b. ID speech is often used because infants like and respond to it due to the emotional tone of the speech. c. ID speech also provides clues that help infants learn language. d. Although ID speech is common in Western cultures, there is more variability in developing countries. In some cultures, caregivers do not make an effort to speak directly to infants. These infants learn language by listening to the words and phrases spoken in their presence by others. e. After a few years, there are no differences in language fluency between infants who heard ID speech and those who did not.

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III. Section 3: Emotional and Social Development A. Temperament 1. Temperament, the biological basis of personality, is defined as individual differences in activity level, irritability, soothability, emotional reactivity, and sociability. These tendencies are shaped by the infants’ behavior, personality development, and the environment.

2. Conceptualizing Temperament LO 5.13 Define infant temperament, and name its main dimensions. a. Thomas and Chess conceptualized temperament by classifying infants as easy, difficult, and slow-to-warm-up based on parental reports.

Their longitudinal study supported their initial approach but excluded 35% of the infants who did not fall into one of these classifications. b. Subsequent researchers chose temperamental traits, rather than narrowly defined categories to describe temperament. c. Rothbart and colleagues added aspects of emotionality, such as the ability to manage positive and negative emotions, or self-regulation.

3. Goodness-of-Fit LO 5.14 Explain how the idea of goodness-of-fit pertains to temperament on both a family level and a cultural level. a. Thomas and Chess proposed the concept of goodness-of-fit, explaining that children who develop best do so if there is a good fit between the temperament of the child and environmental demands. b. When there is a good fit, it can mean that children who are difficult or slow to warm up have better emotion regulation when they have understanding caregivers. Conversely, a “bad” fit can have negative outcomes for the child and the caregivers. c. Goodness of fit varies from culture to culture, given that different cultures have different views of the value of personality traits, such as activity level and emotional expressiveness.

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B. Infants’ Emotions 1. Primary Emotions LO 5.15 Identify the primary emotions, and describe how they develop during infancy. a. Primary emotions are basic emotions such as anger, sadness, fear, disgust, surprise, and happiness, which are evident within the first year of life. However, secondary emotions or sociomoral emotions, such as embarrassment, shame, and guilt, are learned emotions dictated by the social environment. i. Distress, interest, and pleasure are the first emotions to emerge in infancy. ii. Gradually, distress differentiates into anger, sadness, and fear; interest into surprise, and pleasure into happiness. iii. Anger, a response developed by 7 months of age, is more likely to be evident once an infant has developed intentional behaviors and his or her goal-directed behavior is thwarted. iv. Sadness is somewhat uncommon in infants but may express distress in response to a depressed mother’s sadness. v. At about 6 months of age, both fear and surprise are noted. vi. One fear that infants show is stranger anxiety in response to unfamiliar adults. vii. Surprise is generally produced when an event violates an infant’s schemes such as the presentation of a jack-in-the-box toy. viii. Evidence of happiness is seen after birth in response to certain kinds of sensory stimuli. But at 2 to 3 months of age, the social smile appears. A social smile occurs in response to a pleasant interaction with others. Laughter follows within the next month. ix. Social smiling is dependent on caregivers and is often culturally bound.

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2. Infants’ Emotional Perceptions LO 5.16 Describe infants’ emotional perceptions and how their emotions become increasingly social over the first year. a. Infants are aware of others’ emotions from the first days of life and become increasingly adept during the first year at perceiving and responding to others’ emotions. b. Emotional contagion, crying when an infant hears another infant crying, provides evidence of infants’ emotional perception when they are just days old. c. In the beginning, infants perceive emotions based on what they hear and later on what they see. d. By 2 to 3 months, an infant’s eyesight allows them to discriminate between happy, sad, and angry faces. e. Infants’ emotional perception has been researched using the habituation method, the still-face paradigm, and a method that employs visual and auditory stimuli. f. In the still-face paradigm, parents are asked to show no emotion to their infant, and the infant becomes disturbed by this behavior by 2 to 3 months of age. g. By 9 to 10 months of age, infants use an emotion perception technique called social referencing. That is, they observe the emotional responses of others when presented with stimuli that may be ambiguous and uncertain and use that information to shape their own emotional responses.

C. The Social World of the Infant 1. Understanding the influence of the infant’s social life is critical to understanding infant development.

2. Cultural Themes of Infant Social Life LO 5.17 List the main features of infants’ social worlds across cultures. a. Culture is very important to every aspect of infant development. b. From studying human evolutionary history and history of human societies, common themes of infant social life across cultures have emerged over time. i. Infants are with the mother almost constantly in the early months. ii. About halfway through the first year, infant care is delegated to an older girl, usually a sister, but other relatives may help as well. iii. Infants are part of a social circle made up of a variety of family members throughout the day. iv. Infants are held or carried most of the time. v. Fathers are usually remote or absent during the first year of infants’ lives.

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c. Infants’ social life in Western, developed countries departs from this pattern in many ways. For example, infants are usually exposed to only their nuclear family on a consistent basis, they sleep alone, they are not carried for most of the day, and paternal involvement is higher. d. Despite cultural differences, social development seems to hinge on infants having a strong, reliable bond with at least one primary caregiver with whom they interact.

3. The Foundation of Social Development: Two Theories LO 5.18 Compare and contrast the two major theories of infants’ social development. a. Erikson’s psychosocial theory of development and Bowlby’s theory of attachment are very influential. b. Erikson’s theory of trust versus mistrust notes a central crisis in which the infant needs to establish a stable attachment to a loving and nurturing caregiver, most often the mother, but it could be another caregiver. c. If the caregiver meets these needs, then basic trust of others develops; if not, then mistrust develops. Basic trust or mistrust can last well beyond infancy. d. Bowlby’s attachment theory focuses on the critical relationship between infant and primary caregiver. e. Bowlby believed that if the primary caregiver was both sensitive and responsive with the infant, the infant would learn to trust others in social relationships. Conversely, if the primary caregiver lacked these qualities, throughout development the infant would likely believe others are not reliable or trustworthy. f. According to Erikson and Bowlby, the major crisis or issue in infancy is the development of trust based on interactions with a reliable, sensitive, and responsive primary caregiver. g. Both theories stress the importance of the initial social relationships on later stages of social development. h. The development of trust facilitates healthy social development, but mistrust can be problematic in the long term. i. The theories differ in their origins, and Bowlby’s theory was a springboard for empirically based evaluations of toddlers and their caregivers.

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LECTURE LAUNCHERS, DISCUSSION IDEAS, AND ACTIVITIES Section 1 Lecture Launcher: Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS) and Sudden Unexpected (Unexplained) Infant Death (SUID) As recent as the early 1990s, the leading killer of infants was sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) and was the leading cause of death for infants between 1 and 12 months of age (McKenna, 1992).

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) uses the term Sudden Unexpected Infant Death (SUID) to describe any unexpected death among infants less than one year of age. This includes SIDS. In 2017, the CDC reported approximately 3,600 deaths due to SUID, with nearly 40% attributed to SIDS. According to CDC data, SIDS is now the third-highest cause of infant death in the United States, with a significant drop in deaths from SIDS due to increased awareness and education. Since the 1994 introduction of the BACK-to-Sleep campaign, the rate of SIDS has experienced drastic declines (CDC). In 2012, the campaign was rebranded the Safe to Sleep campaign. Education continues to emphasize back sleeping and warns of the factors contributing to accidental infant suffocation. The new campaign centers on how to create a safe sleep environment (Iannelli, 2018).

Sources: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Sudden unexpected infant death and sudden infant death syndrome. https://www.cdc.gov.

Iannelli, V. (2018, September 16). Back to sleep changes to safe to sleep: Reducing the risk of SIDS. https://www.verywellfamily.com.

McKenna, J. J. (Winter, 1992). SIDS research. Mothering, 45–51.

Section 1 Lecture Launcher: Infant Brain Growth When the human pelvis evolved thicker to adapt to walking in an upright position, the brain was also evolving and getting larger. Consequently, to pass through the birth canal, human infants must be born early in their brain development. Although they are born with all the neurons (brain cells) they will ever have—over 100 billion brain cells (Ornstein, Thompson, & Macaulay, 1984)—their brain is only about 25% of its adult weight. By 24 months, the brain is about 75% of adult weight, which explains why babies and toddlers are so top-heavy! All of this brain growth is not new cells; in fact, many neurons die off as the brain specializes for language, motor skills, and so on. What grow are the axons and dendrites that connect neurons and the myelin that coats the axons and speeds brain processing. As discussed in the textbook, the major portion of brain growth occurs outside the womb.

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At birth, the lower brain (brain stem, cerebellum, limbic system) is better developed than those parts of the brain allocated to thinking and reasoning (cerebrum). The lower brain helps the infant breathe, eat, and sleep and controls all vital organs. The development of the “thinking” brain requires more dendritic connections and myelin sheathing. This development requires a tremendous amount of sleep and nutrients. Is it any wonder infants sleep so much and eat so frequently? In addition, dendrite growth is stimulated as the infant is exposed to a rich environment of sights and sounds and is allowed to move around (Ornstein, Thompson, and Macaulay, 1984). Groundbreaking research in the 1960s (Rosenzweig et al., 1962) found that placing rats in an enriched environment with toys, ladders, wheels, and other stimulating items resulted in an increase in the volume of the cerebral cortex much more than in rats raised in a normal cage. Conversely, we know from studies that severe malnutrition can cause inadequate brain growth and intellectual disabilities (Ornstein, Thompson, & Macaulay, 1984).

Sources: Ornstein, R., Thompson, R. F., and Macaulay, D. (1984). The amazing brain. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

Rosenzweig, M. R., Krech, D., Bennett, E. L., and Diamond, M. C. (1962). Effects of environmental complexity and training on brain chemistry and anatomy: A replication and extension. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 55(4), 429–437.

Section 1 Activity: What Do Infants Like?

Have students review the information in the article titled “Infant development: What happens from birth to 3 months?” on the Mayo Clinic’s website at https://www.mayoclinic.org. Then, using the information on the website and in the textbook, have students roughly develop (either a brief descriptive paragraph or drawing with notations) a newborn’s toy, blanket, mobile, baby room, or crib decorations. They should use the known research about newborns to justify and strengthen their choices of applicable color, tone, texture, or recommended distance or placement.

Section 2 Lecture Launcher: Baby Media Most students have seen “baby media” commercials or advertisements claiming to make the perfect product designed to teach babies as young as 3 months to read and complete mathematical computations. Do these products actually work and can they teach infants to read?”

According to research published in a 2014 issue of the Journal of Educational Psychology, products such as DVDs, flashcards, and other media did not result in learned reading skills in babies. Given the research findings, ask students to consider why these types of products are still available and why so many parents continue to purchase baby media products.

Source: Barkhorn, E. (2014, February 26). Study: Babies can’t learn to read. Atlantic Magazine.

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Section 2 Activity: Learning Piaget’s Terms: Assimilation and Accommodation Students have a difficult time understanding Piaget’s terms assimilation and accommodation.

Define the concepts of assimilation, accommodation, and schemas. You might then show the Khan Academy video that illustrations these concepts visually. After students are clear about each concept, place students in groups and have them think of examples of assimilation and accommodation in an infant’s development. Then, give each group a copy of Handout 5.1 and have students make a list of examples of these concepts at work in their own adult lives. Have representatives from each group present the group’s examples to the whole class. You can list their examples on the board or project to the class using a document camera.

Section 2 Activity: Visit to a Toy Store In this activity, students will determine how toys for infants enhance sensory development.

Distribute Handout 5.2 and have students review the instructions. Then invite students to go a local toy store or toy department inside a larger retailer to do this activity. Ask students to bring their lists to class to share in a class discussion.

Section 3 Lecture Launcher: Should You Let a Baby Cry? Many developmentalists believe that the discomfort caused by listening to a baby cry is an adaptive response that assures that the helpless baby will get attention from an adult. However, even experts disagree on how quickly parents or caregivers should respond to a crying baby. For example, Ferberization is based on the views of Dr. Richard Ferber, who, in his book Solving Your Child’s Sleep Problems, advocates letting babies cry themselves to sleep. Attachment theory argues that babies cry for adaptive reasons and that letting them cry stunts their social and emotional development.

Section 3 Activity: Infant Day Care The National Institute on Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) collected data on characteristics of child care from 1991 to 1995. The Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development (SECCYCD) funding ended in 2009. The major goal of the study was to examine the impact of child care environments on the social, emotional, intellectual, and language development of children. The results reveal the following data on infant day care (Azar, 1997): • Children (ages 15 months to 36 months) in high-quality day care—care that provides a stimulating environment—do as well on cognitive and language tests as children who stay home with their mothers, regardless of how many hours a day they spend in such care.

• The higher quality the day care setting, the more affectionate and attentive mothers are to their children.

• The less time children spend in day care, the more affectionate and attentive mothers are to their children.

Have classroom groups list the same number of advantages as disadvantages of putting infants in day care centers. Choose one representative from each group to argue the “PRO” side, and one representative to argue the “CON” side. You may want to give your class several days to prepare their arguments. Following are several resources to help them.

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Sources: Azar, B. (1997, June). It may cause anxiety, but day care can benefit kids. APA Monitor, 28(6), 13.

Baydar, N., Brooks-Gunn, J., Vandell, D. L., and Ramanan, J. (1995). Does a mother’s job have a negative effect on children? In R. L. DelCampo and D. S. DelCampo (Eds.), Taking sides: Clashing views on controversial issues in childhood and society. Guilford, CT: Dushkin.

Clark-Stewart, K. A. (1989). Infant day care: Maligned or malignant? American Psychologist, 44(2), 266–273.

National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. Study of early child care and youth development. https://www.nichd.nih.gov.

Thompson, R. A. (1991). Infant day care: Concerns, controversies, choices. In J. V. Lerner and N. L. Galambos (Eds.), Employed mothers and their children. New York: Garland.

Wallis, C. (June 22, 1987). Is day care bad for babies? Time, 63.

CRITICAL THINKING ACTIVITY Confirmation Bias Provide Handout 5.3 to students. Although they are effective stimuli for class, small group, or online discussion, these exercises are best completed individually first. Share these additional resources with students: • Bornstein, B. H., and Emler, A. C. (2001, April). Rationality in medical decision-making: A review of the literature on doctors’ decision-making biases. Journal of Evaluation in Clinical Practice, 7(2), 97–107.

• Glick, M. (2017, March). Believing is seeing: Confirmation bias. Journal of the American Dental Association, 148(3), 131–132.

• You Are Not So Smart: A Celebration of Self-Delusion. https://youarenotsosmart.com.

On the site, search for confirmation bias.

• Skepdic. www.skepdic.com. On the site, search for confirmation bias.

Teething treatments: A correct answer will indicate that confirmation bias caused people to notice the instances in which treated infants did not become ill or survived an illness, thus confirming the belief in amulets or the use of leeches.

Black Borgly Disease vs. Stots Syndrome: This version of a classic exercise in Bayesian decision situations is based on the theory that part of the explanation for confirmation bias is that it is inherently difficult for humans to think about two hypotheses at once. Therefore, whichever hypothesis we start with, we tend to seek information only about it. This contributes to our failure to seek or note any information about a second hypothesis.

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The correct answer is b. “The percentage of infants with Black Borgly Disease who have raised purple bruises.” Most students will choose a. “The percentage of infants with Stots Syndrome who have black-fluid-filled blisters,” continuing to examine the first hypothesis suggested (Stots Syndrome), although this information contributes nothing further to the diagnosis Since this is a more subtle form of confirmation bias, students may need assistance to think it through.

Infant care beliefs: This exercise is usually self-explanatory. Students may choose something they just learned in the textbook rather than a belief they have previously held.

SUPPLEMENTAL READINGS Axia, G., and Bonichini, S. (2005). Are babies sensitive to the context of acute pain episodes?

Infant distress and maternal soothing during immunization routines at 3 and 5 months of age. Infant & Child Development,14, 51–62.

Baillargeon, R. (October, 1994). How do infants learn about the physical world? Current Directions in Psychological Science, 133–140.

Berko-Gleason, J. (Ed.). (1993). The development of language. New York: Macmillan.

Bower, T. G. R. (1989). The rational infant: Learning in infancy. New York: W. H. Freeman and Company.

Brazelton, T. B., and Nugent, J. K. (2011). Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale (4th ed.).

Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

Chick, K. A., Heilman-Houser, R. A., and Hunter, M. W. (2002). The impact of child care on gender development and gender stereotypes. Early Childhood Education Journal, 29, 149–154.

Conditions Affecting Neurocognitive Development and Learning in Early Childhood (CANDLE Study). https://candlestudy.uthsc.edu.

Eisenberg, A., Murkoff, H. E., and Hathaway, S. E. (2008). What to expect in the first year (2nd ed.). New York: Workman.

Ferber, R. (2006). Solve your child’s sleep problems. New York: Touchstone.

Flavell, J. H., Miller, P. H., and Miller, S. A. (2002). Cognitive development (4th ed.).

Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Fogel, A. (2014). Infancy: Infant, family and society (6th ed.). New York: Sloan Publishing.

Hock, R. R. (1999). Out of sight, but not out of mind. In Forty studies that changed psychology: Explorations into the history of psychological research (3rd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. A subsection of Chapter 5, “Human Development,” in Hock’s excellent book, this resource is a good distillation of Piaget’s research and writing on object permanence. It includes actual citations of his observations of his children Laurent, Lucienne, and Jacqueline during their sensorimotor stage. Hock also discusses some of the criticisms of Piaget’s work.

Jacobs, S. H. (1992). Your baby’s mind. Holbrook, MA: Bob Adams. A book that features learning games based on Piaget’s six substages of sociomotor development.

Kolb, B. (1989). Brain development, plasticity, and behavior. American Psychologist, 44(9), 1203–1212.

Roberts, P. (1996, May/June). Fathers’ time. Psychology Today, 49–55, 81.

Shell, E. R. (1988, August). Babes in day care. Atlantic Monthly, 262(2), 73–74.

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Shin, E. K., LeWinn, K., Bush, N., Tylavsky, F. A., Davis R. L., and Shaban-Nejad, A. Association of Maternal Social Relationships with Cognitive Development in Early Childhood. JAMA Network Open. https://jamanetwork.com.

Singh, M. (2015, June 12). What babies understand about adult sadness. https://www.npr.org.

Stern, D. (1985). The interpersonal world of the infant. New York: Basic Books. This is perhaps the best book on the emotional and interpersonal world of the very young.

Tronick, E. Z. (1989). Emotions and emotional communication in infants. American Psychologist, 44(2), 112–119.

University of Edinburgh. (2018, August 1). Baby talk words build infants’ language skills: The more baby talk words that infants are exposed to, the quicker they grasp language.

ScienceDaily. www.sciencedaily.com.

Wiessinger, D., West, D., and Pitman, T. (2010). The womanly art of breast-feeding (8th ed.).

New York: Ballantine Books.

REVEL VIDEOS Chapter Introduction: Infancy Cosleeping Milestones of Gross Motor Development in Infancy Cultural Focus: Object Permanence Across Cultures Media Use in Infancy Language Development: Infant-Directed Speech Infant-Directed Speech Research Focus: Measuring Temperament Apply Your Knowledge as a Professional: Pediatric Nurse

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Handout 5.1: Assimilation and Accommodation What is assimilation?

What is accommodation?

Describe two examples of assimilation in infants.

Describe two examples of accommodation in infants.

Created by: Regina Hughes, Collin College. No third-party material included.

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Handout 5.2: Infant Toy Comparison Activity Select four toys intended for infant use. Be sure to choose toys for a variety of age ranges. Look at the toy features and inspect any specific design safety features. Describe how the toy design works to stimulate infant sensory development. In addition to the four toys, identify at least two toys that you consider to be of poor design, and describe the specific design features that make each toy a poor choice for infants.

Toy #1 Provide a brief description of the toy: Recommended age range, as noted on package: Toy rating (1 = poor, 2 = fair, 3 = average, 4 = good, 5 = excellent). Explain your rating and provide specific reasons for your rating.

Durability (1–5):

Safety features (1–5):

Aesthetic appeal (1–5):

This toy is designed to stimulate what aspect of infant sensory development?

Toy #2 Provide a brief description of the toy: Recommended age range, as noted on package: Toy rating (1 = poor, 2 = fair, 3 = average, 4 = good, 5 = excellent). Explain your rating and provide specific reasons for your rating.

Durability (1–5):

Safety features (1–5):

Aesthetic appeal (1–5): This toy is designed to stimulate what aspect of infant sensory development?

Created by: Regina Hughes, Collin College. No third-party material included.

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Handout 5.2: Infant Toy Comparison Activity (page 2) Toy #3 Provide a brief description of the toy: Recommended age range, as noted on package: Toy rating (1 = poor, 2 = fair, 3 = average, 4 = good, 5 = excellent). Explain your rating and provide specific reasons for your rating.

Durability (1–5):

Safety features (1–5):

Aesthetic appeal (1–5):

This toy is designed to stimulate what aspect of infant sensory development?

Toy #4 Provide a brief description of the toy: Recommended age range, as noted on package: Toy rating (1 = poor, 2 = fair, 3 = average, 4 = good, 5 = excellent). Explain your rating and provide specific reasons for your rating.

Durability (1–5):

Safety features (1–5):

Aesthetic appeal (1–5):

This toy is designed to stimulate what aspect of infant sensory development?

Created by: Regina Hughes, Collin College. No third-party material included.

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Handout 5.2: Infant Toy Comparison Activity (page 3) Poor Toy Design #1 Provide a brief description of the toy: Recommended age range, as noted on package: Toy rating (1 = poor, 2 = fair, 3 = average, 4 = good, 5 = excellent). Explain your rating and provide specific reasons for your rating.

Durability (1–5):

Safety features (1–5):

Aesthetic appeal (1–5):

What specific design flaws do you see, and why do you rate this toy poorly?

Poor Toy Design #2 Provide a brief description of the toy: Recommended age range, as noted on package: Toy rating (1 = poor, 2 = fair, 3 = average, 4 = good, 5 = excellent). Explain your rating and provide specific reasons for your rating.

Durability (1–5):

Safety features (1–5):

Aesthetic appeal (1–5):

What specific design flaws do you see, and why do you rate this toy poorly?

Created by: Regina Hughes, Collin College. No third-party material included.

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Handout 5.3: Confirmation Bias Recalling their discussion of infancy, the textbook authors recount a period in history in which people believed that teething caused illness and death in infants and did not recognize that fever and diarrhea were symptoms of deadly diseases, such as malaria, cholera, or typhus. This illustrates a classic case of mistaking correlation for causation. It is also a good example of what psychologists and researchers refer to as confirmation bias.

Confirmation bias may explain why erroneous beliefs, bad ideas, and ineffective or dangerous behaviors stick around so long. It has also been proposed by experts in critical thinking that confirmation bias may be the leading cause of conflict between people and nations. To confirm something is to support its correctness with evidence. Confirmation bias refers to our strong tendency to look for, see, remember, or accept information that supports what we already think.

Confirmation bias in the medical field can occur when doctors selectively point to evidence that supports what they expect to find.

Confirmation bias slows down progress, too. In medicine, many practices that were ineffective or even harmful continued for centuries because of confirmation bias. Was it coincidental that, unless the treatment killed the patient, some people would indeed show improvement and ultimately survive the disease? Which cases do you think people noticed?

In medieval Europe when people believed teething was a cause of illness and death in infancy, they developed all sorts of remedies, from protective amulets to bleeding their infant’s gums with leeches. How did confirmation bias encourage the continued use of these (ineffective) “remedies”?

1. Jade, age 7 months, appears to be very ill. She has strange raised purple bruises and black, fluid-filled blisters on her skin. Both are symptoms of Stots Syndrome and Black Borgly Disease. Our dilemma is to decide which disorder she has while keeping in mind that our decision will mean life or death for baby Jade.

We know the percentage of infants with Stots Syndrome who have raised purple bruises.

Which of the following pieces of information will be of most help to us in making the correct diagnosis? a. The percentage of infants with Stots Syndrome who have black, fluid-filled blisters b. The percentage of infants with Black Borgly Disease who have raised purple bruises 2. Explain your choice of a or b. Might your reasoning have been influenced by confirmation bias? If so, in what way did confirmation bias play a role?

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Handout 5.3: Confirmation Bias Examine a belief you have held for a long time about infants or infant care. Examples: Does picking up an infant when it cries result in a dependent, finicky, or spoiled child? Does a mother’s negative mental state while pregnant result in a child having emotional challenges? Can a fetus hear music in the womb that then affects them after birth? Does what the mother eats impact how an infant will experience the taste of food?

In doing the following exercise, do not look up any information; rely only on your memory of experiences, examples, and information that come easily to mind.

1. Write a defense of your belief about infants or infant care using information that comes to mind that supports it.

2. Write a counterpoint to your belief about infants or infant care using information that comes to mind.

3. Did contradictory examples readily come to mind, or was it challenging to think of them?

4. Have you ever intentionally sought out examples or information that contradicted your initial belief?

5. Now that you have been directed to think about your belief, can you remember having been exposed to information that did not support your belief? How did you handle that information? Did you ignore, forget, or undermine it in some way?

Created by: Regina Hughes, Collin College. No third-party material included.

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CHAPTER 6: TODDLERHOOD CONTENTS LEARNING OBJECTIVES............................................................................................................ 1 LECTURE OUTLINE .................................................................................................................... 2 LECTURE LAUNCHERS, DISCUSSION IDEAS, AND ACTIVITIES.................................... 15 CRITICAL THINKING ACTIVITY ............................................................................................ 19 SUPPLEMENTAL READINGS .................................................................................................. 20 REVEL VIDEOS .......................................................................................................................... 20 HANDOUT ................................................................................................................................... 21 LEARNING OBJECTIVES Section 1 6.1 Describe the changes in physical growth that take place in toddlerhood, and explain the harmful effects of nutritional deficiencies on growth.

6.2 Summarize the changes in brain development that take place during toddlerhood, and identify the two most common methods of measuring brain activity.

6.3 Specify the advances in motor development that take place during toddlerhood.

6.4 Distinguish the weaning process early in infancy from weaning later in toddlerhood.

6.5 Describe the changes in sleeping patterns and sleeping arrangements that take place during toddlerhood.

Section 2 6.6 Outline the cognitive achievements of toddlerhood in Piaget’s theory.

6.7 Explain Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory of cognitive development, and contrast it with Piaget’s theory.

6.8 Summarize the evidence for the biological and evolutionary bases of language.

6.9 Specify the milestones in language development that are reached during the toddler years.

6.10 Identify how parents’ stimulation of toddlers’ language varies across cultures, and evaluate how these variations relate to language development.

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Section 3 6.11 Summarize how emotional development advances during toddlerhood, and identify the impact of culture on these changes.

6.12 Describe the changes in self-development that take place during toddlerhood.

6.13 Distinguish between sex and gender, and summarize the evidence for the biological basis of gender development.

6.14 Specify the essential features of attachment theory, and differentiate the four classifications of attachment.

6.15 Identify the key factors influencing the quality of toddlers’ attachment to their mothers, and explain what effect attachment quality has on development.

6.16 Compare traditional cultures and developed countries on the typical patterns of father involvement with infants and toddlers.

6.17 Describe relationships with siblings, peers, and friends during toddlerhood.

6.18 Specify the characteristics of autism spectrum disorder and how it affects prospects for children as they grow to adulthood.

6.19 Review the typical rates of television use in toddlerhood, and explain some consequences of toddlers’ TV watching.

LECTURE OUTLINE I. Section 1: Physical Development A. Growth and Change in Years 2 and 3 1. Bodily Growth LO 6.1 Describe the typical changes in physical growth that take place in toddlerhood, and explain the harmful effects of nutritional deficiencies on growth. a. Toddlers’ physical growth continues at a swift and steady pace but one that is slightly reduced from infancy. b. Children start to lose their baby fat because they are better able to regulate their temperature. c. The head is one-fifth of a 2-year-old’s height compared with oneeighth of an adult’s body. d. Toddlers in developing countries often suffer protein and micronutrient deficiencies that impede their growth. i. By the first birthday, the height and weight of average children in developing countries are similar to the bottom 5% of children in developed countries. ii. Protein deficiencies in children can lead to kwashiorkor disease, with symptoms that include lethargy, irritability, thinning hair, and swollen body and that may lead to death. iii. Micronutrients such as iodine, iron, zinc, and certain vitamins are essential to the cognitive development of a growing toddler. iv. One-third of the world’s population has a diet deficient in iodine; approximately 7% of toddlers in the United States are iron deficient.

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2. Brain Development LO 6.2 Summarize the changes in brain development that take place during toddlerhood, and identify the two most common methods of measuring brain activity. a. The brain’s synaptic density—how many connections there are between neurons—sharply increases and then peaks at the end of toddlerhood, around age 3; at age 2 toddlers already have about 100 trillion connections. b. After toddlerhood, there are many years of synaptic pruning, where the brain gets rid of inefficient connections—about one-third of synapses—from early childhood to adolescence. c. The two most common methods of measuring brain activity are the EEG (electroencephalogram) and the fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging).

3. Motor Development LO 6.3 Specify the advances in motor development that take place during toddlerhood. a. Gross Motor Development: From Toddling to Running, Jumping, and Climbing i. Learning to walk without support and steadily is a major achievement in early toddlerhood. Walking begins about 11 months, with a normal range from 9 to 17 months. ii. Although the age range varies, generally toddlers learn to stand on one leg and to climb up around 15 months, run by 18 months, and kick a ball and climb down by 24 months. iii. Through the third year, they are refining their newly acquired skills as their flexibility and balance improves, but due to their increased mobility, they are prone to falls and stumbles. b. Fine Motor Development: From Scribbling to Building with Blocks i. At a year old, toddlers begin to show a preference for handedness. ii. Advances in fine motor development include holding an object in one hand and doing something to it with the other hand, scribbling, building a tower of blocks, and turning pages and the improvement of those skills. iii. In their third year, toddlers are refining their newly acquired skills and may be able to brush their teeth, with some assistance.

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B. Socializing Physical Functions: Weaning and Sleeping 1. Weaning LO 6.4 Distinguish the weaning process early in infancy from weaning later in toddlerhood. a. Breast-feeding is typical for 2 to 3 years worldwide. Weaning, or the cessation of breast-feeding, can be challenging the older the child is when it occurs. b. Weaning tends to take place fairly smoothly if breast-feeding is shortlasting and bottle-feeding is introduced gradually. c. When weaning takes place in the second or third year of life, toddlers often resist because they are more socially aware and intentional in their behavior. d. Customs in traditional cultures for promoting weaning include sending the toddler to a relative’s household for a while or coating the mother’s breast with an unpleasant substance.

2. Sleeping LO 6.5 Describe the changes in sleeping patterns and sleeping arrangements that take place during toddlerhood. a. Sleeping declines from the daily 16 to 18 hours to 15 hours on average by the end of the first year and 12 to 13 hours by the end of the second year. b. Toddlers tend to nap only once per day compared to two or more naps for infants. c. One study in Australia, England, and Israel found that toddlers experience an increase in episodes of waking in the night. d. Waking at night may increase due to the emergence of molars and the likelihood of toddlers sleeping in a bed separate from their parents. e. Toddlers sleeping alone is a rare occurrence for those in traditional cultures.

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II. Section 2: Cognitive Development A. Theories of Cognitive Development 1. Piaget’s Theory: The Completion of the Sensorimotor Stage LO 6.6 Outline the cognitive achievements of toddlerhood in Piaget’s theory. a. Piaget proposed that the first 2 years of life constitute the sensorimotor stage, a time in which actions are more purposeful and voluntary and behavior involves a world of cognitive possibilities. b. Mental Representations i. Developing at about 18 to 24 months, mental representations are propelled by the curiosity of toddlers. ii. Toddlers begin to think through their possible actions before acting. iii. Mental representation is a crucial milestone, as it is the basis for cognitive abilities, including language. c. Deferred Imitation i. Piaget thought that the ability to repeat actions seen previously, called deferred imitation, begins around 18 months. However, it is seen as early as 6 weeks of age for very simple tasks. Deferred imitation of more complex tasks is seen in nearly all toddlers by the time they are 20 months old. ii. This ability is impacted by the development of the hippocampus, which is still very immature. d. Categorization i. According to Piaget, the ability to make mental representations is the precursor for being able to mentally sort stimuli into categories by recognizing their similar or dissimilar characteristics. ii. Piaget believed that categorization began in toddlerhood, but recent research has shown that it begins at a basic level very early in life, even at just a few months old, and becomes more sophisticated as the brain matures and language skills develop. iii. Toddlers begin to categorize objects based on the objects’ functions and qualities.

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2. Vygotsky’s Cultural Theory of Cognitive Development LO 6.7 Explain Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory of cognitive development, and contrast it with Piaget’s theory. a. Vygotsky emphasized the sociocultural basis of cognitive development in childhood. He proposed concepts, such as scaffolding and the zone of proximal development, to describe how children learn cultural knowledge from others through the process of social interactions. b. The Zone of Proximal Development i. The zone of proximal development is a range of skills or tasks that children are capable of performing only if guided by a more knowledgeable person. ii. Children begin guiding themselves by talking aloud and then internally. This is called private speech. iii. Scaffolding refers to the degree of assistance provided to children in the zone of proximal development. c. Guided Participation i. Barbara Rogoff extended Vygotsky’s work on scaffolding with her idea of guided participation. ii. Guided participation is a type of teaching interaction between two people (usually a child and adult) to facilitate learning culturally valued activities.

B. Language Development 1. The most rapid and important advances in language development occur during childhood.

2. The Biological and Evolutionary Bases of Language LO 6.8 Summarize the evidence for the biological and evolutionary bases of language. a. Humans differ from other primates in their ability to produce language because they are able to take the word symbols of a language and combine them in a virtually infinite number of new ways. This is known as infinite generativity. b. In humans, the vocal apparatus includes the larynx, which is lower in the throat than it is in other primates, making spoken language possible for us. c. Humans also have areas in the brain specifically devoted to language functions. i. Broca’s area, in the left frontal lobe, is specialized for language production. ii. Wernicke’s area, in the left temporal lobe, is specialized for language comprehension. d. So-called language genes have recently been identified and further support the idea that language is deeply entrenched in human development. e. Humans’ ability to produce language evolved over time because it provided them with an evolutionary advantage for survival through social functioning.

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f. According to linguist Noam Chomsky, children are born with a language acquisition device (LAD), which is an innate feature of the brain that enables children to perceive and grasp quickly the grammatical rules in the language around them.

3. Milestones of Toddler Language: From First Words to Fluency LO 6.9 Specify the milestones in language development that are reached during the toddler years. a. Twelve Months to 18 Months: Slow Expansion i. The average American toddler who is 12 to 18 months old learns to speak one to three new words a week, reaching 10 words by 15 months old and 50 words by about 18 months old. ii. There is much variability around these averages. iii. Generally, they speak a single or partial word at a time to communicate their needs or wants. iv. When toddlers use single words with their own multiple meanings, those words are called holophrases. v. Toddlers often use overextension whereby a single word will represent a variety of related objects. vi. Likewise, toddlers use underextension to apply a general word to a specific object. vii. Production lags behind comprehension, but comprehension is the better predictor of later verbal intelligence. b. Eighteen Months to 24 months: The Naming Explosion i. The hallmark of this period is the rapid rate at which toddlers learn and remember new words, even after being told the word only one time. This is called fast mapping. ii. Girls have an advantage in language development. iii. By 24 months, most speak about 200 words and combine some words in telegraphic speech. iv. Toddlers use syntactic bootstrapping when using their understanding of syntax to figure out the meaning of new words and unfamiliar verbs. v. Although language comprehension continues to advance during this time, verbal production is most impressive. c. Twenty-Four Months to 36 Months: Becoming Adept at Language i. By the third birthday, their language skills become more sophisticated. They use prepositions, complex categories, and full sentences rather than just two- or three-word phrases. ii. They show an understanding of the rules of their language. iii. Even some of their errors show that they are attempting to use correct grammar when they engage in overregularization, which means applying grammatical rules even to words that are an exception to the rule.

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4. Learning Language in a Social and Cultural Context LO 6.10 Identify how parents’ stimulation of toddlers’ language varies across cultures, and evaluate how these variations relate to language development. a. Humans have the ability to learn language, but it is a product of our social and cultural environment. b. There are approximately 7,000 different human languages in the world. c. Research focus has been on how to foster language development, such as reading and explaining words to toddlers as many do in the majority culture. d. The higher the social class of the parents, the more likely they are to read to their toddlers. Research shows that about twice as many words are spoken by toddlers from high-income families compared to toddlers from low-income families. e. Researchers have found that parents’ stimulation of language (i.e., reading and directly speaking) with their toddlers is positively correlated with achieving language milestones and doing so earlier.

However, genes that influence verbal abilities confound the results. f. Infant-directed (ID) speech is beneficial to toddlers with small vocabularies.

