Cultural Landscape, The An Introduction to Human Geography, 13th edition James M Rubenstein Solution

Type:

Solution Manual

Cultural Landscape, The An Resource: Introduction to Human Geography Edition:

13th Edition

Author(s):

James M. Rubenstein

INSTRUCTOR RESOURCE MANUAL Georgeanne Hribar Old Dominion University

The Cultural Landscape An Introduction to Human Geography Thirteenth Edition James M. Rubenstein

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Contents Preface

iv

Sample Syllabi

vii

Chapter 1: This Is Geography

1

Chapter 2: Population & Health

34

Chapter 3: Migration

65

Chapter 4: Culture & Social Media

96

Chapter 5: Languages

128

Chapter 6: Religions

163

Chapter 7: Ethnicities

201

Chapter 8: Political Geography

236

Chapter 9: Food & Agriculture

271

Chapter 10: Development

305

Chapter 11: Industry & Energy

335

Chapter 12: Services & Settlements

373

Chapter 13: Urban Patterns

401

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Preface This Instructor Resource Manual for The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography, 13th edition provides resources for veteran and novice teachers.

The Cultural Landscape is organized around a series of broad Learning Outcomes associated with content, concepts, and cognitive skills employed in exploring each Key Issue. Each chapter in this manual begins with a list of chapter-specific Learning Outcomes. In planning your course, you may have noticed that some of the Learning Outcomes identified in this resource manual are slightly different and more granular than those listed in the student textbook. For example, 4.1.1: “Outline concepts of folk and popular culture,” has been subdivided into 4.1.1a: “Outline concepts of folk culture,” and 4.1.1b: “Outline concepts of popular culture.” The first addresses knowledge and understanding of folk culture, and the second—popular culture.

These subdivided Learning Outcomes are aligned with assessment items in the revised Test Bank and Mastering Geography quiz items that support the 13th edition, and will provide you more flexibility when assessing student mastery of specific learning targets.

For each text chapter, the Instructor Resource Manual provides Learning Outcomes, an abbreviated Chapter Outline, and an expanded Chapter Content Outline that includes summaries of the key content and vocabulary. In addition, Student Engagement Activity Ideas and Challenges to Comprehension provide suggestions for capturing student attention, anticipating common student misconceptions, and introducing the chapter’s content.

The next section, Additional Classroom Activities and Assignments, provides a series of questions that could be assigned as homework, given as an essay question on exams, or used to provide a focus for inclass discussions. For each of the questions in this section, scoring criteria and parameters for student answers are included. In addition, a sample answer has been provided.

Answers to the Thinking Geographically questions included at the end of the chapter and suggested answers for the embedded Pause & Reflect questions are provided. New to this edition are Caption Questions, one set per Key Issue, that focus on map and data interpretation linked to the content of the chapter section.

The Instructor Resource Manual also provides sample answers for the following features and are presented in the order in which they appear in the text.

•

Debate It! presents two-sides of a controversial topic in a pro and con format. Additional resources and questions encourage students to further explore the topic.

•

Sustainability & Our Environment now includes questions to link course concepts and geographic thinking in the context of environmental issues.

•

Doing Geography and What’s Your Geography? paired features provide students with opportunities to connect the relevance of human geography to their everyday lives. These features provide questions and links for further investigation.

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Sample answers are also provided for the following end-of-chapter resources. The order of these resources may vary based on the placement in the text.

•

Explore questions are based on a Google Earth-based investigation of a specific location.

•

GeoVideo Questions provide a context and structure for viewing and analyzing the BBC video content (videos available online in Mastering GeographyTM).

•

Geospatial Data Analysis engages student in a map-based investigation of key concepts using MapMaster 2.0TM (MapMaster is available online in Mastering Geography).

•

Writing Geographically provides students an opportunity to practice writing skills and apply their geographic knowledge based on their interpretation of data provided in a map or other graphic.

The Resources section provides links to web-based and other resources that could be used to support the teaching and learning of the chapter’s content and concepts. The Mastering Geography Media & Assessment Resources section provides a list of additional GeoVideos and MapMaster 2.0 layers applicable to the chapter content.

The Connections between Chapters section identifies topics and concepts in previous and future chapters to reinforce student understandings of key geographic concepts and systematically develop skills in geographic thinking.

In addition to all of the resources integrated in the text, the online instructor materials provided in Mastering Geography have additional assignable homework activities and ready-made resources designed to extend and reinforce student skills and mastery of key content, concepts, and vocabulary. These resources are invaluable to implementation of the flipped classroom.

Use the Instructor Course Home areas to build assignments for your students. Highlights of assignable resources include: •

MapMaster 2.0 provides students with the opportunity to reinforce their understanding of spatial relationships, e.g., variation, distribution, interaction, and association. Students get hands on with map building, exploration, and spatial data analysis by layering a wide range of map data. Multiplechoice assessments in the Mastering Geography item library provide directions for building maps aligned with chapter content and focus on the development of spatial thinking and analysis skills.

•

GeoVideos and Google Earth Explorations linked to chapter content provide an opportunity for students to “visit” other places and build an appreciation for other cultures. Use as an out-of-class assignment and have students explain how the video or Google Earth Explorations illustrate concepts learned in class and make comparisons between cultures.

•

Interactive Data Visualizations powered by Social Explorer provide interactive data explorations for each chapter's Key Issue, and include map stories, predictive graphing, interactive maps, interactive population pyramids, interactive charts, and more. These media are integrated into the Pearson eText and Study Area and are also available for assignment with quizzes.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography •

GeoTutors are highly visual and data-rich assignable activities that help students master the most challenging concepts in geography.

•

Dynamic Study Modules (DSMs) provide two sets of 25 multiple-choice questions per chapter topic. Because this resource includes a “I don’t know yet” answer choice, it can be assigned as a pre-assessment or content preview. The modules are interactive as students are prompted to select, “I am unsure” or “I am sure” as they submit their answers. The questions could also be used as self-check for students at the end of the chapter. An infographic gauge represents their accuracy visually. Teachers can assign the DSMs for credit and/or students can access these on their own for self-study.

•

Learning Catalytics is an interactive student response tool paired with Mastering Geography that encourages team-based learning by using students’ smartphones, tablets, or laptops to engage them in interactive tasks and thinking. As a teacher, you can pose a variety of open-ended questions that help your students develop critical thinking skills, while monitoring responses with real-time analytics to find out where they’re struggling. With this information, you can adjust your instructional strategy in real time and try additional ways of engaging your students during class.

Learning Catalytics also lets you manage student interactions by automatically grouping students for discussion, team-based learning, and peer-to-peer learning.

The Mastering Geography student Study Area includes a variety of tools that students can access on their own, including: •

The eText provides a fully digital online version of the textbook, with search and bookmarking functionality. Available for offline reading.

•

Chapter Quizzes include 15 multiple-choice questions based on the chapter’s content.

•

Key Terms Flashcards help students master the key vocabulary.

•

Downloadable Outline Maps provide students the opportunity to label key countries and physical features. Consider assigning these maps throughout the course so that students can refer to them as they interpret the many thematic maps included in the text.

Mastering Geography also has assignable map identification quizzes that can be deployed and autograded.

Use the Instructor Course Home in Mastering Geography to access instructor materials which include: Lecture PowerPoints; images used in the PowerPoints, labeled and unlabeled jpeg images of the figures included in the text, and the revised and updated Chapter Test Bank. Select and assign the options aligned with your course goals and work to support your students as they explore and apply the geographic perspective.

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GEOG 100: Human Geography Sample Syllabus 1 Instructor: E-mail: Time: Tuesdays, 4:20–7:00 P.M. Phone:

Classroom:

Course Description Human Geography, GEOG 100, is designed to provide a topical introduction to the discipline. Each of the major topics of geographic analysis will be covered in a systematic fashion. Regional examples will be used to illustrate the key concepts of the course.

Course Objectives By the end of this course, students should: • • • • •

understand the discipline of geography, including its tools, themes, and concepts, think critically about geographic problems at the global, national, and local scales, appreciate the diversity of global cultures, including their cultural and economic characteristics, understand how cultural landscapes are created and how they change over time, and develop lifelong learning habits and an appreciation of geography in everyday life.

Required Text: Rubenstein, J. (2020). The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography, 13th edition. Hoboken, NJ: Pearson, Inc.

Course Outline and Reading Assignments Date Week 1

Week 2 Week 3

Week 4

Week 5

Topic/Organizing Question The Discipline of Geography How do geographers study the world around them?

The Geography of Population Why do people live where they do?

Migration Why do people move?

Map Quiz #1: North America The Geography of Language Why does language matter?

Geography in Action #1: Site and Situation of My Home Town Examination 1

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Text Correlation Chapter 1: This Is Geography

Chapter 2: Population & Health Chapter 3: Migration

Chapter 5: Languages

The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Date Week 6

Week 7

Week 8

Spring Break Week 9

Week 10

Week 11 Week 12

Week 13

Topic/Organizing Question Folk and Popular Culture How do geographers describe and analyze the cultural landscape?

Geography in Action #2: My State or Community Population Pyramid The Geography of Religion How do belief systems shape a society?

Map Quiz #2: Europe Locations of Cultural Significance Presentations Concepts of Political Geography How do people organize space?

Text Correlation Chapter 4: Culture & Social Media

Chapter 6: Religions

Chapter 8: Political Geography

Locations of Cultural Significance Presentations Spring Break Ethnicity Which cultural characteristics contribute to a sense of ethnic identity?

Map Quiz #3 Africa Locations of Cultural Significance Presentations The Geography of Development Why does the level of economic development vary from region to region?

Chapter 7: Ethnicities

Chapter 10: Development

Geography in Action #3: My Census Tract Data Examination 2 The Geography of Industrialization Chapter 11: Industry & Energy What factors influence the distribution of Chapter 12: Services & economic activity on a global scale?

Settlement Map Quiz #4: Asia (Southwest, Central, and the Caucasus) Locations of Cultural Significance Presentations The Geography of Agriculture How does the level of development influence a country’s ability to produce food?

Map Quiz #5: Asia (South, Southeast, and East) & the Pacific viii .

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Chapter 9: Food & Agriculture

Date Week 14

Week 15

Topic/Organizing Question Urban Geographies Why do people live in cities?

How do urban spatial patterns throughout the world differ?

Text Correlation Chapter 12: Services & Settlements Chapter 13: Urban Patterns

Geography in Action #4: Urban Walk and Gawk due Final Examination

EXAMINATIONS Examinations will be administered via Bb face-to-face during the scheduled class period. The exam will be comprised of a variety of question formats: multiple choice, true or false, short answer, multiple answer, ordering, matching, and essay. You will also be expected to analyze maps and other data presented in graphic format. Questions will be based on class notes, handouts, assignments, textbook readings, in-class exercises, class discussions (real and virtual), and online mapping exercises. No make-up examination will be given unless arrangements have been made in advance.