III. Section 3: Emotional and Social Development A. Emotional Development in Toddlerhood 1. Toddlers’ Emotions LO 6.11 Summarize how emotional development advances during toddlerhood, and identify the impact of culture on these changes. a. Emotional Self-regulation i. Researchers have found that self-regulation of emotions advances in four ways during toddlerhood. a. Toddlers develop coping behaviors. b. They use language to convey their emotions and talk about their feelings. c. External requirements are imposed on them beginning in toddlerhood, but they vary by culture. d. Sociomoral emotions promote emotion regulation because the children desire approval. ii. Toddlers in Western cultures have occasional temper tantrums, perhaps because they have a more developed sense of intentionality than infants do and so are more likely to protest when thwarted and in part because parents expect it. However, tantrums are rare outside the West, where cultures place less emphasis on self-expression.

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b. Learning the Sociomoral Emotions i. Sociomoral emotions are the secondary emotions that develop based on the society’s cultural standards of right and wrong. They consist of guilt, shame, embarrassment, envy, and pride. ii. Toddlers who experience these emotions have begun to learn the moral standards of their culture. iii. The development of sociomoral emotions is consistent with the development of a conscience, an internalized set of moral standards that guides behavior and emotions. iv. Empathy, or the ability to understand and respond helpfully to another person’s distress, is an important sociomoral emotion.

Empathy develops along with self-awareness. v. It is during this stage of development that prosocial behavior begins to emerge. They begin to engage in behaviors that are intended to help or benefit others. vi. Because children’s secondary emotions are learned, culture differences emerge strongly in this area, particularly for shame and pride.

2. The Birth of the Self LO 6.12 Describe the changes in self-development that take place during toddlerhood. a. The birth of the self in toddlerhood is indicated in the development of self-recognition and self-reflection. b. Self-recognition is the ability to recognize one’s image in the mirror as one’s self. It was tested with the red spot experiment or rouge test; only children who were about 18 months old recognized themselves in the mirror and tried to rub off the red spot. This has been a universal finding, although the age varies somewhat depending on the sociocultural context. c. Once children begin to use personal pronouns and use their own names, then they can think about themselves (self-reflection) and subsequently develop social emotions. d. Near the end of toddlerhood, as children become more self-aware, they begin to develop the capacity to think about other people’s expectations for how to behave and learn to feel negative emotions for something they have done that would be defined as bad or wrong.

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3. Gender Identity and the Biology of Gender Development LO 6.13 Distinguish between sex and gender, and summarize the evidence for the biological basis of gender development. a. Gender identity develops between 18 and 30 months, as children begin to identify themselves and others as male or female and apply gender terms. b. Sex is the biological status of being male or female, whereas gender refers to the cultural categories of “male” and “female.” c. In all cultures, parents deliver gender socialization in toddlerhood through the toys they provide, the way they dress their toddlers, and how they treat them. d. Gender expectations are communicated by the culture and genderappropriate behaviors that are reinforced. e. Gender and Biology i. There are three elements to the biological basis of gender development: evolutionary, ethological, and hormonal.

In the evolutionary view, males survived when they were aggressive, competitive, and dominant, and females survived by being nurturing, cooperative, and emotionally responsive to others. ii. Ethology is the study of animal behavior and provides evidence of the biological basis of human gender development. iii. Hormonal evidence shows that males and females differ in their hormonal balances and the timing of hormone exposure in the womb. f. The Limits of Biology i. Not all aspects of gender development can be explained by biology. ii. Gender roles have changed significantly over the last 100 years in many countries, but our biology has not. iii. Gender differences may distort judgments as to what qualities or abilities individuals are capable of achieving.

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B. Attachment Theory and Research 1. Attachment Theory LO 6.14 Specify the essential features of attachment theory, and differentiate the four classifications of attachment. a. Bowlby’s Theory i. The prevalent view through the 20th century is that infants attach to their mothers because mothers provide food and thus are associated with the experience of pleasure and stress relief. ii. John Bowlby found these three findings about attachment notable: a. Despite being fed, institutionalized infants developed what Réné Spitz referred to as anaclitic depression. b. Based on Harry Harlow’s research, baby monkeys separated from their mothers and raised in cages prefer an artificial mother covered in soft material as opposed to the artificial mother that provided nourishment. c. According to Konrad Lorenz, newborn goslings bond or imprint to the first moving object they see after hatching, a bond based on protection rather than nourishment. iii. Given these findings, Bowlby concluded that emotional ties between children and mothers are based on a need for protection and care. The primary attachment figure is the person that the child seeks when under distress due to pain, hunger, or unfamiliar environmental factors. iv. The role of the primary attachment figure is to serve as a secure base. v. Bowlby posited that attachment develops gradually over the first 2 years of life. vi. Residential institutions that provide total care for orphaned, abandoned, or separated children are referred to as child welfare institutions. b. Varieties of Attachment: The Strange Situation i. Ainsworth developed the Strange Situation to assess attachment quality in which mother–child pairs and an unfamiliar stranger go through a series of introductions, separations, and reunions. ii. Ainsworth concluded that the toddler behaviors she observed showed three distinct types of attachment: secure, insecure– avoidant, and insecure–resistant; later, researchers found evidence for a rare fourth classification, disorganized–disoriented.

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2. Quality of Attachment LO 6.15 Identify the key factors influencing the quality of toddlers’ attachment to their mothers, and explain what effect attachment quality has on development. a. Determinants of Attachment Quality i. The toddler forms an internal working model of attachment depending on the mother’s sensitivity and responsiveness based on her availability and supportiveness. ii. Most children who had a high-quality, secure attachment were positively correlated with mothers who were predictable, sensitive, and responsive; only about a third of children had an insecure attachment, perhaps resulting from an unpredictable mother.

Another potential factor that could negatively impact attachment is long periods of separation from the primary figure early in life. b. Attachment Quality and Later Development i. Bowlby claimed that securely attached children are able to love and trust others throughout life and insecurely attached children engage in dysfunctional behaviors in later life. ii. Attachment quality as assessed in toddlerhood and in some studies during childhood and adolescence does not consistently predict later outcomes, except for the unusual disorganized–disoriented attachment type, which is not correlated with parenting style but positively correlated with psychopathology and behavioral problems. c. Critiques of Attachment Theory i. Attachment theory has been criticized for the so-called “child effect” because it does not acknowledge temperament sufficiently and it overlooks bidirectional effects of the mother-child relationship, particularly the influence the child has on the parent. ii. There was also a cultural criticism of Bowlby’s theory. iii. Universally, toddlers appear to become attached to those who care for them most, but there are important cultural variations in patterns and norms of attachment. iv. Most toddlers around the world are securely attached. v. Although rare, toddlers who are insecurely attached show cultural differences in parenting styles. Individualistic cultures who value independence have more insecure–avoidant toddlers, while collectivistic cultures have more insecure–resistant toddlers.

However, this label may not be valid in those cultures because of the methodology. vi. Toddlers with secure attachment tend to mature into children who are self-reliant and socially assertive and have high self-esteem, although these traits are not viewed positively in all cultures.

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C. The Social World of the Toddler 1. The Role of Fathers LO 6.16 Compare traditional cultures and developed countries on the typical patterns of father involvement with infants and toddlers. a. A mother’s biological characteristics make her well suited to care for her young. b. Culturally based gender roles also promote mothers as the primary caregivers. c. Fathers in Traditional Cultures i. Fathers in traditional cultures usually serve as family providers and are remote from toddlers’ emotional lives, although there are exceptions. ii. In cultures that practice polygyny, the father may live separately from his wives and children or rotate between them. d. Fathers in Developed Countries i. Across cultures, fathers tend to provide less physical and emotional care than mothers, but this is changing as gender roles and work responsibilities change. ii. In Western cultures, fathers are now actively encouraged to participate in child rearing.

2. The Wider Social World: Siblings, Peers, and Friends LO 6.17 Describe relationships with siblings, peers, and friends during toddlerhood. a. Siblings: Younger and Older i. Toddlers do form attachments to their siblings, but these are secondary attachments. ii. Across cultures, toddlers often react negatively to the birth of a younger sibling with more crying and sometimes regression in self-care activities. iii. Their attachment style may shift from secure to insecure. iv. When toddlers themselves are the younger siblings, their older siblings enjoy playing with them more than when they were infants. v. Conflict tends to rise as toddlers become more capable of asserting their own desires. b. Peers and . . . Friends? i. With friends, toddler play takes a variety of forms, including solitary play, parallel play, simple social play, and cooperative pretend play. ii. Toddlers’ friendships often have qualities similar to friendships at older ages, including companionship, mutual affection, and emotional closeness.

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3. Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Disruption in Social Development LO 6.18 Specify the characteristics of autism spectrum disorder and recognize how it affects prospects for children as they grow to adulthood. a. Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a range of developmental disorders marked by a lack of interest in social relations, abnormal language development, and repetitive behavior. It first appears in early childhood. b. In the United States, rates of autism spectrum disorder are about 1 in 68 children, and this is consistent across many countries. c. The social and language deficits of ASD make social development problematic in childhood and beyond. d. Children with ASD usually grow up and continue to live with family members, but some live in group homes. e. The cause of ASD is unknown, and there is no known cure and few treatments for severe ASD, but many people are able to learn daily living skills.

4. Media Use in Toddlerhood LO 6.19 Review the typical rates of television use in toddlerhood, and explain some consequences of toddlers’ TV watching. a. Toddlers in many developed countries watch TV every day (73% in the United States), many have a TV in their bedrooms, and 43% of toddlers use some type of digital device such as a tablet or smart phone. b. As children age, they learn that the images on TV are not real. c. Media content can influence positive and negative behavior. d. Research on cognitive development and TV watching has been mixed. e. There are concerns about toddlers’ watching too much TV to the detriment of other activities, such as playing, talking, and gross motor activities. This is called the displacement effect and is especially problematic for children under 2 years old.

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LECTURE LAUNCHERS, DISCUSSION IDEAS, AND ACTIVITIES Section 1 Lecture Launcher: Malnutrition, Poverty, and Intellectual Development Whereas poverty and malnutrition are pervasive in developing countries, it is surprising how many infants’ diets are significantly inadequate in the United States. According to Brown and Pollitt (1996), it is estimated that more than 12 million American children suffer the effects of inadequate diets. Although experts have known for a long time that inadequate protein and vitamins affect intellectual development, newer research shows that adequate nutrition alone cannot fully compensate for the lack of cognitive development. The following summarizes these effects: Old Theory: From conception to age 2, the brain grows to 80% of its adult size. Malnutrition during this crucial period can interfere with neural growth and result in severe and long-lasting damage.

New Theory: Malnutrition disrupts normal cognitive development in multiple and interacting ways: Malnourished children suffer from more illnesses and become more lethargic and withdrawn and thus are less apt to explore their environment. Consequently, their physical development is stunted when motor development is delayed; this leads to lowered expectations from adults, which further slows intellectual development. Finally, when poverty accompanies malnutrition, the lack of education and resources further exacerbates children’s delayed intellectual development. Thus, according to Brown and Pollitt, intervention needs to be addressed on multiple levels: improved nutrition, education, job programs, and early childhood medical care.

Source: Brown, J. L., and Pollitt, E. (1996, February). Malnutrition, poverty, and intellectual development. Scientific American, 38–43.

Section 1 Activity: Observing Motor Development Have students choose a place where they can observe many toddlers (a playground, park, shopping mall, children’s gym, etc.). Before visiting the site to observe, have students develop a list of gross motor skills they expect to see in a toddler and even in preschoolers. Then, just before performing the observations, students should approach caregivers and inform the caregivers that they are observing behavior in association with a class project. Students should focus on one child at a time and note what motor skills each exhibits. Using this checklist, they should mark each skill the child has achieved or whether the skill was not observed. Based on this list of skills, students should estimate each child’s age. When possible, students might approach the caregiver and find out a child’s actual age. What motor skills are they able to observe? How accurately can they ascertain ages based on these skills? The observation should last about 30–40 minutes. Ideally, students should observe 3–4 children for about 10 minutes each. Both sexes should be represented in the observation if possible. Ask students to bring their findings in class. Than have them break into groups of 3 to 5, compare and contrast their results, select a spokesperson for the group, and invite each group to report to the class. Ask anyone whether they noted a motor skill that appeared to be underdeveloped or advanced for the child’s age.

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Section 1 Lecture Launcher: Variations in Toilet Training The American Academy of Pediatrics advocates waiting until a toddler shows readiness to begin toilet training (Stadtler, Gorski, and Brazelton, 1999). Furthermore, they note that most toddlers show readiness between 18 and 30 months of age. However, there is some concern about waiting until after the child is 18 months of age to begin training (Bakker et al., 2002) based on medical research. It is important to note that the findings of Bakker et al. were based on retrospective data with parents using a retrospective questionnaire. The sample was divided into controls (those children with no reported bladder- and/or fecal-control problems, and/or UTIs) and the symptom group (who did have one or more of those problems). The sample ranged in age from 10–14 years of age and had significantly more female than male children as participants.

Review the research comparing children who began toilet training before 18 months of age and those who began toilet training later than 18 months of age. According to the article by Stadtler et al. (1999), at what age is it most appropriate for parents to begin toilet-training discussions with the child’s healthcare provider?

After presenting the material, have students discuss the inconsistency between the recommendations of Stadtler et al. and Bakker et al. How might students reconcile the recommendations? Given the information provided, what method of potty training do they feel is most appropriate, and at what age?

Sources: Bakker, E., Van Gool, J., Van Sprundel, M., Van der Auwera, C., and Wyndaele, J. J. (2002).

Results of a questionnaire evaluating the effects of different methods of toilet training on achieving bladder control. BJU International, 90(4), 456–461. DOI: 10.1046/j.1464– 410X.2002.02903.x.

Stadtler, A. C., Gorski, P. A., and Brazelton, T. B. (1999, June 1). Toilet training methods, clinical interventions, and recommendations. Pediatrics, 103, 1359–1361.

Section 2 Activity and Discussion: Comparing the Basic Tenets of Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s Theories of Cognitive Development Have students list the basic tenets of Piaget and Vygotsky and then compare and contrast the similarities and differences between their theories. Provide cognitive and/or behavioral examples that they might comment on, such as a toddler working on a 24-piece puzzle. How would Piaget explain the cognition and/or behavior? How would Vygotsky explain the cognition and/or behavior?

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Section 2 Lecture Launcher: Cultural Influences on Cognitive Development Cultural influences are very important to cognitive development in young children. The way intelligence is defined varies substantially and is based on the culture (Sternberg and Grigorenko, 2004). Because of this variability, different types of cognitive abilities may be valued more highly in some cultures than in others. For example, Western cultures tend to associate processing speed with intelligence—e.g., the faster one’s cognitive response, the more intelligent that person is said to be. In contrast, in Uganda, taking the time to think things through, gather information and evaluate, and being active are all indicators of individuals with higher intellect (Rogoff and Chavajay, 1995). Similarly, traditional cultures also seem to value socio-emotional aptitude over more Westernized notions of academic intelligence (Sternberg and Grigorenko, 2004). Even within developed, Western cultures, there is variability between European American, African American, and Hispanic mothers with use of stimulating materials and experiences (Bradley et al., 1989, as cited by Maschinot, 2008). That is, African American and Hispanic mothers, regardless of socioeconomic status, tend to wait until a child is about 3 years of age before they actively attempt to create an intellectually stimulating environment. This is in contrast to European American mothers, who start much earlier. It could be, for example, that minority mothers value other skills, such as social competence, earlier in children’s lives.

Consequently, it is important to be familiar with the role that culture plays in cognitive development.

Sources: Maschinot, B. (2008). The changing face of the United States: The influence of culture on early child development. Washington, DC: Zero to Three.

Rogoff, B., and Chavajay, P. (1995). What’s become of research on the cultural basis of cognitive development? American Psychologist, 50(10), 859–877.

Sternberg, R. J., and Grigorenko, E. L. (2004). Why we need to explore development in its cultural context. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 50(3), 369–386.

Section 2 Activity: Caregiver–Toddler Language Observation For this activity, your student will make arrangements to observe a toddler’s use of language. He or she can observe in a home or other appropriate setting (park, mall, indoor playground, restaurant, etc.). You should let them know that it is not suitable for them to observe their own child, even if the child is age-appropriate. If the student plans to observe in a private home, he or she must first obtain written permission from the parent. Have the student explain that this is a classroom assignment, it is completely anonymous, and you will not be testing the child. This is an observation only. Getting written permission is not necessary in a public venue.

Before the observation, instruct students to familiarize themselves with the chapter and develop a data collection form that should include demographic information about the parent and child and the expected language from the child, such as holophrases and telegraphic speech. During the observation, have the student take notes using the data collection form. If a child approaches your student during the observation, the student can say, “I am doing schoolwork and will be taking notes.” If a child tries to engage your student in play, have the student politely decline and refer him or her to the parent or staff member.

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If your student is making the observation in a home, then he or she should ask the parent and child to refrain from using electronic devices during the observation. Your student should let the parent know that he or she cannot be responsible for any child care duties because he or she will be busy with the observation. If the parent agrees to these stipulations, your student can proceed with the observation. The suggested length of time for the observation is 30 to 60 minutes.

Invite students to bring their findings to class for further sharing and discussion.

Section 3 Discussion: The Terrible Twos In Western cultures, particularly the United States, 2-year-olds are known for their less-thancooperative behavior at times. Ask students to list behaviors associated with the “terrible twos” (e.g., toddlers wanting to do everything themselves, getting upset if someone prevents them from achieving a desired goal). Explore how these behaviors might be linked to a developing sense of self and cognitive development. Given the relationship between the developing sense of self and this challenging developmental phase, what recommendations would students make to parents for handling these behaviors?

Section 3 Lecture Launcher: Ainsworth’s Strange Situation Test Mary Ainsworth’s ground-breaking study about infant attachment grew out of the work of scientists in ethology, developmental psychology, and psychoanalysis. Sigmund Freud declared that infants become attached to their mothers because their mothers feed them and satisfy their oral needs. Réné Spitz noticed that infants in foundling homes, even when fed adequately, died at an alarming rate. Harry Harlow had read Spitz’s work and decided to test the theory of “contact comfort” against Freud’s oral needs theory. Harlow took rhesus monkeys at birth and put them with “surrogate mothers.” Some “mothers” were made of wire mesh and had bottles attached for feeding. Other “mothers” were made of terry cloth and had no bottle. Although the young monkeys went to the wire mesh “mothers” when they were hungry, they spent the rest of their time clinging to the terry cloth “mothers.” Thus, it seemed, with monkeys at least, that “mother love” and touch were more important than food.

But what about the human mother–infant bond? Influenced by Konrad Lorenz’s work on imprinting, Bowlby hypothesized that early maternal separation is harmful because it thwarts the infant’s instinctive need for a close bond with its mother. Thus, behaviors on the part of both the infant and caretaker ensure survival and promote attachment.

Ainsworth worked with Bowlby in the early 1950s, analyzing data on the effects of maternal separation on children under 5. Later, Ainsworth observed infant-mother attachment and devised her categorization system. In the 1960s, Ainsworth decided to further test these categories under experimental conditions. She used a “strange situation” after reading Harlow’s research with monkeys. As a result of the Strange Situation study, Ainsworth proposed three classifications of attachment, while a fourth classification was proposed by Main and Solomon in 1986. (See the textbook for descriptors of each classification category.)

1. Secure Attachment 2. Insecure–Resistant Attachment 3. Insecure–Avoidant Attachment 4. Disorganized–Disoriented Attachment 18 .

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Sources: Ainsworth, M. D. S., Blehar, S. M., Waters, E., and Wall, S. (1978). Patterns of attachment.

Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Bowlby, J. (1980). Loss: Sadness and depression. New York: Basic Books.

Goleman, D. (1989, June 6). New research overturns a milestone of infancy. New York Times.

Karen, R. (February, 1990). Becoming attached. Atlantic Monthly, 35–70.

Main, M., and Solomon, J. (1986). Discovery of an insecure-disorganized/disoriented attachment pattern. In T. B. Brazelton and M. W. Yogman (Eds.), Affective development in infancy, 95–124. Norwood, NJ: Ablex Publishing.

Section 3 Activity: Cross Cultural Differences in Child Care Students can present information about child care practices in other countries as compared with those in the United States or their home country. Students can work individually or in groups (your choice). Students or student groups can choose countries that interest them, or you may provide a list from which they can choose. Some countries with interesting policies include Sweden, France, and Japan. This works well as an individual written assignment, a brief small group oral presentation, or an online discussion.

Section 3 Discussion: Child Care and Household Duties In most U.S. families, the mother spends much more time with the young child than the father does. The mother assumes most of the daily care duties while the father tends to engage in play activities when he is involved. Interestingly, research has found that this is true even with couples that were egalitarian before the birth of the child. Break the class into small groups and instruct students to discuss several families they know, including their own, and how child care and household duties are divided within those families.

CRITICAL THINKING ACTIVITY Belief Bias Provide Handout 6.1 to students. All exercises can be assigned to individuals and are usually fun and productive for small groups in class or online discussion. In the context of a lecture, the Mastery exercise provides a quick and fun illustration of belief bias.

Use these additional resources to help students understand the concept: Banks, A. (2013, January). The influence of activation level on belief bias in relational reasoning. Cognitive Science, 37(3), 544–577.

Evans, J. St. B. T. (2003). In two minds: Dual-process accounts of reasoning. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 7, 454–459.

Evans, J. St. B. T., Barston, J. L., and Pollard, P. (1983). On the conflict between logic and belief in syllogistic reasoning. Memory & Cognition, 11, 295–306.

Tsujii, T., Masuda S., Akiyama T., and Watanabe S. (2010). The role of the inferior frontal cortex in belief-bias reasoning: An rTMS study. Neurpsychologia, 48(7), 2005–2008.

Tsujii, T., and Watanabe, S. (2010). Neural correlates of belief-bias reasoning under time pressure: A near-infrared spectroscopy study. Neuroimage, 50(3), 1320–1326.

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Beliefs about toddlers: Keep students on track by reminding them that this is an exploration of the nature of belief, not whether someone’s belief is accurate.

Syllogisms: Correct answers are “A cat is bigger than a lion.” and “Walking is slower than driving a truck.” Students will usually fill in the blank based on their belief (that lions are bigger than cats and trucks are faster than walking) without even thinking whether that answer follows logically from the premises given.

Childhood vaccines: Other links that offer more information on the vaccines-cause-autismspectrum-disorder belief include that of the Centers for Disease Control (www.cdc.gov) and the Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia’s Vaccine Education Center. You can listen to “How Philadelphia Mandated Vaccinations in 1991,” a 2019 interview between the director of the Vaccine Education Center, Dr. Paul Offit, and NPR’s Sacha Pfeiffer. In addition, search online for a journal article titled “How the Case Against the MMR Vaccine Was Fixed,” which was published in 2011 in The British Medical Journal. In addition, Autism Speaks (www.autismspeaks.org) is a national organizational supporting research, advocacy and solutions for families, and treatment of those diagnosed with an autism spectrum disorder (ASD).

SUPPLEMENTAL READINGS Bornstein, M. H., and Lansford J. E. (2010). Parenting. In Bornstein, M. H. (Ed)., The handbook of cross-cultural developmental science. New York: Taylor & Francis, 259–277.

Gross-Loh, C. (2014). Parenting without borders: Surprising lessons parents around the world can teach us. New York: Avery.

Juang, L. P., Qin D. B., and Park I. J. (2013). Deconstructing the myth of the “tiger mother”: An introduction to the special issue on tiger parenting, Asian-heritage families, and child/adolescent well-being. Asian American Journal of Psychology, 4(1), 1–6.

Kurtz, D. M. (2018, July 23). We have a child-care crisis in this country. We had the solution 78 years ago. Washington Post.

LoBue, V. (2016, March 29). When do children develop their gender identity? The Conversation.

McElwain, N. L., and Booth-LaForce, C. (2006). Maternal sensitivity to infant distress and nondistress as predictors of infant-mother attachment security. Journal of Family Psychology, 20(2), 247–255.

Trawick-Smith, J., and DeLapp, J. (2018). TIMPANI toy study. Available at http://www.easternct.edu.

REVEL VIDEOS Chapter Introduction: Toddlerhood Cultural Focus: Gross Motor Development Across Cultures Zone of Proximal Development Cultural Focus: Language Development Across Cultures Cultural Focus: Stranger Anxiety Across Cultures Research Focus: Early Child Care and Its Consequences Styles of Play A Clinical Psychologist Talks About Diagnosing Children with ASD Apply Your Knowledge as a Professional: Nanny

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Handout 6.1: Belief Bias The term belief bias refers to the strength and perseverance of what we already believe, even in the light of overwhelming evidence to the contrary. Changing a belief takes significantly more information than it took to form that belief. Belief bias distorts our reasoning. We are likely to make decisions based on a currently held belief, even if those decisions do not meet the test of logic.

You might wonder why we have belief bias when it does not seem like a very good idea. Two theories that are supported by experimental evidence are: 1. Analysis is effortful, slower, and makes greater demands on us, but beliefs we hold are immediately available to us.

2. Our working memory has a finite capacity, and belief bias is a shortcut we use when our working memory gets overloaded during reasoning.

Neural imaging research has supported the theory that belief bias is a heuristic (mental short cut) we use when our working memory is maxed out during reasoning.

Do you know anyone who does (or did) believe that childhood immunizations or food colorings or allergies to food cause autism spectrum disorder? Such beliefs are common, and you may even hold, or have held, similar beliefs. This exercise is not focused on whether the belief is consistent with credible evidence or logical reasoning but on the nature of belief itself.

Choose a belief about toddlers that did not come from studying reputable sources and analyzing evidence with critical thinking. Answer the following questions about it.

1. What triggered the belief?

2. How much additional research was done to analyze the belief?

3. If presented with an equal amount of opposite information from a similar source, do you think it would be enough to change the belief?

4. What happens when evidence disputing the belief is presented?

Created by: Regina Hughes, Collin College. No third-party material included.

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Handout 6.1: Belief Bias (page 2) Syllogisms are often used to investigate belief bias. Try these on your own or on your friends or family. Answer based on the information given.

A cat is bigger than a cougar.

A lion is smaller than a cougar.

Therefore, a cat is __________er than a lion.

Walking is faster than running.

Driving a truck is slower than running.

Therefore, walking is ____________er than driving a truck.

1. Were these easy and quick to answer?

2. Did you answer them following the logic of the information given, or did you answer them based on your belief about cats and trucks?

3. How might this exercise illustrate belief bias?

4. Correct answers will be supplied by your instructor after you have finished the exercise.

After you have the correct answers, you may need to discuss how belief bias is involved.

Write a reflection on the following example of belief bias: Belief bias can kill. The belief that childhood vaccines cause autism spectrum disorder arose from the correlation in time between when symptoms of autism are usually first apparent and when childhood immunizations are given. To examine how resistant to change a belief is once it is formed, go to the National Public Radio website (www.npr.org) and search for “Paul Offit on the Anti-Vaccine Movement” to explore the history of the belief about the link between vaccination and autism spectrum disorder. Click on the Transcript link to read the interview of Paul Offit. Reading some of the blog posts gives some insight into the power of belief bias and confirmation bias and their influence in the development of paranoid thinking and conspiracy theory. One of the bloggers on the interview with Dr. Offit asks why people are not clamoring for vaccinations if vaccinations are so good. To take a look at how many people in the world are clamoring for vaccines, go to the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation’s website (www.gates foundation.org) and search for “vaccines.” CNN’s website (www.cnn.com) offers a timeline of vaccinations in the United States (search for “vaccines”). A majority of states allow religious exemptions from vaccines, while several allow nonspiritual exemptions. However, in the name of public safety concerns, many states are moving to remove all nonmedical exemptions to vaccinations.

Created by: Regina Hughes, Collin College. No third-party material included.

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CHAPTER 7: EARLY CHILDHOOD

CONTENTS LEARNING OBJECTIVES............................................................................................................ 1 LECTURE OUTLINE .................................................................................................................... 2 LECTURE LAUNCHERS, DISCUSSION IDEAS, AND ACTIVITIES.................................... 17 CRITICAL THINKING ACTIVITY ............................................................................................ 24 SUPPLEMENTAL READINGS .................................................................................................. 25 REVEL VIDEOS .......................................................................................................................... 25 HANDOUTS................................................................................................................................. 26 LEARNING OBJECTIVES Section 1 7.1 Summarize the changes in physical growth that occur during early childhood.

7.2 Specify the advances in brain development that take place during early childhood and the aspects of brain development that explain “infantile amnesia.”

7.3 Describe the main changes in gross and fine motor abilities during early childhood, including the development of handedness.

7.4 Identify the primary sources of injury, illness, mortality, and nutritional deficiency during early childhood in developed and developing countries.

Section 2 7.5 Summarize the features of Piaget’s preoperational stage of cognitive development.

7.6 Explain what “theory of mind” is, and summarize the evidence for when it develops during early childhood.

7.7 Describe the ways that cultural learning takes place in early childhood.

7.8 Identify the features that are most important in preschool quality, and explain how they reflect cultural values.

7.9 Describe early intervention programs and their outcomes.

7.10 Specify the advances in vocabulary and grammar that occur in early childhood.

7.11 Summarize how children learn pragmatics in early childhood, and explain how these social rules are culturally based.

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Section 3 7.12 Identify advances in emotional self-regulation and understanding during early childhood.

7.13 Describe moral development in early childhood, including empathy, modeling, and morality as cultural learning.

7.14 Summarize the roles that parents, peers, and teachers play in gender socialization, and explain how gender schemas lead to self-socialization.

7.15 Specify the four types of parenting “styles,” and explain the cultural limitations of this model.

7.16 Describe the main cultural variations in how parents discipline young children, and explain how cultural context influences children’s responses to discipline.

7.17 Define Mead’s social stages from infancy through early childhood.

7.18 Identify the most common features of sibling relationships worldwide, and distinguish how children with no siblings differ from other children.

7.19 Explain how the quality of friendships changes from toddlerhood to early childhood, and describe the role of play and aggression in young children’s friendships.

7.20 Identify the rates and consequences of media use in early childhood.

LECTURE OUTLINE I. Section 1: Physical Development A. Growth from Age 3 to 6 1. Bodily Growth LO 7.1 Summarize the changes in physical growth that occur during early childhood. a. The pace of physical development slows in early childhood. b. From ages 3 to 6, the typical American child grows 2 to 3 inches per year and adds 5 to 7 pounds. c. Children gain more in weight than in height at this time and mostly muscle rather than fat. d. Average heights and weights in early childhood are considerably lower in developing countries due to lower nutrition and higher likelihood of childhood diseases. Stunting, a term that describes children who are short for their age, can have long-term effects on physical and cognitive development. e. In developing countries, socioeconomic differences tend to significantly impact early childhood averages of height and weight. f. Given relatively equal levels of nutrition and health care, genetics explains individual differences in height and weight gains.

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2. Brain Development and “Infantile Amnesia” LO 7.2 Specify the advances in brain development that take place during early childhood and the aspects of brain development that explain “infantile amnesia.” a. By age 6, the brain is about 90% of its adult weight. The growth of the brain, particularly the frontal lobes, is still more rapid than the rest of the body. b. The increasing number of dendritic connections and increased myelination underlies the advances in emotional regulation, foresight, and planned behavior. c. Substantial myelination most notably takes place in the following four brain structures: i. The corpus callosum (the bundle of neurons connecting the right and left hemispheres of the cerebral cortex) ii. The cerebellum (a structure at the base of the brain involved in balance and motor movements) iii. The reticular formation (a part of the brain involved in attention) iv. The hippocampus (a structure that facilitates memory) d. Most people experience infantile amnesia, which is the inability to remember experiences before the age of 4 or 5. We do not forget everything, though. i. Semantic memory is language, habits, and general information learned before age 4. ii. Episodic memory is memory of unique events. iii. A specific kind of episodic memory, autobiographical memory, involves recollection of specific personal experiences. e. Theories about the cause of infantile amnesia vary, but apparently it is partly due to the immaturity of the hippocampus in infancy and toddlerhood. f. Some research suggests traumatic events before ages 4 or 5 may indeed be recalled while other research suggests that the greater the cultural individualism, the greater attention to personal experiences. g. Research has found that culture plays a role in autobiographical memories.

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B. Motor Development, Safety, and Health 1. Gross and Fine Motor Skills LO 7.3 Describe the main changes in gross and fine motor abilities during early childhood, including the development of handedness. a. In early childhood, gross motor skills are a continuation and refinement of the skills learned in toddlerhood. i. Children become faster, more agile, and stronger. ii. Early childhood sees improvement in running speed and the ability to start and stop suddenly and quickly change directions. b. Fine motor skills also continue to be refined, and some new skills are added. i. Children in early childhood in developed countries learn to dress themselves, brush their teeth, use scissors, and cut foods with a knife. Fine motor movements become more precise and stable. ii. Handedness is showing a clear preference for using the left or right hand for gross and fine motor activities. While it becomes more obvious during early childhood, it is apparent even prenatally. a. About 90% of people are right-handed. b. Research on handedness shows that there are genetic (adoption studies) and environmental influences (twin studies) that determine handedness. c. Handedness is also influenced by culture. In many cultures, being a lefty is seen as abnormal, undesirable, and even evil.

Often, left-handed children are switched to using their right hand for most of their fine motor activities. Switching is no longer encouraged in the United States but is still done in many other cultures. d. Left-handed children are more likely to have problems learning to read and write, yet left-handed children are more likely to show exceptional verbal and math abilities and to have strong visual-spatial abilities.

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2. Safety and Health in Early Childhood LO 7.4 Identify the primary sources of injury, illness, mortality, and nutritional deficiency during early childhood in developed and developing countries. a. Injuries i. High activity levels and immature cognitive development make young children prone to injuries. ii. Research shows that the most common cause of injury in early childhood is falling, followed by being struck by an object or person, being bitten by an animal or insect, and being cut or pierced. iii. Due to rougher and more physical play, boys are more likely than girls to suffer injuries. iv. Injury rates and death due to accidents are higher in developing countries because they do not have stringent, government-enforced safety codes. v. Accidental injuries are the leading cause of death for young children in developed countries, while young children in developing countries are most likely to die from illness and disease due to its high prevalence, rather than injuries. b. Illness and Disease i. In developing countries, the most common causes of death in early childhood are illnesses and diseases, including pneumonia, malaria, and diarrhea. Malnutrition is also a contributing factor. ii. Mortality rates in early childhood are much higher in developing countries than in developed countries, but have declined substantially in recent years due to improved food production and vaccine programs. iii. Individuals in developed countries have greater access to food and medical care, including vaccinations, to help them survive.

Children mostly have minor illnesses that become less frequent as their immune systems strengthen over time with exposure.

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c. Nutrition and Malnutrition i. The most common types of malnutrition in developing countries are lack of protein (25% of children) and iron due to insufficient food supplies. About 80% of children in developing countries experience malnutrition. Severely iron-deficient children have anemia, which causes fatigue, irritability, and attention problems. ii. The appetites vary a lot from one day to the next during early childhood. Generally, children will learn to like the foods that are presented to them regularly, and their parents and cultural beliefs influence their attitudes about foods. iii. Calcium is the most common nutritional deficiency in the United States. Much of this deficiency is due to a decrease in the amount of milk consumption and an increase in soft drink consumption. iv. In the United States, African American and Latino children had the lowest levels of calcium consumption. v. Immigrant children from mothers born outside the United States had more healthful diets than children of native-born mothers.

II. Section 2: Cognitive Development A. Theories of Cognitive Development 1. Piaget’s Preoperational Stage LO 7.5 Summarize the features of Piaget’s preoperational stage of cognitive development. a. According to Piaget, the preoperational stage marks a critical turning point in development due to representational thought. i. In this stage, children’s use of language to symbolically represent the world frees them to think beyond their immediate sensory experiences. ii. Piaget viewed the preoperational stage of cognitive development (ages 2–7) as prone to a variety of errors, such as conservation, egocentrism, and classification, because they are not yet able to perform mental operations; they are less able to use cognitive procedures that follow certain logical rules. b. Conservation i. Conservation is the principle that the amount of a physical substance remains the same even if its physical appearance changes. ii. Piaget tested this with water in identical and different-sized glasses. iii. Conservation errors are due to centration, being too focused on one aspect of something, and lack of reversibility, or the inability to mentally reverse an action.

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c. Egocentrism i. Egocentrism is the inability to distinguish between your own perspective and another person’s perspective. This has been tested using the “three mountains task” with clay models. ii. Animism is the tendency to attribute human thoughts and feelings to inanimate objects and forces. It is one aspect of egocentrism. d. Classification i. Classification errors occur because children have difficulty understanding that objects can be simultaneously part of more than one “class” or group. ii. This has been tested using a drawing of blue and yellow flowers.

Errors result from centration and lack of reversibility. e. Evaluating Piaget’s Theory i. This theory has garnered criticisms similar to those leveled at Piaget’s sensorimotor period; he underestimated children’s cognitive ability, and development is more continuous and less stage-like. ii. His theory was based on some very specific tasks that could have limited his findings.

2. Young Children’s Social Cognition: The Development of “Theory of Mind” LO 7.6 Explain what “theory of mind” is, and summarize the evidence for when it develops during early childhood. a. Theory of mind is the ability to understand thinking processes in oneself and others. b. By 12 months, infants point to an event or object others are unaware of in order to draw their attention to it. By age 2, as they begin to use language more, children show increasing recognition that others have thoughts and emotions that can be contrasted with their own. c. By age 3, children know it is possible for them and others to imagine something that is not physically present, an understanding that becomes the basis of pretend play for many years to come. d. Three-year-olds still find it difficult to take others’ perspectives.

Perspective-taking ability advances considerably from ages 3 to 6. i. This ability has been tested using false belief tasks, like the hidden chocolate experiment. Three-year-olds have a hard time with these tests, but they improve with age, and most 5-year-olds get it correct because they can take another person’s perspective. e. Baillargeon used violation -of-expectation tasks to test a toddler’s understanding of where a person with a false belief about the location of an object will search for the object. f. Ongoing research debates the extent and depth of what age children acquire false-beliefs reasoning while the research on theory of mind continues to expand.

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3. Cultural Learning in Early Childhood LO 7.7 Describe the ways that cultural learning takes place in early childhood. a. Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory of learning views cognitive development as a social and cultural process via environmental interactions and guided participation. b. In traditional, developing countries, the family facilitates cultural learning. By 5 to 6 years of age, children learn skills that help them contribute to family functioning through direct instruction and observing and participating in these duties. c. In developed countries, parents teach cultural learning using guided participation to prepare children for doing household tasks and formal schooling. d. In developed countries, cultural learning also takes place in more formal settings because the children are away from their families for much of the day, and many complex, adult activities are not accessible to children.

B. Early Childhood Education 1. Worldwide, formal schooling begins at about age 7, but in developed countries, almost 85% go to some type of structured learning environment between 3 and 5 years of age. Although half of American states fund preschool programs, preschool participation in the United States lags behind nearly all other developed countries.

2. The Importance of Preschool Quality LO 7.8 Identify the features that are most important in preschool quality, and explain how they reflect cultural values. a. Quality makes a substantial difference in how preschool affects children. Key features of high-quality preschool programs include education and training of teachers, class size and child-teacher ratio, age-appropriate materials and activities, and teacher-child interactions. b. A quality program will emphasize developmentally appropriate educational practices, which includes exploring and discovering through unstructured play. c. The Montessori preschool program is known for its high quality and developmentally appropriate practices, and children who attended this type of program showed more improved social and cognitive development than children in more traditional preschools. i. Although preschool is typical in developed countries, the structure varies widely by country. In the United States and China, the emphasis in preschool is on early academic training resulting in cognitive benefits. ii. In most of Europe and especially in Japan, the social benefits of preschool, like cooperation and sharing, are emphasized. Although there is no academic training in Japanese preschool, older students consistently score high in reading, math, and science.

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3. Preschool as a Cognitive Intervention LO 7.9 Describe early intervention programs and their outcomes. a. Early intervention programs, like Early Head Start, Head Start, and the High Scope Preschool Project, are designed to help young children who are at risk of poor academic outcomes due to low socioeconomic status. b. Some early interventions programs have had long-term positive effects on children’s development, but, again, the effects depend greatly on the quality of the program and the social support the children receive from their families.

C. Language Development 1. Advances in Vocabulary and Grammar LO 7.10 Specify the advances in vocabulary and grammar that occur in early childhood. a. Children’s vocabularies expand immensely in early childhood to about 2,500 words by age 6. b. This period is when language learning is at its best. Early childhood is a sensitive period for language learning, when the capacity for learning new words is pronounced. c. Children’s ability to use fast mapping helps them to connect words to categories and use context to discern meaning. d. In Eastern and Western languages, modifiers are added more slowly than nouns or verbs are. e. Children readily grasp the distinctive system of rules of grammar for their language simply through hearing and using language in the course of a typical day.

2. Pragmatics: Social and Cultural Rules of Language LO 7.11 Summarize how children learn pragmatics in early childhood, and explain how these social rules are culturally based. a. Pragmatics, the social rules of language, guide us in knowing what to say—and what not to say—in a given social situation. b. At age 2, children understand basic pragmatics. By age 4, children are sensitive to the characteristics of their conversational partner and adjust their speech accordingly. Manners are more common and consistently used. c. All cultures have their own rules for what kinds of speech can be used in many kinds of situations. d. By middle childhood, most kids know what is acceptable to speak aloud and when it best to keep thoughts to themselves.

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III. Section 3: Emotional and Social Development A. Emotional Regulation and Gender Socialization 1. Emotional Regulation LO 7.12 Identify advances in emotional self-regulation and understanding during early childhood. a. Early childhood is a key time for the development of emotional selfregulation, which is the ability to control emotions. i. Self-regulation and impulse control are important for good social relations. ii. The progression through early childhood sees an increase in emotion regulation expectations across cultures. iii. We also see a decrease in emotional outbursts as the frontal cortex continues to develop and as children learn strategies for handling their emotions. iv. Effortful control occurs when children actively try to manage their emotions. Strategies include talking to themselves, redirecting attentions, and seeking comfort from an attachment figure. b. Achieving a good level of self-regulation is a difficult balance. i. Some children undercontrol their emotions later resulting in externalizing problems, primarily for males. ii. Some children overcontrol their emotions, later resulting in internalizing problems, primarily for females. iii. The optimal level of self-regulation varies by culture. iv. Erikson’s initiative versus guilt stage is about figuring out the appropriate level of effortful, emotional control.

2. Moral Development LO 7.13 Describe moral development in early childhood, including empathy, modeling, and morality as cultural learning. a. Sociomoral emotions, such as shame, pride, and empathy, are shaped by culture. b. The capacity for empathy increases in early childhood, which leads in turn to an increase in prosocial behavior and contributes for understanding basic moral principles. c. Early childhood is also a time when children learn much of their culture’s detailed, moral rules and are able to anticipate the potential consequences for violating such rules. d. Socialization, the process by which children acquire the behaviors and beliefs of the culture they live in, is important for the development of moral rules and expectations. e. By age 5, most children understand that it is wrong to steal and hurt someone on purpose, but moral views do vary by culture.

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f. Children learn moral rules through explicit instruction, hearing or reading stories, and custom complexes, such as modeling their behavior after the behavior of others, particularly behaviors modeled by others if the other person’s behavior is rewarded. g. Around age 3 or 4, children show the beginnings of a capacity for moral reasoning with their beliefs in justice and fairness and later in knowing the difference between the truth and a lie. h. Moral reasoning is rigid at this age and mostly based on fear of punishment.

3. Gender Development LO 7.14 Summarize the roles that parents, peers, and teachers play in gender socialization, and explain how gender schemas lead to self-socialization. a. Gender Identity and Gender Socialization i. The concept of gender identity is present by age 2, but children are more rigid about the idea of gender during early childhood due to cognitive limitations, such as a failure to understand the biological nature of gender constancy. ii. Children in early childhood may cling to their ideas of appropriate gender roles for fear of changing their gender. iii. Parents actively socialize their children in gender-appropriate ways directly and indirectly. iv. This transpires by what they say and give to their children, through their approval or lack thereof based on the children’s behavior and through modeling. a. Cultural messages regarding gender begin with the child’s given name, how parents dress the children, and the toys parents provide. b. Parents, especially fathers, and peers are important to gender socialization. Fathers tend to be stricter on boys than girls with regard to conforming to gender roles. Peers may reject someone who violates gender role expectations. b. Gender Schemas and Self-Socialization i. A gender schema is a gender-based cognitive structure for organizing and processing information about the world. ii. Gender schemas may be used to categorize activities and objects and to interpret the behavior of others and what we should expect from them. iii. Children (and even adults) seek out information that is consistent with their gender beliefs while ignoring information that is inconsistent. iv. Self-socialization is the process of trying to maintain consistency between gender schemas and behavior in a way that conforms to culturally appropriate gender role expectations.

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B. Parenting 1. Parenting “Styles” LO 7.15 Specify the four types of parenting “styles,” and explain the cultural limitations of this model. a. Parenting styles are the practices and beliefs that parents exhibit in regards to raising their children. b. Four Parenting Styles i. American parenting research has emphasized the dimensions of demandingness (control) and responsiveness (warmth) in parenting. ii. Demandingness is the degree to which parents lay down a set of rules and behavioral expectations and the requirements for compliance. iii. Responsiveness is the degree to which the parents are sensitive to their children’s needs and nurturing. Baumrind’s research with middle-class White American children led her to develop four parenting styles: a. Authoritative parents are high in demandingness (with explanation) and responsiveness, and they are loving and warm. b. Authoritarian parents are high in demandingness, but low in responsiveness, and they emphasize obedience. c. Permissive parents are low in demandingness, but high in responsiveness; they have few clearly set expectations and rarely discipline their children. They are also warm and loving. d. Disengaged parents are low in both demandingness and responsiveness. They are emotionally detached from their children. c. The Effects of Parenting Styles on Children i. According to Americans, authoritative parenting produces the most favorable outcomes, such as independence, self-assuredness, creativity, and being socially skilled. ii. Other parenting styles are all associated with some negative outcomes, such as behavioral, emotional, and social problems. d. A More Complex Picture of Parenting Effects i. The relationship between parenting styles and children’s development is complex due to reciprocal or bidirectional effects between parents and children. ii. Children’s behavior may evoke a certain parenting style or cause a parent to modify parenting style based on how his or her children behave the parent and respond to his or her parenting.

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e. Parenting Styles Worldwide i. Authoritative parenting style is very rare in non-Western cultures, where parents expect that their authority will be obeyed without question and without requiring an explanation. ii. In Asian cultures, children are expected to respect, obey, and revere their parents throughout their whole lives. This is called filial piety. This concept also exists in the Latino culture and is referred to as respeto but is combined with familismo, which is like bidirectional responsiveness. iii. This does not mean that non-Western cultures are authoritarian; rather their style of parenting is culturally based, and the same outcomes as in the United States would not be expected. iv. Within American society, the authoritative style is dominant among White, middle-class families. Most American minority cultures have their own distinctive forms of warmth but tend to emphasize obeying parental authority rather than encouraging explanation and negotiation. v. Parenting typically reflects the cultural beliefs about the value of interdependence versus independence and the status of parental authority over children.

2. Discipline and Punishment LO 7.16 Describe the main cultural variations in how parents discipline young children, and explain how cultural context influences children’s responses to discipline. a. Usually, it is during early childhood when children are first disciplined for inappropriate behavior because by then it is believed that they know what they should be doing. b. Cultural Variations in Discipline i. All cultures require children to learn cultural rules and expectations and have some system of discipline for misbehavior. ii. In Western cultures, the approach to discipline in early childhood tends to emphasize the authoritative approach of explaining the consequences of misbehavior and the reasons for discipline. iii. For young children, discipline often involves taking away privileges or going in time out. iv. In Western cultures, it is important for parents’ discipline to be consistent, timely (immediate), and include an explanation. v. In some cultures, parents discipline by withdrawing love and shaming (Japan), called amae; while that works well in Japan’s collectivistic culture, the same method applied in Western countries produced negative outcomes in response to psychological control.

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c. Physical Punishment and Its Consequences i. Physical or corporal punishment has quite different effects on children, depending on the cultural context. ii. Although common around the world, in the United States and Europe, researchers have linked negative outcomes to children who experienced physical punishment. iii. Longitudinal research links physical punishment in childhood to increased likelihood of bullying and delinquency in adolescence and aggressive behavior such as spousal abuse in adulthood. iv. However, there are cultures (including minority cultures) in which the use of physical punishment does not lead to negative outcomes. d. Child Abuse and Neglect i. Child maltreatment includes both abuse and neglect of children.

It includes physical, emotional, and sexual abuse, and neglect. ii. Children’s risk factors for physical abuse include difficult temperament, aggressiveness, and being overly active. iii. Parental risk factors for physical abuse include poverty, unemployment, and single motherhood. In addition, stepfathers and parents who were abused as children are more likely to be abusive. iv. Children who have experienced physical abuse are at risk for not meeting some social and cognitive developmental milestones and for experiencing negative outcomes later in life. v. Children who are abused are often removed from the abusive parent, either informally in traditional cultures with placement with safe relatives or formally in Western cultures with placement in foster care, group homes, or with relatives.

C. The Child’s Expanding Social World 1. Mead’s Classification of Childhood Social Stages LO 7.17 Define Mead’s social stages from infancy through early childhood. a. According to Mead’s research and what followed, children around the world are socialized similarly as they progress from lap children (ages 0–2) to knee children (ages 3–4) to yard children (ages 5–6) with greater levels of freedom at each age as their social worlds expand. b. Whiting and colleagues studied children in 12 different places around the world using Mead’s methodology and with similar results.

Dependence decreases over time, but up to 4 years children are still closely nurtured. Freedom increases between 5 and 6 years of age. c. The cultures studied by Mead and Whiting and Edwards were mostly in developing countries, but many of the same patterns apply in developed countries.

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2. Siblings and “Only Children” LO 7.18 Identify the most common features of sibling relationships worldwide, and distinguish how children with no siblings differ from other children. a. On average, there is a 2- to 4-year gap between siblings. Thus, children in early childhood often experience the birth of a sibling. b. Jealousy toward younger siblings is very common worldwide in early childhood, but children also love their sibling and like to dote on him or her and act as their teacher. c. Aggressive and hostile behavior toward a younger sibling is common, but so are helping, sharing, and teaching behaviors. d. Sibling conflict can be beneficial in advancing young children’s theory of mind, and it allows them to have peer-like practice social interactions with their siblings. e. In the United States, about 20% of children have no sibling. f. “Only children” fare well compared to children with siblings, but some have poorer social skills. Even in China, where there has been concern about the social effects of the government’s “one child” population policy, the children tend to fare well but have no social deficits.

3. Peers and Friends LO 7.19 Explain how the quality of friendships changes from toddlerhood to early childhood, and describe the role of play and aggression in young children’s friendships. a. By age 5 or 6, children value the mutual trust and support and reliance of friendship over time. b. Friends are people with whom children share a valued, mutual relationship. Peers are persons who share some aspect of their status in common, such as age. c. Peer and friend relations are usually strictly segregated by same-sex gender associations during early childhood, but age differences are common to traditional cultures and uncommon in Western cultures. d. Play in Early Childhood i. Play serves a variety of purposes in childhood, including exercise, learning, and sharpening skills. ii. In toddlerhood and early childhood, there are distinct types of play, including solitary play, parallel play, simple social play, and cooperative pretend play. iii. Play becomes increasingly sex-segregated as young children get older. iv. By early childhood, there are differences in how successful children are at using social skills required for play in a group setting. v. Sometimes play models adult behaviors, but sometimes it’s just for fun.

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e. Aggression i. The different types of aggression are instrumental, hostile, and relational aggression. ii. Physical aggression peaks in toddlerhood and the first year of early childhood and then declines as verbal aggression rises. iii. Physical aggression is more common among boys than girls; however, there are individual differences for the propensity to display aggression that remain stable over time. Nurturing, responsive parents can mitigate that effect for children who tend to be aggressive, which is especially important to do during early childhood. iv. In most cultures, aggressive play or “rough-and-tumble” play is common, particularly among boys. v. Both verbal and relational aggression increases during early childhood, slightly more so for girls, as their language ability and cognitive and social understanding increases.

4. Media Use in Early Childhood LO 7.20 Identify the rates and consequences of media use in early childhood. a. Children, even those in early childhood, are already consumers of media—which includes television, electronic games, recorded music, and computers. American children ages 2 to 8 years spend a total of about 3½ hours a day using media. b. The Negative Impact of Television Use: Violence and Advertising i. In the United States, children ages 2 to 8 average about 2 hours a day watching TV, DVDs, and videos. ii. Researchers have shown that children’s programming is violent, even more so than adult programming, even though most of the violence depicted is mild, animated situations. iii. Abundant evidence shows that violent television promotes aggressive behavior in young children as they are most likely to model what they have seen. In addition, aggressive children are drawn to violent media. iv. Research suggests causation is involved, not just correlation. v. Children ages 3 to 6 are especially vulnerable to the effects of TV violence, and young children are especially susceptible to advertising because many commercials seem like programs to them, and they nag their parents to buy the products they see. vi. Unhealthy food advertisements may contribute to the growth rates in international childhood obesity. c. The Beneficial Effects of Educational Television i. Educational programs, including Sesame Street, can have positive effects on young children’s development in language, math, and prosocial behaviors.

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d. Electronic Games and Music i. Television is now fairly universal, but electronic games and recorded music are also important to children. ii. American children ages 2 to 4 spend an average of 21 minutes a day playing electronic games while, at 5 to 8 years of age, this number doubles to 42 minutes a day. iii. Boys most often play electronic games involving fighting and sports, whereas girls prefer adventure and learning games. iv. More than half of American parents report singing or playing music with young children each day. By age 6, children begin listening to more popular music and the latest “hit songs.” v. Listening to music is important in early childhood for the development of responses to music, as children first connect musical sounds with specific emotions.

LECTURE LAUNCHERS, DISCUSSION IDEAS, AND ACTIVITIES Section 1 Lecture Launcher and Activity: Infantile Amnesia Ask students to think back on their childhood and write down their first memory and their age at the time of the event. Invite several students to share their memories. It is likely none of the students produced memories from infancy. In fact, most (all) were for children who were older than 2 or 3 years of age. Ask students to consider why this is the case. Then share the following research: Psychologists believe that early memories are hazy or nonexistent before the age of 3, a phenomenon known as infantile amnesia.

Many people claim they can recall events from before 3, however experts believe that their “memories” are reconstructions based on family photos, stories, dreams, and their imaginations (Howe and Courage, 1993). Why can’t we remember early events from infancy when we obviously have memories for names, faces, and procedures from those times? Freud believed that children do not recall early memories because these memories are traumatic as children are repressing sexual and aggressive urges.

Another theory is that the area of the brain where events are stored, the hippocampus, is not well developed in infancy (Winson, 1997). This theory is supported by studies of infants sleeping.

Newborns spend more than 8 hours a day in REM sleep, perhaps to stimulate nerve growth in the hippocampus. By the age of 2, memories can begin to be integrated in meaningful ways (and thus be recalled).

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Cognitive developmentalists further believe that since language is required to store and retrieve memories, infants, with only emerging language skills, cannot yet form the conceptual categories, or schemas, necessary to organize and retrieve memories (Nelson, 1992). Finally, some developmental psychologists believe that a sense of self is crucial for storing and recalling memories about one’s experiences (Nelson, 1992). Research indicates that a sense of self does not emerge until the second year of life.

Refer back to the students’ first memories. Make note that many of the memories were emotionally vivid; that is, they were either positively or negatively charged. Typically, we are more likely to recall intense events rather than the mundane.

Sources: Howe, M. L., and Courage, M. L. (1993). On resolving the enigma of infantile amnesia.

Psychological Bulletin, 113, 305–326.

Nelson, K. (1992). Emergence of autobiographical memory at age 4. Human Development, 35, 172–177.

Winson, J. (1997). The meaning of dreams. Mysteries of the Mind [Special issue of Scientific American], 58–67.

Supplemental Reading: Peterson, C., Warren, K. L., and Short, M. M. (2011). Infantile amnesia across the years: A 2-year follow-up of children’s earliest memories. Child Development, 82, 1092–1105.

Section 1 Lecture Launcher: Children with AIDS A noteworthy topic, and one that will fit well with a discussion of health issues in early childhood, is AIDS and children. In 1993, Peggy Jesse and her colleagues prepared a brief, yet thorough, overview of the current and future realities of AIDS among children. They noted that the rate of AIDS infection in children under 13 was increasing and that AIDS was projected to be one of the top five causes of death for children under 5 by the year 2000. One of the leading factors was the increased rate of heterosexual transmission.

Go to the Avert.org website and search for “children with AIDS” to retrieve information about the number of HIV/AIDS cases, the percentage of reduction of the illness since the early 1990s, the most current treatments, and where the majority of children with AIDS live. An additional source for recent data and information is the United Nations site unaids.org, where you can search for “children and HIV.” Drawing from the articles, you can develop a lecture, create a visual presentation comparing the statistics in 1993 to the most recent statistics, and generate discussion questions.

Sources: Avert.org. Children, HIV, and AIDS. Available on www.avert.org.

Jesse, P. O., Nagy, M. C., and Poteet-Johnson, D. (1993). Children with AIDS. Childhood Education, Fall, 10–14. (Reprinted in Child Growth and Development, Annual Editions 1995/1996. Guilford, CT: Dushkin/Brown & Benchmark.)

UNAIDS.org. Children and HIV. Available on www.unaids.org.

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Section 1 Lecture Launcher: Left-Handedness As noted in the textbook, a great deal of research reveals that the two hemispheres of the brain are lateralized or dominant for different functions. This means that one half of the brain is more specialized or proficient in certain abilities than the other. Hand usage is an interesting example of lateralization. Most people (90%) are right-handed and have dominant motor control in their left hemisphere. There are intriguing differences between right- and left-handed populations.

• Males are more likely to be left-handed than females are (Papadatou-Pastou et al., 2008).

• There is a higher proportion of left-handers among creative-types such as architects, engineers, university mathematics teachers, mathematics students, artists, astronauts, chess masters, and performing musicians than in the general population (Gunstad et al., 2007).

• Forty percent of left-handers have speech and language controlled in their right hemispheres. These lefties tend to write with their hands in an upright posture (Gunstad et al., 2007).

• Reading disabilities, stuttering, autism spectrum disorder, immune diseases, migraine headaches, allergies, eczema, and some categories of intellectual disability are more prevalent in left-handers than in right-handers (Geschwind, 1983).

• Left-handers are more likely to be precocious, mathematical, and less skilled at verbal tasks (except for analogies) (Benbow, 1986).

• Young people are more likely to be left-handed than elderly people are (Gilbert and Wysocki, 1992; Halpern, 1992). Coren and Halpern (1991) call this the “elimination hypothesis,” suggesting that left-handers are more accident prone and more prone to immune diseases. Others believe this is an example of social patterns forcing lefties to become right-handed (Harris, 1993).

No one knows what causes left-handedness. As with most other human traits, theories can be roughly divided into four categories—environmental, genetic, developmental, and evolutionary—and can be more fully explored at https://www.rightleftrightwrong.com.

Sources: Benbow, C. P. (1986). Physiological correlates of extreme intellectual precocity.

Neuropsychologia 24, 719–725.

Coren, S., and Halpern, D. F. (1991). Left-handedness: A marker for decreased survival fitness. Psychological Bulletin, 109, 90–106.

Geschwind, N. (1983). Biological Associations of Left-Handedness. Annals of Dyslexia, 33, 29–40.

Gilbert, A. N., and Wysocki, C. J. (1992). Hand preference and age in the United States.

Neuropsychologia, 30, 601–608.

Gunstad, J., Spitznagel, M., Luyster, F., Cohen, R. A., and Paul, R. H. (2007). Handedness and cognition across the healthy lifespan. International Journal of Neuroscience, 117(4) 477–485.

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Halpern, D. F. (1992). Sex differences in cognitive abilities (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Harris, L. (1993). Do left-handers die sooner than right-handers? Psychological Bulletin, 113, 203–234.

Papadatou-Pastou, M., Martin, M., Munafo, M. R., and Jones, G. V. (2008, September), Sex differences in left-handedness: A meta-analysis of 144 studies. Psychological Bulletin, 134 (5), 677–699.

Section 2 Activity: NAEYC Accredited Versus State Licensed Preschools For this activity, students will investigate the differences between NAEYC-accredited preschools compared to those that are licensed by a state. Have students find out the licensing requirements for their state preschools. (The website at www.daycare.com provides links to state licensing requirements.) What are the benefits to sending children to a preschool accredited by NAEYC? What might prevent parents from sending their children to a NAEYC-accredited preschool?

Students should type a brief report of their findings. You can follow this activity with an in-class discussion. You may also want students to compare requirements across states as worker qualifications and provider/child ratios vary widely. Students find this very interesting, especially when they are planning to become parents in the future or are already the parents of young children.

Section 2 Lecture Launcher and Discussion: Genie the Wild Child: Understanding the Sensitive Period in Language Development Search online for the NOVA documentary Secret of the Wild Child. Before showing the film to students, provide a summary of the story of Genie, the feral child they will learn about in the film. You can find a program overview on pbs.org (search for the film’s title).

Ask students whether they think Genie was able to learn language at the age of 13. Ultimately, Genie showed improvements in overall social skills and nonverbal communication skills, yet she never fully learned to communicate via language. This topic provides the opportunity to remind students of the importance of the enriched environment versus an impoverished environment relative to the Romanian orphans as noted in Chapter 5, Infancy.

Section 3 Lecture Launcher: Young Children’s Understanding of Everyday Emotions During the preschool years, children begin to form their self-concept and, according to Erikson, experience the feeling of initiative or guilt. A related area of interest is children’s understanding of emotions. Children experience a host of emotions ranging from everyday feelings of frustration, anger, and happiness to those associated with traumatic experiences such as divorce or death. Children’s understanding of emotions changes with age and is influenced by parents and teachers. Children come to know that it is possible to experience more than one feeling at a time, that one can hide one’s emotions, and how to read others’ emotional states.

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Research suggests that talking about feelings is important for children to learn about emotions and how to manage them, especially in preschool populations. Kuebli (1994) provides an excellent overview of the general nature of emotional experiences, children’s early emotion vocabulary and concepts, and how children discuss emotions. Ideas for facilitating children’s understanding of their own and others’ emotions are also provided. Kuebli’s article is a rich source of information for a lecture on emotional development.

In addition, you might bring an assortment of children’s books with emotional-related themes to class, or ask students to bring in one they found. For instance, there are books for preschoolers about divorce, death, anger, being sad, losing a friend, moving, having a birthday, winning a prize, feeling good, and more. These could be circulated, read, and discussed as part of your lecture. Trelease (1985) provides an extensive list of children's books and a summary of each.

Sources: Kuebli, J. (1994, March). Young children’s understanding of everyday emotions. Young Children, 36–47. Reprinted in Child Growth and Development, Annual Editions 1995/1996. Guilford, CT: Dushkin/Brown & Benchmark.

Trelease, J. (1985). The read-aloud handbook. New York: Penguin Books.

Section 3 Lecture Launcher: Corporal Punishment The use of corporal punishment as a means of correcting inappropriate behavior in children is a topic that has been debated by social scientists for a very long time. Students understandably have varying opinions, as well. Along these lines, Gershoff’s meta-analysis of corporal punishment studies (2002) yielded some interesting results. She analyzed data from 88 different studies. Based on her analyses, she recommended that parents refrain from using spanking. Was this recommendation warranted based on the data? This is an excellent time to incorporate a refresher on research methods regarding operational definitions (many of the studies do not agree on a single, specific, definition of corporal punishment) and the problems with correlational versus experimental research. In addition, you can reinforce that psychology is a science and it is important to make informed, educated opinions based on research when addressing issues like these, but it is necessary to understand how the research was conducted.

Gershoff and Grogan-Kaylor (2016) update the ongoing debate of to spank or not to spank by addressing whether effect sizes for spanking are distinct compared to physical abuse and whether or not effect sizes for spanking allow for the study of design differences. This 2016 metaanalysis indicates an increased risk of adverse outcomes for children who are spanked.

Sources: Gershoff, E. T. (2002). Corporal punishment by parents and associated child behaviors and experiences: A meta-analytic and theoretical review. Psychological Bulletin, 128(4), 539–579.

Gershoff, E. T., and Grogan-Kaylor, A. (2016). Spanking and child outcomes: Old controversies and new meta-analyses. Journal of Family Psychology, 30(4), 453–469.

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Section 3 Lecture Launcher: Hormones and Toy Preferences An early characteristic of gender-role stereotypes is the preference for playing with sex-typed toys. Studies of individuals with the genetic disorder congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH), a condition characterized by high levels of adrenal androgens during prenatal development, reveal that CAH women exhibit traditional male characteristics (for example, more active and rougher play, a preference for masculine activities, and a greater spatial ability than their female relatives). Most studies of this type, however, rely on interview data rather than direct observation.

Berenbaum and Hines (1992) studied 37 children (26 girls and 11 boys) with CAH and 33 unaffected male and female relatives, all between the ages of 3 and 8. Although the control girls and boys showed large differences in toy preferences along sex-typed lines, CAH girls showed a significant preference for masculine toys (compared to the control girls) and also played with feminine toys less often than did the controls. The researchers concluded that, although the data are consistent with an androgen influence on sex-typed toy choices, it is not necessarily that hormones have a direct influence on these choices. Hormones may affect toy choices indirectly, perhaps through an influence on activity level, motor skills, abilities, or temperament.

Pasterski et al. (2011) studied 26 females and 31 males with CAH and their unaffected siblings.

In this study, girls with CAH were more likely to choose masculine playmates and engage in more masculine-style play activity. Researchers suggest prenatal exposure to high levels of androgen contributes to sex differences in playmate selection and the type of activity preferences.

Sources: Berenbaum, S. A., and Hines, M. (1992). Early androgens are related to childhood sex-typed toy preferences. Psychological Science, 3, 203–206.

Pasterski, V., Geffner, M. E., Brain, C., Hindmarsh, P., Brook, C., and Hines, M. (2011).

Prenatal hormones and childhood sex segregation: playmate and play style preferences in girls with congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Hormones and behavior, 59(4), 549–555.

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Section 3 Activity: Media Influences on Gender Role Development One activity that is consistently popular with students is to have them explore a variety of media for views of sex-role development, gender identity, and the portrayal of gender stereotypes.

Books (including children’s books as well as books aimed at parents), toys, movies, videos, newspapers, magazines (including children’s magazines), television shows (especially children’s cartoons), and advertisements are all suitable subjects for analysis. After gathering a variety of sources, students should write a short paper applying principles from the text and lecture to their examples. What common themes or stereotypes did they find throughout? Are there many instances of sex-typed behavior? Are there certain kinds of media that break stereotypic portrayals? What influences will these portrayals likely have on the development of gender identity and gender role awareness in children? If available, it might be particularly instructive to compare older media sources (e.g., magazines, television shows, movies, or books that are 10 to 15 years old) with current ones. Which stereotypes seem to be firmly rooted in our culture and resistant to change? In what ways have stereotypes changed in the past decade? Because television is such an influential medium, particularly with respect to children, students should enjoy analyzing gender portrayals in various types of programming, comparing and contrasting children’s educational shows (e.g., Sesame Street, Sid the Science Kid, Super Why, Blue’s Clues), cartoons (e.g., Spongebob Squarepants, Phineas and Ferb, Mickey Mouse Club House, My Little Pony, Arthur, Peppa Pig), action shows (e.g., Power Rangers, Ben10, Imagination Movers), and situation comedies (e.g., Full House, Leave It to Beaver). Students’ papers can also form the basis for a lively class discussion on this important topic.

Use Handout 7.1 to organize students’ viewing of children’s television programs for gender stereotyping.

Section 3 Activity: Gender Socialization Divide the class into discussion groups. Give each group about 20 minutes to come up with a list of all the ways our modern society (parents, peers, relatives, siblings, teachers, media, etc.) socializes young children to be masculine or feminine. To get their creative juices flowing, you can write the following items on the board.

When the baby is born When the baby comes home from the hospital Toys and books Birthday parties, holidays, Halloween, etc.

Television Occupations Ask students whether they see any changes regarding gender socialization that suggest a movement away from strict masculine and feminine stereotypes. Invite students to provide examples of these changes.

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CRITICAL THINKING ACTIVITY Learning Pragmatics Refresh students’ understanding of language development in early childhood: Young children expand and accelerate language competencies in the areas of vocabulary, grammar, and pragmatics. As the textbook states, from ages 3 to 6, the number of vocabulary words children know balloons from an average of 1,000 words to approximately 2,500 words. As vocabulary expands, learning the rules of proper usage expands. In particular, young children learn grammar rules, such as plural and single forms; past, present, and future tenses; word order; how to use articles such as the and a; and how to correctly use prepositions, such as after, down, before, between, on, and for. The third language concept young children learn is pragmatics, the social and cultural rules of language that provide guidance for what is appropriate and what not to say in a situation.

Ask students to provide examples of games or activities that children engage in, whether at home or preschool, the park, or at a place of worship in which pragmatics are learned.

Pragmatics scenarios: Ask students to gather in groups of three or four. Provide them with Handout 7.2, which includes several conflict-filled scenarios. Students are to read each scenario and consider how pragmatics plays a role in how they would respond. They are to provide a pragmatically appropriate “acceptable” response and a pragmatically appropriate “unacceptable” response for each scenario.

The role of culture in pragmatics: Ask students to consider how cultural norms impact pragmatics. Hold a class discussion of the questions at the bottom of the handout. Last, ask them to revisit Scenario 1 and reconsider their responses in light of the possibility that the roommate’s parents pay 100% of the rent and utilities.

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SUPPLEMENTAL READINGS Bryan, J. (2012). From the dress-up corner to the senior prom: Navigating gender and sexuality diversity in preK12 schools. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Education.

Burnett, J., Anderson, W., and Heppner, P. (1995). Gender roles and self-esteem: A consideration of environmental factors. Journal of Counseling and Development, 73, 323–326.

Dodson, F. (1987). How to discipline with love. New York: New American Library.

Durkin, K. (1995). Developmental social psychology: From infancy to old age. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell.

Elkind, D. (1988). Miseducation: Preschoolers at risk. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.

Hartup, W. (1989). Social relationships and their developmental significance. American Psychologist, 44(2), 120–126.

Martin, C., Eisenbud, L., and Rose, H. (1995). Children’s gender-based reasoning about toys.

Child Development, 66, 1453–1471.

Oatley, K., and Jenkins, J. M. (1996). Understanding emotions. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell.

Robinson, J. P., Lubienski, S. T., Ganley, C. M., and Copur-Gencturk, Y. (2015). Teachers’ perceptions of students’ mathematics proficiency may exacerbate early gender gaps in achievement. Developmental Psychology, 50(4), 1262–1281.

Scheffler, R. M., Brown, T., Fulton, B., Hinshaw, S. P., Levine, P., and Stone, S. I. (2009).

Positive association between ADHD medication use and academic achievement during elementary school. Pediatrics, 123, 1273–1279.

Visser, S. N., Kramer, D., Snyder, A. B., Sebian, J., McGiboney, G., and Handler, A. (2019).

Student-perceived school climate is associated with ADHD medication treatment among adolescents in Medicaid. Journal of Attention Disorders, 23(3), 234–245.

Wolter, I., Braun, E., and Hannover, B. (2015). Reading is for girls!? The negative impact of preschool teachers’ traditional gender role attitudes on boys’ reading related motivation and skills. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 1267.

Zimbardo, P. G., and Radl, S. L. (1981). The shy child: A parent’s guide to overcoming and preventing shyness from infancy through adulthood. New York: Dolphin/Doubleday.

REVEL VIDEOS Chapter Introduction: Early Childhood Gross Motor Development in Early Childhood Conservation Tasks Egocentrism Task Guided Participation Across Cultures Gender Socialization Development of Play Styles in Early Childhood Research Focus: Shyness in China and Canada: Studying Temperament and Culture Apply Your Knowledge as a Professional: Director of a Childcare and Resource Agency

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Handout 7.1: Analysis of Children’s Television Programs and Gender Stereotyping Compare and contrast five children’s television programs. Be sure to mix the type of programs

you analyze (cartoons, Public Television, comedy, educational, live action, etc.) Answer the following questions as you view each television program.

Name of program ____________________________________________________________ Day, time, and broadcast channel of program ______________________________________ Who was the primary audience for this show (girls, boys, all)? _________________________ What about this program do you think appeals to children? ____________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ List any specific incidences of gender stereotyping, either subtle or obvious (aggressive male characters, beautiful but weak female characters, violence, males working and females staying home, who is doing what chores/activities, etc.). ____________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ What did you like and dislike about this program? __________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ Were you surprised by the stereotyping portrayed? Why or why not? ____________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ What commercials run during the program might contribute to the portrayal of stereotyping? ____________________________________________________________________________ Created by: Regina Hughes, Collin College. No third-party material included.

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Handout 7.2: Learning Pragmatics Read each scenario and consider how pragmatics plays a role in how you would respond. For each scenario, provide a pragmatically appropriate “acceptable” response and a pragmatically appropriate “unacceptable” response.

Scenario 1 Your roommate is having a huge party tonight and you have a make-or-break final exam the next morning. The library is closed, and you do not have your own transportation.