MAP QUIZZES Five short map quizzes are a part of the course. A list of countries and cities will be passed out at the first class meeting and is available in the syllabus link. These geographic fundamentals are an essential part of your general education. Knowing where places are located on the world map makes you a more efficient “processor” of information. Just as a dictionary is no substitute for knowing how to spell, an atlas is no substitute for knowing where places are located.

If you have a set of place-names etched on your file of mental maps, you will not only retain more information about what is going on in these places, but you will also see important relationships more readily. The mental maps you develop this semester will provide you with an organizational structure that will facilitate the lifelong learning process.

LOCATIONS OF CULTURAL SIGNIFICANCE PRESENTATIONS The imprints of culture are evident throughout the world through architectural relics of the past. Choose one of the locations of cultural significance from the list provided in the syllabus link. You will make a five-minute oral presentation in which you provide • • •

location of the cultural “artifact” significance to the culture that produced the “artifact,” and significance to the world today.

You may choose to use PowerPoint slides to support your oral presentation. A portion of selected class periods will be used for the presentations. A lottery will be conducted during the first weeks of class to determine the date of each presentation. The time limit for the presentation will be strictly enforced. Make sure you plan accordingly. Upload the presentation via the Bb assignment feature.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography In addition to your presentation you will submit a two to three-page executive summary that addresses the three questions answered in your presentation. Be sure to include a bibliography that identifies the sources of information and sources for all images used in your presentation. Upload a copy of this document via Bb’s assignment feature. Use headings and images to organize your paper.

GEOGRAPHY IN ACTION Throughout the course there will be a series of short assignments to complete outside of class. The assignments are designed to have you reflect on and analyze your encounters with geography in daily life.

Handouts describing each assignment will be available in the appropriate course content folder.

EVALUATION Examinations Place Name Quizzes Geography in Action Assignments Location of Cultural Significance Presentation & Executive Summary Class Participation

30 pts 15 pts 20 pts 25 pts 10 pts

The following grading scale will be used to assign letter grades: 90–100% = A; 80–89% = B; 70–79% = C; 60–69% = D; less than 60% = F. Pluses and minuses will be awarded at the discretion of the instructor.

STUDENT RESPONSIBILITIES Be sure to read the syllabus carefully to note when assignments are due. Without extenuating circumstances, late assignments are not accepted.

Manage your time wisely—the assignments and course reading should take approximately 3–6 hours a week to complete. Create a plan for completing course work within the specified time limits.

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Geography 101: Human Geography Sample Syllabus 2 Instructor: E-mail: Time: Tuesdays, 6:50–10:00 P.M. Phone:

Classroom:

Course Description This is an introductory course in Human Geography. Topics included as part of the curriculum for this course are the global distribution of population, health and nutrition, religions, races, geopolitics, settlement patterns, urbanization, and economic systems.

Course Outline and Reading Assignments Date

Topic (s)

Reading (s)

August 28

Course Introduction

Chapter 1

September 4

Geographic Concepts

Handouts

September 11

Time & Weather

Handouts

September 18

Quiz #1/Climate Zones & Plate Tectonics

Handouts

September 25

Quiz #2/Biomes

Handouts

October 2

Quiz #3/Culture & Social Media

Chapter 4

October 9

Population

Chapter 2

October 16

Quiz #4/Migration

Chapter 3

October 23

Religion

Chapter 6

October 30

Midterm

November 6

Political Geography

Chapter 8

November 13

Development

Chapter 9

November 20

Industry

Chapter 11

November 27

Services

Chapter 12

December 4

Cities

Chapter 13

December 11

Final Exam (7:30–9:30 P.M.)

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography

Text The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography, 13th edition by James Rubenstein.

Exams There will be two noncumulative examinations. Each will be worth 100 points. Bring Scantron form # 882-E to class each time there is an exam. You are not allowed to leave the class during an exam unless you have completed it.

Quizzes There will be four quizzes during this course. Each quiz is worth 25 points. Each quiz covers a very specific topic. You are not allowed to leave the class during a quiz unless you have completed it. You do not need to bring a scantron for the quizzes.

Term Paper and Assignments A hands-on paper that will require students to do research in the field will be assigned early in the semester.

The paper will be due on the last day of class. A few smaller assignments will be randomly handed out throughout the semester and their due dates will vary. That is why it is critical that you attend class regularly.

Course Grading Exams (2) Quizzes (4) Term Paper (1) Assignments (?)

100 points per exam 25 points per quiz 50 points 50 points Total

= 200 points = 100 points = 50 points = 50 points = 400 points

Semester Grades Are Determined Using This Scale 400–360 359–320 319–280 279–240 239 or less

100–90% 89–80% 79–70% 69–60% 59% or less

=A =B =C =D =F

Attendance and Withdrawals: Attendance is your responsibility. Students are expected to attend class meetings, and an attendance roster is maintained. This is a fast-paced course and failure to attend class results in your missing valuable information and material. All students are solely responsible for the material missed as a result of absences. In other words, it is your responsibility to find out what you missed from your classmates. If you do not drop prior to the deadline to receive a “W,” students may receive an “F” for the semester. I am permitted to drop students after three absences and will do so when I am confident that these absences indicate that a student is no longer participating in the course.

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Drop with a refund by

September 9

Drop without a “W” grade by

September 9

Elect C/NC grading by

October 5

Drop with a “W” grade by

November 18

Incompletes: Must be approved by the Geography Department Chair. Taking an incomplete is very strongly discouraged and even more rarely granted. Only in extreme cases of emergency beyond the student’s control will the Geography Department Chair consider an incomplete.

Make up Work: No exams or quizzes may be made up without my consent and all work MUST be completed PRIOR to the time that I return exams or quizzes to the class.

Cheating: Cheating is a serious offense and will not be tolerated. It is also a violation College Academic Honesty/Dishonesty Policy and will be subject to all appropriate disciplinary action. All students enrolled in my class should carefully read this policy found in the General Catalog. Furthermore, students caught cheating during any quiz or exam in this class will receive a zero for that activity and the offense will be reported to the Vice President of Student Services.

Students are expected to refrain from engaging in the following behaviors: 1.

2.

3.

4.

Using, receiving, or providing unauthorized information during quizzes or exams.

Changing the answers on assignments after the work has been graded.

Accessing your mobile phone in class except for assigned geographic explorations as instructed.

Plagiarizing or presenting someone else’s work as your own.

Tips for Being Successful in Geography 101 • • • • • • • •

Attend class regularly.

Take notes in class and follow along in your textbook.

Partner up with another student in the class.

Read the assigned readings. For every one hour of class, you should spend two hours outside of the class reading the textbook and reviewing your notes.

Review your notes on a daily basis. Research indicates that you forget 80% of what you read after two weeks’ time.

Grading mistakes can happen. It is your responsibility to save all graded quizzes and exams until the end of the semester when grades are completed.

Speak to me if you have any language difficulties or disabilities.

Communicate with me if you need help in class or if you have any issues or concerns. I will be more than happy to help you.

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1

This Is Geography Learning Outcomes After reading, studying, and discussing the chapter, students should be able to: Learning Outcome 1.1.1:

Summarize geography’s basic concepts.

Learning Outcome 1.1.2:

Explain the development of the science of cartography.

Learning Outcome 1.1.3:

Identify geography’s principal contemporary mapping tools.

Learning Outcome 1.1.4:

Explain the role of map scale and projection in reading maps.

Learning Outcome 1.1.5:

Explain how the geographic grid locates points on Earth’s surface and helps to tell time.

Learning Outcome 1.2.1:

Identify the distinctive features of a place.

Learning Outcome 1.2.2:

Identify the three types of regions.

Learning Outcome 1.2.3:

Explain two geographic elements in defining culture.

Learning Outcome 1.3.1a:

Relate the geographic concept of scale to economic change.

Learning Outcome 1.3.1b:

Relate the geographic concept of scale to economic and culture change.

Learning Outcome 1.3.2:

Compare three properties of distribution.

Learning Outcome 1.3.3:

Summarize geographic thought, with application to the geography of inequality.

Learning Outcome 1.3.4:

Analyze geographic approaches to important elements of cultural identity.

Learning Outcome 1.3.5a:

Discuss geographic approaches to ethnicity as important elements of cultural identity.

Learning Outcome 1.3.5b:

Discuss geographic approaches to sexuality as important elements of cultural identity.

Learning Outcome 1.3.6:

Describe the various ways that features can spread through diffusion.

Learning Outcome 1.3.7:

Explain how places are connected through networks.

Learning Outcome 1.4.1:

Describe the three pillars of sustainability.

Learning Outcome 1.4.2:

Explain Earth’s three abiotic physical systems.

Learning Outcome 1.4.3:

Explain how the biosphere interacts with abiotic systems.

Learning Outcome 1.4.4:

Compare ecosystems in the Netherlands and South Africa.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography

Chapter 1 Outline I

Key Issue 1.1: Why is Geography a Science?

A Geography’s Basic Concepts 1 Geography & History a geography—location of places, ask where and why b history—important events, ask when and why 2 Everywhere is Unique a place—a specific point on Earth, has distinctive characteristics b region—an area of Earth defined by one or more distinctive characteristics 3 All Locations are Interrelated a scale—relationship between the portion of the Earth being students and the Earth as a whole b space—physical gap or interval between two objections c connection—relationships among people and objects across the barrier of space B Mapping 1 Map—two-dimensional or flat-scale model of Earth’s surface or a portion of it 2 Purposes a reference tool—location, routes b communications tool—depicts distribution of human activities, physical features 3 Geography in the Ancient World a Thales of Miletus—used geometry to measure land area b Anaximander—claimed world was shaped like a cylinder c Pythagoras—claimed world was a sphere d Hecataeus—produced first geography book e Aristotle—used evidence to demonstrate Earth was a sphere f Eratosthenes—invented the world geography, calculated circumference of the Earth g Strabo—wrote 17-volume Geographica h Ptolemy—wrote eight-volume Geographica, codified principles of mapmaking 4 Geography’s Revival a Yu Gong—described economic resources of provinces b Pei Xiu—father of Chinese cartography c Muhaddad al-Idrisi—Arab geographer, recorded travels d Ibn Batuta—Moroccan scholar, recorded travels e Martin Waldseemuller—German cartographer, first to use label “America” f Abraham Ortelius—Flemish cartographer, first modern atlas g Bernhardus Varenius—wrote treatise on systematic geography C Contemporary Geographic Tools 1 GIScience: Analyzing Data a geographic information system—captures, stores, queries, and displays geographic data b photogrammetry—science of taking measurements of Earth’s surface from photographs c remote sensing—acquisition of data about Earth’s surface from satellites orbiting Earth 2 GPS: Pinpointing Locations a Global Positioning System—system determining precise locations on Earth using satellites b geotagging—identification of a piece of information through the use of latitude and longitude 2 .

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Chapter 1: This Is Geography 3

VGI: Making Maps Yourself a volunteered geographic information (VGI)—creation and dissemination of geographic information contributed and shared for free by individuals b citizen science—scientific research by amateur scientists c participatory GIS (PGIS)—community-based mapping 4 mashup—map with overlays from different sources D Making Maps 1 Map Scale—relationship of a feature’s size on a map to its actual size on Earth a ratio b written c graphic 2 Projection a Definition—methods of transferring locations on Earth’s surface to a flat map b Maps distort i relative size ii shape iii distance iv direction c Examples i Winkel ii Mercator iii Goode Homolosine iv Gall-Peters—relative size, shape distorted E Interpreting Maps 1 The Geographic Grid a meridian—longitude, time b parallels—latitude 2 Types of Maps a isoline—connects places of equal value b dot distribution—each dot represents a predetermined number of observations c choropleth—shaded in proportion to the measure of the variable d graduated symbol—symbols sized according to the value of the variable e cartogram—size of place proportional to the value of a particular variable II Key Issue 1.2: Why is Every Place Unique?

A Place: A Unique Location 1 Place Names—toponym 2 Site—physical character of a place 3 Situation—relative location of a place 4 Absolute location—geographic coordinates B Region: A Unique Area 1 Cultural Landscape—a combination of cultural, economic, and physical features that identify a place 2 Formal Region—uniform region, shares one or more common characteristics 3 Functional Region—nodal region, region organized around a node or point 3 .

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography 4 Vernacular Region—perceptual region, an area people believe exists C Regions: Geography & Culture 1 Culture—body of customary beliefs, material traits, and social forms constituting the distinct tradition of a group a Geography & Culture: What People Care About—ideas, values, beliefs b Geography & Culture: What People Take Care Of—material culture, food, clothing, shelter 2 Spatial association—distribution of one feature is related to the distribution of another feature III Key Issue 1.3: What Are Different Places Similar?

A Scale: Global to Local 1 Scale & Cultural Change—uniform cultural landscapes, globalization of culture 2 Scale & Economic Change—transnational corporations conduct business and research in many countries B Space: Distribution of Features 1 Distribution—how objects are distributed across space 2 Distribution Properties: Density—frequency something occurs in space 3 Distribution Properties: Concentration—extent of a features spread over space, clustered vs. dispersed 4 Distribution Properties: Pattern—geometric arrangements of objects in space 5 Distribution Properties: Your Space C Space Inequality 1 Geographic Thought a poststructuralist geography—how the powerful in a society dominate less powerful groups b humanistic geography—analyzes different ways individuals form ideas about a place and give it meaning c behavioral geography—aims to understand psychological basis for individual human actions in space 2 Uneven Development—increasing gap in economic conditions in core and peripheral regions 3 Inequality Within Countries D Space: Gender Identity 1 Gender & Sex 2 Gender Roles 3 Distribution by Gender E Space: Cultural Identity 1 Distribution by Sexual Orientation 2 Distribution by Ethnicity & Race F Connections: Diffusion 1 Terms a diffusion—process by which a features spreads across space through time b hearth—place from which an idea originates 2 Relocation Diffusion—the spread of an idea through the physical movement of people from one place to another 3 Expansion Diffusion—spread a feature from one place to another in an additive process a hierarchical diffusion—spread of an idea from persons or nodes of authority or power b contagious diffusion—rapid, widespread diffusion of a characteristic through the population i meme—contagious diffusion via the Internet or social media 4 .

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Chapter 1: This Is Geography c

stimulus diffusion—spread of an underlying principle even though the characteristic fails to diffuse G Connections: Spatial Interaction 1 Terms a distance decay—contact diminishes with increasing distance and eventually disappears b space-time compression—reduction in time it takes for something to reach another place 2 Networks—chain of communication that connects places 3 Connections & Culture a assimilation—process by which a group’s cultural features are altered to resemble those of another group b acculturation—process of changes in culture that result from the meeting of two groups c syncretism—combing elements of two groups into a new cultural feature IV Key Issue 1.4: Why Are Some Actions Not Sustainable?

A Sustainability & Resources 1 Terms a resource—substance in the environment that is useful to people b sustainability—use of Earth’s resources in ways that ensure their future availability c types of resources i renewable—produced in nature more rapidly than consumed by humans ii nonrenewable—produced by nature more slowly than consumed by humans 2 Sustainability’s Three Pillars a environment pillar i conservation—use and management of resources to meet human needs ii preservation—maintenance of resources in their present condition with as little human impact as possible b social pillar—what an individual or society values affects preferences and the use of resources c economic pillar—exchange in the marketplace, price depends on a society’s technology ability to obtain the resource and adapt it to the society’s purposes B Sustainability & Earth Systems 1 Biotic system-living organisms 2 Abiotic—nonliving or inorganic a atmosphere—layer of gases surrounding Earth i climate—long-term average weather conditions at a location b hydrosphere—water on and near Earth’s surface c lithosphere—Earth’s crust and upper mantle C Geography & Ecology 1 Ecology & the Biosphere a ecosystem—group of living organisms and abiotic spheres in which they interact b ecology—scientific study of ecosystems c effects of human action d erosion e depletion of nutrients 2 Cultural Ecology—study of human-environment relationships 5 .

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography a b 3

4

environmental determinism—belief the physical environment causes social development possibilism belief the physical environment may limit some human actions, but people have the ability to adjust to their environment Sustainable & Unsustainable Ecosystems a sustainable ecosystem: The Netherlands i polder—piece of land created by draining the sea b unsustainable ecosystem: Cape Town, South Africa Telling Time a 24 time zones, 15 degrees of longitude each b Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), reference point prime meridian Greenwich, UK c International Date Line—close to 180, going west cross into tomorrow

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Chapter 1: This Is Geography

Chapter Content Outline Introduction Geography is more than rote memorization: Geographers ask where things are and why they are where they are. What are the defining elements of geography, and how have they developed over the course of human history? Cartography is the science of map making and has evolved from prehistoric humans making rudimentary maps of their local environment, to today’s societies utilizing electronic devices to make high-quality, precise maps. Geographers use the concepts of space, place, and region to describe unique characteristics of locations on Earth as they happen across different scales. The study of the connections between human activities and the physical environment, how these connections impact sustainability, is integral to the discipline of Geography.

Key Issue 1: Why Is Geography a Science?

Although the earliest humans were practicing Geography, it wasn’t until the ancient Greek philosopher Eratosthenes that the discipline was bestowed the name it is known by today—geo, from the Greek, meaning “Earth,” and the Greek word graphy, meaning “to write,” were combined to describe the study of where things are found on Earth’s surface and the reasons for the locations. To contrast history with geography, one could view history as posing questions of when and why, while geographers ask questions of where and why.

Two features of human activity encompass the field of human geography as it is covered in this text: culture and economy. Two basic concepts are used by geographers to explain what makes a certain place unique: place and region. A place is a specific point on Earth, distinguished by a particular characteristic. Every place occupies a unique geographic location, or position, on Earth’s surface. A region is an area of Earth defined by one or more defining characteristics. The Earth is partitioned into a number of regions by geographers, such as the Midwest and Latin America.

To explain the relationships between locations, geographers employ three basic concepts: scale, space, and connection. Scale is the relationship between the portion of Earth being studied and Earth as a whole.

Geographers study a variety of scales, from local to global. Space refers to the physical gap or interval between two objects. Connection refers to relationships among people and objects across the barrier of space.

A map is a two-dimensional or flat-scale model of the Earth or a portion of its surface. Cartography is the science of making maps. Maps are used for reference (where things are located) and for communication of the distribution of physical and human features.

Geography in the Ancient World Maps have been created for thousands of years. The earliest maps were used as reference tools—simple navigation devices designed to show a traveler how to get from Point A to Point B. Following the mapmakers of the ancient eastern Mediterranean world, European mapmaking and geographic thought became less mathematical and more fanciful, displaying Earth as a flat disk surrounded by mythical figures and fierce animals.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Geography’s Revival Mapmaking as a reference tool was revived during the Age of Exploration and Discovery. Explorers who sailed across the oceans in search of trade routes and resources in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries required accurate maps to reach their desired destinations without wrecking their ships.

Contemporary Geographic Tools Maps are the geographer’s most essential tool. Maps are used by geographers for displaying geographic information and for displaying the results of geographic analysis.

GIScience: Analyzing Data is the analysis of data relating to Earth acquired through satellite and other electronic information technologies. A geographic information system (GIS) is a complex computer system which stores and presents geographic data. Different types of information are stored in layers.

Separate layers may include boundaries of countries, bodies of water, roads, place names, and economic data. GIS-produced maps contain multiple layers and are more accurate and more complex than maps drawn by hand.

The acquisition of data about Earth’s surface from a satellite orbiting Earth or from airplanes is known as remote sensing. At any moment, a satellite sensor records the image of a tiny area called a picture element, or pixel. A map created by remote sensing is essentially a grid that contains many rows of pixels.

Geographers use remote sensing to map the changing distribution of a wide variety of features, such as agriculture, drought, and sprawl. Remote sensed layers can be further combined and analyzed in a GIS. GPS: Pinpointing Locations uses satellites to reference locations on the ground. GPS is most commonly used for navigation. Pilots of aircraft and ships stay on course with GPS. On land, GPS detects a vehicle’s current position, the motorist programs the desired destination into a GPS device, and the device provides instructions on how to reach the destination. GPS can also be used to find the precise location of a vehicle or person. Geographers find GPS to be particularly useful in coding the precise location of objects collected in fieldwork. Geotagging is used to identify places by linking a piece of information to its latitude and longitude coordinates.

VGI: Making Maps Yourself Electronic devices such as smart phones, tablets, and computers are ubiquitous parts of culture the world over today. These electronic devices allow individuals to produce maps and share them with others. Volunteered geographic information (VGI) is the creation and dissemination of geographic data contributed voluntarily and for free by individuals using these electronic devices. VGI is part of the wider trends of citizen science, which is scientific research conducted by amateur scientists, and participatory GIS (PGIS), which is community-based mapping.

The term mashup refers to the practice of overlaying data from one source on top of one of the mapping services. Computer users have the ability to create their own GIS maps because mapping services provide access to the application programming interface, which is the language that links a database such as an address list with mapping software. A mashup map can show the locations of businesses and activities within a neighborhood in a city. The requested information could be all pizza parlors within a mile of a certain address. Mapping software can also show the precise locations of gas stations with the lowest prices or current traffic tie-ups on highways.

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Chapter 1: This Is Geography Map Scale A map’s scale shows the relationship between map units and the actual distance on Earth. A ratio or fraction scale represents the relationship as a ratio, for example, 1: 100,000 means that 1 unit on the map equals 100,000 units on the ground. In a written scale, units are expressed in a simple statement, for example, “1 centimeter equals 1 kilometer.” A graphic scale is shown with scale bar that is used to compare map distance to Earth distance.

Projection Maps are a planar (flat) representation of Earth’s curved surface. Earth is nearly a sphere and is therefore only accurately represented on a globe. Thus, some distortion must result when using maps, especially at small scales (continental or whole-Earth maps). Cartographers chose among hundreds of projections in order to minimize distortion of shape, distance, relative size, and direction.