Acceptable Response: Unacceptable Response: Scenario 2 You and your date are at a four-star restaurant to celebrate her success of passing the bar exam following law school. Your server brought the wrong order the first time. Now, your date’s chicken is undercooked.

Acceptable Response: Unacceptable Response: Scenario 3 You and your boyfriend are attending a classmate’s funeral. When you go through the receiving line, the pastor, whom you haven’t seen for 3 years while away at college, hugs you much too close, for much too long, and makes a flirtatious gesture.

Acceptable Response: Unacceptable Response: Scenario 4 You are one of two females in your sophomore literature class. Your professor seems to be showing grading favoritism toward your male classmates. You have gone to office hours multiple times seeking guidance from your professor, have met with the teaching assistant, and have sought assistance from the Writing Center. You believe you are being graded unfairly and should be awarded higher grades on your writing assignments.

Acceptable Response: Unacceptable Response: How do cultural norms impact pragmatics? How might these responses to the above scenarios change if, for instance, the characters in the scenarios are from a culture in which women are subservient to men, or if young people are taught authority figures are not to be questioned?

Created by: Regina Hughes, Collin College. No third-party material included.

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CHAPTER 8: MIDDLE CHILDHOOD CONTENTS LEARNING OBJECTIVES............................................................................................................ 1 LECTURE OUTLINE .................................................................................................................... 2 LECTURE LAUNCHERS, DISCUSSION IDEAS, AND ACTIVITIES.................................... 21 CRITICAL THINKING ACTIVITY ............................................................................................ 28 SUPPLEMENTAL READINGS .................................................................................................. 28 REVEL VIDEOS .......................................................................................................................... 29 HANDOUTS................................................................................................................................. 30 LEARNING OBJECTIVES Section 1 8.1 Identify the changes in physical and sensory development that take place during middle childhood.

8.2 Explain motor development advances in middle childhood and how these advancements are related to new skills and participation in games and sports.

8.3 Describe the negative effects of both malnutrition and obesity on development, and identify the causes of obesity.

8.4 Explain why rates of illness and injury are relatively low in middle childhood and why rates of asthma have risen.

Section 2 8.5 Explain the major cognitive advances that occur during Piaget’s concrete operations stage.

8.6 Summarize how attention, memory, and executive function change from early childhood to middle childhood, and identify the characteristics of children who have ADHD. 8.7 Describe the main features and critiques of intelligence tests, and compare Gardner’s and Sternberg’s approaches to conceptualizing intelligence.

8.8 Identify the advances in language during middle childhood, and describe how language is related to cultural styles of cognition.

8.9 Explain the consequences for cognitive development of growing up multilingual.

8.10 Summarize the variations worldwide in school enrollment, socialization practices, and academic achievement during middle childhood.

8.11 Describe how reading and math skills develop from early childhood to middle childhood and the variations in approaches to teaching these skills, including educational approaches to students with learning disabilities.

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Section 3 8.12 Describe the main features of emotional self-regulation and understanding in middle school and how other life stages compare.

8.13 Summarize how self-concept and self-esteem change in middle childhood, and explain how different ways of thinking about the self are rooted in cultural beliefs.

8.14 Indicate how beliefs and behavior regarding gender change in middle childhood, including cultural variations.

8.15 Specify the distinctive features of family relations in middle childhood, and summarize the consequences of parental divorce and remarriage.

8.16 Name the main basis of friendships in middle childhood, and describe the four categories of peer social status.

8.17 Describe the kinds of work children do in middle childhood, and explain why work patterns differ between developed and developing countries.

8.18 Summarize the rates of daily TV watching among children worldwide, and describe the positive and negative effects of television, especially the hazards related to TV violence.

LECTURE OUTLINE I.

Section 1: Physical Development A. Growth in Middle Childhood 1. Physical Growth and Sensory Development LO 8.1 Identify the changes in physical and sensory development that take place during middle childhood. a. The pace of physical development in middle childhood is slow and steady. b. For each year during middle childhood, the typical child grows 2 to 3 inches and adds 5 to 7 pounds. c. Six- to 10-year-olds have the lowest body mass index (BMI), a measure of the ratio of weight to height, compared to those at any other age in the life span. d. Slight gender differences exist, with boys being taller, weighing more, and having more muscle mass than girls. However, strength among 6to 11-year-olds shows no sex differences until puberty, when boys begin to grow stronger than girls. e. Strength, speed, and lung capacity all increase in middle childhood. f. Sight and vision change in middle childhood. Sight often gets worse and hearing improves. The risk for ear infections diminishes in middle childhood. g. There is a sharp increase in the incidence of myopia, or nearsightedness, particularly for children in developed countries who spend a lot of time indoors reading, writing, and using computers and for children who are genetically predisposed. h. The American Optometric Association recommends children participate in outdoor activities using the 20-20-20 rule.

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2. Motor Development LO 8.2 Explain motor development advances in middle childhood and how these advancements are related to new skills and participation in games and sports. a. Gross Motor Development and Physical Activity i. Children’s gross motor development continues to improve in middle childhood. ii. These children have better balance and are stronger, more coordinated, more agile, and faster as they get older, which allows them to enjoy a wide range of games and sports. iii. Their faster reaction time is thanks to the increasing myelination of the corpus callosum. iv. Most girls and boys are involved in organized sports at this age. v. According to public health advocates, children need 60 minutes of daily physical activity, yet schools are becoming less and less likely to be the place where physical activity occurs. b. Fine Motor Development i. Fine motor development reaches nearly an adult level at this age, and across cultures advances are especially evident in two areas: drawing and writing. ii. Most are able to draw objects with three-dimensional characteristics and in greater detail. iii. Chinese American parents encourage instruction in basic drawing skills and European American parents prioritize free drawing, resulting in Chinese American children demonstrating greater proficiency in drawing skills. iv. Writing becomes smaller, neater, and written with more consistency.

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B. Health Issues 1. Malnutrition and Obesity LO 8.3 Describe the negative effects of both malnutrition and obesity on development, and identify the causes of obesity. a. Malnutrition i. Early malnutrition, during pregnancy through age 3, can lead to permanent cognitive or behavior deficits. ii. Results in research studies have shown that better-nourished children are more energetic, less anxious, show more positive emotion, and score higher than malnourished children score on a wide range of cognitive measures in middle childhood. b. Obesity i. Across countries, rates of overweight and obesity are highest in developed countries, especially in the most affluent regions (North America and Europe). ii. In the United States, rates of obesity are higher than in most countries. Rates of childhood obesity in the United States are highest among African Americans and Latinos. iii. Obesity is a cultural phenomenon, and a variety of social and cultural changes have contributed to this problem, including diets that include high-sugar drinks and high-fat fast food. iv. The rise in single-parent and dual-earner households results in fewer meals prepared at home, resulting in increased consumption of less-than-healthy food products. v. Increased TV watching correlates in rises in body fat, particularly in those children who watch at least 3 hours of TV per day. vi. Prenatal exposure to antibiotics in the second and third trimesters increases the risk of obesity. vii. Genetics is a contributor to obesity. viii. Being obese increases the likelihood that a child will be socially excluded and the object of ridicule by peers. Obesity is associated with characteristics such as lazy, sloppy, ugly, and stupid. ix. Physically, obesity can result in diabetes in middle childhood, which in turn can lead to problems such as diabetes, blindness, kidney failure, and stroke. x. Public policies are being enacted to address childhood obesity.

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2. Illness and Injuries LO 8.4 Explain why rates of illness and injury are relatively low in middle childhood and why rates of asthma have risen. a. In both developed and developing countries, middle childhood is a time of unusually good health and safety. b. In developed countries, there are lower rates of illnesses and diseases due to higher immunization rates, stronger immune systems, and better public health policies regarding the safety of foods and toxins in the environment. c. Rates of asthma, a chronic illness of the lungs characterized by wheezing, coughing, and shortness of breath, are highest in middle childhood. i. Asthma triggers include cold weather, exercise, illnesses, allergies, and emotional stress. ii. Children who are boys, had low birth weight, have parents who smoke, are poor, and are obese are at the highest risk of developing asthma. iii. Asthma may be higher in developed countries because of home interiors and extreme cleanliness. However, in developing countries, air pollution may be the biggest contributor. iv. African American children are at a greater risk than other children in the United States for developing asthma, but their parents seem to be the most responsive in creating an environment that avoids asthma triggers. d. Injury rates are low in middle childhood. i. Compared with younger children, children in middle childhood are more agile and better at anticipating situations that may cause injury. ii. Compared with older children, children in middle childhood are more closely supervised and engage in less risky behaviors. iii. The most common causes of injuries in middle childhood are falling, being struck by a person or object, and bites from animals or insects.

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II. Section 2: Cognitive Development A. Theories of Cognitive Development 1. Piaget’s Concrete Operations Stage LO 8.5 Explain the major cognitive advances that occur during Piaget’s concrete operations stage. a. Children develop a more true-to-life understanding of the world and have a better grasp of what the physical world is like and what is and is not possible. b. The concrete operations stage, from age 7 to 11, is when children begin using mental operations to organize and manipulate information mentally, thus allowing them to perform tasks such as conservation, classification, and seriation. c. Advances in Concrete Operations i. The concrete operational child is able to understand conservation. ii. Classification is another important milestone of concrete operations. With this ability, children can sort objects or events that share common characteristics into the same class and into categories that are more general. During middle childhood, they can perform this task physically and now mentally. iii. Seriation, the ability to arrange things in a logical order, is another achievement of middle childhood. Seriation can be done visually or mentally. d. Evaluating Piaget’s Theory i. The primary criticisms of Piaget’s theory are similar to the previous criticisms. ii. Children are capable of performing some tasks at a younger age. iii. They do not need a complete mastery of the tasks associated with the stage to be able to think concretely in some areas. iv. Piaget believed that children could not be taught to do concrete operations, but the research contradicts this notion.

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2. Information Processing LO 8.6 Summarize how attention, memory, and executive function change from early childhood to middle childhood, and identify the characteristics of children who have ADHD. a. In middle childhood, children have more advanced attention and memory due to increased myelination of the brain, especially of the corpus callosum, which speeds information processing and reduces the time needed on certain tasks. b. Attention and ADHD i. Children are better able to focus their attention on relevant information and disregard irrelevant information, termed selective attention. ii. Older children are better at focusing and knowing what is relevant and ignoring what is not than are younger children. iii. Children with problems such as inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsiveness may be displaying signs of attentiondeficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). iv. In the United States, estimates suggest 8% of children between ages 5 to 9 have been diagnosed with ADHD, with boys twice as likely to receive the diagnosis than girls are. v. Most children diagnosed with ADHD are prescribed Ritalin or other medications to suppress hyperactive behaviors with 70% of those taking medications showing improvements. vi. Pharmaceutical treatment of ADHD includes side effects, such as slower physical growth and higher risk of depression. vii. In a major European study, ADORE, rates of ADHD varied widely across countries but were higher for boys than girls. viii. The most effective treatment among children with ADHD in both Europe and the United States is a combination of medications and psychotherapy. c. Memory i. Throughout middle childhood, we see an increase in working memory, the capacity to retain information for a brief time and process it in some way. ii. Children begin using memory strategies (mnemonics), such as rehearsal, organization, and elaboration, to aid their retrieval of information. However, most people, even children, rely on more concrete, practical methods to aid memory, such as writing a note to themselves. iii. Memory also improves during this period because their knowledge base is growing, and it is easier to remember new information when you can relate it to something you already know. iv. In addition, children now have a better understanding of how memory works. This is called metamemory. Similarly, children can more accurately assess their memory abilities in middle childhood.

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d. Executive Function i. Executive function refers to problem solving and involves inhibitory control, focus, flexibility, and the ability to eliminate distraction. ii. A common measure of executive function is the dimensional change card sort. iii. Although research on executive function is limited, Asian children show an advantage over Western children on executive function.

3. Intelligence and Intelligence Tests LO 8.7 Describe the main features and critiques of intelligence tests, and compare Gardner’s and Sternberg’s approaches to conceptualizing intelligence. a. Although theorists describe general patterns of cognitive development and functioning based on age, there are individual differences that create a range of abilities within an age group. These differences become more prominent in middle childhood, especially for intelligence, which is a person’s capacity for acquiring knowledge, reasoning, and solving problems. The psychometric approach describes the practice of evaluating cognitive abilities with intelligence tests. b. The Wechsler Intelligence Tests i. The Wechsler scales are the most widely used intelligence tests: The Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI) for children 3 to 7, the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) for children 6 to 16, and the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) for those 16 and older. ii. The WISC-V measures five indexes, including verbal comprehension, visual spatial, fluid reasoning, processing speed, and working memory, resulting in an overall intelligence quotient, or IQ. The median IQ score is 100. iii. The WISC-V is a good predictor of school performance, while the WAIS is a good predictor of occupational success in adulthood. iv. Critics have cited problems with IQ tests, such as measuring a narrow range of abilities and being culturally biased; however, no one can make a completely fair cultural test.

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c. Influences on Intelligence i. IQ scores are standardized and fall into a normal distribution or bell curve where most people fall at or near the mean score of 100.

Those who fall below 70 (intellectual disability) or above 130 (gifted) only make up a small percentage of individuals. ii. Both genetics and the environment contribute to intelligence, as evidenced by numerous research studies, most notably those using adoptees and twins. iii. Genetics contribute strongly to IQ scores, with the correlation in IQ being much lower for adopted siblings and highest among MZ twins. iv. However, research also shows that environment plays a bigger role in the reaction range for intelligence, meaning a range of possible developmental paths. The best environmental path to intelligence is one that is healthy and stimulating, which leads children to score at the top of their reaction range for IQ. v. In fact, the influence of the environment on IQ is stronger for poor children than for children in affluent families because a lessstimulating environment suppresses potential. d. Other Conceptions of Intelligence: Gardner’s and Sternberg’s Theories i. Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences includes nine types of intelligence: linguistic, logical–mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily–kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalistic, and existential. Gardner believed that only the first two were measured by traditional IQ tests while the rest were ignored. This measure has not yet been found to be reliable or valid for analyzing intelligence. ii. Sternberg’s triarchic theory of intelligence includes three related but distinct forms of intelligence: analytical, creative, and practical. The tests to measure these types of intelligence focus on problem solving, knowledge application, and use of creative strategies. Sternberg believed these intelligences to be universal. iii. Neither of these tests of intelligences have been widely used, especially outside of the United States, due to the extended amount of time they take to administer and score. iv. The underlying issue is how intelligence should be defined.

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B. Language Development 1. Becoming an Adept Native Speaker LO 8.8 Identify the advances in language during middle childhood, and describe how language is related to cultural styles of cognition. a. Children’s language ability expands quickly in middle childhood as they learn new words from reading, writing, and in conversation. b. Six-year-olds know about 10,000 words, while 10- or 11-year-olds know about 40,000. c. Grammar usage becomes more complex and conditional; “if-then” sentences become common. d. Children during this period are very aware of the social context and conventions of language, called pragmatics. This is evident in their use of humor. e. Pragmatics are the social context and conventions of language that requires interpretation. Humor is often a violation of pragmatics. f. Pragmatics are culturally grounded; one must know well the culture of the people using the language. g. The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis suggests cognitive development is influenced by language development such that language shapes culturally specific cognitive styles, including egocentric frame of reference and allocentric frame of reference.

2. Multilingualism LO 8.9 Explain the consequences for cognitive development of growing up multilingual. a. When someone knows two or more languages, they are considered multilingual. The number of multilingual people is increasing due to migration between countries and a focus on learning a second language in school. b. English is the most common second language spoken around the world. c. Children who learn two languages become fluent in both and have a developmental advantage. d. The second language does not interfere with the child’s ability to master the primary language. e. The only minor problem seen in multilingual children is that they have a tendency to intermix the syntax of the two languages, but by middle childhood they can easily keep the two separate. f. If children master their primary language first, it can take 3 to 5 years longer to learn a second language than if they had learned both languages simultaneously. g. After middle childhood, it is harder to learn a new language with the same proficiency as a native speaker has. h. Research suggests that beyond the age of 12, it is difficult to learn to speak a new language without a noticeable accent. i. Children’s biological readiness to learn language declines as they age.

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j. Multilingual children have better metalinguistic skills or knowledge of the underlying structure of language and its use than monolingual learners have. k. Multilingual children score higher on executive function than monolingual children do.

C. School in Middle Childhood 1. School Experiences and Achievement LO 8.10 Summarize the variations worldwide in school enrollment, socialization practices, and academic achievement during middle childhood. a. Attending school is a relatively recent historical development (within the last 200 years). b. Attending school is typical but not universal. Even today, 11% of children ages 6 to 10 in most developing countries do not attend primary school, although primary school enrollment continues to increase. c. In many developing countries, there has been a change in focus to schooling from working for the family to being able to have a wider range of employment opportunities in the future. d. School settings around the world are quite similar, but the resources vary greatly; those with less have poorer outcomes. e. Much research has focused on comparisons between the United States and Asian countries. Asian children typically spend more time on academic subjects and have longer school days and years. f. Approaches to schooling vary widely around the world, depending on cultural beliefs about how children should learn, but it is economic development, not school philosophy, that mainly determines children’s performance on international tests. g. Several cross-national studies, such as the Progress in International Reading Literacy Study and the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study, have found that academic performance in middle childhood is related to the economic success of the country and family.

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2. Learning the Cognitive Skills of School: Reading and Mathematics LO 8.11 Describe how reading and math skills develop from early childhood to middle childhood and the variations in approaches to teaching these skills, including educational approaches to students with learning disabilities. a. Approaches to Reading i. Today’s globalized, information-based economy requires children to learn to read. They usually learn to read when they enter school at ages 6 or 7. ii. Reading requires direct instructions and the ability to learn symbols and understanding meanings. iii. The two main approaches to reading are phonics and whole language. a. The phonics approach advocates teaching children to read by breaking down words into their sound components and then putting them together into words. b. For the whole-language approach, the emphasis should be on the meaning of written language in whole passages so that children can guess at the meaning of words based on the context. c. The approach that appears to work best is a combination of the two approaches, beginning with phonics and later supplementing with the whole-language approach. b. Learning Math Skills i. Humans, and some nonhuman primates, have an awareness of numeracy, which means understanding the meaning of numbers. ii. Typically, at age 2, children begin to count; at age 5 they begin to do simple addition and subtraction; later, they become proficient at multiplication and division with increased speed of processing. iii. There is cultural variation in when and how math skills are taught to children. Although most children learn math skills in school, sometimes math is taught in practical settings where math is necessary in the real world.

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c. Learning Disabilities i. Dyslexia includes difficulty sounding out letters and learning to spell words with a tendency to misperceive the order of letters in words. ii. Learning disabilities are cognitive disorders that impede the development of learning a specific skill such as reading or math. iii. Dyslexia is to language skills what dyscalculia is to math skills.

Dyscalculia describes a neurologically based difficulty in numerical processing. iv. In the United States, the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act and the Every Student Succeeds Act mandate that students with special needs receive an individual education plan (IEP) developed by a team of teachers, other professionals, and parents. v. Least restrictive environment (LRE) is the requirement that students with disabilities must have the opportunity to be educated with nondisabled peers to the extent possible. vi. An inclusion classroom is a classroom where children with special needs learn in the same classroom with children who do not have disabilities. The self-contained classroom includes only students with special needs.

III. Section 3: Emotional and Social Development A. Emotional and Self-Development 1. Smooth Sailing: Advances in Emotional Self-Regulation LO 8.12 Describe the main features of emotional self-regulation and understanding in middle school and how other life stages compare. a. Emotionally, middle childhood is generally a time of stability and contentment. b. The Experience Sampling Method (ESM) is often used to measure individuals’ emotional and physical states by having them respond to beepers that go off randomly. c. Emotional self-regulation becomes firmly established as children are increasingly involved in contexts that require maturity. d. Emotional understanding advances as they learn to recognize their emotional states. They also learn to conceal their true emotions in favor of displaying socially acceptable emotions. They realize that other people conceal their true emotions as well. In addition, they have an increased capacity for empathy.

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2. Self-Understanding LO 8.13 Summarize how self-concept and self-esteem change in middle childhood, and explain how different ways of thinking about the self are rooted in cultural beliefs. a. Self-Concept i. Our self-concept is how we view and evaluate ourselves; it changes from an external basis to an internal basis during middle childhood. ii. If you ask a child ages 5 to 8 to tell you about himself, he would likely say, “I am a boy; I am tall, I like to play soccer.” All of these are concrete characteristics. However, in mid- to late-middle childhood, the child is likely to include internal characteristics, such as “I am friendly; I am nice; I am smart.” iii. During this period, children begin making more accurate social comparisons, and those comparisons become more complex as children get older. iv. Self-concept is influenced by age, peers, and social context. b. Self-Esteem i. Self-esteem is a person’s overall sense of worth and well-being; it declines slightly during the transition from early to middle childhood. ii. For most of middle childhood, self-esteem is high and becomes more differentiated as children develop self-concepts for a variety of areas. The combined self-concepts are valued and create overall self-esteem. iii. Physical appearance is the strongest predictor of self-esteem during middle childhood and adolescence. c. Culture and the Self i. Cultural differences in self-concept are substantial in middle childhood, as evidenced by the independent self and the interdependent self. ii. Individualistic cultures promote the independent self and encourage self-reflection and pride in the self. iii. Collectivistic cultures promote the interdependent self; that is, the self as defined by relationships with others. They are encouraged to put others’ needs before their own. High self-esteem is not encouraged. This works if it is consistent with cultural values and expectations. iv. Approaches to parenting vary based on views of the self and what is most important for the children to learn. v. Many cultures combine elements of each concept of self rather than being extreme.

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3. Gender Development LO 8.14 Indicate how beliefs and behavior regarding gender change in middle childhood, including cultural variations. a. Children’s ideas of gender roles become more sharply defined in middle childhood. b. Children are socialized to develop gender-specific personality traits, especially in more traditional cultures. These include independence and toughness for boys and nurturance and compliance in girls. c. In developed countries, gender norms are not enforced as rigidly during this developmental period. d. Children’s gender attitudes and behavior—such as certain personality traits, occupations, and school subjects—become more stereotyped. e. Play becomes more gender-segregated in middle childhood regardless of the type of culture. f. In terms of gender self-perceptions, boys want to have “masculine” traits, while girls want to have “feminine” and some “masculine” traits. g. Gender play is referred to as border work.

B. The Social and Cultural Contexts of Middle Childhood 1. Family Relations LO 8.15 Specify the distinctive features of family relations in middle childhood, and summarize the consequences of parental divorce and remarriage. a. Across cultures, the family provides children with care and direct, close supervision. b. During middle childhood, they move toward coregulation, in which parents provide guidelines, assistance, and instruction, but the child is now capable of independent, self-directed behavior. c. They no longer need constant supervision and monitoring as they demonstrate that they have learned rules and routines and have taken on responsibilities. d. In part, the amount of independence the child is given depends on the child’s gender, particularly in developing countries. e. Having siblings tends to be mutually beneficial for the children, but sibling rivalry and jealousy continue to be a problem while sibling conflict peaks in middle childhood.

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f. Diverse Family Forms i. Families come in many different forms, such as married parents, single parent, divorced parents, stepfamilies, or blended families. ii. In the United States, 63% of children live with two biological and/or adoptive parents, 20% live with a single mom, and 6% live with a parent and a stepparent. iii. Parents or caregivers can also have varying sexual orientations, which change the makeup of families. They also live with extended family members or multigenerational families or adopted families. iv. Children of gay and lesbian couples have similar developmental outcomes to children with heterosexual parents. v. Single-parent families, children born to single mothers or parents who become single as a result of divorce, are more common now, with mostly women raising their child(ren) alone or with their unmarried partner. Rates of single motherhood are high among African Americans in the United States and high in northern Europe. a. Children in single-parent households must contribute more to household duties than other children do. b. Unfortunately, children in single-parent families are most likely to be raised in poverty, which often results in behavioral problems and low academic achievement compared with their peers. c. Some single-parent families fair well if they have a higher SES and social support, particularly from extended family such as grandparents.

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g. Children’s Responses to Divorce i. Divorce rates have risen dramatically since 1960 in Canada, northern Europe, and the United States. About one-third to onehalf of children are confronted with this problem by middle childhood. ii. Children (especially boys) respond negatively to divorce, especially in the first 2 years and particularly when it includes high conflict between parents. iii. Children of divorce are more likely to have externalizing problems such as conduct issues, and internalizing problems such as depression and anxiety. They may also blame themselves for the divorce. iv. About 25% of children of divorce have severe emotional or behavioral problems compared with 10% of children in married families. v. The worst outcomes are usually experienced about 1 year postdivorce and improve to near normal by year 2 for girls. Boys continue to experience problems for about 5 years and sometimes longer. vi. However, if the quality of the relationships between family members (called family process) is good, then children have minimal problems. vii. Mothers’ parenting tends to suffer from a divorce as a result of increased household responsibilities and limited financial support, which causes stress that may make her less responsive and warm and more punitive. viii. This can result in a coercive cycle between mothers and sons because the sons’ behavioral problems cause mothers to react more harshly, which perpetuates the problems. ix. About 90% of mothers retain custody of their children following a divorce, and fathers have visitation. x. Paternal contact tends to diminish over time, especially if he remarries. xi. Divorce mediation is an arrangement in which the parents meet with a professional mediator to help them arrive at decisions that are in the best interest of the child/children with the least amount of conflict.

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h. Out of the Frying Pan: Children’s Responses to Remarriage i. When divorced parents remarry, they create a stepfamily or blended family. ii. Parents’ remarriage is experienced negatively in middle childhood, even though it improves the family’s economic situation and enhances mothers’ well-being. iii. Remarriage is generally harder on girls than it is on boys, and recovering children tend to have a setback. It’s worse yet if they are to become a blended stepfamily. iv. Remarriage is problematic because it’s disruptive; stepfathers are viewed as interlopers, and children resist stepfathers’ authority.

However, if the new family process is good because the stepfather is warm and the children are younger, the transition tends to be better.

2. Friends and Peers LO 8.16 Name the main basis of friendships in middle childhood, and describe the four categories of peer social status. a. Making Friends i. Similarity is the main basis of friendship. It is based on selective association, which is the principle that people prefer to be with those who are like themselves, especially same-gender friends. ii. Friendships become less about shared activities and more about trust in middle childhood; this is truer for girls than boys. b. Playing with Friends i. Children’s play becomes more complex and rule-based in this stage. ii. Children at this stage enjoy the challenge of mastering more complex information and rules that require organization and planning. iii. Children still enjoy simple games. iv. Children in middle childhood also begin to get more involved in organized and informal sports that advance gross motor development.

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c. Popularity and Unpopularity i. Popularity and unpopularity become prominent in peer relations once children spend a considerable part of their day in age graded schools. ii. Age is a key determinant of social status in mixed age groups, with older children having greater status. iii. Popularity is one aspect of social status, which has been divided into four categories: a. Popular children (most liked) b. Rejected children (most disliked) c. Neglected children (neither liked nor disliked; forgettable) d. Controversial children (liked and disliked by some) iv. Although most children fall primarily into one category, they can be mixed. v. Social skills are the biggest influence on popularity, followed by intelligence, appearance, and (for boys) athletic ability. vi. Rejected children have the greatest problems in peer relations and the poorest long-term prospects for social development, mainly because of their aggressiveness and a failure in their social information processing (SIP). vii. Some rejected children are withdrawn because of shyness and perhaps fearfulness. However, these characteristics are also found in neglected children. viii. Neglected children are quite well adjusted and usually have social skills equal to those of average children. ix. Controversial children have good social skills, but are also aggressive. x. Rejected children are at the greatest risk for poor developmental outcomes and interventions have shown some success. xi. Being rejected in middle school results in a developmental cascade, a process by which a problem at one point in life surges into a series of problems over time. xii. The Promoting Alternative Thinking Strategies (PATHS) curriculum has been developed by teachers and psychologists to improve social information processing and reduce aggressive behavior.

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3. Work LO 8.17 Describe the kinds of work children do in middle childhood, and explain why work patterns differ between developed and developing countries. a. Erik Erikson (1959) called middle childhood the time of the industry versus inferiority stage, when children become capable of doing useful work and self-directed projects unless they are overly criticized. b. Many children in developing countries perform paid work by the time they reach middle childhood, in a wide range of jobs ranging from agricultural work to factory work. c. Children are the cheapest form of labor and often suffer in miserable working conditions. d. Many children in developing countries have to work to provide for the basic needs of the family, including food, shelter, and clothing. e. The International Labor Organization (ILO) and UNICEF have worked to help reduce the number of child laborers.

4. Media Use LO 8.18 Summarize the rates of daily TV watching among children worldwide, and describe the positive and negative effects of television, especially the hazards related to TV violence. a. Children’s media use remains similar from early to middle childhood but increases for playing video games. b. About 25% of children simultaneously use more than one form of media at a time (media multitasking). c. Media is not positive or negative; it is very diverse in content and type. d. Concerns about media use have focused mainly on the problems associated with heavy media use and the contribution of violent media content to children’s aggressive behavior. e. Research has found that watching shows with prosocial content has positive effects on children; using the internet is a valuable resource for school work and for fun. f. Researchers have found that the effects of media are dependent on the amount and type of use and the content of the media. Heavy use, especially with violent content, is detrimental, even long term. g. Aggression associated with media use has been studied extensively; researchers have found that high levels of exposure to TV violence at age 6 predicted aggressive behavior at age 11 across countries.

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LECTURE LAUNCHERS, DISCUSSION IDEAS, AND ACTIVITIES Section 1 Lecture Launcher: Obesity The textbook authors define obesity in children as having a Body Mass Index (BMI) that exceeds 21; the body mass index is a measure of the ratio of weight to height. According to statistics gathered by the National Center for Health Statistics and published by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the number of obese or seriously overweight children and adolescents in the United States is approximately 13.7 million (Centers for Disease Control, 2017).

Experts believe that children are overweight for the same reasons adults are: lack of physical activity as a result of too much TV, video games, and computers in addition to eating a diet with too many calories.

In addition to being a serious health hazard (increased risk of heart attacks, high blood pressure, strokes, and diabetes), being obese carries a social stigma (Gibbs, 1996). Ask the class for volunteers to talk about whether they were obese when young or whether they knew someone in grade school who was overweight. What were the consequences?

Sources: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2017). Childhood obesity facts: Prevalence of childhood obesity in the United States. https://www.cdc.gov/obesity/data/childhood.html.

Gibbs, W. W. (1996, August). Gaining on fat. Scientific American, 88–94.

Robert Wood Johnson Foundation. Childhood obesity trends. The State of Obesity. www.stateofobesity.org/childhood-obesity-trends/.

Section 1 Activity: Can Exercise Improve Executive Function?

Most of us understand the benefits of exercise. Unfortunately, children spend a majority of their day sitting at desks while many schools have decreased or eliminated physical education during the school day. As noted in your textbook, Charles Hillman (2014) has conducted extensive research on the cognitive benefits of physical activity.

Divide the class into groups of three or four. Students are to play the role of a middle-school principal. Along the lines of Hillman’s findings as outlined in Reynolds (2014), ask students to design activities for a typical school day, week, and month. If students were to recommend changes to school policies and practices relative to physical activity, what would these changes look like? Ask student groups to share their designs.

Source: Hillman, C. H., Pontifex, M. B., Castelli, D. M., Khan, N. A., Raine, L. B., Scudder, M. R., Drollette, E. S., Moore, R. D, Wu, C. T., and Kamijo, K. (2014). Effects of the FITKids Randomized Controlled Trial on Executive Control and Brain Function. Pediatrics, 134, e1063–e1071.

Reynolds, G. (2014, October 8). How exercise can boost young brains. Well (blog). New York Times. https://well.blogs.nytimes.com/2014/10/08/how-exercise-can-boost-thechilds-brain.

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Section 2 Activity: Conservation of Mass, Number, and Length Piaget investigated several types of conservation problems. In fact, the following three conservation tasks are easily replicated and provide an opportunity for students to see preoperational and concrete operational thought in action.

Have students find a family member or friend who is between 4 and 6 years old and another child who is 9 to 10 years old. They should obtain permission from the children’s parents or guardians before assigning the following three tasks: Conservation of Mass A classic way to demonstrate conservation of mass is to give a child two identical balls of clay.

Confirm with the child that each ball is made of the same amount clay. Then, roll one of the balls into a long, thin shape. At this point, ask the child whether the balls are still of equal amounts.

Because of the lack of reversibility, the young child should now believe that one of the balls “has more.” If you ask the child which ball has more, he or she will typically choose the packed or unrolled ball and say, “This has more because it’s taller.” Some choose the thinly rolled clay because it’s longer.

Conservation of Number The conservation of number is a fairly simple demonstration that can be done using ten checkers or identical coins. Line the coins into two equal rows. Ask the child whether the rows have the same amount in each. After the child responds with a “yes,” spread out the checkers or coins in one of the rows so that they are spaced apart. Ask the child again if the rows have the same amount. Typically, younger children completing this task will indicate the row with the spreadout checkers or coins has more.

Conservation of Volume In this task, the children are presented with two same-sized, equally filled glasses of liquid.

Confirm with the child that the glasses are equally filled. After he or she confirms yes, pour one glass of liquid into a taller, narrower glass. Ask whether the glasses are still equal in amount of liquid. Younger children will typically say the taller glass has more liquid because it’s a bigger glass.

On each of these conservation tasks, older children will show little problem in conserving (in fact, they may view you as being stupid for asking whether the items are changing). Having a preoperational and concrete operations child complete these tasks at the same time provides a powerful demonstration of the dramatic change in thought during childhood.

Invite students to record their findings and bring them to class for discussion.

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Section 2 Lecture Launcher: Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) The topic of attention deficit disorder still strikes a nerve among most people in middle America.

There are those who believe it is not a real disorder. These individuals believe that the diagnosis serves as a medical excuse for badly behaved children. On the other hand, the scientific community increasingly views the disorder as real, brain-based, and very responsive to drug treatment. Students are fascinated with the concept of ADHD because they all seem to be aware of someone who has been diagnosed with it. Your lecture would be enhanced by concentrating on three areas: (a) the diagnostic criteria for ADHD found in the DSM-V, which you may want to use in a PowerPoint or on the document camera); (b) the effects on school performance and social interactions; and (c) the treatment of the disorder, which includes stimulants such as Ritalin, Adderall, and Dexadrine, among others, as well as psychotherapy.

The lecture can focus on the issue of how children are diagnosed. The diagnosis may be prompted by behavioral problems or difficulties in school. Research shows that boys are diagnosed at higher rates than girls are. It is unclear whether the sex difference in the prevalence of the disorder is a sex difference in the occurrence of the disorder or is due to bias in the diagnostic process. Discuss the possibility that a characteristic symptom of ADHD, such as inattention, excessive talking, or inability to focus on a project through completion, actually is a reflection of a bored, yet gifted student.

The following resources provide useful, up-to-date information on ADHD: American Psychiatric Association. www.psychiatry.org. Type “ADHD” into the search bar to find information about ADHD/ADD and current best practices in treatment.

American Psychological Association. www.apa.org. Type “ADHD” into the search bar and look for the multiple resources about ADHD/ADD. Barkley, R. A. (1990). Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: A handbook for diagnosis and treatment. New York: Guilford Press.

Centers for Disease Control, www.cdc.gov. Type “ADHD” into the search bar and select one of the many current articles.

Cline, S., and Schwartz, D. (1999). Diverse populations of gifted children: Meeting their needs in the regular classroom and beyond. New York: Pearson.

Kohn, A. (1990, November). Suffer the restless children. Atlantic Monthly, 90–100. This is an informative article about ADHD and the use of Ritalin.

Landau, S., and McAninch, C. (1993, May). Young children with attention deficits. Young Children, 49–58.

National Institute of Mental Health Page. www.nimh.nih.gov. Type “ADHD” into the search bar and look for resources about ADHD/ADD. Pellegrini, A. D., and Horvat, M. (1995). A developmental contextualist critique of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Educational Researcher, 24(1), 13–19.

Wallis, C. (1994, July 8). Life in overdrive. Time, 43–50. This article debates the issue of whether the symptoms of ADHD are indicators of “personality or pathology.”

Webb, J. T., and Maker, C. J. (1993). ADHD and children who are gifted. ERIC Digest #522. www.eric.ed.gov.

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Section 2 Discussion and Lecture Launcher: Concerns with Medicating Children and Adolescents Who Have Been Diagnosed with ADHD Although it is common, the use of psychoactive medications to treat children with ADHD remains controversial. For this reason, it is a great idea to discuss some of the reasons for this controversy. Either in a whole-class setting (or in small groups), ask students to generate the pros and cons of medicating children with ADHD. When do they think medication is warranted?

Should parents be forced by the school (state) to medicate a child for ADHD? Why or why not?

Your students will be able to generate some, if not all, of the major concerns associated with using psychoactive medication to treat ADHD. For more information on this topic, you may wish to review some of the reference material listed below to extend the discussion and lecture.