The Geographic Grid Provides a system by which a place’s location can be described using a coordinate system such as latitude and longitude. Longitude is culturally defined as starting at Greenwich, England, and measures degrees east and west of that line of longitude, or meridian. The zero-degree longitude line in Greenwich, England, is known as the prime meridian. Latitude measures degrees north and south of the equator (0° latitude) which is the line of latitude halfway between the North Pole (90° north latitude) and the South Pole (90° south latitude). A latitude line is known as a parallel because all latitude lines are parallel to the equator. The equator is the parallel with the greatest circumference and is the baseline for measuring latitude. Each degree of latitude or longitude is further divided into 60 minutes and each minute into 60 seconds.

Types of Maps Geographers use a variety of maps to represent distribution of data for one or more variables. Isoline maps connect places with the similar values such as temperature or precipitation. Dot distribution maps use points with each point representing a number of observations.

Distribution maps show clustering or dispersion in a variety of ways. A choropleth map uses color to show quantities of a certain variable. Generally, the darker the color, the higher the value of the variable being shown. Graduated symbol maps also show quantities by using larger size symbols to indicate higher values.

Cartograms show the size of a country of U.S. state proportional to the value of a particular variable. The relative positions of the locations are preserved, but size is changed to reflect the variable’s value.

Key Issue 2: Why Is Every Place Unique?

Place: A Unique Location An essential aspect of geography is the process of describing the features of a place. Through these descriptions, similarities, differences, and changes across Earth may be explained by geographers. The component parts, or features, that make each place on Earth distinct may be examined to assist in these descriptions. A feature’s place on the Earth may be identified by its location, the position that something occupies on Earth’s surface.

Place Names A place name, or toponym, is the most common way of describing a location. Many uninhabited places are even named. Place names sometimes reflect the cultural history of a place, and a change in place name is often culturally motivated. Examining changes in place name geography is a useful insight into the changing cultural context of a place. The Board of Geographical Names was established in the late nineteenth century to be the final arbiter of names on U.S. maps. In recent years, the board has been especially concerned with removing offensive place names.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Site The term site refers to the physical characteristics of a place. Important site characteristics include climate, water sources, topography, soil, vegetation, latitude, and elevation. The combination of physical features gives each place a distinctive character. People disagree on the attributes of a good location for settlement. What is considered a good site depends on cultural values.

Situation The term situation describes a place in terms of its location relative to other places.

Understanding situation can help locate an unfamiliar place in terms of known places, or it can help explain the significance of a place. We give directions to people by referring to the situation of a place. We identify important buildings, streets, and other landmarks to direct people to the desired location. In contrast, absolute location never changes and uses geographic coordinates to identify a place’s location.

Region: A Unique Area An area of Earth defined by one or more distinctive characteristics is a region.

A particular place can be included in more than one region, depending on the criteria used to define the region. Regions can be defined at a variety of scales—from localities within a state to several neighboring counties. A region gains uniqueness from possessing not a single human or an environmental characteristic but a combination of them.

The cultural landscape is a recurrent theme throughout this text. It represents the total sum of cultural, economic, and features of the physical environment that combine to create distinctive landscapes across Earth. Sauer defined the cultural landscape, “Culture is the agent, the natural area is the medium, the cultural landscape is the result.”

A formal region, also called a uniform region, is a region with a predominant or universal characteristic.

Formal regions commonly have well-defined boundaries. The shared feature could be a cultural value such as a common language or an environmental property such as climate. In a formal region, the selected characteristic is present throughout the region. Some formal regions are easy to identify, such as countries or local government units. A characteristic may just be predominant rather than universal. For example, the North American wheat belt is a formal region in which wheat is the most commonly grown crop, but other crops are grown there as well.

A functional region, also known as a nodal region, is defined by an area of use or influence of some feature.

Often used in economic geography, functional regions have “fuzzy” boundaries as the influence of the central feature decreases over distance. The functional region is organized around a focal point. A good example of a functional region is the reception area of a television station. A television station’s signal is the strongest at the center of its service area and becomes weaker at the edge and eventually can no longer be distinguished.

At some distance from the center, more people are watching a station originating in another city. That place is the boundary between functional regions of two TV market areas.

A vernacular region, or perceptual region, is the most ambiguously defined as they rely on a mental conception of a place as belonging to a common region for complex cultural reasons. Such regions emerge from people’s informal sense of place rather than scientific models developed through geographic thought.

A vernacular region is closely associated with an individual’s (his or her) mental map, which is an internal representation of a portion of Earth’s surface. A mental map depicts what an individual knows about a place, containing personal impressions of what is in the place and where the place is located.

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Chapter 1: This Is Geography Geography and Culture One of the defining characteristics of a region that helps geographers identify regions is culture. Culture is a body of customary beliefs, material traits, and social forms that together constitutes the distinct tradition of a group of people. The word culture originates from the Latin cultus, meaning “to care for.” Culture is a complex concept, comprising two different meanings: to care about (to adore or worship something) and to take care of (to nurse or look after something). Geographers use both of these aspects of the concept of culture to examine the uniqueness of regions throughout the world.

Geography and Culture: What People Care About Important cultural values derive from a group’s language, religion, and ethnicity. These three cultural traits are both an excellent way of identifying the location of a culture and the principal means by which cultural values become distributed around the world.

These cultural traits are covered in detail in Chapters 5, 6, and 7.

Geography and Culture: What People Take Care Of Another element of culture of interest to geographers is production of material wealth—the food, clothing, and shelter that humans need to survive and thrive. All people consume food, wear clothing, and build shelter, but different cultural groups obtain their wealth in different ways. Various characteristics—such as per capita income, literacy rates, and TVs per capita—distinguish developed regions and developing ones. Most people in developing countries are engaged in agriculture, whereas most people in developed countries earn a living through performing services in exchange for wages. These concepts are discussed in Chapters 9, 10, 11, 12, and 13.

Spatial Association A region is defined through its unique combination of features. In defining and analyzing regions, geographers look for factors with similar distributions. Spatial association arises if the distribution of one feature located within a region is related to the distribution of another feature.

Key Issue 3: Why Are Different Places Similar?

Scale: Global to Local Scale is an integral element of geographical analysis, especially as it concerns issues of globalization. Globalization is a force or process that engages the world as a whole and results in making something worldwide in scope.

Scale and Cultural Change Economic globalization is matched with an increasing global influence and spread of some cultures, resulting in more uniform cultural landscapes across the world. Groups with distinctive local cultures may feel threatened by the globalization of culture, causing conflict or a sense of loss. The survival of a local culture’s distinctive beliefs, forms, and traits may be threatened by interaction with social customs as wearing jeans and Nike shoes, consuming Coca-Cola and McDonald’s hamburgers, and communicating using cell phones and computers. Yet despite globalization, cultural differences among places not only persist but also actually flourish in many places.

Scale & Economic Change The globalization of economic activities has resulted from increasing connections between places and the rapid movement of goods and information around the world. Today, every place in the world is part of the global economy. Transnational corporations conduct research, operate factories, and sell products in many countries, not just where its headquarters and principal shareholders are located. Transnational corporations aim to maximize the use of local specialization as they identify optimal locations and coordinate each locality’s distinctive role in the global economy.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Space: Distribution of Features Geographers compare and analyze the arrangement of people and activities across space and explain reasons for the patterns observed. Geographers use the concept of distribution to describe the spatial arrangement of objects across Earth’s surface. Three aspects of spatial arrangement may be used to further describe distribution: density, concentration, and pattern.

Distribution Properties: Density Density is the frequency with which something occurs in space. Density is expressed as the number of features per area of land.

Distribution Properties: Concentration The extent of a feature’s spread over space is its concentration.

If the objects in an area are close together, they are clustered; if they are far apart, they are dispersed.

Geographers use concentration to explain distribution. In a dispersed neighborhood, each house has a large private yard, whereas in a clustered neighborhood, the houses are close together and open space is shared as a community park.

Distribution Properties: Pattern The term pattern describes whether features are arranged along geometric or other predictable arrangements. Geographers observe that many objects form a linear distribution, such as the arrangement of houses along a street or stations along a subway line. Many American cities contain a regular pattern of streets, known as a grid pattern, which intersect at right angles at uniform intervals to form square or rectangular blocks.

Distribution Properties: Your Space Even at the level of your classroom, the distribution of desks and people illustrates the concepts of density, pattern, and concentration.

Space: Inequality Electronic communications have played a role in the removal of physical barriers to interaction among people located far apart. However, opportunities for interaction are limited by unequal access to electronics and the availability of electricity and Internet connections.

Geographic Thought Geographers employ a variety of methods to understand cultural identity and space, including those of poststructuralist, humanistic, and behavioral geography. Poststructuralist geography examines how the powerful in a society dominate, or seek to control, less powerful group, how the dominated groups occupy space, and confrontations that result from the domination. Poststructuralist geographers conceptualize space as the product of ideologies or value systems of ruling elites.

Humanistic geography is a branch of human geography that emphasizes the different ways that individuals perceive their surrounding environment. Behavioral geography emphasizes the importance of understanding the psychological basis for individual human actions in space. Distinctive spatial patterns by gender, race, and sexual orientation are constructed by the attitudes and actions of others.

Uneven Development Global culture and economy are centered on three core regions: North America, Europe, and East Asia. Other developing regions located on the periphery have limited access to communications, wealth, and power. The increasing gap in economic conditions between regions in the core and periphery that results from globalization is known as uneven development.

Inequality Within Countries Unequal access and economic inequality have increased within countries.

The inequality gap in the United States is increasing. The share of the national income held by the wealthiest one percent has increased to 40 percent in 2017. At the same time, the number of people living in poverty has increased by one percent.

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Chapter 1: This Is Geography

Space: Gender Identity Geographers study cultural traits, such as gender, ethnicity, and sexuality because they help explain the distribution and movement of people across space.

Gender & Sex The United Nations defines gender as the social attributes and opportunities associated with being male and female. Typically, women and men have different and unequal responsibilities and different opportunities. Gender roles are based on society’s norms, roles and relationships, and male and female identities and are passed down to successive generations in a society. Humans often arrange their activities in space according to gender, ethnicity, and sexuality.

Distribution by Gender Geographers focus on the distribution by gender. Gender inequality is often reinforced by institutions and stereotypes about the norms associated with different ages or groups of men or women. There is no country in the world in which the average income earned by women exceeds that earned by men.

Space: Cultural Identity In addition to race and ethnicity, sex, age, and class are important elements of cultural identity. Geographers study these elements of cultural identity because they help to explain why people sort themselves out in space and move across the landscape in distinctive ways.

Distribution by Sexual Orientation Openly homosexual men and lesbian women may be attracted to some locations to reinforce spatial interactions with other LGBTQ (lesbian, bisexual, transgender, queer people). Geographers examine the distribution patterns at a variety of scales.

Distribution by Ethnicity & Race Within the United States, the distribution of various ethnic groups varies at all scales. Primarily, African Americans are clustered in the Southeast and Hispanics in the Southwest. For geographers, concern and deep respect for cultural diversity is not merely a politically correct expediency; it lies at the heart of geography’s understanding of space. Geographers have deep respect for the dignity and equality of all cultural groups Connections: Diffusion Recalling the concept of connections from the beginning of the chapter, geographers are concerned with the speed and various means by which connections may occur.

Diffusion is the process by which a cultural trait, people, things, or ideas spread across space from one place to another over time. A hearth is a place from which an innovation emerges. Geographers document the location of hearths and the processes by which diffusion carries things elsewhere over time. Geographers classify diffusion into two basic types—relocation and expansion diffusion.

Relocation Diffusion is the spread of an idea through the physical movement of people from one place to another. When people move, they carry their culture, including language, religion, and ethnicity to a new location.

Expansion Diffusion The spread of a feature from one place to another in an additive process is expansion diffusion. Expansion diffusion may occur through the spread of an idea to new areas through a hierarchy (hierarchical diffusion), popular notions or even contact (contagious diffusion), or the spread of an underlying idea divorced from its original context (stimulus diffusion).

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Connections: Spatial Interaction Some places are well-connected by communications or transportation networks, while others are not. Contact diminishes with increasing distance and eventually disappears. This trailing-off phenomenon is called distance decay. In the contemporary world, distance decay is much less severe because connection between places takes less time. Geographers apply the term space-time compression to describe the reduction in time it takes for something to reach another place. Interaction takes place through a network, which is a chain of communication that connects places. Ideas that originate in a hearth are now able to diffuse rapidly to other areas through communication networks. Distant places seem less remote and more accessible to us.

Key Issue 4: Why Are Some Actions Not Sustainable?

A resource is a substance in the environment that is useful to people, economically and technologically feasible to access, and socially acceptable to use. A renewable resource is produced in nature more rapidly than it is consumed by humans. A nonrenewable resource is produced in nature more slowly than it is consumed by humans. The use of Earth’s renewable and nonrenewable natural resources in ways that ensure resource availability in the future is sustainability.

Sustainability’s Three Pillars According to the United Nations, sustainability rests on three pillars: environment, economy, and society. In the social pillar, the values of a society influence the choices of which and how resources are used.

Sustainability requires curtailing the use of nonrenewable resources and limiting the use of renewable resources to the level at which the environment can continue to supply them indefinitely. The environment pillar has a focus on conservation that is the sustainable use and management of Earth’s natural resources to meet human needs such as food, medicine, and recreation. Conservation differs from preservation, which is the maintenance of resources in their present condition, with as little human impact as possible.

Preservation does not regard nature as a resource for human use. In addition to the use of resources for production, the economic pillar takes into the account the actual environmental costs of using a resource such as air pollution from cars idling in traffic.

Some argue it is already too late to discuss sustainability. Others believe that resource availability has no maximum, and Earth’s resources have no absolute limit because the definition of resources changes drastically and unpredictably over time.

Sustainability & Earth Systems A biotic system is composed of living organisms. An abiotic system is composed of nonliving or inorganic matter. Three of Earth’s four systems are abiotic. The atmosphere is a thin layer of gases surrounding Earth. The hydrosphere is all the water on Earth or near Earth’s surface. The lithosphere is Earth’s crust and a portion of upper mantle directly above the crust. Only one of Earth’s systems is biotic. The biosphere is all living organisms on Earth, including plants and animals, as well as microorganisms.

Atmosphere The long-term average weather condition, temperature and precipitation, at a particular location is climate. Climate may be classified into one of five main climate regions, devised by the German climatologist Vladimir Köppen: • •

A: Tropical climates.

B: Dry climates.

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Chapter 1: This Is Geography • • •

C: Warm mid-latitude climates.

D: Cold mid-latitude climates.

E: Polar climates.

These five main climate regions may be further subdivided, based on the amount of precipitation and the season in which it falls.

Ecology & The Biosphere A group of living organisms and abiotic spheres with which they interact is an ecosystem. The scientific study of ecosystems is ecology. Living organisms in the biosphere interact with each of the three abiotic systems. Human geographers are especially interested in ecosystems involving the interaction of humans with the rest of the biosphere and the three abiotic spheres. If the atmosphere contains pollutants or its oxygen level is reduced, humans have trouble breathing. Without water, humans waste away and die. A stable lithosphere provides humans with materials for buildings and fuel for energy. The rest of the biosphere provides humans with food. Human actions can destroy soil through farming practices that encourage erosion and deplete the soil of nutrients by not rotating crops.

Cultural Ecology Human geographers are especially interested in the fact that different cultural groups modify the natural environment in distinctive ways. The geographic study of human-environment relationships is known as cultural ecology.

Environmental determinism, largely dismissed by modern geographers, states that physical factors cause cultures to develop and behave as they do. Environmental determinists believe that human geographers should apply laws from the natural sciences to understanding relationships between the physical environment and human actions. Possibilism recognizes the constraints of the physical environment while also crediting human cultures with the ability to adapt to the environment in many ways—including changing it.

Sustainable & Unsustainable Ecosystems The Netherlands and Cape Town, South Africa have both modified their environments in response to an overabundance or lack of water.

Sustainable Ecosystem: The Netherlands A polder is a piece of land that is created by draining water from an area. In total, the Netherlands has 2600 square miles of polders. The Dutch government has reserved most of the polders for agriculture to reduce the country’s dependence on imported food. The Dutch have also constructed massive dikes to prevent the North Sea from flooding much of the country. A second ambitious project in the Netherlands is the Delta Plan. The low-lying delta in the southwestern part of the country is very vulnerable to flooding. The Delta Plan called for the construction of several dams to close off most of the waterways from the North Sea. Unsustainable Ecosystem: Cape Town, South Africa An urban area of 3.8 million people faces possible water shortages. Located on the edge of desert areas scarcity of water is an issue. Intensive water conservation efforts were used in the city’s management of water resources. Reservoirs capture rainwater during the winter rainy season. However, the worst drought in 100 years has affected water supplies with the major reservoirs way below capacity. With global climate change, the winter supplies of water are no longer reliable, despite conservation efforts reoccurring water shortages are likely. Alternatives include use of ground water and desalinization both of which are expensive.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Telling Time Longitude plays an important role in calculating time. If we divide 360 degrees by 15 degrees, we get 24 time zones. As the Earth rotates eastward, any place to the east of you always passes under the Sun earlier. Thus, as you travel eastward from the prime meridian you are catching up with the Sun, so you must turn your clock ahead 1 hour by each 15 degrees. If you travel westward from the prime meridian, you are falling behind the Sun, so you turn your clock back by 1 hour for each 15 degrees. During the summer, many places in the world, including most of North America, move the clocks ahead 1 hour.

Greenwich Mean Time (GMT), or Universal Time (UT), is the master reference time for all points on Earth.

When you cross the International Date Line, you move the clock back one entire day, if you are heading eastward, toward the Americas. You turn the clock ahead 24 hours if you are heading westward, toward Asia.

The International Date Line for the most part follows 180 degrees longitude. However, several islands in the Pacific Ocean belonging to the countries of Kiribati and Samoa, as well as to New Zealand’s Tokelau territory, moved the International Date Line several thousand kilometers to the east so that they would be in the same day as Australia and New Zealand.

Student Engagement Activity Ideas This chapter may seem superficial to many instructors, but keep in mind it is new ground for many students.

For example, a 2006 National Geographic/Roper poll of Americans aged 18–24 found the following: “48% of young Americans believe the majority population in India is Muslim. . . . Half of young Americans can’t find New York on a map.”

This illustrates the challenge you face as a geography educator. Instead of calling attention to these statistics to your students, consider being positive in your introduction, as introducing this chapter will set the tone for the remainder of the course. This is your chance to emphasize the importance of geographic knowledge of all of your students, regardless of their eventual fields of study. Remind your students that everything is geographic because it occurs somewhere.

What is geography? Why is it important?

A class discussion of what is geography, and why it is important, is always a useful place to start with any geography course. Reasons for the importance of geography will vary by instructor, but a useful example of inquiry is provided in this chapter’s presentation of the ways in which the Dutch have altered their environment. Here are some other events to use as examples of geographic relevance at your own discretion: • • •

The Japanese earthquake and tsunami of 2011. This example is another great one, like the Netherlands, to show the interrelatedness of human and physical geography.

The September 11, 2001, attack on the World Trade Center (and other targets).

Ask your students where their footwear, clothing, or cars come from. Is there anything geographic about this?

What is the name of your town? Where is that? What is it like?

The terminology associated with place and region may be difficult for students to grasp. Explaining how we describe places every day will help build an understanding of how geographers think about place.

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Chapter 1: This Is Geography Try this method in class: Ask the students individually where they are from until a place name not in the immediate area is encountered. If you are not familiar with the place (or even if you are), ask, “Where is that?”

Explain that the students are using place names, or toponyms, to describe where they are from, but the place name is only useful as long as everyone knows where the place name is referring to.

When a place name is unfamiliar, we need to refer to situation factors (and sometimes site factors) to tell people where a place is.

Mathematical location might seem quite abstract to students but ask how many can list their addresses and zip codes. While not mathematical in the same way as latitude and longitude or UTM coordinates, the street address does represent a unique description of a discrete place. An Internet mapping program (e.g., Google Maps) can be used to demonstrate these concepts.

Where are you?

Ask students to provide the coordinates for the college’s location. Record the coordinates and plot them on an online map. In the discussion that follows, ask students to suggest reasons why absolute location is not usually used to describe the location of places.

To provide a framework for the Earth’s grid system addressed in the chapter, ask students to identify the number of the North Pole. Explain to students that latitude and longitude are a system based on circular geometry. Ask them to determine the angle between the North Pole and the equator. Explain to students that the 90-degree angle equates to the numerical designation of the North Pole.

Challenges to Comprehension Scale Many, including professional geographers, confuse large and small scales. The smaller the scale, the larger the area covered. For example, a globe is a very small-scale representation of Earth. Yet many persist in referring to global issues as occurring at a “large scale.” Remind students that the scale is a fraction. If someone is dividing a pie, cake, or candy bar would you rather than 1/3 or 1/10th? Even though 10 is a bigger number, it represents a smaller fraction of the whole.

Consider also referring to scales as “local,” “regional,” or “global.” This also helps emphasize the text’s themes of global vs. local contrasts.

These concepts are reinforced in Chapter 1’s Key Issue 3, Why Are Different Places Similar?

Understanding Geographic Information Systems (GIS) Students often confuse a geographic information system (GIS) with the Global Positioning System (GPS).

Students rarely understand the importance of GIS to many processes that we take for granted in society.

However, there are a variety of Internet resources, which demonstrate how much a part of our everyday lives GIS has become. Some online examples include:

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography • • • •

Zillow (see “Resources” section) Real property databases managed by county or city governments (e.g., the King County parcel viewer at www.kingcounty.gov/operations/GIS/PropResearch/ParcelViewer.aspx Open Data (see “Resources” section) Numerous “mashups” available on an ever-changing basis (try googlemapsmania.blogspot.com)

Vernacular Regions Some have a difficult time with the idea of a vernacular region. The example in the textbook uses a number of overlapping formal regions in an attempt to describe the vernacular region of the South. Consider using another example, especially one without a direction, as these examples can be confusing (students think that a vernacular region must contain compass direction).