According to Stubbe (2000), the major concerns associated with the uses of psychoactive medication to treat ADHD fall into five major categories: 1. Overdiagnosis 2. Medication use will lead to drug abuse or can be used for recreation 3. Sense of loss of control 4. Side effects 5. Mentality of cure/only option Unfortunately, medication is the only intervention used in most cases. These children may benefit from these other interventions: • Psychotherapy—To discuss feelings and actions • Behavioral therapy—To teach appropriate behavior and eliminate unwanted behavior • Family therapy—To deal with the stresses of living in an ADHD household • Social skills training—To teach children proper ways of acting around others • Parenting skill training —To assist children with being more successful at home and in school Source: Stubbe, D. E. (2000). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder overview: Historical perspective, current controversies, and future directions. Child & Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 9(3), 469–479.

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Section 2 Lecture Launcher and Discussion: Understanding Multilingual Children A lecture and/or discussion of linguistically diverse children might be of value, especially if there are a number of education majors in your class. Meeting the needs of multilingual children is a growing challenge for educators. According to a report issued nearly 30 years ago, language minority students constituted an increasing proportion of young learners (Soto, 1991). At that time, the number of non-English language background (NELB) children ages birth to 4 years old rose from 1.8 million in 1976 to an estimated 2.6 million in 1990. Projections suggested the number of NELB children ages 5 to 14 would rise from 3.6 to 5.1 million in the year 2000. In response to the trends from 1976 to 2000, the field of Bilingual Early Childhood Education evolved in two directions. One emphasized formal language learning instruction, while the other emphasized natural language acquisition. Most experts in the field suggested that educators needed to incorporate practices that enhance, enrich, and optimize educational opportunities for speakers of other languages. Soto’s article emphasized a variety of successful instructional approaches, a host of misconceptions about young learners, and some practical applications for those working with preschoolers.

In a show of support of early childhood programs that promote and develop dual language learners (DLLs), the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services and the U.S. Department of Education issued a recent joint policy statement (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services and U.S. Department of Education, 2017) that details several areas of focus and notes research indicating the value of learning a second language. In fact, Kaiser et al. (2015) have found that learning a second language increases grey matter density and increases the efficiency of the synaptic connections in the language centers of the brain.

Based on the recent report, engage students in answering these questions: Should American schools require acquisition of a second language for all learners? If so, at what age would introducing a second language learning program be the most effective? Why? Sources: Kaiser, A., Eppenberger, S., Smieskova, R., Borgwardt, S., Kuenzli, E., Radue, E., and Bendfeldt, K. (2015). Age of second language acquisition in multilinguals has an impact on grey matter volume in language-associated brain areas. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 638.

Soto, L. D. (1991). Understanding bilingual/bicultural young children. Young Children, 42, pp. 30–36. (Reprinted in Child Growth and Development, Annual Editions 1995/1996.

Guilford, CT: Dushkin/Brown & Benchmark.)

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services and U.S. Department of Education. (2017).

Policy statement on supporting the development of children who are dual language learners in early childhood programs. Washington, DC.

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Section 3 Activity: Collectivism, Individualism, Performance, and the Self According to your textbook, individualistic cultures foster competition, whereas collectivistic cultures foster cooperation. North Americans are likely to associate happiness with personal/individual achievement (Markus and Kitayama, 2010). Cultural differences in how one views the self, and the role of the self in the larger context, influences how one may view success. The balance of independence and interdependence emphasized in one’s society and/or family shapes psychological functioning and thus the health of self (Markus and Kitayama, 2010).

Following a brief description of cooperative and competitive learning strategies, divide the class into several small groups (four or five students per group). Select a short problem-solving task (e.g., solving five scrambled words or a crossword puzzle or creating a unique contraption such as a dog-walking machine). Instruct one group (or set of groups) to work on the task cooperatively (sharing ideas, praising each other for good suggestions, presenting a collective decision). Instruct the other group (or set of groups) to solve the task individually and present the project of the person who finished first as the representative group project. How do students in different groups describe their experience? Which group is more satisfied with the overall outcome? Discuss the cooperative versus competitive condition as an aspect of the environment in which performance takes place. Does achievement necessarily indicate positive internal attributes?

Source: Markus, H. R., and Kitayama, S. (2010). Cultures and selves: A cycle of mutual constitution.

Perspectives on Psychological Science, 5(4), 420–430.

Section 3 Activity: Popularity Break the class into groups and distribute Handout 8.1 to each group. Ask students to make a list of all the qualities that make up a popular child and the qualities of unpopular children and why these qualities help or hinder friendships. The textbook authors list some most- and least-liked characteristics. Ask them to devise ways of helping unpopular children learn better social skills (see Handout 8.1).

One modern approach being used by schools involves conflict resolution training and peer mediation. These approaches are particularly effective in teaching children how to handle bullies and fighting. The following resources offer information about school-based conflict education:

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Sources: Coie, J. D., Dodge, K. A., and Kupersmidt, J. B. (1990). Peer group behavior and social status. In S. R. Asher and J. D. Coie (Eds.), Peer rejection in childhood. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

CREducation Project. Conflict Resolution Education Connection. https://creducation.net/researchers. Search for “researcher resources.”

Hartup, W. W. (1996). The company they keep: Friendships and their developmental significance. Child Development, 67, 1–13.

Monks, C. P. (2018, October). Friendships in middle childhood: Links to peer and school identification, and general self-worth. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 37(2), 211–229.

School Tools. www.schooltools.info. Click on the “Conflict Resolution Lessons” link at the top of the homepage.

Section 3 Lecture Launcher: Does Playing Violent Video Games Cause Aggressive Behavior?

Present the research from the 2017 report of the American Psychological Association’s Task Force on Violent Media. Many studies suggest playing violent video games leads to an increase in aggressive behaviors, thoughts, and feelings. Others believe violent video game exposure can lead to a desensitization to aggression as well as decrease prosocial behaviors.

After sharing the information, ask students how they feel about the link between violent video game watching and aggressive behavior. This is a great opportunity to revisit the discussion between causation and correlation.

Sources: Adachi, P. J., and Willoughby, T. (2013). Demolishing the competition: The longitudinal link between competitive video games, competitive gambling, and aggression. Journal of Youth Adolescence. 42(7), 1090–1104.

American Psychological Association Task Force on Violent Media (2017). The American Psychological Association Task Force assessment of violent video games: Science in the service of public interest. American Psychologist, 72(2), 126–143.

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CRITICAL THINKING ACTIVITY Detection Signal Bias and ADHD Literature Review As a preface to the activity, explain to students the significant role that bias plays in research and specifically the impact of bias on research. Describe detection signal bias, or unmasking, as a type of selection bias that occurs when we think an existing disorder, or the prevalence of the disorder, is brand new, when in actuality it is newly revealed. Detection signal bias can happen when new tests, interest, funding, descriptions, or laws seem to expose the existence or prevalence of a disorder.

This literature review and question response activity centers on attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Symptoms of ADHD are most often identified in early childhood. Detection signal bias can impose a strong influence on how we think about ADHD, particularly if it results in overdiagnosis or underdiagnosis of a disorder.

Before students undertake the literature review, ask them what they know to be the symptoms of ADHD. Then provide Handout 8.2 to students. Request that they review each of the eight resources and write their responses to the questions outlined in the handout. Ask students to bring the responses to class for an extended discussion. Invite them to answer the following questions in class: • What surprised you most about the research you read in the literature?

• Do you understand how detection signal bias can play a role? If so, how so?

• What might motivate a parent to seek a diagnosis for ADHD? SUPPLEMENTAL READINGS Abrams, D., and Hogg, M. A. (Eds.). (1990). Social identity theory: Constructive and critical advances. New York: Springer-Verlag.

Armstrong, T. (1993). 7 kinds of smart: Identifying and developing your many intelligences.

New York: Plume.

Bane, M. J., and Jencks, C. (1976). Five myths about your IQ. In N. J. Block and G. Dworkin (Eds.), The IQ controversy. New York: Pantheon.

Barkley, R. A. (2013). Taking charge of ADHD: The complete, authoritative guide for parents (3rd ed.). New York: Guilford Press.

Baumeister, R. (Ed.). (1993). Self-esteem: The puzzle of low self-regard. New York: Plenum.

Briggs, D. C. (1975). Your child’s self-esteem. Garden City, NY: Doubleday.

DelCampo, R. L., and DelCampo, D. S. (1995). Taking sides: Clashing views on controversial issues in childhood and society. Guilford, CT: Dushkin.

Flynn, J. R. (2012). Are We Getting Smarter? Rising IQ in the Twenty-First Century. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.

Goleman, D. (1995). Emotional intelligence. New York: Bantam.

Gregory, R. J. (2017). Psychological testing (7th ed.). New York: Pearson.

Hallowell, E. M., and Ratey, J. J. (1994). Driven to distraction: Recognizing and coping with attention-deficit disorder from childhood through adulthood. New York: Touchstone.

Herbert, W., and Daniel, M. (1996, June 3). The moral child. U.S. News & World Report, 52–59.

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Hetherington, E. M., Hagan, M. S., and Anderson, E. R. (1989). Marital transitions: A child’s perspective. American Psychologist, 44(2), 303–312.

Hock, R. R. (2012). Forty studies that changed psychology: Explorations into the history of psychological research (7th ed.). New York: Pearson.

Hoffman, L. W. (1989). Effects of maternal employment in the two-parent family. American Psychologist, 44(2), 283–292.

Katzmarzyk, P. T., Chaput, J. P., Fogelholm, M., Hu, G., Maher, C., Maia, J., … Tudor-Locke, C. (2019). International Study of Childhood Obesity, Lifestyle and the Environment (ISCOLE): Contributions to understanding the global obesity epidemic. Nutrients, 11(4), 848.

Patterson, G. R., DeBarsyshe, B.D., and Ramsey, E. (1989). A developmental perspective on antisocial behavior. American Psychologist, 44(2), 329–335.

Perkins, D. (1995). Outsmarting IQ. New York: Free Press.

Sala, G., and Gobet, F. (2017, October). Does far transfer exist? Negative evidence from chess, music, and working memory training. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 26(6), 515–520.

Sternberg, R. J. (Ed.). (2018). The nature of human intelligence. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.

Sternberg, R. J., and Kolligian, J. Jr. (Eds.). (1990). Competence considered. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

Wallerstein, J. S., and Blakeslee, S. (1989). Second chances: Men, women, and children a decade after divorce. New York: Ticknor & Fields.

REVEL VIDEOS Chapter Introduction: Middle Childhood Gross Motor Development in Middle Childhood Cultural Focus: Obesity Seriation A Boy Talks About Having ADHD Robert Sternberg on Cultural Influences Cultural Focus: School and Education in Middle Childhood Across Cultures A Family with Two Fathers Pam: Divorced Mother of Nine-year-old Cultural Focus: Friendships and Peer Relationships in Middle Childhood Across Cultures Research Focus: TV or not TV? Apply Your Knowledge as a Professional: Court Appointed Child Advocate

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Handout 8.1: Encouraging Positive Social Relationships According to the Promoting Alternative Thinking Strategies (PATHS) curriculum, multiple behaviors encourage positive social relationships. Identify three to five behaviors that encourage positive social relationships that are not reflected in the list below. What specific activities or behaviors help encourage these pro-social behaviors in a group of children in middle childhood?

•

Showing empathy and kindness

•

Delaying gratification

•

Showing positive verbal and physical contact

•

Respectful communication

•

Positive Self-talk

•

Showing affection

•

Cooperating with others to complete a task

•

______________________________________________________________?

•

______________________________________________________________?

•

______________________________________________________________?

•

______________________________________________________________?

•

______________________________________________________________?

Sources: Domitrovich, C. E., Cortes, R. C., and Greenberg, M. T. (2007, March). Improving young children’s social and emotional competence: A randomized trial of the preschool “PATHS” curriculum. Journal of Primary Prevention, 28(2), 67–91.

Jennings, P. A., and Greenberg, M. T. (2008). The prosocial classroom: Teacher social and emotional competence in relation to student and classroom outcomes. Review of Educational Research, 79(1), 491–525.

Wittmer, D. S., and Honig, A. S. (1994, July). Encouraging positive social development in young children. Young Children, 4–12.

Created by: Regina Hughes, Collin College. No third-party material included.

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Handout 8.2: Detection Signal Bias and ADHD Literature Review 1. In “Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder/Historical Development and Overview,” C. K. Conners (2000) writes about the history of the disorder (Journal of Attention Disorders, 3[4], 173–191). Ask a librarian for assistance to access the online or print version of this article for free. Read this article and discuss in writing how it relates to detection signal bias and ADHD. 2. Explore detection signal bias of ADHD. Go to the website of the U.S. Department of Education’s website, https://www2.ed.gov, and search for its Office of Civil Rights. Conduct a search for Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973. Review sections 18 and 19 under “Evaluation.” Discuss the following question in writing: Is it possible that the Rehabilitation Act played a significant role in presenting detection signal bias toward attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder when the disorder was initially defined?

Explore the following publications and online resources, and discuss negative effects that detection signal bias may have. Conversely, what are some of the concerns inherent in pharmaceutical treatments in young children? What are potential consequences of untreated ADHD for development, comorbid disorders, and success in school, love, work, and life? What other issues might be discovered during a health screening for ADHD? What is considered an “appropriate screening” for ADHD? What role might detection signal bias play in the stigma of diagnosis?

American Psychiatric Association, www.psychiatry.org. Type “ADHD” into the search bar to find information about ADHD/ADD and current best practices in treatment.

American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed.). You will find one in a library reference section, but your campus librarian may be able to direct you to a free online version.

American Psychological Association, at www.apa.org. Type “ADHD” into the search bar and look for the multiple resources about ADHD/ADD. Centers for Disease Control, www.cdc.gov. Type “ADHD” into the search bar and select one of the many current articles.

Danielson, M. L., Bitsko, R. H., Ghandour, R. M., Holbrook, J. R., Kogan, M. D., and Blumberg, S. J. (2018). Prevalence of parent-reported ADHD diagnosis and associated treatment among U.S. children and adolescents, 2016. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 47(2), 199–212.

Hinshaw, S. P., and Scheffler, R. M. (2014). The ADHD explosion: Myths, medications, money, and today’s push for performance. New York: Oxford University Press.

National Institute of Mental Health, www.nimh.nih.gov. Enter “attention deficit hyperactivity disorder” in the search box. You will find several publications, including booklets and brochures and an especially good fact sheet in English and Spanish.

Visser, S. N., Danielson, M. L., Bitsko, R. H., Holbrook, J. R., Kogan, M. D., Ghandour, R. M., and Blumberg, S. J. (2014). Trends in the parent-report of health care providerdiagnosed and medicated attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: United States, 2003– 2011. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 53, 34–46.

Created by: Regina Hughes, Collin College. No third-party material included.

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CHAPTER 9: EARLY ADOLESCENCE CONTENTS LEARNING OBJECTIVES............................................................................................................ 1 LECTURE OUTLINE .................................................................................................................... 2 LECTURE LAUNCHERS, DISCUSSION IDEAS, AND ACTIVITIES.................................... 14 CRITICAL THINKING ACTIVITY ............................................................................................ 16 SUPPLEMENTAL READINGS .................................................................................................. 17 REVEL VIDEOS .......................................................................................................................... 17 HANDOUT ................................................................................................................................... 18 LEARNING OBJECTIVES Section 1 9.1 Summarize the changes in hormones, height, muscle mass, and body fat that occur during puberty.

9.2 Differentiate primary and secondary sex characteristics, and list them in the order they typically emerge.

9.3 Identify influences on the timing of puberty.

9.4 Summarize how relatively early or late pubertal timing influences emotional and social development in boys and girls.

9.5 Describe personal responses to menarche and semenarche among adolescents and how these responses are shaped by their culture.

9.6 Identify the main gender differences in puberty rituals worldwide.

Section 2 9.7 Explain the features of hypothetical-deductive reasoning, and identify critiques of Piaget’s stage of formal operations.

9.8 Summarize the changes in attention, memory, and executive function that take place from middle childhood to adolescence.

9.9 Define the imaginary audience and the personal fable, and explain how they reflect egocentrism in adolescence.

9.10 Produce an example of the zone of proximal development and scaffolding involving early adolescents.

9.11 Describe how adolescents’ school achievement is influenced by their relationships with parents and friends.

9.12 Describe how adolescents’ school achievement is related to social class, ethnicity, and immigrant generation.

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Section 3 9.13 Summarize the results of the Experience Sampling Method (ESM) studies with respect to adolescent emotionality.

9.14 Describe how self-esteem changes during adolescence, including cultural variations.

9.15 Describe the gender-intensification hypothesis, and indicate the extent of support for it within the United States and in traditional cultures.

9.16 Summarize the cultural variations in adolescents’ relationships with parents, siblings, and extended family.

9.17 Describe the causes and consequences of physical and sexual abuse.

9.18 Explain why friends are the sources of more intense emotions than parents are in early adolescence, and describe the dynamics between bullies and victims.

9.19 Explain the function of media use in adolescents’ lives, and apply the Media Practice Model to the playing of electronic games.

LECTURE OUTLINE I. Section 1: Physical Development A. The Metamorphosis: Biological Changes of Puberty 1. Adolescence is structured in part by puberty, the biological changes that lead to physical and sexual maturity.

2. The Physical Changes of Puberty LO 9.1 Summarize the changes in hormones, height, muscle mass, and body fat that occur during puberty. a. Puberty brings dramatic changes, including differences in children’s anatomy, physiology, and physical appearance, while preparing the body for sexual reproduction. b. Hormonal Changes i. Sex hormone production of estrogens and androgens increases when adolescents cross a body fat threshold that triggers the hypothalamus. ii. Fat cells trigger the production of leptin, a protein the signals the hypothalamus to produce gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) which in turn increases the production of sex hormones. iii. For puberty, the two categories of sex hormones are estrogens (the most important of these is estradiol) and androgens (the most important of these, testosterone). iv. Levels of these sex hormones are similar in children until puberty, when levels of estradiol climb for girls and testosterone soars for boys. This leads to primary and secondary sex characteristics.

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c. The Growth Spurt i. As hormones increase, physical growth beings to show dramatic changes. The adolescent growth spurt during this time refers to the rapid pace of growth in height. ii. Peak height velocity brings growth spurts in girls averaging 3.5 inches per year and boys averaging 4.1 inches per year. iii. Girls tend to reach peak height velocity earlier than boys and from ages 11 to 13, girls are taller than boys. iv. Girls reach their peak height at about age 15, while boys peak on height at about age 17. v. Boys and girls are often long, awkward and gangly, referring to asynchronicity, or the uneven pace at which growth occurs throughout the body. d. Increases in Muscle and Fat i. The increase in testosterone results in a profound change in the ratio of muscle to fat. ii. Boys see an increase in muscle while girls experience an increase in fat, with boys having a muscle-to-fat ratio of 3:1 and girls a ratio of 5:4. iii. Hips and shoulders widen in both boys and girls, but boys experience greater increases in shoulder width, while girls experience greater increases in hip width.

3. Primary and Secondary Sex Characteristics LO 9.2 Differentiate primary and secondary sex characteristics, and list them in the order they typically emerge. a. Primary sex characteristics are directly related to production, such as the production of ova (eggs) in females and sperm in males. i. Females are born with all of the ova they will ever have, but males produce millions of sperm every day. ii. Girls experience menarche, the first menstrual period and at around age 12, and boys experience production of sperm, or spermarche. b. Secondary sex characteristics involve other bodily changes, such as growth of more body hair, including underarm hair and pubic hair, voice changes, skin oil production, and increases in sweat production. i. Females experience an increase in breast size and limb hair, while boys experience an increase in facial hair.

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B. The Timing of Puberty 1. Influences on Pubertal Timing LO 9.3 Identify influences on the timing of puberty. a. The rate, timing, and order of pubertal events varies greatly by culture. b. The onset of puberty is partly determined by the culture’s availability of adequate nutrition and medical care. c. Puberty begins earlier when food and health care are in abundance. d. The downward trend in the age of menarche, known as a secular trend, is attributed to the influence of nutrition and medical care. e. The average age of menarche is lowest in developed countries, about 12.5 years, and highest in developing countries, about 15. f. As countries such as China and South Korea experience rapid economic development, the average age of menarche is declining. g. Human females have a genetically established reaction range, which establishes when the female is capable of menarche in response to environmental influences. h. The more genetically similar, the greater likelihood females will experience similar timing in pubertal events.

2. Consequences of Being “Early” or “Late” LO 9.4 Summarize how relatively early or late pubertal timing influences emotional and social development in boys and girls. a. In developing countries, the timing of puberty is of great importance because children make social comparisons. i. Early maturation puts girls at risk for negative outcomes, such as depressed mood, aggressive behavior, easing disorders, and a host of other negative outcomes because they look different from the majority of their peers and others think they are older and treat them accordingly. ii. Early maturation produces mixed results for boys. They tend to have favorable body images and popularity because they have achieved the appearance other boys desire, and they are considered more attractive. However, they do tend to get into more trouble, as they hang out with older boys. iii. In addition, late-maturing boys, unlike girls, suffer from problems with substance use, delinquency, and academic performance. iv. Late-maturing girls tend to have relatively few negative outcomes.

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C. Responses to Puberty 1. Personal Responses to Menarche and Semenarche LO 9.5 Describe personal responses to menarche and semenarche among adolescents and how these responses are shaped by their culture. a. The way in which others respond to adolescents’ onset of puberty partly determines their social and personal responses to it. b. Scientists are particularly intrigued with how girls respond to menarche and have found that American girls welcome menarche with some ambivalence yet feel “grown up.” c. Culture and biology influence reactions to menarche, with girls in cultures who provide no information to prepare them expressing feelings of fear and dismay. d. Girls who experience early menarche are most likely to be underprepared and most likely to react negatively to menarche. e. The culture expectations and attitudes about menarche influence a girl’s response to it. Most girls and women experience a combination of behavioral, emotional, and physical discomfort before and during menstruation, symptoms referred to as premenstrual syndrome (PMS). f. The lack of effective sanitary products to manage menstrual hygiene in some developing countries results in hikes in school absenteeism. g. Semenarche, a male’s first ejaculation, is the closest comparison to menarche.

2. Puberty Rituals LO 9.6 Identify the main gender differences in puberty rituals worldwide. a. Puberty rituals, a formal way of marking the entrance from childhood to adolescence, are most common in traditional cultures. The bar and bat mitzvah, Catholic confirmation, and the quinceañera are examples of puberty rituals. b. For girls, menarche is the ritualized triggering event that often implements restrictions on household, social, sexual, and educational activities and movement outside the home. c. For young men, rituals are more formal and often require demonstrations of courage, strength, and endurance. d. Male rituals tend to be violent based on Western values but are seen as preparing young men to go out into a harsh world where they will need these skills. However, these rituals are on the decline due to globalization. e. Circumcision, for males and females, is a common puberty ritual in Africa. For girls, it is equated to female genital mutilation because it puts the girls at risk for chronic pain, urinary infections, childbirth complications, and impaired sexual pleasure.

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II. Section 2: Cognitive Development A. Cognitive Changes in Early Adolescence 1. Piaget’s Formal Operations Stage LO 9.7 Explain the features of hypothetical-deductive reasoning, and identify critiques of Piaget’s stage of formal operations. a. In Piaget's stag’ theory, formal operations is the period of development from about 11 to about 15 to 20 years of age in which adolescents learn to think logically, systematically, and abstractly about complex tasks and problems. b. Hypothetical-Deductive Reasoning i. Hypothetical-deductive reasoning is the ability to think scientifically and apply the scientific method to cognitive tasks. ii. Piaget tested this ability with the pendulum problem. iii. Young children approached the problem randomly, but adolescents thought about the problem hypothetically and systematically tested different possible solutions to the problem. c. Critiques of Piaget’s Theory of Formal Operations i. The two main criticisms of this theory are Piaget’s failure to account for individual and cultural differences. ii. Research shows that adolescents and adults use formal operations selectively and inconsistently, if at all. iii. Those who have had course work in math and science are the most likely to demonstrate formal operational thought. iv. Piaget’s task did not lend itself very well to testing formal operational thinking in other cultures. v. Research shows that adolescents do begin to demonstrate reasoning for materials and tasks that are familiar and relevant in their daily lives. vi. Scholars agree that formal operational thought may be a universal stage of development, but it manifests differently based on culture. vii. Even within cultures, individual differences are seen from high levels of formal operational thinking to none at all.

2. Information Processing LO 9.8 Summarize the changes in attention, memory, and executive function that take place from middle childhood to adolescence. a. Information processing, including attention and memory, improves significantly during adolescence. b. Adolescents become more proficient at selective attention, the ability to focus on relevant information while screening out irrelevant information. c. They also get better at tasks that require divided attention, or multitasking. However, having divided attention may result in less efficient learning.

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d. Memory improves with the increased use of mnemonic devices or memory strategies and with more experience and knowledge. e. Adolescent executive function improves, which allows for greater control and management of their cognitive processes, including attention, memory, planning, and reasoning.

3. Social Cognition: The Imaginary Audience and the Personal Fable LO 9.9 Define the imaginary audience and the personal fable, and explain how they reflect egocentrism in adolescence. a. Adolescent metacognition, or thinking about your own and others’ thinking, also improves during this period. They become better at taking others’ perspectives. b. Social cognition is largely affected by adolescent egocentrism in which they have difficulty distinguishing their own thoughts from others’ thoughts. c. The Imaginary Audience i. The imaginary audience results from adolescents’ limited capacity to distinguish between their own self-referencing thoughts and their thinking about the thoughts of others. ii. They end up believing that others are thinking about them to the same extent or greater as they think about themselves. iii. This leads to self-conscious thoughts and behaviors. d. The Personal Fable i. The personal fable is an adolescents’ belief in the uniqueness of their personal experiences and their personal destiny. ii. Their fable can lead to anguish and optimistic bias, the tendency to assume accidents, diseases, and other misfortunes are more likely to happen to others than to ourselves. It also contributes to risky behavior.

4. Culture and Cognition LO 9.10 Produce an example of the zone of proximal development and scaffolding involving early adolescents. a. Vygotsky’s views on scaffolding and the zone of proximal development continue to apply in learning in adolescence. This is the time when they learn the skills needed for adult work. b. The zone of proximal development is the difference between tasks people can accomplish alone and more advanced tasks they can do with guidance. Scaffolding refers to the type of assistance provided by a more experienced person. c. Social learning is a cultural process whereby adolescents gain skills and knowledge that will be useful in their culture.

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B. School in Relation to Other Social Contexts 1. Family and Friends LO 9.11 Describe how adolescents’ school achievement is influenced by their relationships with parents and friends. a. Parenting Style i. Parents’ expectations significantly impact educational achievement; parental expectation of academic achievement is positively correlated with school performance, and the more parental involvement, the more school success. ii. Authoritative parents produce adolescents who develop selfreliance, persistence, and responsibility. iii. Authoritarian, neglectful, and permissive parenting results in lower school performance, while neglectful parenting to leads to the worst achievement outcomes. b. Friends and Peers i. Even with authoritative parents, having friends with little interest in school success leads to lower school success. Friends influence each other, and those with high educational achievements and goals give each other support and encouragement for academic achievement. ii. Interestingly, friends and peers differ in their influence on academic achievement; friends influence friends, yet the “big fish in a little pond” effect results in high achievement for those where peers have lower than average school achievement levels. High peer achievers tend to fare worse where the majority are high achievers.

2. Social Class, Ethnicity, and Immigrant Generation LO 9.12 Describe how adolescents’ school achievement is related to social class, ethnicity, and immigrant generation. a. Social Class i. Social class or socioeconomic status (SES) is positively associated with test scores and achievement. ii. Middle-class parents are more likely than lower-class parents to have an authoritative parenting style. iii. Middle-class children receive better nutrition and health care than lower-class children do, beginning prenatally and continuing through adolescence. iv. Level of stress as experienced by lower-class families is negatively related to cognitive performance and school achievement.

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b. Ethnicity i. Asian Americans have the best academic performance of any other ethnic group in American society, with Asian American parents holding the highest educational expectations compared to parents from other ethnic groups. ii. Poverty is negatively associated with academic performance, and African Americans, Latinos, and Native Americans are more likely than Whites or Asian Americans to live in poverty. iii. For Asian Americans, having academically oriented friends is a positive while, for other ethnic groups, being academically oriented can lead to negative outcomes. iv. Some argue that differences in academic achievement among ethnic groups is related to influences such as prejudice and discrimination. c. Immigrant Generation i. School performance is related to how long immigrant families have been in the United States. ii. The more generations that Asian American and Latino families have lived in the United States, the worse the adolescents fare in school. This downward achievement trend in successive generations is referred to as the immigrant paradox. iii. Once immigrants become Americanized, they prioritize leisure and socializing with friends rather than academic achievement.

III. Section 3: Emotional and Social Development A. Emotional and Self-Development 1. Emotionality in Early Adolescence: The Start of Storm and Stress?

LO 9.13 Summarize the results of the Experience Sampling Method (ESM) studies with respect to adolescent emotionality. a. Adolescent emotionality was measured using the Experience Sampling Method (ESM). Ultimately, the findings indicated that adolescence in the United States is a time of emotional volatility. Researchers showed that adolescents are moodier than preadolescents due to cognitive and environmental factors more so than to biological changes. i. Adolescents are more likely to feel self-conscious and embarrassed less happy during this time. ii. The emotional decline continues until about age 16 and then begins to improve. iii. Adolescents respond more often with their hearts than their heads. iv. Brain activity is especially high in the emotional center, the amygdala, and low in the frontal lobes, the brain region involved with reasoning and planning. b. Although there has been little research on teenage emotionality in nonWestern cultures, other cultures may experience a similar phenomenon.

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2. Self-Development LO 9.14 Describe how self-esteem changes during adolescence, including cultural variations. a. A Decline in Self-Esteem i. Self-esteem declines in early adolescence, then increases in late adolescence and emerging adulthood. ii. Possible reasons for the decline include being self-conscious due to the imaginary audience, having a strong peer-orientation (Western cultures), and potentially harsh peer evaluations. b. Domains of Self-Esteem i. Harter developed a self-concept scale with eight different domains.

Having a positive self-image in all areas is not required for a satisfactory level of global self-esteem. ii. Gender differences do exist for self-esteem due to the varying importance of different domains, with girls placing a greater emphasis on their own physical appearance than boys do. iii. African American girls tend to have the highest self-esteem of girls of any ethnic group. c. Self-Esteem and Culture i. Americans value self-esteem more than people in other countries do, while in Asian countries self-criticism is a virtue. ii. Although expressing higher self-esteem than other ethnic groups, African American adolescents experience a decline in self-esteem if they experience racial discrimination. iii. White adolescents tend to have higher self-esteem than Asian Americans, Latinos, or Native Americans. iv. Asian Americans report the lowest self-esteem among adolescent ethnic populations.

3. Gender Development LO 9.15 Describe the gender-intensification hypothesis, and indicate the extent of support for it within the United States and in traditional cultures. a. The gender-intensification hypothesis is the result of psychological and behavioral differences between males and females due to heightened pressure to conform to culturally based gender roles. b. Intense social pressure, not biological changes as a result of puberty, may increase gender differences through adolescence. c. For many girls, there is a pressure to be slim and beautiful, which can lead to body image problems. d. Adolescents already embrace gender stereotypes more so than younger children do, but gender intensification is more prevalent for those who have more socialization pressure and who live in traditional cultures. e. Gender expectations differ for males (something to be achieved) compared to females (comes with biological changes). f. To achieve manhood in a traditional culture, a boy must be able to provide, protect, and procreate.

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B. The Social and Cultural Contexts of Early Adolescence 1. Family Relationships LO 9.16 Summarize the cultural variations in adolescents’ relationships with parents, siblings, and extended family. a. Conflict with Parents i. Often, adolescents and their parents get along because of shared views on important issues and mutual love and respect. ii. Adolescents in Western countries experience more conflict with their parents, especially in early adolescence, than adolescents in more traditional cultures. iii. Conflict is particularly tense between mothers and daughters. iv. Some of the reasons for conflict include adolescents reaching sexual maturity, the ability to reason and argue effectively, desire for autonomy or independence, and parental concern over potentially risky behavior. v. In traditional cultures where autonomy is not valued, there are few conflicts between parents and their adolescents because of feelings of duty and respect. b. Sibling and Extended-Family Relations i. About 80% of American adolescents have one or more siblings, and, in developing countries, that percentage is even higher. ii. Sibling relationships during adolescence are characterized by conflict, although less so than when they were younger because of less frequent contact. iii. Stewart identified five patterns of adolescent-sibling relationships: caregiver, buddy, critical, rival, and casual. iv. In traditional cultures, there is conflict between siblings but also very close attachment, especially for those of the same gender. v. Adolescents who live with extended family members tend to be close to them. This is most common in traditional cultures but also in some minority cultures in the United States. vi. Even in the United States where extended families commonly live apart, most adolescents are close to at least one member of the extended family.

2. Physical and Sexual Abuse in the Family LO 9.17 Describe the causes and consequences of physical and sexual abuse. a. Physical abuse is often perpetrated against adolescents more than younger children and more by fathers than mothers. b. Physical Abuse i. Family stress, parental problems, lower SES, large families, and families with a history of mental illness tend to be factors that contribute to increased risk of physical abuse against adolescents. ii. Physically abused adolescents tend to exhibit more aggression, antisocial behavior, substance abuse, mental illness, academic challenges, and difficulty in personal relationships. iii. Many abused adolescents are surprisingly resilient.

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c. Sexual Abuse i. Boys are more likely to be victims of physical abuse and girls to be victims of sexual abuse. ii. Sexual abuse against girls is more likely committed by those who are not biologically related. iii. Adolescent sexual abuse leads to distrust of others and the difficulty forming stable intimate relationships. iv. About one-third of those sexually abused by parents demonstrate few or no symptoms as a result of the abuse, and support from the non-abusing parent and psychotherapy help in abuse recovery.

3. Friends and Peers LO 9.18 Explain why friends ae the sources of more intense emotions than parents are in early adolescence, and describe the dynamics between bullies and victims. a. Time with Friends: Higher Highs, Lower Lows i. ESM studies reveal that adolescents experience their happiest moments with friends who tend to mirror their own emotions. ii. Adolescents enjoy free time, or the “emotional high point of the week,” with friends who accept and value them for who they are. iii. Friends offer the best of the best but also are the source of negative emotions, such as anger, resentment, anxiety, sadness, and frustration. b. Bullies and Victims i. Bullying involves aggressive assertion of power over a person with less power. ii. Researchers assert that bullying has three components: aggression, repetition, and power imbalance. iii. Bullying has been observed as a problem on many continents, including Europe, Asia, and North America. iv. Prevalence rates range from 6% to 41%, with boys being more likely to be victims and bullies than are girls. v. Victims report having many internalizing problems; some of these problems manifest physically. vi. Bullies have been found to have more psychological problems and more familial and peer conflict in their relationships. vii. When electronic devices, such as making posts on social media, texts, and emails, are used to bully, that is called cyberbullying. viii. Similar to traditional bullying, cyberbullying is most common between 12- to 20-year-olds, with the highest rates in early adolescence. ix. Unlike bullying, which occurs face to face, only about half of the cyber victims know their attacker(s), and it usually involves only one incident.

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4. Media Use LO 9.19 Explain the function of media use in adolescents’ lives, and apply the Media Practice Model to the playing of electronic games. a. More than 88% of American adolescents have access to a digital device, sending an average of 30 text messages per day and identifying as significant users of social media. A reported 92% of American adolescents connect to the internet on a daily basis. b. A Model of Adolescents’ Media Uses i. Adolescents in developed countries use media about nine hours per day. ii. The Media Practice Model proposes that adolescents actively use media through their selection, interaction, and application of the content they choose as part of their identity. c. Electronic Games i. In the United States, more than 90% of boys and 70% of girls ages 13 to 17 report playing video games. ii. The majority of adolescents’ favorite games include some sort of violence. iii. They prefer these games because they can experience fantasies of power, fame, new adventures, socialization with other gamers, and the cathartic effect on negative emotions. iv. Research on the relationship between playing violent video games and aggressive behavior has been mixed. It seems that those who are already at risk for violent behavior are most likely to be affected by and attracted to the games. Violent content has been found to influence social attitudes. v. Recently, violent games have become less popular among adolescents and games involving music and sports have become more popular.

LECTURE LAUNCHERS, DISCUSSION IDEAS, AND ACTIVITIES Section 1 Lecture Launcher and Discussion: The Effects of Being a Late Developer As the text notes, research indicates that being late-maturing is particularly difficult for boys.

Late-maturing boys tend to be smaller, less muscular, and less traditionally athletic than earlymaturing boys. This puts them at a great disadvantage because sports are an important aspect of adolescent boys’ experiences and definition of themselves. The difficulty of this period can have lasting effects on self-esteem well into adulthood. Again, this result indicates the critical importance that body image has on our self-esteem and our self-evaluations. How did our society become so body oriented? What is the evolutionary perspective on this issue?