Cultural Landscapes The concept of a cultural landscape can be misunderstood as a principally environmental landscape. Help students learn about how pervasive cultural landscapes are by showing them some examples from around the world. Note that an Internet search for “cultural landscape” returns a number of results about extraordinary, famous, or unique landscapes; but cultural landscapes are pervasive, and students will benefit from being able to interpret the cultural landscape of everyday places like their home towns.

The Great Mirror: Dr. Bret Wallach of the University of Oklahoma has posted a remarkable collection of photographs for displaying cultural landscapes at his website The Great Mirror, www.greatmirror.com.

Another great option is the geographically yours blogspot (geographicallyyours.blogspot.com) by Dr. Donald Zeigler of Old Dominion University. In his travels throughout the world, he has captured many unique pictures of cultural icons and landscapes.

Another option is the user-generated content featured on Panoramio (www.panoramio.com), which is also on Google Maps (maps.google.com), indexed under the “More . . . Photos” option. These photos are usually “scenic” features, but it’s possible to find more mundane cultural landscapes, too.

Stimulus Diffusion The concept of stimulus diffusion is often difficult for students to understand without specific cultural examples. Two cultural examples may help illustrate the concept. Kentucky-fried chicken menus in Indonesia do not offer French fries or mashed potatoes, but do offer rice. The underlying concept is the inclusion of a starch with the chicken. In Indonesia, rice is used as the starch instead of potatoes. Potatoes are not a crop widely raised in Indonesia’s tropical environment.

The week before Easter, Christians commemorate Palm Sunday. Palms don’t grow in Russia. Therefore, pussy willows, one of the early plants of spring, are used instead of palms. Depending on local environmental conditions, other branches of spring flowering shrubs are also used. Key to understanding stimulus diffusion is the adaptation of the local area to an idea or tradition from another place.

Additional Classroom Activities & Assignments These questions can be used in addition to the “thinking geographically” questions at the end of each chapter.

Students can be assigned these questions as homework, they can be given as essay questions on exams, or they can serve as focus questions for in-class discussions.

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Chapter 1: This Is Geography The italicized section that follows the question sets the criteria and parameters for student answers. Use these suggestions to provide guidance in the assessment of student answers. In addition, a sample answer has been provided. Know that student answers will vary based on the examples and explanations you provided in class.

•

Describe the site, situation, and mathematical location of our school (alternative—your hometown).

When describing site, student answers should include information about the physical characteristics of the place. The description for situation is a bit trickier. Situation although described as relative location also includes elements of connections to the wider world. Absolute location is expressed as the latitude and longitude coordinates of a single point. Have students consider what part of the campus they chose for the coordinates—the administration building, center of the campus, their geography classroom building, etc.

Sample answer Site: The school is located on a peninsula bordered by the Elizabeth River to the east, the Lafayette River to the north and west.

Situation: The main campus is located in Norfolk, Virginia, a few miles south of Hampton Roads, the world’s largest natural harbor, near where the James River flows into the Chesapeake Bay. Access to Interstate 64 provides links to other parts of the region and state.

Absolute location: Coordinates of the center of the campus are 36.885227, -76.307531.

•

Name three formal regions that this school is located within and give a reason for each. Do the same for functional and vernacular regions.

When identifying a formal region, student answers should include at least one governmental entity with clearly defined boundaries, such as a state, city, or county. These political entities are the best example of a uniform region. Other formal regions may have variable boundaries around the periphery such as a climate zone or ethnic area.

The identification and description of a functional region should indicate connections organized around a shared function such as transportation, communications, or the reach of a specific economic activity.

The identification and description of a vernacular region reveals perceptions of the regions held by both individuals and groups. Student answers should include some regional names frequently used by the region’s inhabitants.

Sample answer Formal regions: Commonwealth of Virginia, city of Norfolk, and the humid subtropical climate region.

The first two are uniform regions because the boundaries of a political entity indicate that everywhere within the region is within that entity. The climate region has the characteristic through the region.

Functional regions include the Hampton Roads Sanitation District, which coordinates water management; the delivery area of the Virginian Pilot, the local newspaper; and the city of Norfolk’s 19 .

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography water distribution system centered at Moore’s Pond Water Treatment plant. All of the functional regions include the provision of a service.

Vernacular regions include Hampton Roads, Southside, and Tidewater. Hampton Roads is actually the name of the body of water between Hampton and Norfolk. Southside begs the question, southside of which body of water. This term is also used by some communities located south of the James River.

Tidewater refers to the areas with the tidal ebb and flow within local bodies of water. The term has been expanded to the entire region.

•

Describe an element of your culture that appears to be environmentally determined (caused by the natural environment).

The answer to this question should reveal a student’s perception of culture. In brief, culture encompasses are wide variety of ways people in the region live and make a living. The answer should also highlight the relationship between the natural environment, and how humans have adapted to it or modified the environment to meet their needs.

Fishing and shipbuilding are major industries in the coastal environment. The activities are supported by the environment, it would be difficult to fish without a nearby body of water. Surfing, jet skiing, and kayaking are water-based recreational activities within the region. Many students wear T-shirts purchased from local surf shops.

•

Give a local example of not-so-sensitive environmental modification. Are there multiple ways to achieve the desired result of an environmental modification? Discuss.

In this answer, students should describe the environment, and how and why people in the areas have modified their environment. Students should assess the possible positive and negative consequences of modifying the environment. In addition, students should provide a possible alternative to the identified environmental modification.

Sample answer Coastal storms, especially northeasters as well as hurricanes, are associated with coastal environments.

Flooding in association with these storms is becoming more frequent. As the population expands into formerly agricultural lands impervious surfaces such as parking lots and driveway replace land that could absorb the runoff.

Could pervious gravel driveways and parking lots be part of the solution or the construction of larger retention ponds?

Mastering Geography™ provides additional assignable learning activities and ready-made resources designed to extend and reinforce student skills and mastery of key content, concepts, and vocabulary. The resources include MapMaster 2.0 interactive maps, videos, GeoTutor coaching activities, Google Earth Explorations, outline maps, chapter quizzes, Dynamic Study Modules, and more. Further details about these resources and recommendations for use are provided in the Resources section of this document. You can assign these media-rich activities as pre or post lecture homework.

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Thinking Geographically Questions Key Issue 1.1 Geography plays an important role on our electronic devices.

1. What was the most recent geographic item that you consulted on your electronic device? Describe how this item illustrated each of geography’s five basic concepts of place, region, scale, space, and connection.

I used the GPS function of Google maps on my cell phone to navigate to an unknown destination. The Google maps navigation app’s primary focus is on routing the user to the destination. The concept of place is evident with the exact location pinpointed on the map. The place is situated in a wider context of the region within which it lies. Scale is used in the determination of distance for various segments of the trip. The app also calculates estimated time based on current traffic conditions and speed of the car. The scale depends on the distance travelled. The relationship of the two locations occurs in geographic space. Connections are evident in the networks of roads that connect the two locations.

Key Issue 1.2 Figure ICR-2 displays one day’s movements recorded by a woman through her smartphone’s Strava app. She drove from home (1) to drop off a child at high school (2), then to work (3), then to pick up another child at middle school (4), then to the dry cleaner (5), then to the supermarket (6), then to the pharmacy (7) then home, then to a fitness class (8), then home. Total distance was 40 kilometers (25 miles).

2. How might gender influence a typical day of travel?

Traditionally, women have borne the responsibility for child care and the functioning of the household. The trips to deliver and pick up children from school and run errands reflect these tasks.

3. How does this person’s travel pattern compare with yours?

Students’ answers will vary. Many may be responsible for trips to work and classes and perhaps picking up meals along the route to and from home.

Key Issue 1.3 Identify a place other than your hometown where you have a connection.

4. What is the nature of the interaction that you have with that place? Explain how the interaction illustrates one or more types of diffusion.

I developed connections to Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania where I went to college. I interacted with features of downtown which are within walking distance from the university. In interacting with speakers of “Pittsburghese, a unique dialect of the region, I learned words such as youns to refer to a group of people, iron as a one syllable word, and a unique way of pronouncing not. The interaction with Pittsburgh speakers illustrates contagious diffusion as many of my college colleagues added the local words to their vocabularies.

When they returned home during summer break or settled in the new location after graduation, they may have introduced new words and pronunciations to others in a new area via relocation diffusion.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Key Issue 1.4 Name a park (national, state, or local) that is familiar to you.

First Landing State Park in Virginia Beach 5. In what ways does your experience in the park illustrate each of the three pillars of sustainability?

First Landing State Park is the most-visited state park in Virginia. The Virginia Department of Conservation runs the park. The environment pillar is illustrated by conservation of the park’s cypress swamps and 1.5 miles of beach on the Chesapeake Bay. The economic pillar is evident through the investment in boat ramps and hiking trails for recreation. The social pillar is illustrated by the record number of people visiting the park seeking to reconnect with the natural environment.

Pause and Reflect Questions 1.1.1

What are the principal connections from your hometown to other places?

Answers will vary. Land and water links are the most likely to be cited by students. For example, the principal connections from my hometown, Cleveland, Ohio to other places are Lake Erie, the Cuyahoga River, and the Interstate Highway System.

1.1.2

What is one main difference between the world maps of Ptolemy (Figure 1-7) and of Waldseemüller (Figure 1-10)?

The “known” world on the Ptolemy map is much smaller in geographic extent than that on the Waldseemüller map. The Waldseemüller map includes detailed continental shapes and shows land masses in the western hemisphere.

1.1.3

What is an example of a mashup done for your community?

Where are all of the grocery stores located in my town, within a 5-mile radius of my home address? I could find out latitude/longitude coordinates of all of the grocery stores in my town, upload the coordinates to ArcGIS Online, and run the geoprocessing tool “Near” to determine the answer.

1.1.4

Compare the sizes of Greenland and South America on the four maps in Figures 1-17 through Figure 1-20. Which of the two landmasses is actually larger? How do you know?

South America is much larger in area than Greenland. I know this because looking at the Winkel Projection, one can see that South America is many times larger than the island of Greenland. The Winkel Projection, Figure 1-17, is an equal-area projection. In an equal-area projection, the land areas are proportional to their actual size on Earth even though the shapes may be distorted.

1.1.5

Use a search tool to find the latitude and longitude of your community.

I used the Google search engine and typed in “lat and long, Virginia Beach.” The search provided coordinates in decimal degrees, 36.8529 N, 75.9780 W. I could have used latlong.net which provided coordinates in decimal degrees, as well as degrees, minutes, and seconds.

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Chapter 1: This Is Geography 1.2.1

What is the origin of the toponym of your hometown?

My hometown, Cleveland, Oho is named after the lead surveyor of the Connecticut Land Company, General Moses Cleaveland.

1.2.2

What environmental and cultural features might help to define the region of New England?