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Section 1 Activity: Reflections on Body Image Have students find media sources on body image (e.g., newspapers, magazines, TV) and analyze the messages conveyed to adolescents. Some questions students could consider are: 1. Think about how different adolescents may view their body image. How might their perceptions influence their school performance or their interactions with family members and peers?

2. When do you think children/adolescents become concerned about their body image? How does this come about?

3. Throughout history, physical attractiveness has been important in the initiation of relationships between or among the sexes. Yet the specific definition of an attractive person has changed many times. How is attractiveness defined? How does the definition become changed? How is the definition, in effect, conveyed to adolescents? Specifically, who do they use for their ideal and with whom do they compare themselves?

4. Are there differences in the way that adolescent boys and adolescent girls feel about their body image? Explain why this may or may not be.

5. What role does the print media play in body image?

6. What can adults (e.g., teachers, parents) do to help adolescents feel more comfortable about their body image?

7. How does social media play into expectations and definitions of the ideal body?

Section 2 Lecture Launcher: Risky Behavior During Adolescence Begin this discussion by showing the TED video by cognitive neuroscientist Sarah-Jayne Blakemore describing the Mysterious Workings of the Adolescent Brain. The 14-minute video offers insight into the significant changes in the teen brain and why it may explain teen behavior.

In the text, Arnett explains adolescent egocentrism and notes two characteristics of this type of thinking: the imaginary audience and the personal fable. Another characteristic of adolescent egocentric thinking is the illusion of invulnerability. That is, adolescents understand that bad things do happen to people, but they maintain the belief that bad things will not happen to them.

Why do adolescents think this way?

Researchers have recognized that the decision-making skills of adolescents differ from those of adults. It is possible that the differences stem from adolescents having less mature brains than adults have; the brain continues to develop well into the 20s. The poor decision-making skills of adolescents appear to explain why adolescents sometimes take risks that older adults would not.

The accidental death rates for adolescents are high. Teens and young adults also commit a substantial percentage of all crimes. Discuss the idea that the adolescent brain leads to adolescents making unwise decisions.

Source: Blakemore, S. J. (2012, June). The mysterious workings of the adolescent brain. [Video file]. TEDGlobal 2012. www.ted.com/talks/sarah_jayne_blakemore_the_mysterious_workings_of_the_adolescent_brain.

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Section 2: Discussion and Activity: Personal Fable and Imaginary Audience The majority of college students in the United States are in the stage of adolescence or emerging adulthood. Some people in these stages may still experience egocentrism, the imaginary audience, and the personal fable. The imaginary audience may be revealed as students feel selfconscious about expressing themselves: “Everyone in the class will think I’m stupid if I speak up.” Egocentrism may appear as students not easily or naturally taking the perspective of others when in conflict. Personal fables may actually be motivating to college students who are trying to reach a goal. The idea that they can achieve what may seem like lofty goals can help some students get there.

Break the class into groups of three to five students. The overarching prompt for each group: Do they believe most people their age have outgrown adolescent egocentrism? Ask each group to come up with two or three examples each of the imaginary audience and the personal fable that they have witnessed among their peers or experienced themselves.

Section 3 Lecture Launcher: Praise the Effort, Not the Intellect The work of Carol Dweck (2006) has become synonymous with growth and fixed mindsets.

Individuals with a fixed mindset believe that they were born with limited potential, while those with a growth mindset believe that their potential can be developed through hard work, solid planning, and insight from trusted others. Parents, peers, family members, teachers, coaches, and others often encourage young people with comments such as “I knew you could do it. You are so smart,” or “You are a natural.” Dweck finds this praise approach, particularly for traits perceived as innate or inborn, can actually thwart or diminish the growth mindset. Her conclusions are that it is far more effective to praise the effort put forth toward reaching a goal. Comments such as “Wow! You worked so many hours to get that done. Congratulations on your grade!” Another comment might be “I am so proud of the effort you put forth in this project.”

Search the internet to find the video titled Carol Dweck: A Study on Praise and Mindsets. It has a run-time of approximately 4:51 minutes and does a good job of explaining the details of Dweck’s research. A second very helpful video, 5 Ways to Deal with Challenges: Growth vs.

Fixed Mindset, presents a practical way to develop the growth mindset. It runs approximately 5:45 minutes.

Source: Dweck, C. S. (2006). Mindset: The new psychology of success. New York: Random House.

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Section 3 Lecture Launcher and Activity: Violence and Video Games Teens are notoriously fond of their electronic games, playing them on computers or digital devices. The use of electronic games is so ubiquitous that it has become a daily occurrence for a significant number of adolescents. Research reveals that the majority of adolescent electronic game playing depicts violence in some form. The concern with the violent nature of video games is the relationship to aggressiveness. However, much of the research suggests that repeated exposure to the violent images and behaviors in these electronic games may not provoke aggression but may indeed desensitize. The Media Practice Model suggests that adolescents seek out the violent games because the games may fit some aspect of their identity.

Create groups of three to five students, including both males and females in the groups. Ask students to brainstorm a list of five popular electronic games, focusing on those games considered to depict violence. In keeping with the Media Practice Model, have students identify what aspect of identity each of the games reflects (i.e., aggressive, extroverted, competitive, strategic, problem-oriented, social, etc.). Invite students to share their responses with the class.

CRITICAL THINKING ACTIVITY The Teen Brain and Crime: Is Justice Just?

A significant body of research has involved peering into the adolescent brain. Findings suggest that the structures of the brain and speed of processing continue to mature into the early 20s. The emotional center of the brain, the amygdala, matures faster than the rational structures in the brain located in the prefrontal cortex (American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 2016). Further, the brain is still undergoing myelination, which is necessary for making complex decisions (Goldstein, 2015). As a result, impulse control is compromised and immature. Rational thought is not as mature as that of an emerging adult. Adolescents are less likely to think before they act and consider making adjustments to their dangerous behaviors. In fact, being around their peers may actually incite impulsive, dangerous, and highly risky behaviors.

According to Chein et al. (2010), adolescents socializing in groups often inspire risky behaviors that serve to impress those who happen to be watching. The rush of dopamine and adrenaline keeps some teen brains in an extended state of arousal and explains why teens often commit crime in small packs rather than alone (Stringer, 2017).

Search online for the short video Brain Science of Juvenile Justice, in which adolescent brain development expert Dr. Laurence Steinberg is interviewed about juveniles and brain development. The interview runs approximately 4 minutes. After students watch the video, provide them with Handout 9.1. After they answer the questions on their own, break the class into groups of three to five students and have students share their responses with their group. Ask that each group choose one member to serve as reporter and share the group’s responses with the class.

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Sources: American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry (2016, September). Teen brain: Behavior, problem solving, and decision making. www.aacap.org.

Chein, J., Albert, D., O’Brien, L., Uckert, K., and Steinberg, L. (2010). Peers increase adolescent risk taking by enhancing activity in the brain’s reward circuitry.

Developmental Science, 14(2), F1–F10.

Goldstein, D. (2015). The teenage brain of the Boston bomber. The Marshall Project. www.themarshallproject.org.

Stringer, H. (2017, October). Justice for teens. Monitor on Psychology, 48(9), 44.

SUPPLEMENTAL READINGS Arain, M., Haque, M., Johal, L., Mathur, P., Nel, W., Rais, A., Sanhu, R., and Sharma, S. (2013).

Maturation of the adolescent brain. Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment, 9, 449–461.

Arbel, R., Perrone, L., and Margolin, G. (2018). Adolescents’ daily worries and risky behaviors: The buffering role of support seeking. Journal of Clinical Child Adolescent Psychology, 47(6), 900–911.

Blakemore, S. J. (2019). Inventing ourselves: The secret life of the teenage brain. London, England: Black Swan.

Elkind, D. (1984). All grown up and no place to go. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

Erikson, E. H. (1968). Identity: Youth and crisis. New York: W. W. Norton.

Levine, K. G. (1991). When good kids do bad things: A survival guide for parents of teenagers.

New York: Pocket Books.

National Research Council. (1995). Losing generations: Adolescents in high-risk settings.

Washington, DC: APA Books.

Piaget, J. (1972). Intellectual evolution from adolescence to adulthood. Human Development, 15, 1–12.

Pipher, M. (1994). Reviving Ophelia: Saving the selves of adolescent girls. New York: Ballantine Books.

Powell, D. H. (1987). Teenagers: When to worry and what to do. New York: Doubleday.

Rutter, V. (1995, January/February). Adolescence: Whose hell is it? Psychology Today, 54–68.

Steinberg, L. (2014). Age of opportunity: Lessons from the new science of adolescence. New York: Eamon Dolan/Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.

Tyler, M. (2015, August). Understanding the adolescent brain and legal culpability. American Bar Association. www.americanbar.org.

REVEL VIDEOS Chapter Introduction: Early Adolescence Research Focus: Tanner’s Longitudinal Research on Pubertal Development Puberty Rituals Body Image in Adolescent Girls Adolescent Conflict with Parents Across Cultures Uses of Media Apply Your Knowledge as a Professional: Middle School Teacher

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Handout 9.1: The Teen Brain and Crime: Is Justice Just?

Review the article “Understanding the Adolescent Brain and Legal Culpability” on the American Bar Association’s website. Refer to the article and the four court cases in which the United States Supreme Court has considered neuroscience during the sentencing phase of teen criminal cases: ➢ Roper v. Simmons, 543 U.S. 551 (2005), in which the decision made by the Court effectively banned the death penalty for juveniles nationwide ➢ Graham v. Florida, 560 U.S. 48 (2010), in which the Court cited the fundamental brain differences between adults and children ➢ Miller v. Alabama (2012), in which the court ruled that children cannot be subjected to life without parole due to their lack of maturity and an underdeveloped moral character ➢ J.D.B. v. North Carolina (2011), in which the Court found that children do not understand the legal system and police custody Given this neuroscientific reality, is it possible that the structural differences of the adolescent brain impact teen behavior in a significant way?

Or, is it the case that the structural changes do not adequately justify impulsivity, risk-taking, and irrationality?

Should brain science be used as a defense in juvenile court cases?

Should juveniles who commit major crimes (i.e., murder, robbery, rape, etc.) be charged as adults? Why or why not?

If not, should the fact that they have underdeveloped, immature brains be considered in their sentences?

Created by: Regina Hughes, Collin College. No third-party material included.

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CHAPTER 10: LATE ADOLESCENCE CONTENTS LEARNING OBJECTIVES............................................................................................................ 1 LECTURE OUTLINE .................................................................................................................... 2 LECTURE LAUNCHERS, DISCUSSION IDEAS, AND ACTIVITIES.................................... 17 CRITICAL THINKING ACTIVITY ............................................................................................ 20 SUPPLEMENTAL READINGS .................................................................................................. 21 REVEL VIDEOS .......................................................................................................................... 21 HANDOUTS................................................................................................................................. 22 LEARNING OBJECTIVES Section 1 10.1 Identify the surprising changes in brain development that take place during adolescence.

10.2 Discuss the extent to which changes in brain development during adolescence explain delinquency and other types of risk behavior.

10.3 Explain why the rates of overweight and obesity have risen so much among American adolescents in recent decades.

10.4 Describe the prevalence, symptoms, and treatment of eating disorders.

Section 2 10.5 Describe how adolescents engage in abstract, complex, and metacognitive thinking.

10.6 Give an example of how information processing speeds up in adolescence, and explain how advances in automaticity contribute to faster information processing.

10.7 Compare the secondary education systems and academic performance of developed countries and developing countries.

10.8 Summarize the typical forms of adolescent work in developing countries and developed countries, and name the features of apprenticeships in Europe.

Section 3 10.9 Specify the different types of self that develop during adolescence.

10.10 Explain why gender nonconformity, transgender self-identification, and intersectionality are important in understanding gender.

10.11 Distinguish between the cognitive-developmental and cultural-developmental theories of moral reasoning.

10.12 Describe the cultural variations in religious beliefs during adolescence, as well as the sources and outcomes of religiosity within cultures.

10.13 Describe how relationships with parents change from early to late adolescence, and distinguish running away from home in developed countries from becoming “street children” in developing countries.

10.14 Explain the main functions of crowds, cliques, and friends in late adolescence.

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10.15 Identify cultural variations in adolescent love and sexuality, and define sexual harassment and sexual coercion.

10.16 Identify the uses of social media in late adolescence.

10.17 Identify the different types of rates of depression, and summarize the most effective treatments.

10.18 Summarize rates and trends in adolescent substance use, and classify adolescent substance use into four categories.

10.19 Summarize the explanations for why age and crime are so strongly correlated, and describe the multisystemic approach to reducing delinquency.

LECTURE OUTLINE I. Section 1: Physical Development A. Brain Development 1. Changes to the Adolescent Brain LO 10.1 Identify the surprising changes in brain development that take place during adolescence. a. The adolescent brain continues to develop and becomes more specialized and efficient. b. By age 6, the brain is already 95% of its adult size. c. At the beginning of puberty, there is a sharp increase in the synaptic connections concentrated in the frontal lobe called overproduction or synaptic exuberance. d. Overproduction peaks around 11 or 12 years of age. e. Synaptic pruning follows this overproduction, and between the ages of 12 and 20, the average brain loses 7% to 10% of its volume due to synaptic pruning. f. Synaptic pruning increases brain efficiency and increases brain specialization, leaving the brain less flexible and less changeable. g. Myelination continues throughout adolescence, which increases the speed and efficiency of brain functions. h. The cerebellum, part of the hindbrain, shows growth during adolescence and into emerging adulthood and is important for higher brain functions. It is the last brain structure to finish growing, finishing in the mid-20s.

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2. Implications of Adolescent Brain Changes LO 10.2 Discuss the extent to which changes in brain development during adolescence explain delinquency and other types of risk behavior. a. Acts of delinquency are defined as violations of the law committed by juveniles, or those under 18 years of age. i. The majority of crimes are committed by males between the ages of 12 and 25. b. The maturational gap model hypothesizes that the subcortical regions of the adolescent brain involved in risk behavior mature earlier than the prefrontal regions involved in cognitive control and rational decision making. i. Researchers theorize that there is no maturational gap model before adolescence or after adolescence. ii. Critics of the theory suggest it does not account for the rise of risk behavior and criminal activity into the early 20s, when the gap is supposed to be closed, does not account for the gender gap or cultural gap in criminal activity, and does not explain the findings that those involved in risky behavior might actually have more mature brain development than their less risk-prone peers.

B. Health Issues 1. Obesity LO 10.3 Explain why the rates of overweight and obesity have risen so much among American adolescents in recent decades. a. Weight gain is normal and healthy during puberty, but many young people gain too much weight, leading to obesity and being overweight. b. Obesity is a major problem in developed countries, with increased rates among the most affluent and lowest in the poorest regions. i. Approximately 20% of American adolescents between 12 and 19 years of age are obese, which is particularly prevalent among African American and Latino teens. ii. Obese adolescents have higher leptin levels; leptin triggers puberty, so it may be that increased obesity has contributed to the earlier onset of puberty among African American and Latino girls. c. American teens are more prone to obesity due to diets that include supersized fat and sugar calories. d. Junk food from vending machines in schools is problematic and political as the machines are often a source of revenue for schools. e. Lack of exercise contributes to obesity and being overweight, particularly in automobile-oriented developed countries. f. American adolescents see a significant decline in physical activity between the ages of 9 and 15. g. Overweight and obesity in youth predicts long-term health problems, although school programs aimed at countering the overweight and obesity trend can be successful.

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2. Eating Disorders LO 10.4 Describe the prevalence, symptoms, and treatment of eating disorders. a. Approximately 31% of American 10- to 17-year-olds are overweight or obese, although, in the United States, 60% of adolescent girls and 30% of boys believe that they are overweight. b. Distorted perceptions of weight can lead to eating disordered behaviors. i. About 23% of American adolescent girls and 10% of boys in grades 9 to 12 report engaging in eating disordered behaviors. c. Anorexia nervosa, intentional self-starvation, and bulimia, binge eating and intentional purging, are the two most common eating disorders. Ninety percent of those with eating disorders are female, and onset is usually in the teens to early 20s. d. Individuals with anorexia suffer from a cognitive distortion of body image in that they believe that they look fat even when they are not. e. Individuals with bulimia fear getting big and fat, so they purge after a binge. f. Those most at risk of developing eating disorders are from cultures where the ideal female body image is very slim. Teens are especially vulnerable because their bodies are becoming more womanly in preparation for reproduction. g. Those with eating disorders are often at higher risk for developing other mental health disorders, such as depression and anxiety. h. Eating disorders are related to substance use, especially cigarette smoking and binge drinking. i. Research has demonstrated the media’s negative influence on perceptions of body image, which is correlated with eating disorders. j. Treatment for eating disorders has not been very successful, as 33% of those with anorexia and 50% of those with bulimia relapse after treatment.

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II. Section 2: Cognitive Development A. Cognitive Advances in Late Adolescence 1. Abstract, Complex, and Metacognitive Thinking LO 10.5 Describe how adolescents engage in abstract, complex, and metacognitive thinking. a. Late adolescence marks the cognitive advance in abstract thinking, thinking pertaining to concepts and processes that cannot be experienced directly through the senses. i. Abstract thinking involves the increase in the capacity to think about friendships, time, freedom, justice, goodness, evil, morality, politics, and religion. b. Complex thinking is thinking that takes into account multiple dimensions and aspects of a situation or an idea. i. Complex thinking includes metaphor, satire, and sarcasm. c. Metacognition is the capacity to think about thinking, particularly social topics as indicated by the personal fable and the imaginary audience. i. Metacognition starts in adolescence, continues through emerging adulthood and midlife, and begins to decline in later adulthood.

2. Speed and Automaticity LO 10.6 Give an example of how information processing speeds up in adolescence, and explain how advances in automaticity contribute to faster information processing. a. Adolescents process information faster than children do, as represented in their engagement in video games. i. Adolescents response rate is quicker than that of children. b. Automaticity is how much cognitive effort a person needs to devote to processing the information—the more automaticity, the less effort. c. Automaticity develops both with age and experience and is related to speed and the capacity of working memory—the more automatic a cognitive task is, the faster one is able to complete it.

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B. Education and Work 1. Secondary schools are the schools attended by adolescents.

2. Secondary Schools LO 10.7 Compare the secondary education systems and academic performance of developed countries and developing countries. a. International Variations in Secondary Systems i. The United States, Canada, and Japan are known for having comprehensive schools as the primary source of secondary education. ii. Most European countries take a different approach, with three different types of secondary schools. a. About 50% of adolescents attend a college preparatory school, about 25% attend a vocational school, and about 25% attend a professional school. b. One critique of this system is that adolescents, albeit with the guidance of parents and teachers, must make a decision about which type of school to attend at a very young age, and that decision will likely affect them for the rest of their lives. iii. In developing countries, secondary education is difficult to obtain and often of low quality, except for the wealthy. iv. In developing countries, schools tend to be underfunded, overcrowded, have too few teachers, low quality teachers, and families have to pay to attend. b. International Comparisons in Academic Performance i. The results of a longitudinal study show that wealthy, developed countries outperform the international average, and developing countries perform below the average. ii. Eastern students, such as those in Japan and South Korea, perform highly in math and science through rote learning. They must take entrance exams for high school and college. iii. Compared to the West, Eastern countries have a longer school year and school day and have more serious consequences for failing to succeed academically. They also attend “cram schools” after school to do well on high school and college entrance exams.

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3. Work and Apprenticeships LO 10.8 Summarize the typical forms of adolescent work in developing countries and developed countries, and name the features of apprenticeships in Europe. a. Adolescent Work in Developing Countries i. Work, such as factory jobs, farming, and domestic service, continues for adolescents as it did in middle childhood. ii. Adolescents in developing countries may also become sex workers, especially in Asian countries. iii. They may work in the sex industry because they were kidnapped and forced into it, lured by the promise of another type of job, or their parents sold them into it. This reflects commercial sexual exploitation. iv. Recent efforts to control sexual exploitation of young girls resulted in the formation of the World Congress Against the Sexual Exploitation of Children and Adolescents. b. Adolescent Work in Developed Countries i. Nearly 50% of adolescents in Canada and the United States hold at least one part-time job by end of high school. a. Earnings by adolescents go toward entertainment and socialization. b. The exception is the fact that ethnic minority groups contribute much of their earnings to their families. ii. They usually work in retail or restaurants, not a job to prepare them for a career. iii. If the adolescent works more than 10 hours per week, working is associated with negative outcomes, such as poor academic performance and behavior problems; those who work 20+ hours per week have even worse outcomes. iv. Working more than 10 hours per week results in a reduction in sleep and an increased risk of use of alcohol, cigarettes, and drugs. v. Working part-time 10 hours a week or less offers benefits such as learned responsibility, money management, social skills, and time management.

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c. Apprenticeships in Europe i. European countries have a long tradition of adolescents as apprentices. a. An apprenticeship allows an adolescence “novice” to learn professional skills under contract to a “master” who is substantial experience in a profession. b. More than 60% of adolescents in Germany and Switzerland participate in apprenticeships. ii. Apprenticeships share several common features: a. entry at age 16, lasting 2 to 3 years b. continued part-time schooling while in the apprenticeship with the curriculum closely tied to the profession c. training that takes place in the workplace under actual working conditions d. preparation for an adequate income in a respected profession iii. Apprenticeships provide employers with a pipeline of reliable, well-qualified employees.

III. Section 3: Emotional and Social Development A. The Self and Gender Development 1. Self-Conceptions LO 10.9 Specify the different types of self that develop during adolescence. a. The adolescent self-concept is more complex and abstract than that of the preadolescent because it requires the ability to think abstractly. b. Researchers have noted several versions of the self, including the actual self, possible self, ideal self, feared self, and false self. i. The actual self is the person’s perception of the self as it is. ii. The possible self is a person’s conceptions of the self as it potentially may be. iii. The ideal self is the person one would like to be. iv. The feared self is the person one imagines it is possible to become but dreads becoming. v. The false self is the self a person may present to others while realizing that it does not represent what he or she is actually thinking or feeling. c. As the discrepancy between the actual self and the ideal self increases, so does the likelihood of developing internalizing problems, especially depression. d. Most adolescents think that putting on a false self is sometimes acceptable or desired but most dislike doing it.

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2. Gender: Beyond the Binary LO 10.10 Explain why gender nonconformity, transgender self-identification, and intersectionality are important in understanding gender. a. Gender Minorities i. Gender nonconforming refers to people who typically identify as either female or male but whose behaviors fall outside stereotypical gender norms. a. Gender nonconforming youth are at greater risk of harassment, social rejections, and assault. ii. Research suggests a relationship between gender nonconformity and homosexuality, although more research is needed. iii. Transgender describes people whose biological sex does not match their self-identification, while transsexuals are people who experience a significant mismatch between their gender and their sex. Transsexuals may elect sex reassignment surgery or may adopt clothing and characteristics of the other sex. iv. The focus of researchers is less on why a person expresses transgender or transsexual identities but rather on the risks inherent in these expressions. a. Risks include targeted aggression by peers, including verbal abuse and physical abuse, dating violence, parental rejection, and increased risk of suicide. v. Additional research is focused on the level of resilience exhibited by transgender youth, including finding a community of other gender-nonconforming youth. b. Intersectionality i. Intersectionality describes how individuals have more than one social identity and that these various identities overlap. ii. The understanding of intersectionality provides insight into whether gender behaviors are normative or nonconforming as a result of ethnicity, social class, and/or culture.

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B. Cultural Beliefs: Morality and Religion 1. Moral Development LO 10.11 Distinguish between the cognitive-developmental and culturaldevelopmental theories of moral reasoning. a. The Cognitive-Developmental Theory of Moral Reasoning i. Kohlberg (1958) studied moral reasoning with a homogenous group of tween and teen boys using hypothetical moral dilemmas. ii. Based on his findings, he developed a universal framework for moral development with three levels that were then further divided into two stages each. a. Preconventional reasoning is based on external rewards and punishment. b. Conventional reasoning is based on conforming to society’s moral expectations. c. Postconventional reasoning is based on personal values. iii. Kohlberg’s follow-up studies provided support for his theory, showing that moral reasoning increases with age, but most individuals are stuck in conventional reasoning. In addition, it proceeded as predicted and was cumulative. b. The Cultural-Developmental Theory of Moral Reasoning i. From a global research perspective, many researchers confirm Kohlberg’s assertions that moral development does not regress and does follow a specific pattern. ii. Kohlberg’s claim of a universal model of moral development has been challenged by Schweder because it ignored cultural content. a. Schweder and colleagues argue that it is impossible to understand moral reasoning unless you understand the cultural worldview that underlies it. iii. Jensen’s worldview theory states that cultural beliefs explain what it means to be human, how humans should relate to one another, and how to solve problems. a. The Ethic of Autonomy defines the individual as the primary moral authority. b. The Ethic of Community defines individuals as members of social groups to which they have commitments and obligations. c. The Ethic of Divinity defines the individual as a spiritual entity subject to a divine authority. d. These types of ethics may be observed in terms or one, two, or all three ethics and are proposed as templates to describe a general pattern of culturally shaped development.

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2. Religious Beliefs LO 10.12 Describe the cultural variations in religious beliefs during adolescence, as well as the sources and outcomes of religiosity within cultures. a. Adolescents and emerging adults in developed countries are less religious and tend to be more secular than those in developing countries, but this varies based on ethnicity. b. The United States is an exception as it is the most religious of all developed countries, although American adolescents tend not to follow traditional religious doctrines and often know little about the religion they claim to follow. c. Individual differences in religiosity can be attributed to family influence and ethnicity. i. In the United States, compared to Whites, African Americans tend to be the most religious group. ii. Religiosity is associated with positive developmental outcomes. It seems to have a protective value, improves relationships with parents, and helps people develop a sense of altruism. iii. Individualistic views permeate American religious practices, while, worldwide, religion involves the entire community such as is seen in Muslims’ adherence to Ramadan. Before puberty, Muslims are not required to participate in sunrise-to-sunset fasting during Ramadan. However, after puberty, all young Muslims are expected to fast during Ramadan.

C. The Social and Cultural Contexts of Late Adolescence 1. Family Relationships LO 10.13 Describe how relationships with parents change from early to late adolescence, and distinguish running away from home in developed countries from becoming “street children” in developing countries. a. Although family relations are still part of daily life, there is a decline in the amount of time that adolescents spend with family, and the time that is spent may involve more conflict. b. Running Away from Home i. About 1.6 to 2.8 million youth run away from home each year in the United States, although 80% to 90% of adolescents who leave home remain within 50 miles of home. ii. Reasons for running away include high conflict with parents, physical abuse or sexual abuse, and the negative impacts of low family income, parental alcoholism, and parental neglect. iii. Adolescent runaways are more likely to have been involved in criminal activity, use illegal drugs, have problems at school, and experience depression and emotional isolation. iv. Runaway youth are at significant risk of exploitation and engaging in “survival sex.” v. Shelters for adolescent runaways often lack adequate funding.

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b. “Street Children” Around the World i. Estimates suggest the number of street children worldwide is as high as 150 million, with many youth fleeing family dysfunction, poverty, war, and family breakdown due to AIDS. ii. Poverty is the main reason there are more than 11 million street children in India. As a result, half of Indian street children are homeless, must work service jobs, are at risk of contracting diseases, and are vulnerable to exploitation and sexual abuse. iii. Brazilian street children are driven from their homes by poverty and are viewed as “little criminals” and “future thieves” by their society. iv. Street boys far outnumber street girls in Kenya. Yet, street boys tend to maintain frequent contact with their families, offering to bring home most of the money they earn. Kenyan street girls often leave home due to familial sexual abuse and rarely have contact with their birth families. As with most female street children, sexual abuse and exploitation are rampant.

2. Peers and Friends LO 10.14 Explain the main functions of crowds, cliques, and friends in late adolescence. a. Crowds are larger groups of adolescents who may not be friends, but with whom the teen identifies. The five major types of crowds in the United States are elites, athletes, academics, deviants, or others. i. Culturally speaking, crowds tend to have significant influence in developed countries where adolescents spend much more time in school, while in many other cultures, such as found in developing countries, where family influence is more common, crowds have no relevance. ii. Crowd influence is most relevant in early adolescence and declines by late adolescence. b. Cliques are small groups of friends who hang out and do things together regularly. c. A distinguishing feature of friendships in adolescence is the level of intimacy, the degree to which two people share personal knowledge, thoughts, and feelings. d. Girls value shared intimacy and trust, while boys value shared activities, but intimacy does become more important to boys in later adolescence. e. Instrumental aid in friendship refers to an emphasis on practical help, such as assistance with homework or expenses. African American, Latino, Chinese, Costa Rican, Cuban, and Indonesian friendships emphasize instrumental aid, while American friendships deemphasize the value of instrumental aid.

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3. Love and Sexuality LO 10.15 Identify cultural variations in adolescent love and sexuality, and define sexual harassment and sexual coercion. a. Romantic relationships often begin as friendships while cultural norms play a role in whether sex is accepted as part of a romantic relationship. b. Falling in Love i. As adolescents get older, they are more likely to have experienced a romantic relationship. ii. First-time romantic relationships generally happen later for Asians than those in other cultures because it is actively discouraged. iii. Romantic love appears to have universal appeal to young people, although not all of them are free to act on their feelings. c. Cultural Variations in Adolescent Sexuality i. Adolescent sexuality is viewed differently based on the cultural norms. ii. The cultural approaches to adolescent sexuality are permissive (Northern Europe), semirestrictive (United States, Canada, and most of the rest of Europe), or restrictive (East Africa, Asia, Brazil, and Arab nations). iii. Permissive and restrictive countries have the lowest rates of premarital pregnancy. iv. Teen pregnancy is mostly a problem for semirestrictive cultures but is highest in the United States, where premarital sex is merely frowned on but not forbidden. There is just enough prohibition to keep teens from seeking out reliable, credible information and contraception but not enough to keep many of them from having sex. d. Sexual Orientation i. Sexual orientation becomes more prominent as adolescents begin to feel sexually attracted to other individuals. ii. Although most adolescents identify as heterosexual, about 2% of American teens self-identify as a sexual minority to include lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender during early adolescence. iii. Individuals who come out do so to close friends and family beginning in early adolescence, with disclosure to others in later adolescence or emerging adulthood. iv. Abuse, rejection, and bullying are common for sexual minority adolescents. a. Parental rejection of their sexual minority adolescent results in exponential increases in attempted suicide, depression, drug abuse, and unprotected sex. v. Attitudes toward sexual minorities are changing dramatically in recent years in the Western world, shifting from negative to more accepting.

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e. Sexual Harassment and Sexual Coercion i. The #MeToo movement has raised awareness about sexual harassment and sexual coercion. ii. Sexual harassment is defined within a wide range of behaviors, from name-calling, sexual jokes, and leering looks, to unwanted touching or sexual contact. iii. Early maturing girls are more likely to be victims of sexual harassment. iv. Although sexual and romantic joking and teasing are common in adolescence, the lines of harmless joking and harmful harassment are blurred, and ongoing harassment can result in anxiety, depression, and poor academic achievement. v. Sexual assault is defined as unwanted sexual contact due to verbal pressure, alcohol or drugs, or physical force and are most commonly committed by a person known to the victim. a. Alcohol is a major risk factor in sexual assault among adolescents and emerging adults. vi. Sex education programs emphasize affirmative consent, unequivocal, verbal agreement to sexual activity.

4. Social Media LO 10.16 Identify the uses of social media in late adolescence. a. Most late teens in developed countries are actively involved in social media and their digital devices. b. Fears that social media leads to less socializing and less connection are not reflected in surveys of adolescents using social media with more than half of American adolescents surveyed, indicating social media is actually helpful in their social relationships. c. Social media is used to keep in touch with old friends and current friends and to make new friends in their schools and with others who share common interests. d. Negative impacts reveal nearly half of adolescents surveyed feel the need to unplug and nearly that many voice frustration at friends for texting too much.

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D. Problems 1. Depression LO 10.17 Identify the different types of rates of depression, and summarize the most effective treatments. a. Depressed mood is temporarily feeling sad for a period of time without any related symptoms of depression. b. Even more serious is major depressive disorder, having enduring sadness and a range of specific symptoms, such as crying, fatigue, feeling worthless, guilt, loneliness, worry, change in appetite and sleep. c. Prevalence rates of major depressive disorder among adolescents range from 3% to 7%. Researchers have found that the rate of depressed mood in Dutch adolescents rose from 27% for girls and 21% for boys at age 11 to 37% for girls and 23% for boys at age 19. d. Depressed mood may result from conflicts, rejection, and poor performance in school. Females are more likely than males to suffer from depression, in part because they ruminate. e. The most effective treatment appears to be a combination of psychotherapy called cognitive behavior therapy and antidepressants, although there are risks in taking the medications. f. There is an increased risk of suicidal thinking and aggressive behaviors for adolescents treated with antidepressants.

2. Substance Use LO 10.18 Summarize rates and trends in adolescent substance use, and classify adolescent substance use into four categories. a. A 2018 survey reported that 30% of American high school seniors used alcohol and 18% reported having been drunk at least once in the last month. b. Rates of cigarette smoking are now exceeded by the use of vaporizers and marijuana. c. Substance abuse in adolescence is highest among Native Americans and lowest among African American and Asian American adolescents. d. American and Canadian teens are less likely to smoke cigarettes than are those from Europe. e. Substance abuse is classified in one of four ways: experimental, social, medicinal, and addictive. f. Using substances to relieve unpleasant emotional states such as sadness, anxiety, stress, or loneliness is referred to as the process of self-medication. g. All substance use during adolescence and emerging adulthood is seen as problematic by adults. h. The type and context of use influences development in different ways.

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3. Crime and Delinquency LO 10.19 Summarize the explanations for why age and crime are so strongly correlated, and describe the multisystemic approach to reducing delinquency. a. Like many problems with adolescents, criminal activity rises in the middle teens and peaks around 18. Most crimes are committed by 12to 25-year-old males. b. In the West, although adolescent males commit most juvenile crimes, females are increasingly perpetrators. c. The crime-age relationship may best be explained by increased independence, increased time with peers, stronger peer orientation, and group pressure to engage in behavior that is admired by some cliques. d. Surprisingly, 75% of adolescent boys have committed at least one crime by the age of 20, although most are minor crimes. About 10% of young men commit more than 66% of all crimes. e. Delinquency has been categorized into adolescence-limited and lifecourse-persistent. i. Life-course-persistent delinquents (LCPDs) have had problems since birth and are likely to continue to have problems in the future. They are likely to exhibit higher than normal neuropsychological deficits, be difficult, have learning disabilities, and come from a high-risk environment. ii. Adolescence-limited delinquents (ALDs) do not have the kinds of problems that LCPDs show. It may be that they engage in delinquent behavior due to immaturity, poor impulse control, and poor judgment; however, that theory has been disputed. f. A multisystemic approach to delinquency that addresses parent training, job training, vocational counseling, and structured neighborhood activities has proven beneficial.

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LECTURE LAUNCHERS, DISCUSSION IDEAS, AND ACTIVITIES Section 1 Lecture Launcher and Discussion: The Tyranny of Slenderness—A Female Obsession Some of the best-selling books in the United States are self-help books, particularly those focused on dieting. It is estimated that almost 49% of the population is trying to lose weight (Ducharme, 2018). How did all of this dieting/thinness concern get started? Super-thin models, Barbie doll fascination, and media hype all contribute to unrealistic expectations of feminine beauty. Not so long ago, the ideal women’s form was a voluptuous, buxom beauty. Is it true, as some people say, that American (and other Western cultures) support the view that you can never be too thin? In fact, the result of all of the social pressure on thinness is a great deal of irrational fear of getting fat, especially by adolescent girls and young adult women. Where is that learned?

What role do the media play? What role does the family play? One view is that our society increasingly demands that women be thin to be accepted or appreciated. Girls and women are willing to try to be thin rather than accept the natural dimensions of their bodies. What does it mean psychologically if people reject their natural bodies? Can they every really feel okay about themselves?

Usually, women who feel tyrannized by their fear of fat have a deep sense of personal rejection: their own bodies are their enemies. An example of where this tyranny exists is in the women’s sport of gymnastics. Young girls are encouraged/required to maintain a young girl’s (boyish) body shape and avoid becoming woman-like with curves and bounces. Yet, look at the popularity of gymnastics: It was one of the most-watched events at the most recent summer Olympics (Ariens, 2016). What statement is being made when girls are given little-girl-body role models and discouraged from being woman-like?

Sources: Ariens, C. (2016, August). Here are the 11 Olympic sports that viewers are most excited about watching. https://adweek.com.

Ducharme, J. (2018, July). About half of Americans say they’re trying to lose weight. Time. https://time.com.

Section 1 Lecture Launcher: Binge Eating Disorder Anorexia nervosa and bulimia are the two most commonly noted eating disorders. A lesserknown eating disorder is called binge-eating disorder. People with binge-eating disorder have recurrent eating binges but do not purge themselves of the excess food afterward. Binge eating disorder is classified in the DSM-5 as a potential disorder requiring further study. We presently know too little about the characteristics of people with binge-eating disorder to warrant its inclusion as an official diagnostic category. Unlike bulimia, binge-eating disorder is more commonly found among obese individuals. People with binge-eating disorder tend to be older than those with anorexia or bulimia. It may fall within the broader domain of compulsive behaviors, such as pathological gambling and substance disorders, due to the impaired control over maladaptive behaviors.

Source: National Eating Disorders Association (NEDA). www.nationaleatingdisorders.org.

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Section 1 Activity: Reflections on Body Image Divide the class into five groups. Assign one of the following questions to each group and have students compile, condense, combine, and otherwise report on each group’s collective response to the assigned question: 1. Think about how different adolescents may view their body image. How might their perceptions influence their school performance or their interactions with family members and peers?

2. When do you think children/adolescents become concerned about their body image? How does this come about?

3. Throughout history, physical attractiveness has been important in the initiation of relationships between or among the sexes. Yet, the specific definition of an attractive person has changed many times. How is attractiveness defined? How does the definition become changed? How is the definition, in effect, conveyed to adolescents? Specifically, who do they use for their ideal and with whom do they compare themselves?

4. Are there differences in the way that adolescent boys and adolescent girls feel about their body image? Explain why this may or may not be.

5. What can adults (e.g., teachers, parents) do to help adolescents feel more comfortable about their body image?

Section 2 Lecture Launcher: Formal Operational Thought and Moral Thought Research has shown that there is a link between formal operational thought and adolescent moral reasoning and moral behavior. Formal operational thought enables an adolescent to deal with abstract concepts, make interpretations, and use hypothetical-deductive reasoning. Some researchers have suggested that unless an adolescent is exposed to the idea that other people have rights, the formal operational thought will lead the adolescent into a way of thinking described

by Kohlberg as postconventional morality, which refers to one having ethical principles with no concern for personal consequences. Many of the most atrocious armies in the history of the world have enlisted and indoctrinated young children as fighters. Coming of age in such a violent environment can turn otherwise typical teens into killing machines.

The good news for child soldiers is the concerted effort to end the use and recruitment of children in armed conflict. In 2014, the Children, Not Soldiers campaign was launched by UNICEF and the Special Representative of the Secretary-General for Children and Armed Conflict. To share a video recorded in 2014 in support of the campaign, go to https://childrenandarmedconflict.un.org and type “children, not soldiers” in the search bar.

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Section 2 Lecture Launcher and Activity: The Influence of Culture on Sexual Behavior From an evolutionary perspective, there are many commonalities across the human species in courtship and mating preferences. Interestingly, the expression of those preferences—actual sexual behavior or courtship rituals—depends on learning and experience. Simply put, what is considered normal in one cultural context might be considered highly unusual in another culture.

And it is often the case that the same behaviors that are prohibited in one culture are tolerated in another and even expected in yet a third culture. Cross-cultural variations in sexual customs include differences in behaviors, attitudes, and sanctions related to premarital and extramarital sex, incest, menstruation, homosexual behavior, gender roles, contraception use, prostitution, sodomy and oral sex, abortion, polygamy, genital mutilation, public nudity, child molestation, sterilization, interracial sex, transvestic behaviors, and in what people find sexually arousing.

For this activity, divide the class into groups of three to five students each. Have each group write a brief research report exploring cultural influences on sexuality. Groups should either (a) select one major aspect of sexuality (e.g., childbirth practices, homosexuality, genital mutilation) and discuss how this aspect varies across several different cultures (and why this is the case) or (b) select one culture and discuss a broad range of sexual topics in that culture, noting the role and functions that sexuality play in the lives of people from that culture. Have students give oral presentations of their findings to the rest of the class for extra credit.

Section 3 Activity: Traits Valued in Dating Relationships Students seem to enjoy discussions that revolve around dating and relationships. There are at least two ways in which you might approach this topic. First, locate a copy of the article by Buss and his colleagues (1990) about dating preferences in 37 cultures. Make a list of the traits that men and women consider important when selecting a mate. Pass out the list and have students rank the traits in terms of their preferences and then compare their scores with the scores reported in the article. A good deal of discussion should follow, given gender differences in the class. In addition, have students study personal ads and analyze which traits are listed as desirable in a potential partner. Compare the results to the research results of Buss et al.

Source: Buss, D. M., et al. (1990, March). International preferences in selecting mates: A study of 37 cultures. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 21(1), 5–47.

Section 3 Lecture Launcher and Discussion: The Brain in Love Dr. Helen Fisher studied the brains of 37 people, some who were happily in love and some who were not so happy who had just been dumped. Start the lecture by showing a video of Dr. Fisher’s TED talk, The Brain in Love. Go to www.ted.com and search for the title of her talk.

The video is a fascinating look inside the human brain as well as the impact of hormones on emotional thought. Dr. Fisher looks at a particular part of the brain implicated in wanting, motivation, focus, and craving: the ventral tegmental area (VTA).

Allow approximately 15 minutes to view the video as a class. Afterward, ask students: According to Fisher, what neurotransmitters are involved in the intense feelings of love? Is it possible that the feelings of “butterflies in your stomach” may be a physiological response related to the VTA and dopamine? Can love be an addiction? If so, how?

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Section 3 Lecture Launcher and Activity: Teenage Suicide An adolescent’s life often feels chaotic and confused, his or her own identity is not clear, and his or her problems seem overwhelming, unique, and insoluble. Some adolescents may have depression and see suicide as a permanent solution to any or all of those conditions. Suicide rates for teens have risen over the last several decades. Suicide is the tenth leading cause of death in the United States, with more than 47,000 people dying by suicide in the United States in 2017 (National Institute of Mental Health). Gay and lesbian teens are especially at risk for experiencing depression and attempting suicide. This information will help students know how to spot friends and family members who are experiencing depression and may be at risk for suicide.

Provide students with Handout 10.1. After they complete it, ask whether they see any specific differences in suicidal warning signs and risk factors between adults and adolescents. Then ask whether they know what to do and whom to contact if they or someone they know is suicidal.

Have them generate resources and/or support ideas. Then provide students with information about the resources available at your school or in the local community. Be sure to include information about what one should do if one thinks a friend or family member may attempt suicide. The following websites provide some suggestions: • American Foundation for Suicide Prevention, https://afsp.org • National Institute of Mental Health, www.nimh.nih.gov (search for “suicide prevention”) • National Strategy for Suicide Prevention, www.surgeongeneral.gov (search for “suicide prevention reports and publications) CRITICAL THINKING ACTIVITY Sex Trafficking, Child Sex Slaves, and #MeToo Human trafficking and commercial sexual exploitation are pervasive problems worldwide, particularly in Asia. The majority of young sex workers, most often adolescent girls, are kidnapped, deceived, or forced into the sex trade. Some parents sell their daughters into prostitution out of desperate poverty.

This activity requires students to consider the prevalence of the adolescent sex trade across the world. To set the foundation for the assignment, have students watch the documentary Not My Life, which you can find through your library or online at www.notmylife.org. After viewing the film, have students answer the questions on Handout 10.2 and bring their completed handout to class for a post-film debriefing and analysis.

Ask students: In what ways might the #MeToo movement with multiple claims of rape, assault, exploitation, and abuse from many women against the likes of Bill Cosby, Harvey Weinstein, Roger Ailes, Matt Lauer, and Jeffrey Epstein parallel the stories of those portrayed in Not My Life? To bring this point to life, show the 5-minute PBS NewsHour video titled The Epstein case is not an outlier. Child sex trafficking is “pervasive” in the U.S. (search for the video’s title online).

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SUPPLEMENTAL READINGS Baams, L., Dubas, J. S., Overbeek, G., and van Aken, M. A. G. (2015). Transitions in body and behavior: A meta-analytic study on the relationship between pubertal development and adolescent sexual behavior. Journal of Adolescent Health, 56, 586–598.

Bruch, H. (1973). Eating disorders. New York: Basic Books.

Brumberg, J. J. (1997). The body project: An intimate history of American girls. New York: Random House.

Garland A., and Zigler E. (1993). Adolescent suicide prevention: Current research and social policy implications. American Psychologist, 48(2), 169–182.

Hollis, J. (1985). Fat is a family affair: A frank discussion of eating disorders and the family’s involvement. San Francisco: Harper/Hazelden Publishers.

Levine, K. G. (1991). When good kids do bad things: A survival guide for parents of teenagers.

New York: Pocket Books.

Martinez, G., Copen, C. E., and Abma, J. C. (2011). Teenagers in the United States: Sexual activity, contraceptive use, and childbearing; 2006–2010 National Survey of Family Growth. Vital Health Statistics, 23, 1–10.

National Research Council (1995). Losing generations: Adolescents in high-risk settings.

Washington, DC: APA Books.

Novick, L. F., Cibula, D. A., Sutphen, S. M. (2003). Adolescent suicide prevention. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 24(4S), 150–156.

Pipher, M. (1994). Reviving Ophelia: Saving the selves of adolescent girls. New York: Ballantine Books.

Powell, D. H. (1987). Teenagers: When to worry and what to do. New York: Doubleday.

Pringle, J., Mills, K. L., McAteer, J., Jepson, R., Hogg, E., Anand, N., and Blakemore, S. J. (2017). The physiology of adolescent sexual behaviour: A systematic review. Cogent Social Sciences, 3(1), 1–14.

Roth, G. (1991). When food is love: Exploring the relationship between eating and intimacy.

New York: Plume Books.

REVEL VIDEOS Chapter Introduction: Adolescence Anorexia Nervosa: Tamora Cambodian Girl Finding Food for Pigs Gender Among Latinas Research Focus: The Daily Rhythms of Adolescents’ Family Lives Friend’s Influence in Adolescence Apply Your Knowledge as a Professional: Family Court Judge

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Handout 10.1: Depression and Suicide According to the DSM-5, what are the warning signs of depression? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________ List five suicide warning signs as reported by the American Foundation for Suicide Prevention. ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________ Name at least five suicide risk factors as noted by the American Foundation for Suicide Prevention. ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________

Created by: Regina Hughes, Collin College. No third-party material included.

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Handout 10.2: Sex Trafficking, Child Sex Slaves, and #MeToo 1. What surprised you the most about the film? Be specific.

2. How do traffickers exploit and abuse the emotions of their victims?

3. What can businesses do to ensure that their products are not manufactured by child laborers?

4. What can the American society do to educate young men about gender equality and respect for women and to educate young women about the importance of self-respect and equality?

5. What role does resilience play for the survivors portrayed in the film?

6. Based on the documentary, identify some potential trafficking “hot spots” in your community.

Created by: Regina Hughes, Collin College. No third-party material included.

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CHAPTER 11: EMERGING ADULTHOOD

CONTENTS LEARNING OBJECTIVES............................................................................................................ 1 LECTURE OUTLINE .................................................................................................................... 2 LECTURE LAUNCHERS, DISCUSSION IDEAS, AND ACTIVITIES.................................... 16 CRITICAL THINKING ACTIVITY ............................................................................................ 20 SUPPLEMENTAL READINGS .................................................................................................. 21 REVEL VIDEOS .......................................................................................................................... 23 HANDOUTS................................................................................................................................. 24 LEARNING OBJECTIVES Section 1 11.1 Name the four revolutions that contributed to the rise of emerging adulthood and the five developmental features distinctive to emerging adulthood.

11.2 Describe some of the ways emerging adulthood varies among cultures, with specific reference to European and Asian countries.

11.3 Describe measures that show that emerging adults are at peak physical functioning.

11.4 Summarize college students’ sleep patterns and the main elements of sleep hygiene.

11.5 Summarize how gray and white matter change through emerging adulthood and beyond, and the neurological changes that make emerging adulthood a stage of high potential as well as high risk.

11.6 Explain why young drivers have the highest rates of crashes, and name the most effective approach to reducing those rates.

11.7 Explain why rates of substance use peak in the early 20s and then decline.

11.8 Identify the protective factors associated with resilience, and explain why emerging adulthood may be a critical period for resilience.

Section 2 11.9 Compare tertiary education systems and college experiences in developed countries, and name the various long-term benefits of tertiary education.

11.10 Analyze the potential advantages and disadvantages of online learning in delivering tertiary education.

11.11 Describe the transition from school to full-time work, and explain why unemployment rates among emerging adults are higher than among adults beyond age 25.

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Section 3 11.12 Describe the course of self-esteem from adolescence through emerging adulthood, and explain the reasons for this pattern.

11.13 Describe the various forms identity development can take in emerging adulthood, and consider patterns of cultural and ethnic identity.

11.14 Summarize the changes in American gender beliefs in recent decades, including findings from research on gender stereotypes among college students.

11.15 Describe the religious beliefs and practices of American emerging adults, and contrast them with those of young Europeans.

11.16 Explain why emerging adults have often been at the forefront of political movements, and contrast this with their involvement in civic activities.

11.17 Describe patterns of home-leaving in the United States and Europe and how this transition influences relations with parents.

11.18 Describe the role of intimacy in emerging adults’ friendships and the most common activities of emerging adult friends.

11.19 Summarize how romantic relationships and sexual behavior change during emerging adulthood.

11.20 Explain how emerging adults use social media and texting to maintain social contacts.

LECTURE OUTLINE I.

Section 1: Physical Development A. The Emergence of Emerging Adulthood 1. Changes in the lives of people living in developed countries shifted the notion of adulthood from traditional theories to the recognition of a new life stage between adolescence and adulthood.

2. Emerging adulthood takes place from about age 18 to about age 25.

3. The end of emerging adulthood and the beginning of adulthood are challenging to define yet are associated with major transitions, such as marriage, parenthood, and job stability.

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4. Five Features LO 11.1 Name the four revolutions that contributed to the rise of emerging adulthood and the five developmental features distinctive to emerging adulthood. a. The median age of marriage in the United States is 29 (28 for women, 30 for men). b. The foundation for emerging adulthood was laid by four revolutionary changes that have taken place in the 1960s and 1970s: Technology Revolution, Sexual Revolution, Women’s Movement, and Youth Movement. c. The Technology Revolution has resulted in a shift from a manufacturing economy to a knowledge economy, reflecting an economy based on information, technology, and services. i. This economic shift has resulted in most new jobs requiring tertiary education, or any education or training past high school. d. The Sexual Revolution was inspired by the invention of the birth control pill. e. The Women’s Movement of the 1960s and 1970s expanded opportunities for young women. Research shows that, today, in every developed country, from grade school through graduate school, girls excel over boys. f. The Youth Movement of the 1960s and 1970s saw young people reject the traditional notions of adulthood, such as marriage, establishment of a home, and parenting, and embrace independence, spontaneity, and possibility. g. There are five distinct characteristics that differentiate emerging adulthood from adolescence and adulthood. i. The age of identity explorations: Adolescents try out various possibilities before committing to an enduring course of action, especially in love and work. Although this begins in adolescence, as noted by Erikson, it actually continues into emerging adulthood. ii. The age of instability: People may often move from one residence to another, try different schools or majors, and fall in and out of love. iii. The self-focused age: They are learning what it means to make independent decisions and to be self-sufficient. iv. The age of feeling in-between: They view themselves as being in transition. v. The age of possibilities: Many different futures remain possible because they have high hopes, great expectations, and much optimism. It is a time when dramatic changes are possible. They can reinvent themselves.

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5. The Cultural Context of Emerging Adulthood LO 11.2 Describe some of the ways emerging adulthood varies among cultures, with specific reference to European and Asian countries. a. Emerging adulthood is mostly found in developed countries but varies by culture. This pattern of development is most prominent in Europe and the United States and in some Asian countries. b. Europe has the longest and most leisurely period of emerging adulthood compared to other countries and is the location of the most affluent, generous, and egalitarian societies in human history. c. The focus of emerging adulthood in Western cultures is on individualism and self-development. However, in Asian cultures, while emerging adults do explore their identity and self-development, it is to a lesser extent that is restricted by their obligations, mainly to their parents. d. The nature of the stage of emerging adulthood varies by culture. e. The criterion for achieving adulthood varies by culture as well. In the United States and most of Europe, adulthood comes when financial independence is attained. In Asian cultures, one of the most important criteria for achieving adulthood is being capable of supporting parents financially. f. Young people experience emerging adulthood in many different ways, in part based on whether they attend college or go to work and whether their cultures tolerate premarital sex and cohabitation. g. Emerging adulthood is not likely to be a part of the pattern of development in rural areas of developing countries, but it is becoming more widespread due to economic globalization in the urban areas of developing countries. h. It does vary in length and content, both within and between countries.

B. Physical Changes of Emerging Adulthood 1. The Peak of Physical Functioning LO 11.3 Describe measures that show that emerging adults are at peak physical functioning. a. Emerging adulthood is the stage with peak physical functioning in which the body is at its peak of health, strength, and vigor. b. Typically, sports performance also peaks during the 20s, which is likely because physical stamina and cardiac output are at their peak. c. Physical stamina is measured as maximum oxygen uptake or VO2 max, whereas cardiac output is measured as quantity of blood flow from the heart. Cardiac output peaks at age 25. d. Individuals are less susceptible to physical illness as they tend to be very healthy. e. However, lifestyle choices can undermine their health, such as poor nutrition, lack of sleep, and stress from having multiple roles. f. This age period encompasses the years of fewest hospital stays and fewest days spent sick in bed.

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2. Sleep Patterns and Deficits LO 11.4 Summarize college students’ sleep patterns and the main elements of sleep hygiene. a. Sleep research has focused on college students in developed countries. b. They tend to have sleep patterns that impair their cognitive functioning and emotional well-being. c. College students report having delayed sleep phase syndrome; this occurs when they accumulate sleep debt during the week and try to alleviate it by sleeping in on the weekend and holidays. d. Many report having sleep disturbances. One reason is that emerging adults show a preference for going to bed late and getting up late. This is referred to as eveningness. Factors that contribute to eveningness include partying and studying late or all night. e. For young children and adults, their preference is going to bed and getting up early. This is called morningness. f. To have good sleep hygiene, you should follow a set sleep schedule, exercise, limit caffeine and alcohol, and turn off all technology at night. However, most emerging adults do not follow these recommendations.

3. Brain Development LO 11.5 Summarize how gray and white matter change through emerging adulthood and beyond, and the neurological changes that make emerging adulthood a stage of high potential as well as high risk. a. Emerging adulthood is a time of significant cognitive potential yet high mental health risk. b. Myelination, synaptic pruning, and connection-making continue in brains of emerging adults. c. Gray matter, composed of neurons, decreases, while white matter, the myelinated and non-myelinated connections between neurons, increases. d. Executive function peaks at about age 25. e. New connections are made between the prefrontal cortex, located in the front part of the frontal lobe, and parts of the lower brain involved in emotion and motivation. These connections lend themselves to greater self-control and emotional regulation. f. Due to the unusually rapid synaptic pruning of the gray matter coupled with environmental interactions, emerging adulthood is often when mental disorders such as anxiety disorders, depression, bipolar disorder, and schizophrenia occur.

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C. Risk Behavior and Health Issues 1. Risky behaviors usually reach their peak during emerging adulthood, likely due to this period being a low point of social control.

2. Injuries and Fatalities: Automobile Accidents LO 11.6 Explain why young drivers have the highest rates of crashes, and name the most effective approach to reducing those rates. a. Youths 16 to 24 in the United States have the highest rates of auto accidents, injuries, and fatalities of any age group. i. Other developed countries have a higher minimum driving age (usually 18) and less access to cars than in the United States. b. Driver characteristics, such as inexperience, the way youths drive, and the kind of risks they take. c. They are more likely to speed, text and drive, drive recklessly, and drive under the influence, and they are less likely to wear seatbelts. d. These negative outcomes can be limited with positive parental involvement and monitoring of adolescents’ driving but, foremost, by using a graduated driver licensing (GDL) program that restricts driving privileges.

3. Substance Use and Abuse LO 11.7 Explain why rates of substance use peak in the early 20s and then decline. a. Substance use continues to remain high during emerging adulthood in the United States, according to the national Monitoring the Future study. i. This includes marijuana use and binge drinking (5+ drinks in a row for men and 4 for women). b. Substance use is also high among emerging adults in other developed countries. c. Higher rates of substance use may be explained in terms of propensity and opportunity. i. Propensity, in this case, is the motivation to behave deviantly, and when it is combined with opportunity as a result of excessive unstructured socializing, substance use increases. ii. Having too much free time is also related to other types of deviant behavior. iii. Risk behaviors decline as major life transitions such as marriage, parenthood, and full-time work evolve.

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4. Resilience LO 11.8 Identify the protective factors associated with resilience, and explain why emerging adulthood may be a critical period for resilience. a. The ability to overcome adverse environmental circumstances and achieve healthy development despite the circumstances is known as resilience. b. Resilience is promoted by protective factors, such as high intelligence, one caring adult, a healthy school environment, and religious beliefs and practices. c. Emerging adulthood allows many to turn their lives around in a more positive direction and engage in experiences such as joining the military, explore romantic relationships, attend college, develop their own manner of faith, and establish themselves in work. d. Emerging adults who set realistic goals and are high in dependability and self-control tend to be the ones who benefit most from turningpoint opportunities.

II. Section 2: Cognitive Development A. Education and Work 1. Tertiary Education: College, University, and Training Programs LO 11.9 Compare tertiary education systems and college experiences in developed countries, and name the various long-term benefits of tertiary education. a. Tertiary education is any kind of education or training program beyond secondary school. A century ago only about 10% of individuals in developed countries attended college, and most were men. Now, it is a normative experience, and women are more likely to obtain higher education than men are. b. Tertiary education is structured differently based on where one lives. i. In Japan, students in college can finally take a little break. Their tertiary education is relaxed and undemanding compared to their secondary schooling and cram schools. This allows for more leisure and a life with few responsibilities. ii. In contrast, European colleges have recently changed their system so that it more closely mirrors the United States with separate bachelor’s, master’s, and doctoral degrees.

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c.

In the United States, it takes an average of 6 years for students to obtain a bachelor’s degree, and only 60% have graduated after that time. i. Their college years may be extended because they switched majors, added a minor, took on an internship, or studied abroad. ii. Financial concerns due to increased tuition rates, a lack of financial aid, and working long hours are also likely to increase the time it takes to earn a college degree and may prevent graduation. d. As a society, tertiary education is beneficial by aiding economic growth. Individually, educated persons have higher earnings, occupational status, and better career achievement over time. e. In addition, tertiary education provides intellectual, academic benefits, and nonacademic benefits. These benefits include better verbal, quantitative, and communication skills, as well as a more distinct identity, social confidence, and less ethnocentrism. College students also see improvement in their self-concepts and psychological wellbeing.

2. Tertiary Education’s (Possible) Future: Online Learning LO 11.10 Analyze the potential advantages and disadvantages of online learning in delivering tertiary education. a. The internet has changed the way many view the necessity for university or college campus proximity. b. Online learning, in which all or most of the coursework is taught electronically is changing the face of tertiary education. Nearly a third of American college students have enrolled in online college courses. c. In addition to a potential cost reduction, online learning advantages include flexibility of instructor-student communications, flexibility of assessment-taking timelines, and use of innovative content delivery methods such as gaming, simulations, and multi-user virtual environments. d. Due to the rather recent evolution of online learning, research is lagging on its effectiveness. e. Characteristics necessary to succeed in online learning include personal motivation, focus, and self-discipline, traits that may not yet have developed in many college-aged students. f. The inability to verify student identity for assessment and evaluation purposes continues to raise flags on the increased potential for cheating in the online delivery format. g. Because students report the importance of interpersonal development, it may be that online learning is lacking in these opportunities. h. The online learning format appears to favor ambitious, highly motivated emerging adults, while blended learning, a format in which students learn partly online and partly through face-to-face, interaction, offers great promise and potential for a balanced learning environment.

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3. Finding Adult Work LO 11.11 Describe the transition from school to full-time work, and explain why unemployment rates among emerging adults are higher than among adults beyond age 25. a. The Transition to Work i. Emerging adults seek identity-based work, and they tend to go through many different jobs looking for the right fit for their identity. ii. They seem to try many different jobs by meandering or drifting from job to job, or even floundering, but some systematically explore a career path. In the United States emerging adults hold an average of eight jobs between the ages of 18 and 30. iii. About 50% of emerging adults in developed countries obtain a tertiary education, which is important to finding a job that will pay well and then keeping that job. iv. Those without a tertiary education face exponential disadvantages in earnings and expectations. v. Six new basic skills necessary for job success in those without tertiary education or training include reading and doing math at a ninth-grade level or higher; solving semi-structured problems, communicating orally and in writing, using a computer for multiple tasks, and collaborating in diverse groups. vi. Experts suggest that more high schools adapt curricula to teach the new basic skills in order to meet the needs of the knowledge economy. b. Unemployment i. Across developed countries, unemployment in emerging adulthood is twice as high as for adults over the age of 25. ii. Unemployment is associated with higher risk for depression. iii. To be considered unemployed, a person must not be in school, not working, and actively looking for a job. iv. More than half of high school dropouts ages 18 to 21 are unemployed. v. In the United States, unemployment is especially high among African Americans and some other minorities because they are more likely to lack the educational credentials they need for the jobs that are available today.

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III. Section 3: Emotional and Social Development A. Emotional and Self-Development 1. Self-Esteem LO 11.12 Describe the course of self-esteem from adolescence through emerging adulthood, and explain the reasons for this pattern. a. Self-esteem often rises for emerging adults because they move beyond some of the difficult issues of adolescence, such as having an awkward appearance and judgmental peers. b. They have more control over their everyday lives when they are past adolescence.

2. Identity Development LO 11.13 Describe the various forms identity development can take in emerging adulthood, and consider patterns of cultural and ethnic identity. a. During emerging adulthood, individuals take important steps in identity development that culminate in the commitments that set the foundation for adult life. b. Erik Erikson’s Theory i. In his lifespan theory, Erik Erikson proposed that adolescence is the stage of identity versus identity confusion, but many of the issues he described now pertain more to emerging adulthood. ii. The key areas in which identity is formed are love, work, and ideology. iii. The three elements to developing an identity are assessing one’s own abilities and interests, reflecting on identifications, and assessing available opportunities. iv. In the identity status model, James Marcia proposed four categories of identity development: diffusion, moratorium, foreclosure, and achievement. Each of these categories involves a different combination of exploration (rather than identity crisis) and commitment. a. Research indicates that for most people, identity achievement is not reached until emerging adulthood or beyond. b. Identity achievement, except for occupational identity, may be further delayed for college students who are afforded the opportunity for extended exploration. v. While Erikson designated adolescence as the stage of the identity crisis, and research using Marcia’s model has mostly focused on adolescence, studies indicate that it takes longer than expected to reach identity achievement.

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c. Culture and Identity i. Erikson’s view of identity assumed the goal of developing an independent self (a Western concept based on research with middle class, White adolescents), rather than an interdependent self (as accepted by many other cultures). ii. In developed countries, explorations in love and work are expected, but in developing countries, emerging adults have responsibilities and must contribute to the survival of the family. iii. Gender differences in exploration are present in developing countries, with girls afforded fewer choices than boys are, especially for work and love. iv. Likewise, ideology exploration is limited in developing countries due to social norms to which to conform. v. Today, globalization often influences the cultural context of identity development, resulting in a bicultural identity, which includes a local identity and a global identity or the integration of the two. d. Ethnic Identity i. In this stage, members of ethnic minorities have a sharpened awareness of what it means to be a part of their group and the stereotypes others may hold about their group. ii. Ethnic identity becomes more of an issue when adolescents and emerging adults enter new social contexts, particularly those that include individuals from other ethnic groups or the majority culture. iii. In general, identity issues are more complex for members of ethnic minority groups, and one theory posits that they have four different ways of responding to their ethnicity: assimilation, marginality, separation, and biculturalism. iv. Biculturalism is the most common status among Mexican Americans and Asian Americans as well as among some European minority groups, but separation is most common for African Americans. Marginality is the most common for Native Americans. v. Scholars have shown that those who are bicultural or assimilated have higher self-esteem and have a strong ethnic identity with positive developmental outcomes.

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3. Gender Development: Cultural Beliefs and Stereotypes LO 11.14 Summarize the changes in American gender beliefs in recent decades, including findings from research on gender stereotypes among college students. a. Stereotypes are beliefs that others have certain characteristics based simply on their membership in a particular group. b. Gender stereotypes do persist in occupational roles, in expectations for men and women to perform different kinds of jobs, and in less favorable evaluations of women’s work performance. Notably, both sexes hold these views, not just men, but gender stereotypes do tend to wane with age and experience.

B. Cultural Beliefs 1. Religious Development LO 11.15 Describe the religious beliefs and practices of American emerging adults, and contrast them with those of young Europeans. a. In a national study, Smith and Snell (2010) found that religious beliefs and practices continue to decline in emerging adulthood. b. Emerging adults tend to hold highly individualized religious beliefs, rather than adhering to a traditional doctrine. c. Religious diversity in emerging adulthood is categorized into agnostics/atheists at 40%, theists at 15%, liberal believers at 30%, and conservative believers at 15%. d. Several positive characteristics are associated with religiosity in emerging adulthood, such as higher well-being and lower risk-taking behaviors and less anxiety, especially for African Americans, who are more religious than Whites are. e. Europeans are much less religious than Americans are. f. More than 68% of Americans purport to believe in an afterlife of some kind.

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2. Civic and Political Development LO 11.16 Explain why emerging adults have often been at the forefront of political movements, and contrast this with their involvement in civic activities. a. In most countries, age 18 is when young people receive the right to vote. However, among emerging adults, political participation is low, perhaps due to their skepticism and lack of trust in the system, with respect to conventional measures such as voting rates and involvement in political parties. b. However, emerging adults are more likely to engage in civic organizations and volunteer work where they believe they can make a difference. c. Emerging adults are also more likely to join extreme political movements, such as the Chinese Cultural Revolution and Muslim extremists, than any other age group. i. This involvement is likely due to having fewer social ties and obligations than other ages, while at the same time having more freedom, and it may be related to their identity.

C. The Social and Cultural Contexts of Emerging Adulthood 1. Family Relationships LO 11.17 Describe patterns of home-leaving in the United States and Europe and how this transition influences relations with parents. a. Emerging adults in many developed countries move out of their parents’ household to go to college, to live on their own or with a friend or romantic partner, or to establish independence. b. Relations with parents often improve as emerging adults leave home, especially when they live about an hour away. c. They may begin to appreciate their parents more, no longer have dayto-day friction, gain greater control over what their parents know about their lives, and become better at taking their parents’ perspectives. d. In the United States, about 33% remain in the parents’ home; this is particularly true for ethnic minority groups, perhaps due to economic reasons, familial closeness and interdependence, and, for girls, the value placed on virginity. e. Forty percent of emerging adults who move out subsequently return home briefly to live at least once, usually due to the transition from college to work, the burden of being self-sufficient, divorce, or military service. Some parents welcome their children’s return, but conflict tends to rise, and resentment grows. f. In Europe (Italy in particular), most emerging adults usually remain at home through their 20s but enjoy doing so.

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2. Friendships LO 11.18 Describe the role of intimacy in emerging adults’ friendships and the most common activities of emerging adult friends. a. Friends are important to emerging adults, especially for companionship, support, and intimacy, when they leave home. b. Mostly during early emerging adulthood, they engage in unstructured socialization, otherwise known as hanging out. c. However, activities with friends decline steadily during the 20s as emerging adults form stable romantic partnerships.

3. Love and Sexuality LO 11.19 Summarize how romantic relationships and sexual behavior change during emerging adulthood. a. In Search of a Soul Mate: Finding a Romantic Partner i. Most emerging adults move their focus from their immediate family to a romantic partner. ii. They commonly look for someone with good interpersonal qualities who will treat them well and who will make a long-term commitment. iii. Many locate romantic partners online at various dating websites or by using apps. iv. The relationship characteristics that are most important are intimacy, companionship, leisure time choices, and status. v. Similarity is also very important as it offers consensual validation, or consensus, and validates who they are. b. Cohabitation i. Cohabitation is now normative in most Western countries, with about 66% of romantic partners living together before, or in lieu of, marriage. ii. In the United States, these arrangements are usually less than 5 years, but in Europe cohabitation relationships are as enduring as marriages. Nearly all young people cohabit before marriage in Scandinavian countries. Cohabitation is not common in the more traditional, southern Europe and Asian countries.

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c. Sexuality i. The most common pattern among American 18- to 23-year-olds is to have had one partner in the past year. In the United States, at 18, about 50% of emerging adults have had intercourse but by age 25, almost all have had intercourse at least once, and, if not, it was because they were active abstainers. ii. Sex most often takes place within a close romantic relationship rather than a hookup, but that is still common, particularly for males. Approximately 60% of American college students report ongoing “friends with benefits” sexual relationships. iii. Americans are ambivalent about premarital sex and, consequently, sexually active emerging adults often lack knowledge of and access to contraception. iv. Worldwide, emerging adults’ premarital sexual behavior varies greatly across countries and cultures, but usually conforms to social norms. Premarital sex is highest in Australia, Canada, the United States, and European countries and least common in Asian and Middle Eastern countries. d. Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs) i. As the length of time between beginning sexual activity and marriage increases, the number of sexually transmitted infections (STIs), infections transmitted through sexual conduct, increases. ii. Common STIs include chlamydia, human papilloma virus (HPV), herpes simplex virus 2 (HSV-2), and HIV/AIDS. Some of these STIs can be cured or treated, but HIV/AIDS is of particular concern because it is difficult to treat, and it is fatal. iii. STIs are more common in emerging adulthood; in the United States, 50% occur in 15- to 24-year-olds due to hookups and relationships that do not endure. iv. Some STIs, such as chlamydia and HPV, increase the risk of infertility in women. v. Approximately half of American adolescents have been vaccinated against HPV. vi. Botswana has the highest rates of HIV in the world, although rates of new HIV infections are declining worldwide due to a decline in risky sexual practices and improved prevention programs.

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4. Media Use LO 11.20 Explain how emerging adults use social media and texting to maintain social contacts. a. The media experience of emerging adults today marks them as “digital natives” because media is very accessible, interactive, and under their control. They use a variety of digital devices, such as smart phones, about 12 hours per day. b. Social Media Use i. Social media use is highly popular among emerging adults.

American 18- to 29-year-olds use social-networking sites more than those over the age of 30 do. ii. Using social networking websites, like Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, and Snapchat, provides an arena for identity play and to maintain current friendships and develop new friendships. c. Texting i. Social media access and texting have skyrocketed over the last 10 years. ii. Emerging adults in France send an average of nearly 40 text messages a day. iii. Texting allows instant, real-time connections with friends, enhancing social relationships. iv. Digital devices afford emerging adults the ability to be in frequent contact with their social support network of family and friends.

LECTURE LAUNCHERS, DISCUSSION IDEAS, AND ACTIVITIES Section 1 Activity: Exploring Emerging Adulthood Search for resources available through the Society for the Study of Emerging Adulthood (SSEA) at www.ssea.org for more information on scholarship, ideas, and activities associated with emerging adulthood. Share this resource with your students and explore the host of links to other valuable emerging adulthood websites, including one by the textbook co-author, Dr. Jeffrey Jensen Arnett, at www.jeffreyarnett.com.

Section 1 Activity: Characteristics of Emerging Adulthood Ask students to focus on one of the five characteristics of emerging adulthood outlined in the textbook: (1) the age of identity explorations; (2) the age of instability; (3) the self-focused age; (4) the age of feeling in-between; and (5) the age of possibilities. With this focus in mind, have students write down examples from their own experiences of how this characteristic is true of their own experience and is not true of their experience. Invite students to share their examples with the class.

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Section 1 Lecture Launcher, Discussion, and Activity: How Do You Know When You’re an Adult?

In the past, the path to becoming an adult was fairly clear: in late adolescence boys and girls got married and assumed an adult role. However, today’s youths are faced with the dilemma of not knowing when they have officially become an adult because we have no clear-cut initiation rites into adulthood. Share a National Geographic video, Apache Girl’s Rite of Passage, which you can find by searching for the title on https://video.nationalgeographic.com. In addition, search the same site for “Xhosa circumcision” to view an initiation rite that takes place among the Xhosa people in Africa.

Students will most likely flinch while watching the Xhosa circumcision, so view the video ahead of time and then prepare students for what they will see. After watching the videos, distribute Handout 11.1 and ask students to work in groups of four to five to brainstorm rites of passage to adulthood in each category. Ask groups to share one item from each category. Which rite of passage do students think is the most unusual? Is there a rite of passage or coming-of-age ritual that is common in all cultures?