The mention of New England conjures up images of snow, colonial style buildings, harbors, sea food, and the distinctive Boston accent. Place names in New England are reflective of settlement by the English, such as Cambridge, Worchester and many have remnants of a commons which was once used for grazing animals.

Historical events, such as the Boston Tea Party, Salem Witch Trials, the terrorist attack at the Boston Marathon, are associated with the region. Culturally specific goods are associated with the region, Boston baked beans, Boston crème pie, lobster, New England clam chowder, and Sam Adams beer even though they have diffused to other parts of the country.

1.2.3

Describe differences that you see in the houses in Figures 1-36 and 1-37.

The New Jersey suburb has individual houses arranged around a cul-de-sac with prominent driveways connecting to the street. In contrast, the houses in Rio de Janiero are much closer together with a much higher density and no access for motor vehicles. The lush green landscaping and trees that surround the houses in New Jersey are not present in the Rio image. The houses in Rio appear to be multistoried with flat roofs. The single-family houses in New Jersey have pitched roofs to accommodate the snowfall common to the region.

1.3.1

Give an example of a cultural activity or preference from another part of the world that has become popular among your friends in your school.

Students’ answers will vary. Two practices come to mind—tattooing and body piercings. The origin of the tattoo can be traced back through thousands of years. The word tatou is said to have originated in the Polynesian Islands. The tattoo diffused to Europe via British sailors who had encountered the art form after journeys to the South Pacific.

Body piercings have also been traced to ancient cultures. Pierced ears were evident on a 5,300 year-old mummy found in Italy in 1991. Current trends at my school include nose piercing, common in India; tongue piercings traceable to Maya and Aztec traditions, lip piercing among African and South American tribes, and navel piercings, a practice of ancient Egyptian royalty.

1.3.2

Describe the distribution properties of your classroom.

In my classroom, the distribution of the chairs is spread throughout the room somewhat evenly—10 chairs around a central meeting table, and eight office chairs at the perimeter of the room with computers located at each station.

1.3.3

What sorts of places are the small red clusters on Figure 1-50?

The small red clusters represent urban areas within the United States.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography 1.3.4

Using your own campus or school as the example, describe how movement across space varies during the day for students and faculties.

During a typical class day, students are more likely to move across a greater extent of space than faculties.

Students may live in the dorms or commute and the dorms and parking lots are usually located on the outer edges of campus. Students are likely to take classes in buildings across campus such as English in the College of Arts and Letters; biology in College of Sciences; physical education in the gym, food, and recreation in the Student Center; and research resources in the Library. Faculties are likely to have their movements concentrated in one area. On a typical day, most faculties visit their office and are likely to conduct their classes in nearby buildings. Faculties are less likely than students to live on campus and therefore commute.

Parking lots reserved for faculty are usually located closer to the academic buildings that house their offices than the parking lots for student commuters.

1.3.5

Describe the relationship between ethnicity and location or spatial distribution in the area where you live?

Virginia Beach is a diverse community. Due to the presence of the Atlantic fleet in nearby Norfolk, there is a high concentration of people of Filipino ancestry, in fact, 37 percent of Virginia’s Filipino population lives in Virginia Beach. The Filipino population is concentrated in one more populated area of the city. The area includes the Philippine Culture Center and a variety of restaurants with Filipino food cluster nearby. Schools in the area have almost 6 percent Filipino population enrolled.

1.3.6

U.S. coins are minted in either Denver or Philadelphia. Take a look at your coins. Do you have more from the mint closer to you? Why might that be?

Of the coins with mint marks, I had more coins from Denver than from Philadelphia even though Denver is located farther away from me than Philadelphia. However, coins without mint marks are minted in Philadelphia and the majority of my coins had only years but no mints designated.

1.3.7

Is your nearest airport a hub? If not, to what hub do most flights go from you nearest airport?

The nearest airport is Norfolk International Airport (ORF). The international is included in its title because of flights to the Bahamas. Norfolk is not a hub for any airline. The closest hub is Charlotte Douglas International Airport in Charlotte, North Carolina, one of the nine hubs for American Airlines.

1.4.1

What do you think might be the reaction of the farmers in Figure 1-69b to tourists such as those in Figure 1-69c?

The photo of the farmers in the Everglades shows men harvesting sugar cane. The land used for agriculture was created by a series of levees and canals to drain the land. In Figure 1-69c, tourists are riding in a boat in one of the canals observing the natural environment of the Everglades. The farmers may think that land set aside for tourists could be put to a more productive use by transforming it to more sugar cane fields.

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Chapter 1: This Is Geography 1.4.2

How do the atmosphere and hydrosphere interact to product South Asia’s monsoon rains?

A monsoon is a seasonal wind common to, but not exclusive to South Asia. In the summer, June, winds shift and blow onshore from the Indian Ocean. The winds, a component of the atmosphere, pick up water as they blow across the warm Indian Ocean and transport the moisture to the neighboring India and Bangladesh where it falls as rain. These monsoon winds account for 90 percent of India’s water supply.

1.4.3

Give an example of an environmental condition that influences or constrains people where you live.

Then, identify cultural practices that adapt to this constraint on human activities.

The Tidewater of coastal Virginia is dotted with inlets, peninsulas, and jagged coastlines. Travel from one peninsula to another is limited by these waterways. Humans have built bridges and tunnels to facilitate travel between the different peninsulas. If an accident should close one of the tunnels or bridges, few alternatives are available. Therefore, people usually check traffic reports before venturing out to compare conditions at the two bridge tunnels across the waterways and choose the one with the least congestion.

1.4.4

How might creating new wetlands and lakes rather than dikes or polders help the Netherlands cope with sea-level rise due to climate change?

Using the social pillar of sustainability, Dutch attitudes toward flood control have shifted to preservation of more of the natural environment. Some fields are purposefully being converted to wetlands or forest. These wetlands would help the country cope with sea level rise. As the level of the water would increase, instead of holding water back, it would be dispersed as it flows into the wetland areas.

Caption Questions Figure 1-12, 3D Virtual Representation Map, p. 8 1. Give an example of how you, as the owner of a business, might use a 3D aerial image of a place.

As the owner of a construction company, I would use existing 3D imagery to identify existing buildings, city amenities, such as street lights and roads, and to identify places suitable for the building project.

2. Give an example of how a government might use such images.

A local government could check for violations of the city’s zoning codes for both height and the type of businesses before sending out inspection personnel. A national government could use 3D imagery to monitor building and movement of goods and people across borders.

Figure 1-38, Spatial Association, Opioids, 2016, p. 19 1. In addition to Appalachia and the Southwest, identify another region that has both high rates of opioids prescriptions and overdose deaths.

Western New Hampshire along the border with Maine has both high rates of opioid prescriptions and overdose deaths. The southeastern area of West Virginia also shows a similar spatial association.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Figure 1-51, Trips by Purpose and Gender, Ages 30-59, United Kingdom, 2017, p. 26 1. Which activity, proportionally, has the greatest difference between men’s and women’s trips? The least?

Explain.

Overwhelmingly taking children to school shows the greatest difference, approximately 75 more trips in this category are completed by females. The second area in which there is a sizeable difference is the commute to and from work. In this category, the trips of males exceed those females by a little over 50 trips. The two variables may be related as men may work further from home and not have the time in their daily commute to detour to drop children off at school.

Aside from other, the least difference for trip is that for leisure and recreation with females having a few more trips. This variable is quite broad—could it entail transporting and attending sports matches in which the children are involved or indicate participation in personal leisure and recreation activities?

2. What does this comparison suggest about the relative equality (or inequality) of contemporary gender roles?

The comparison suggests that trips for women and men are relatively unequal. The women appear to make the most trips to transport the children to school, take care of personal business, and shopping. All are roles that have been traditionally delegated to women. Men seem to serve as breadwinners based on the frequency of trips to and from work.

Figure 1-70: Climate Regions, p. 36 1.

What three climate regions occupy most of the eastern United States?

The three climate regions that occupy most of the eastern United States include humid subtropical; humid continental, warn summer; and humid continental, cool summer.

2.

How are these climates similar? How are they different?

The three climates are similar in that they are all occur in the mid-latitudes. All have the designation of humid, which indicates rainfall is evenly distributed throughout the year. The climate regions would be differentiated by temperatures, which would influence the length of the growing season.

3. What factor might explain the main difference?

The major difference is the latitude. The mid-latitude humid continental, cool summer region is located farthest north. Additionally, the coastal areas would have more moderate temperatures because of their proximity to a large body of water. Interior areas would have a greater difference in temperatures throughout the seasons because of their interior locations.

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Doing Geography, Participatory GIS & Hurricane Maria, p. 9 The first part of the feature describes the use GIS and the Humanitarian OpenStreetMap to outline buildings and destruction from Hurricane Maria in order to facilitate the Red Cross response.

1. Draw on paper a mental map predicting your route between two familiar places.

Student representations of their mental maps will vary depending on the route chosen.

2. Compare your mental map to those made by others in your class. How detailed is your depiction of paths and landmarks compared to those of others?

Student-drawn maps may lack details and accurate placement of landmarks. One would expect that the maps of students more familiar with the campus such as seniors to be more accurate.

3. Compare your mental map to a map of the same area from GoogleMaps or Bing Maps. How accurate is your map? Did you forget something important or put something in the wrong place?

It is likely that students will note additional details when comparing their map to an online map. Chances are things may be in the correct relative location, but distances between landmarks may be inaccurate.

Directionality may also be inaccurate as the map may not be oriented to the north.

4. At OpenStreetMap.org, see if your route has been mapped. . . . Is this your preferred route? Why or why not? Are any landmarks you consider important on the map? Why or why not?

In my situation, OpenStreetMap.org accurately depicts the roads and paths on campus and the names for all of the buildings. My GPS provided a much shorter route to campus than I normally used. It reduced distance by routing through side streets to which provide a shorter and more direct route.

The significance of landmarks would be a personal choice to students. The importance could rely on experiences visiting the places creating an attachment to place.

Debate It! GPS location service: On or off? p. 33 Should you leave location service or turn it off?

Students can select claims from each side to support their stance.

1. Should laws on the privacy of electronic communications developed decades ago in the age of telephones with landlines still apply to today’s smart phones with GPS? Why or why not?

The laws in the days of landline phones are based on the premise that “a man’s home is his castle” and should not be violated by the government surveillance. The surveillance would be confined to one location associated with the person of interest. Cell phones are portable and travel from place to place with the person. This provides the opportunity for surveillance 24/7. Would this constant monitoring infringe about the person’s right and expectation of privacy?

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography 2. Some states have passed legislation protecting cellphone users from unwarranted government surveillance based on cellphone GPS locational data. Search online or find your state on the map at the QR link, and summarize your findings on the current law in your state.

Instructors note—the QR code no longer leads to a map. The American Civil Liberties Union has information on “Cell Phone Location Tracking Laws by State,” www.aclu.org/issues/privacy-technology/locationtracking/cell-phone-location-tracking-laws-state.