Following are some prompts for the post-activity discussion. Do not disclose these to students before they attempt to come up with their group lists.

Religious Bar or bat mitzvah Confirmation Sexual Menarche Nocturnal emissions Losing one’s virginity Social “Sweet sixteen” or debutante parties Going to the senior prom Joining a gang, fraternity, sorority Beginning to shave Moving away from family Getting married Becoming a parent Moving into an apartment with a romantic partner Civic/Legal Joining the military Voting Getting a driver’s license Being able to drink legally Being able to buy cigarettes legally

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Educational Graduating from high school Going to college or a training program Graduating from college or a training program Economic Renting a first apartment Getting a checking account or credit card Buying one’s first car Getting one’s first full-time job Economic independence from parents and family Section 2 Activity: Reflecting on Your Tertiary Education Experience Ask students to respond to the following questions and present in small- or large-group discussion: What are your goals? Did you go to college or career training? When did you decide to go to college or career training? Why did you choose this college or training? Who is paying for your education? Is this your first time in college? Did you delay going to college or training?

If so, why? What difficulties are you experiencing? How is college/training like what you expected it to be and how is it different? What conditions would make college or training a better experience for you?

Note the themes you see among students’ responses. Invite them to share their responses with the class.

Section 2 Lecture Launcher and Discussion: The Online Learning Experience Online coursework is becoming a very common delivery method. Have students review the percentage of classes offered online at your higher education institution or career training organization. Ask: Are you surprised to learn of the percentages? Why or why not? Do you believe there are some classes that should not be taken online? Which classes and why not offer them online?

Ask students about their experiences with online classes. What did they enjoy the most and what was the worst aspect of the course?

Section 3 Activity: Marcia’s Categories of Identity Achievement Have students move into groups reflecting the ideas of Marcia’s categories of identity achievement—identity achievement, foreclosure, diffusion, or moratorium—that reflect where they were at the end of high school. Ask the students to talk, in their groups, about whether they went through a crisis of decision-making or not. Have groups share common perceptions and problems with the class.

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Section 3 Discussion and Activity: Political Beliefs and Emerging Adults Research has shown that emerging adults in Western Europe, Canada, and the United States have low political participation rates. However, it has been shown that emerging adults are more likely than older adults to be involved in organizations devoted to particular issues (e.g., environment, racism, war, etc.). Ask students to respond to the following questions: Why do you think these apparent conflicting behaviors exist? How do you think low political participation rates affect each country’s political system? Specifically, how do you think those rates affect general democratic elections? Do you think there is any lasting influence on emerging adults who become involved in political extremist activities? Why? Why not?

Section 3 Lecture Launcher: What Is Physical Attraction?

Your students will be interested to learn what research says about what attracts males and females. You can add some spice to your lecture if you bring up the controversy started by the socio-biologists: What attracts us is based on evolution and is programmed in our genes. Explain the concept of consensual validation relative to physical attraction. In particular, males look for beauty and youthfulness, which indicate fertility. Women look for strength and the ability to support a family. Feminists argue that this explanation penalizes women who do not fit the culture’s standards of beauty and youth and encourages eating disorders and unnecessary surgery.

Section 3 Discussion and Activity: Social Networking Identity Analysis Many of your students are on social networking sites such as Facebook. Discuss with them how a person’s profile and status updates may reflect that person’s identity. Have students do an informal analysis of identity in relation to their own profiles and the profiles of some of their friends. This can be done together in a Smart classroom, or have students do independent “fieldwork” and come back to a group discussion. Consider questions such as these: • What does his or her profile picture say about his or her identity/personality?

• Does the profile information indicate any peer group affiliation? Subculture? Youth culture?

Values?

• How do his or her media preferences/activities relate to identity?

• Are there patterns among the friends?

Make up your own questions and/or have the group generate other questions.

If you have students who are not on Facebook, have them do a search for names of people they may know on Facebook using Google. For example, they can do a Google search with the term Facebook + the person’s name. Searching “Facebook Charles Brown” in the search box will bring up results for all Charles Browns who are on Facebook who do not have their accounts set to be completely private. Most people allow their names to be searched on Facebook. Students do not have to have a Facebook account to view open profiles or the information section.

However, unless they sign up for an account, they will not be able to view a person’s Wall, if it is open.

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Section 3 Activity and Discussion: Television Portrayals of Emerging Adults During the course of a week or several days between classes, have students take note of portrayals of emerging adults that they observe on television. Provide students with Handout 11.2 for recording their observations. You may have some students who do not own or watch television. These students could watch shows that are available online on the major networks or using Netflix, Hulu, and so on. Alternatively, students who do not watch television could generate hypotheses about the portrayals and see how they match with what the televisionwatching students have observed. Hold a discussion about their findings.

CRITICAL THINKING ACTIVITY False Consensus Bias and Its Impact on Behavior Provide Handout 11.3 to students and have them read the descriptive material about false consensus bias. Then have them answer the two questions at the bottom of the handout (see below for sample responses): 1. How might the false consensus bias affect the course of romantic relationships and intimacy?

False consensus bias leads us to assume that the other party is more like us than he or she may actually be. False consensus may account for some of the emotion in the early stage of a romantic relationship and for some of the let-down later.

2. Why should the false consensus bias be of concern to someone signing a legal contract?

False consensus bias will lead the parties to a contract to believe that they share underlying beliefs, values, and attitudes that affect the interpretation of the contract. They may not indeed share similar ideas about the meaning of the contract, and this can lead to personal, legal, and business difficulties down the road.

Follow up any discussion of the questions with some additional questions, either as individual assignments or for small-group, class, and online discussion.

Share with students that the study of critical thinking will help them understand why people seldom change their minds when they should and why people have so much conflict about beliefs. For this exercise, they will consider the role false consensus plays in discourse in the personal and public spheres.

Tell them to consider each of these questions with the topic of “climate change” or “rifle rights.”

Use the following questions as prompts for thought: 1. If people who are like you share your belief, and if people who share your belief are like you—what happens between us if I don’t share your belief?

I am no longer like you, it is easier to reject or even hate me, and I become part of your out group.

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2. What is the most likely way social media affects false consensus bias?

It is most likely to increase the false consensus effect. People are not likely to seek contradictory views voluntarily.

3. Does false consensus bias contribute to public displays of radical and unpopular beliefs?

Explain.

The idea that more people share your belief, even if they are afraid to admit it, is an encouragement. Therefore, radical thoughts and actions are fueled.

4. How does false consensus bias reinforce belief?

The more people I think agree with me, the more I believe I must be right.

5.

How does challenging false consensus challenge someone’s sense of self-worth?Selfworth is protected by assuming many other people share your undesirable behaviors. Self-worth may also be enhanced by the increased sense of wisdom or righteousness that comes with the idea that many other people think like you.

SUPPLEMENTAL READINGS Arnett, J. J. (1998). Learning to stand alone: The contemporary American transition to adulthood in cultural and historical context. Human Development, 41(5/6), 295–315.

Arnett, J. J. (2000). Emerging adulthood: A theory of development from the late teens through the twenties. American Psychologist, 55(5), 469–480.

Arnett, J. J. (2000). High hopes in a grim world: Emerging adults’ views of their futures and of ‘‘Generation X.’’ Youth & Society, 31, 267–286.

Arnett, J. J. (2004). Emerging adulthood: The winding road from the late teens through the twenties. New York: Oxford University Press.

Arnett, J. J. (2007). Suffering, selfish, slackers? Myth and reality on emerging adults. Journal of Youth & Adolescence, 36, 23–29.

Arnett, J. J., and Tanner, J. L. (Eds.). (2006). Emerging adults in America: Coming of age in the 21st century. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Arnett, J. J., Zukauskiene, R., and Sugimura, K. (2014). The new life stage of emerging adulthood at ages 18–29 years: Implications for mental health. Lancet Psychiatry, 1(7), 569–576.

Arocho, R. (2019). Changes in expectations to marry and to divorce across the transition to adulthood. Emerging Adulthood, 4(5).

Cheah, C. S. L., and Nelson, L. J. (2004). The role of acculturation in the emerging adulthood of aboriginal college students. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 28(6), 495–507.

Claxton, S. E., and van Dulmen, M. H. (2014). Casual sexual relationships and experiences. In J. J. Arnett (Ed.), Oxford handbook of emerging adulthood. New York: Oxford University Press.

Cook, T. D., and Furstenberg, F. F. Jr. (2002). Explaining aspects of the transition to adulthood in Italy, Sweden, Germany, and the United States: A cross-disciplinary, case synthesis approach. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 580, 257–287.

Cote, J. (2000). Arrested adulthood: The changing nature of maturity and identity. New York: New York University Press.

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Galambos, N. L., Barker, E. T., and Krahn, H. J. (2006). Depression, anger, and self-esteem in emerging adulthood: Seven-year trajectories. Developmental Psychology, 42, 350–365.

Galica, V. L., Vannucci, A., Flannery, K. M., and McCauley Ohannessian, C. (2017, July).

Social media use and conduct problems in emerging adults. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 20(7), 448–452.

Graber, J., Britto, P. R., and Brooks-Gunn, J. (1999). What’s love got to do with it?: Adolescents’ and young adults’ beliefs about sexual and romantic relationships. In W. Furman, B. Brown, and C. Feiring (Eds.), The development of romantic relationships in adolescence. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Hamilton, S., and Hamilton, M. A. (2006). School, work, and emerging adulthood. In J. J. Arnett and J. L. Tanner (Eds.), Emerging adults in America: Coming of age in the 21st century (pp. 257–277). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Hill, P. L., Edmonds, G. W., Peterson, M., Luyckx, K., and Andrews, J. A. (2016). Purpose in life in emerging adulthood: Development and validation of a new brief measure. Journal of Positive Psychology, 11(3), 237–245.

Konstam, V. (2007). Emerging and young adulthood: Multiple perspectives, diverse narratives.

New York: Springer Science + Business Media.

Lanthier, R. P., and Windham, R. C. (2004). Internet use and college adjustment: The moderating role of gender. Computers in Human Behavior, 20, 591–606.

Lee, C. M., Maggs, J. L., and Rankin, L.A. (2006). Spring break trips as a risk factor for heavy alcohol use among first-year college students. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 67, 911– 916.

Lefkowitz, E. S. (2005). “Things have gotten better”: Developmental changes among emerging adults after the transition to university. Journal of Adolescent Research, 20, 40–63.

Manning, W. D., Giordano, P. C., and Longmore, M. A. (2006). Hooking up: The relationship contexts of “nonrelationship” sex. Journal of Adolescent Research, 21, 459–483.

McLean, K. C., Syed, M., and Shucard, H. (2016). Bringing identity content to the fore: Links to identity development processes. Emerging Adulthood, 4(5), 356–364.

Robbins, A., and Wilner, A. (2001). Quarterlife crisis: The unique challenges of life in your twenties. New York: Tarcher/Putnam.

Schulenberg, J. E., and Zarrett, N. R. (2006). Mental health during emerging adulthood: Continuity and discontinuity in courses, causes, and functions. In J. J. Arnett and J. L. Tanner (Eds.), Emerging adults in America: Coming of age in the 21st century (pp. 135– 172). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Schwartz, S. J. (2016). Turning point for a turning point: Advancing emerging adulthood theory and research. Emerging Adulthood, 4(5), 307–317.

Trzesniewski, K. H., and Donnellan, M. B. (2010). Rethinking “Generation Me”: A study of cohort effects from 1976–2006. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 5, 58–75.

Tuval-Mashiach, R., and Shulman, S. (2006). Resolution of disagreements between romantic partners, among adolescents, and young adults: Qualitative analysis of interaction discourses. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 16, 561–588.

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REVEL VIDEOS Chapter Introduction: Emerging Adulthood The Features of Emerging Adulthood Research Focus: Graduated Driver Licensing Cultural Focus: Tertiary Education Across Cultures Cultural Focus: Media Use in Emerging Adulthood Across Cultures Apply Your Knowledge as a Professional: Director of Career Services

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Handout 11.1: Rites of Passage/Coming of Age Rituals to Adulthood List all possible milestones, celebrations, and acknowledgements of adulthood in each category noted below: Religious

Sexual

Social

Civil/Legal

Educational

Economic

Created by: Regina Hughes, Collin College. No third-party material included.

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Handout 11.2: Emerging Adults Portrayed in the Media Select a television program from Netflix, Hulu, or one of the national programming stations. Be sure that the program features characters that would be considered emerging adults. Watch at least two to four episodes so that you are able to see character development over time.

1. What program did you watch? Is it categorized as a drama, comedy, thriller, soap opera, reality show, or another type of program?

2. Describe the traits of the emerging adult character or characters in the program.

3. How realistic were the character portrayals? Explain your answer with examples.

4. Were any of the portrayals what you would consider stereotypical? Explain your answer with examples.

5. Did you notice an obvious separation of adolescent, emerging adults, and adult characters?

Be specific.

6. Additional observations not noted above:

Created by: Regina Hughes, Collin College. No third-party material included.

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Handout 11.3: False Consensus Bias and Its Impact on Behavior Emerging adulthood is an important time for building relationships in many areas of our lives, particularly our friends, peers, work associates, and romantic relationships. It is also a time where many may live away from their families for the first time in their lives, without parents or a respected authority to tell them what to do. Many emerging adults naturally look to those around them to help guide decision-making. They may seek out or go with the consensus, which means agreement among people. Conversely, “false consensus” is a thinking bias that leads us to overestimate how many people share our values, ideas, behaviors, attitudes, or beliefs. How might false consensus bias affect us, and why might it be especially important to consider in the context of emerging adulthood?

As noted elsewhere in these exercises in critical thinking, we like to be right, and we seek confirmation more than we seek information. False consensus brings with it feelings of comfort, affirmation, and confidence.

How does the false consensus bias affect behavior? We justify our behaviors by overestimating how many other people engage in them. For example, emerging adults who smoke marijuana usually overestimate how many of their peers smoke marijuana.

Why are we prone to false consensus? We all have a limited circle of friends, and we typically spend most of our time interacting with people who share many of our ideas, behaviors, and values. Since we use the most available examples as a basis for building our concept of the world, that concept tends to include an overestimation of how many people share our ideas, behaviors, and beliefs.

Another unfortunate effect of false consensus is that it makes challenging our beliefs more difficult. When we perceive that most people share Belief A, we then assume that Belief A must be correct. In other words, we judge our level of “rightness” by looking around our personal environment and assume we are right if enough people we know are engaging in the same behavior.

The textbook authors discuss Erik Erikson’s stage of development called identity versus identity confusion, a time in our lives in which we establish a clear identity or fail to form a stable and secure identity. With this in mind, answer the following questions: 1. How might the false consensus bias affect the course of romantic relationships and intimacy?

2. Why should the false consensus bias be of concern to someone signing a legal contract?

Created by: Regina Hughes, Collin College. No third-party material included.

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CHAPTER 12: THE FUTURE OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT CONTENTS LEARNING OBJECTIVES............................................................................................................ 1 LECTURE OUTLINE .................................................................................................................... 2 LECTURE LAUNCHERS, DISCUSSION IDEAS, AND ACTIVITIES...................................... 7 CRITICAL THINKING ACTIVITY ............................................................................................ 11 SUPPLEMENTAL READINGS .................................................................................................. 12 REVEL VIDEOS .......................................................................................................................... 12 HANDOUT ................................................................................................................................... 13 LEARNING OBJECTIVES Section 1 12.1 Specify where the population of the world’s children is forecast to rise in the 21st century and where it is forecast to fall, including the possible role of immigration.

12.2 Summarize the likely future trends in family income, health, and education and how these trends are likely to influence children’s development worldwide.

Section 2 12.3 Define the Flynn effect, and outline the most plausible causes for it.

12.4 Discuss the extent to which the Flynn effect will continue in the 21st century.

12.5 Give examples of how children across the world increasingly use English.

12.6 Explain why multilingualism is growing, and summarize the benefits to children of language brokering.

Section 3 12.7 Describe today’s state of affairs for girls and women in regard to education, unpaid work, and physical violence.

12.8 Explain how economic changes in developing countries are changing gender roles.

12.9 Describe how the worldwide diffusion of media impacts children’s beliefs and behaviors pertaining to gender roles, love and work, and independence.

12.10 Compare the concepts of bicultural and hybrid identity, and explain how each is related to global media.

12.11 Summarize the evidence for the rise of individualism in recent times.

12.12 Describe the extent to which children across the world are likely to have increased exposure to diversity in tomorrow’s world.

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LECTURE OUTLINE I. Section 1: Physical Development A. Will Inequalities in Children’s Development Rise or Fall?

1. Population Growth and Immigration LO 12.1 Specify where the population of the world’s children is forecast to rise in the 21st century and where it is forecast to fall, including the possible role of immigration. a. Of the projected 10 billion people expected to occupy the planet at the end of the 21st century, nearly all of the increase will be in developing countries, while population growth in developed countries will remain stable or see declines. i. Implications of the “global demographic divide” will mean increased demands on resources in developing countries. b. Developed countries are likely to have fewer children in their populations because all have total fertility rates (TFRs) lower than 2.1, the replacement rate of a stable population. Thus, children in developed countries may be presented with abundant resources or they may have fewer resources as they become outnumbered by a needy and growing elderly population. c. Immigration policy will either allow more immigrants to fill the population void in developing countries or will work to keep out immigrants. Immigrants’ employment and tax contributions to the developing countries’ economies will serve to provide support for the existing population. i. Anti-immigration sentiment has increased in many developed countries.

2. Family Incomes, Health, and Education LO 12.2 Summarize the likely future trends in family income, health, and education and how these trends are likely to influence children’s development worldwide. a. The United Nations Development Program (UNDP) has been tracking trends in family income, health, and education and reports an increase in family incomes over the past 30 years, particularly in the poorest areas of Asia and Africa. b. Families are healthier and wealthier, and due to widespread use of vaccines in developing countries, the world has experienced a 50% decrease in the number of deaths among children age 5 and under. c. About 98% of children worldwide receive some primary education, while access to secondary and tertiary education varies by national wealth. i. The future world economy will require knowledge of the Four Cs: Critical Thinking, Collaborating, Creating, and Communicating.

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d. Quality of education varies across countries, with teacher-student ratios higher in the poorest 25% of countries, only 17% with access to the internet, and nearly 40% of women between ages 20 and 24 married before 18 years of age. e. Children in the poorest countries are most affected by climate change. i. They experience increased frequency of natural disasters. ii. Poorest countries have the most severe air and water pollution. iii. Degraded environment leads to illnesses and shortages of food and clean water.

II. Section 2: Cognitive Development A. Intelligence on the Rise 1. The Flynn Effect LO 12.3 Define the Flynn effect, and outline the most plausible causes for it. a. The steep rise in median IQ scores in the population over time is referred to as the Flynn effect. i. From 1900 to early 2000 in the United States and European countries, median IQ rose on average nearly three points per decade. b. Causes attributed to the Flynn effect include improved prenatal care, improved nutrition, smaller family size, better schooling, and access to modern technology and educational television. c. Another explanation may be the decline of infectious diseases; researchers have found that the higher a country’s infectious disease burden, the lower the country’s median IQ. d. The combination of factors that results in overall gains in IQ varies from country to country.

2. The Future of the Flynn Effect: Up and Down?

LO 12.4 Discuss the extent to which the Flynn effect will continue in the 21st century. a. The Flynn effect is also taking place in developing regions of the world, such as Africa, Asia, and Oceania. b. Factors attributed to a rise in IQ scores in developed countries are becoming more prevalent in developing countries, which will likely result in an increase in median IQ scores in developing countries. c. Interestingly, IQ scores in Denmark, Finland, and Norway have experienced a cessation and even decline in IQ scores since the mid1990s, suggesting that a ceiling in factors that contribute to improved IQ scores may have been reached.

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B. English and Multilingualism Across the World 1. English: An International Language LO 12.5 Give examples of how children across the world increasingly use English. a. There are approximately 7,000 living languages in the world, with 11 spoken by at least 100 million people, 85 spoken by at least 10 million people, and 300 languages spoken by between 1 and 10 million. i. The 11 most commonly spoken languages include Arabic, Bengali, English, German, Hindi, Japanese, Lahnda, Mandarin, Portuguese, Russian, and Spanish. ii. Linguists predict that only 300 languages are safe from extinction. b. Due to the diffusion and growth of popular cultures and technology, English is becoming the recognized international language. i. At the world’s largest international science fair for high school students from more than 75 countries, all students present in English. c. Adolescents from around the world incorporate English into their slang, an informal vocabulary and grammar that is different from that of the native language and often changes from generation to generation. d. Projections are such that by the year 2050, half of the world’s population will be proficient English speakers. e. English was once the most commonly spoken language on the internet.

Today, Mandarin-language speakers are increasing across the globe.

2. The Growth of Multilingualism LO 12.6 Explain why multilingualism is growing, and summarize the benefits to children of language brokering. a. Nearly 70% of the world’s population understands and speaks two or more languages, with approximately 20% of the population in the United States multilingual. b. Children are multilingual due to the number of languages spoken in their home region and/or because they attend urban schools where a variety of languages are spoken. c. European schools teach two foreign languages in addition to the native language, resulting in more than half of Europeans speaking a second language, typically English. d. Language brokering, which is common among immigrant families, involves translating and interpreting for others. Because they often learn the new language faster, immigrant children tend to serve as language brokers. e. Brokering is considered normal and offers benefits to both children and parents. i. Language brokering contributes to an enhanced sense of connection with two cultures and, ultimately, serves as an important linguistic, cognitive, and social skill.

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III. Section 3: Emotional and Social Development A. Changing Gender Norms 1. Gender in Today’s World: Education, Unpaid Work, and Physical Violence LO 12.7 Describe today’s state of affairs for girls and women in regard to education, unpaid work, and physical violence. a. The Gender Parity Index (GPI) is used by the United Nations (UN) to assess the extent to which educational attainment is equal for boys and girls, with 1.0 indicating parity between the sexes. b. Gender parity in favor of boys at the primary and secondary school level has been the norm. However, around 2016, girls reached parity with boys, except in the Arab States and sub-Saharan Africa. c. Females lag behind males in tertiary education enrollment in South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa, while, worldwide, females surpass males in tertiary enrollment. d. Involvement in research and development (R&D), which reflects the creation of new knowledge through research and experimentation and the use of this knowledge for new applications, girls and women lag behind in every region of the world. i. Women’s underrepresentation in R&D is likely because men dominate the fields of science, engineering, and technology and women tend to be accountable for family and household duties. ii. Women spend more hours than men on housework, caretaking, and volunteer work. e. Women across the world are much more likely to be victims of physical abuse from their intimate partners, with the highest prevalence found in Ethiopia, Peru, and Zambia.

2. Gender in Tomorrow’s World LO 12.8 Explain how economic changes in developing countries are changing gender roles. a. Worldwide, women and girls are disadvantaged in education, unpaid labor, and domestic violence but are much more so in developing countries. Despite this, girls’ education enrollment surpasses that of boys. b. Many female–male distinctions once thought to be biologically based are now known to be culturally based. c. Predictions for the future suggest that gender parity may increase, discrimination against girls may decrease due to globalization, and gender roles will lean toward being more egalitarian.

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B. Globalization and Media 1. New Beliefs and Behaviors LO 12.9 Describe how the worldwide diffusion of media impacts children’s beliefs and behaviors pertaining to gender roles, love and work, and independence. a. Media plays a significant role with respect to gender roles. b. More traditional than many countries in terms of gender roles, Moroccan culture is beginning to feel the impact of media, particularly changes from exposure to TV programming from France and the United States. c. A study of the Inuit of the Canadian Arctic revealed the significant changes in romantic relationships and competition in sports by Inuit adolescents as their exposure to media and globalization increased.

2. Bicultural and Hybrid Identities LO 12.10 Compare the concepts of bicultural and hybrid identity, and explain how each is related to global media. a. Concerns that media globalization will lead to American domination of media are likely exaggerated for now. At this point, local media will likely coexist with Western media. b. Globalization leads to bicultural identities and hybrid identities, which are identities that integrate elements of various cultures.

C. Children’s Values in Today’s and Tomorrow’s World 1. Individualism on the Rise LO 12.11 Summarize the evidence for the rise of individualism in recent times. a. All cultures value interdependence and collectivism in varying degrees. b. Lynd and Lynd’s (1929) research on “Middletown” reflects a 50-year case study of changes and the rise of individualism as represented in the typical American value system. i. Loyalty to church and obedience declined in importance. ii. Independence and tolerance became central to child-rearing beliefs. c. Individualism is rising even in traditional cultures, as seen among the Aborigines of Australia. i. The roadmap of Aboriginal cultural beliefs and values is referred to as the Law, a collectivistic manual of how to live the life of an Aborigine. ii. Socialization of the Law once included elaborate rituals representing the transition from boy to man. Globalization has reduced the rituals to a much more simplified expression of this transition. iii. Today’s Aborigine adolescents are showing more resistance to learning and adhering to the traditions of generations before them, particularly to the tradition of arranged marriage.

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2. Exposure to Diversity LO 12.12 Describe the extent to which children across the world are likely to have increased exposure to diversity in tomorrow’s world. a. Although tradition still exists, more and more children are growing up in a world in which they are exposed to and interact with other people all over the globe. b. A more globalized world will likely result in a more diversified, tolerant world where choices are made not based on expectation and tradition but rather on individual preferences.

LECTURE LAUNCHERS, DISCUSSION IDEAS, AND ACTIVITIES Section 1 Activity: Immigration Stories In today’s polarized political climate, the topic of immigration is met with either a personal horror story or disgust at the notion of “unworthy” people coming to the United States. Many hide behind their own biases or their fear of the unknown when speaking about “those people” from other countries.

For this activity, students will interview someone who is from a country other than the United States. The interviewee can be a recent immigrant or someone who came to the United States as an older child and remembers his or her home country. One idea might be to reach out to a student organization on campus that is based on culture, race, or ethnic origin and ask for an interview recommendation. Have students set up an interview time and ensure a safe space to conduct the interview. Following are questions students can use to guide the interview. They are to record the answers in writing.

1. In what country were you born? Tell me about your earliest memory of your childhood.

2. What were the circumstances that led you and/or your family to leave your home country?

3. Tell me about your family.

4. Why did your family want to come to the United States?

5. What did you imagine it was going to be like in America, and what were your expectations?

6. What has been the most satisfying outcome of your move to America?

7. What has surprised you the most?

8. What disappointed you about the United States?

9. What are your hopes and dreams for your life in the United States?

In addition, students should infer the interviewees’ values and beliefs based on responses. When writing a paper about the interview, each student should identify five values and beliefs he or she shares with the interviewee. Bring students together and ask individuals to share their stories.

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Section 1 Lecture Launcher: Knowledge Is Power: Equal Access to Education for Girls As noted in your textbook, access to education across the globe is showing promise. Primary education is nearly universal, although the quality of the education is not always equitable.

Multiple challenges leave many children with inferior educational opportunities. The teacherstudent ratio in developing countries is high, which impacts the quality of education. Poverty and lack of technology—particularly the internet—affects many developing countries, limiting the amount of information children are able to access.

In addition, does being born a male or a female bring with it disparities in education? Do cultural norms prohibit those of one sex from achieving the full educational potential? The answer is yes.

Girls born into poverty are much more likely to be pulled out of school when they reach puberty, or at least before age 18, for the purpose of preparing them for marriage and parenthood. In fact, many young girls are forced to marry. Countries with the highest rates of early and forced marriage include Niger (75%), Chad (72%), and Mali (71%) (Myers and Harvey, 2011). Once taken out of school, these girls’ education opportunities are severely impeded.

Share the perspective of entertainer Priyanka Chopra, who has made a strong case for why not educating women is a detriment to the community. Search online for a video of her speech, “Full Power of Women,” which has a runtime of 8:30. For an additional perspective, show the 2016 PBS NewsHour video, Uncovering the Problem of Forced Marriage in the U.S. Search the PBS website (www.pbs.org) for the title.

Source: Myers, J., and Harvey, R. (2011). Breaking vows: Early and forced marriage and girls’ education. www. plan-uk.org.

Section 2 Lecture Launcher: Multilingualism and Brain Health As noted in the text, projections suggest that by the year 2050, half of the world’s population will be proficient English speakers. Many children across the globe are required to learn more than one language and often begin learning English in primary school. The United States appears to be one of the only developed countries that does not require second-language proficiency.

Learning a second language is encouraged but is merely a choice for school-aged children.

Why is learning a second language so important? In addition to increasing one’s understanding of the global economy, multilingual students are afforded many more opportunities for careers.

One researcher suggests that knowing a second language is worth up to $128,000 over 40 years (Greene, 2014). Further, neuroscience reveals that being multilingual changes brain structure, improves memory, helps speed up processing, and helps with multitasking. Brain imaging studies show differences in brain scans between people who speak one language and those who speak more than one language (Abutalebi and Green, 2008). Being bilingual delays the effects of dementia an average of 5 years (Vince, 2016).

Clearly, learning and knowing a second language offers many valuable outcomes. Therefore, should proficiency in both English and a second language be a requirement for all graduating seniors? What would be some advantages and disadvantages of this requirement?

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Sources: Abutalebi, J., and Green, D. W. (2008, April). Control mechanisms in bilingual language production: Neural evidence from language switching studies. Language and Cognitive Processes, 23(4), 557–582.

Greene, R. L. (2014, March 11). Johnson: What is a foreign language worth? The Economist.

Vince, G. (2016, August 12). The amazing benefits of being bilingual. BBC. www.bbc.com.

Section 2 Activity: Walk the Walk: Multicultural Education Multicultural education is much more than supplementing the curriculum with an additional lesson. Most experts believe that comprehensive integration offers the most value (Banks, 2015).

Guiding students by providing explicit connections between the discipline and multicultural education shows the most promise.

In this activity, break the class into groups of three to five students. Each group needs to have at least one laptop computer. Each group is to conduct a literature review of five colleges or universities. Have students look at the websites of each college or university and find the answers to the following: 1. Does the college/university require that students take a foreign language in order to graduate?

If so, what programs are offered?

2. Does the college/university have an established office or department dedicated to multiculturalism?

3. Is there evidence of a social justice emphasis? Are there any student organizations focused on social justice?

4. Is there evidence of a diverse curriculum, such as African American studies, Mexican American studies, and so on?

5. What are the college/university student population demographics? Break down your findings into percentages.

Source: Banks, J. A. (2015). Cultural diversity and education: Foundations, curriculum, and teaching (6th ed.). New York: Pearson.

Section 3 Lecture Launcher: Defining Identity: Culture, Biology, or Both?

Culture describes those environmental influences we ascribe to or that we willingly embrace as a part of who we are. However, another aspect of our identity is rooted in our biology. This brings an entirely different perspective to the discussion of identity and hybrid identity. The advances in fertility treatments have allowed childless couples to conceive, have allowed same-sex partners to become parents, and have provided single persons with the opportunity to become parents.

An interesting angle on the discussion of identity is how identity is formed and how our biology factors into our identity. Most individuals likely have a sense of several generations of their families, from their parents to grandparents and perhaps even back to a fourth generation.

However, what is the impact on identity for an individual who learns that she or he is the product of donor sperm or a donor egg that was specifically selected? Suppose that individual was raised by someone who the individual thought of as his or her biological parent and then learned at the 9 .

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age of 18 that he or she was conceived in a petri dish. What might this information do to the person’s understanding of “self”?

The larger question of donor sperm and donor eggs remains at the edges of ethics and societal morality. Ask students whether they see any concerns. Is it possible to stop a bad player from using this technology to create a superhuman race?

Section 3 Activity and Discussion: Ancestry and Me The desire to find ancestral identity and advancements in the human genome mapping have given rise to the personal DNA testing industry, otherwise known as the direct-to-consumer genomic testing market. It was a $117 million industry in 2017 (www.genome.gov). A relatively simple process and affordable price allow anyone to learn more about his or her genetic ancestry.

To start the conversation with students, go to the National Human Genome Research Institute website at www.genome.gov and search for “15 for 15: Human Origins and Ancestry.” Look online for the short video The Human Genome: Who Do We Think We Are? Watch it with the class, allowing a 6:30 run time.

After watching the video, engage students with the following discussion questions: 1. Has anyone purchased a direct-to-consumer genetic testing kit? If so, which one?

2. If anyone has completed an ancestral test, ask whether they were surprised by the results. Did they learn anything they didn’t already know?

Share the article by Letzter (2018) describing his experience with commercial DNA testing and subsequent varied results. Ask students whether they would consider doing the ancestral test and how might it change their understanding of themselves or how it might clarify their identity.

How might this discussion change the meaning of identity for adopted individuals? What about those who were conceived through donor sperm or donor eggs?

Sources: Letzter, R. (2018, November). I took 9 different commercial DNA tests and got 6 different results. LiveScience. www.livescience.com.

National Human Genome Research Institute. 15 for 15: Human origins and ancestry. www.genome.gov.

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CRITICAL THINKING ACTIVITY Exploring Identity and How We Define Ourselves Hybrid identity is defined as two or more aspects of a person’s identity combined to produce a unique form of identity. The textbook provides the example of “Indipop,” a combination of traditional Indian musical forms and instruments with British and American popular music forms. Another example is Creolization, which describes a process in which Creole cultures moved from the Old World and emerged into the New World (Sidbury, 2007).

It’s quite possible, and most likely, that the expansion of the global media to all corners of the world has infused and introduced the spread of new ideas to those otherwise unaware of the variety of cultures. Social media allows strangers to share personal information about themselves, to exchange images, and to communicate easily. Globalization, in some sense, has figuratively shrunk the vastness between polar ends of the world and the space in between longitude and latitude.

Consider the Inuit or the Aborigine adolescents described in the text. Many are “plugged in” to Western music, television, and mass media. The youth of these traditional cultures are beginning to reject the cultural traditions of their ancestors. This is causing intergenerational conflict. Ask students to consider examples in their own lives in which they clash with their parents or grandparents.

Knowing who we are and understanding our ancestral roots is important for establishing personal identity. One’s identity is grounded in that person’s cultural influences. As we have learned, culture describes a way of life, a shared existence of people within a group. Ask students to consider the following: “What is the relationship between culture and identity?”

Provide students with Handout 12.1 and have them complete the questions. Once they have finished, break the class into groups of three to five students to discuss the most commonly shared responses. Do any students share cultural views? In what areas do they express significant differences?

Sources: National Human Genome Research Institute. 15 for 15: Direct-to-consumer genomic testing. www.genome.gov.

Sidbury, J. (2007). Globalization, creolization, and the not-so-peculiar institution. Journal of Southern History, 73(3), 617–630.

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SUPPLEMENTAL READINGS Achenbach, T. M., and Rescorla, L. A. (2007). Multicultural understanding of child and adolescent psychopathology: Implications for mental health assessment. New York: Guilford Press.

Arnett, J. J. (2002). The psychology of globalization. American Psychologist, 57(10), 774–783.

Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (2018). Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander adolescent and youth health and wellbeing. Canberra, Australia: AIHW. Borjas, G. J. (2015). Immigration and globalization: A review essay. Journal of Economic Literature, 53(4), 961–974.

Bratsberg, B., and Rogeberg, O. (2018, June). Flynn effect and its reversal are both environmentally caused. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 115(26), 6674–6678.

Collier, P. (2013). Exodus: How migration is changing our world. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.

Lule, J. (2015). Globalization and media: Global Village of Babel (2nd ed.). Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.

Marotta, V. P. (2008). The hybrid self and the ambivalence of boundaries. Journal for the Study of Race, Nation and Culture, 14(3), 295–312.

Sijuwade, P. O. (2017, October). Globalization and cultural conflict in developing countries: The South African example. The Anthropologist, 8(2), 125–137.

Whitbeck, L. B., Sittner Hartshorn, K. J., and Walls, M. L. (2014). Indigenous adolescent development: Psychological, social and historical contexts. New York: Taylor and Francis.

REVEL VIDEOS Chapter Introduction: The Future of Child Development Speaking English and Mandarin Research Focus: Ethiopian Children Receive Laptops Cultural Focus: “Teenagers” in Kathmandu, Nepal Dance During Aboriginal Initiation Ceremony, Northern Australia Apply Your Knowledge as a Professional: Media Literacy Teacher

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Handout 12.1: Exploring Identity and How We Define Ourselves Write your responses to the following questions.

How would you describe your own identity? Consider all of the factors you believe influence your identity. ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ List as many types of identity you can think of, such as social class, gender, and so on. Consider which of these types of identity are voluntarily chosen and which are innate. Is it possible to set a goal for a particular identity and achieve this goal? If so, what types of identity can be achieved?

For instance, are you born with a social class, or can you set a goal to identify with a particular social class? ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ How much of your identity can be described as hybrid identity? Are there aspects of your family that you have combined into a blended identity? If this does not describe you personally, give an example of a hybrid identity or consider what might constitute a hybrid identity. ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ Created by: Regina Hughes, Collin College. No third-party material included.

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