On the map on the ACLU site, Virginia, my home state is classified as conflicting laws. The Fourth Circuit Court of Appeals ruled no warrant was required in a 2008 case. In contrast, a 2014 state law requires a warrant for real-time phone location information.

Sustainability & Our Environment: Climate Change & Rising Seas, p. 39 Climate change has raised the global sea level about 8 inches since 1880, and by nearly 2 feet along the U.S. East Coast. The interactive map at SurgingSeas.org shows different amounts of flooding, depending on the level of sea level rise.

1. What are some of the features in Miami Beach that would be underwater if the sea level rises 5 feet (Figure 1-74)?

Roads, hotels, and neighborhoods on the western side of Biscayne Bay will be flooded with a 5-foot sea level rise. Street map was used to identify these features on the peninsula: Miami Beach Convention Center, Miami Beach Senior High School, Bayshore Golf Course, Miami Beach Golf Course, and specific hotels and resorts.

Roads on the mainland would also experience also so flooding on both sides.

2. Click Property. Are properties in Miami Beach at risk of sea level rise mostly of high value or low value? Why might that be?

Properties located on both sides of Biscayne Bay in Miami Beach have high values in the 10 to 100-milliondollar category. Properties located along the ocean command high prices because of their desirable location along the seashore. Areas along the road on the land side are valued at 1 to 10 million.

Explore The Prime Meridian Use Google Earth to explore the prime meridian.

1. Switch to 2D and zoom in to around 150 meters. What is the precise longitude of the Royal Observatory (Figure 1-79)?

Approximately, 0 00’ 05” W, almost 1 second of longitude into the western hemisphere 2. Drag the street view icon along the blue lines until you find the location nearest the Royal Observatory that is actually at 0° 00’ 00”. In which compass direction to you move to reach the exact prime meridian? east

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Chapter 1: This Is Geography 3. Drop the street view icon at 0° 00’ 00”. Describe what you see at that location.

A wide paved sidewalk bordered by a parking lot on the west and a park to the east

GeoVideo Questions The Exploitation of Water 1. What are the principal uses of water?

Main use of water is for safe clean drinking water to sustain life. Water is used for agriculture, industry, irrigation in dry areas, generate electricity, and support people in cities.

2. Why is the demand for water increasing?

Pressures of population are to blame for the increase in water demand.

3. Why are people in Mexico struggling to get enough water?

Twenty million people live in Mexico City, a relatively dry area. People are struggling to get enough water due to leakers in the water system, extended periods of dry weather, and the drying up of back-up reservoirs.

Geospatial Data Analysis 1. Hover over the Netherlands. What is the elevation of this area?

Below sea level to 0 meters along the coastal and 1–199 meters inland

2. Compare the elevation map to the population density map. Describe the distribution of population within the Netherlands (density, concentration, and pattern).

High population density areas are concentrated along the southwestern portion of the country, with elevations below sea level. The country’s major cities of Amsterdam and Rotterdam are located in this part of the country.

Areas with lower population density are located along the interior.

3. What environmental challenges do people living in the Netherlands face? How are the Dutch addressing these challenges? Are these challenges likely to become more severe in the coming years? Explain your answer.

People in the Netherlands are at risk of being flooded as the sea level rises. The Dutch are creating more natural wetlands to mitigate the effects of the rising sea. As sea level rises, the Dutch at sea and below sea level environments are threatened.

Extension: As an extension to the GeoSpatial Analysis feature examining the relationship between population density and elevation, have students add the Population (Arithmetic Density) by Country to the map and replace the World Elevations data layer.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography 1. Describe the difference in the representations of population density for both maps.

The legend for the map at the country level highest category is above 188 people per square kilometers while the dot density map’s highest values are more than 12,801 per square kilometer.

2. How does the scale of geography affect the interpretation of the data?

At the country level, there appears to be no spatial variation in the distribution of people within the Netherlands. The dot density map shows the density of population at the local level with much greater details and spatial variation.

Writing Geographically 1. Summarize the three pillars of sustainability.

The environmental pillar deals with conservation and preservation of natural resources. The economic pillar identifies uses for resources and would include the long- and short-term consequences of the use of the resource. The social pillar identifies the values people hold regarding the use of resources.

2. How might the three images in Figure 1CR-7 illustrate each of the three pillars?

Image (a) shows a moose traveling across a river and illustrates the environment pillar. Image (b), people in a boat on the river, illustrates the social economic pillar as the area around Jackson Hole is used for recreation.

The economic pillar (c) is illustrated by the image of the shopkeeper who bases his business on the local community and tourism.

3. How might efforts to improve one of the pillars help or harm the other two pillars?

The expansion of the economic pillar the expansion of tourism would be associated with the construction of tourist amenities could damage the natural environment and threaten the habitat of the animals living in the area.

Resources Zillow (www.zillow.com) Zillow’s mapping interface demonstrates some of the increasingly sophisticated geographic information available over the Internet. Zillow uses data from property records, street addresses, and sales histories to create estimates of property values. This site can be used to demonstrate several geographic concepts in addition to the uses of GIS. For example, amenities and/or disamenities are shown to have an influence on property values.

Not all locations are available on this service, but a view of the whole United States is an immediate engaging demonstration of how geography matters, as median prices on houses in Midwestern states are significantly lower than east or west coast states.

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Open Data As the use of geospatial data increases in everyday life, many communities are providing data on a variety of topics via their Internet-based portals. Conducting a Google Search for open data and a community’s name returns data on a wide variety of topics. In the download section, data are provided as spreadsheets, KML files, shapefiles, or accessible as online maps.

The Environmental Research Institute (ESRI) hosts an Open Data Portal, hub.arcgis.com/pages/open-data, with the open data defined as, “data that can be freely used, reused and redistributed by anyone). These readily available data can be searched by topic or geographic area.

Mastering Geography Media & Assessment Resources Mastering Geography™ provides additional assignable homework activities and ready-made resources designed to extend and reinforce student skills and mastery of key content, concepts, and vocabulary. These resources are invaluable to implementation of the flipped classroom. Use the Instructor Course Home areas to build assignments for your students. Highlights include: •

MapMaster 2.0™ provides students with the opportunity to reinforce their understanding of spatial relationships, e.g., variation, distribution, interaction, and association. Students get hands on with map building, exploration, and spatial data analysis by layering a wide range of maps. Multiple-choice assessments in the Mastering Geography item library provide directions for building maps aligned with chapter content, and focus on the development of spatial thinking and analysis skills.

•

GeoVideos and Google Earth Explorations linked to chapter content provide an opportunity for students to “visit” other places and build an appreciation for other cultures. Use as an out-of-class assignment and have students explain how the video or Google Earth Explorations illustrate concepts learned in class and make comparisons between cultures.

•

Interactive Data Visualizations powered by Social Explorer provide interactive data explorations for each chapter's Key Issue, and include map stories, predictive graphing, interactive maps, interactive population pyramids, interactive charts, and more. These media are integrated into the Pearson eText and Study Area, and are also available for assignment with quizzes.

•

GeoTutors are highly visual and data-rich assignable activities that help students master the most challenging concepts in geography.

•

Dynamic Study Modules (DSMs) provide two sets of 25 multiple-choice questions per chapter topic.

Because this resource includes a “I don’t know yet” answer choice,” it can be assigned as a preassessment or content preview. The modules are interactive as students are prompted to select, “I am unsure” or “I am sure” as they submit their answers. The questions could also be used as self-check for students at the end of the chapter. An infographic gauge represents their accuracy visually.

Teachers can assign the DSMs for credit and or students can access these on their own for self study.

•

Learning Catalytics is an interactive student response tool paired with Mastering Geography that encourages team-based learning by using students’ smartphones, tablets, or laptops to engage them in interactive tasks and thinking. As a teacher, you can pose a variety of open-ended questions that help your students develop critical thinking skills, while monitoring responses with real-time analytics to find out where they’re struggling. With this information, you can adjust your instructional strategy in real time and try additional ways of engaging your students during class. Learning Catalytics also lets 31 .

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography you manage student interactions by automatically grouping students for discussion, team-based learning, and peer-to-peer learning.

The Mastering Geography student Study Area includes a variety of tools that students can access on their own, including: • • •

The eText provides a fully digital online version of the textbook, with search and bookmarking functionality. Available for offline reading.

Chapter Quizzes include 15 multiple choice questions based on the chapter’s content.

Key Terms Flashcards to help students master the key vocabulary.

Downloadable Outline Maps containing political and physical features provide students the opportunity to label key countries and physical features. Consider assigning these maps throughout the course so that students can refer to them as they interpret the many thematic maps.

The following selections from the GeoVideos are particularly useful in supporting student understanding of key concepts of the chapter: • • • • • •

Mapping the World: Ptolemy the Father of Geography, 5:33 minutes Mapping the World: Mercator vs. Peters, 7:59 minutes Mapping the World: Maps as a Tool, 7:57 minutes Mapping the World: Google Earth, 3:38 minutes BBC: How GPS Works, 8:03 minutes Global Climate Change: The Human Role, 5:09 minutes

The following features of MapMaster 2.0™ provide opportunities for students to extend and refine the understanding of the effects of projection on data representation.

Have students explore the projections contained in MapMaster 2.0™ to compare differences. With a map of the student’s choice selected, have students use the Map Options icon to select different projections.

Projections included in the program include: • • • •

Mercator Albers (North America) Van der Grinten Stereographic (North Pole)

• • • •

Mollweide Stereographic (South Pole) Orthographic (Eastern Hemisphere) Orthographic (Western Hemisphere)

Each choice contains an explanation of the uses of the projection and comments on distortion of size, shape, distance, or direction.

Additional resources in support of students with disabilities include the screen reader enabled e-text and more. Further details about these resources are available at https://www.pearson.com/us/ accessibility.html.

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Chapter 1: This Is Geography

Connections between Chapters Chapter 1 does not spend much time introducing the structure and organization of the book, which allows for your own organization. Emphasizing the overarching structure of the book may help your students to approach the subject as holistic rather than just one chapter at a time. Encourage students to use the overarching questions to guide their reading.

The concepts in Chapter 1 lay the foundations for the remainder of the text. Especially, important in Chapter 1 is the vocabulary associated with key geographic concepts, as the concepts associated with distribution, spatial association, and regions recur throughout the text.

Another fundamental concept introduced with culture is the division between more and less developed countries. This idea is continued in the first paragraph of Chapter 2. You can reinforce these concepts by providing previews for future chapters. You can also emphasize these concepts by explicitly referring to the definition when they occur in subsequent chapters.

An overarching theme throughout the text and frequently referenced in the beginning of each chapter is the tension between forces of globalization and attempts to preserve local diversity. Each chapter introduction also references places, regions, where and why questions of geography, and spatial connections.

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Population & Health

2

Learning Outcomes After reading, studying, and discussing the chapter, students should be able to: Learning Outcome 2.1.1:

Describe the distribution of the world’s population.

Learning Outcome 2.1.2:

Contrast regions of high and low population concentrations.

Learning Outcome 2.1.3:

Compare different approaches to measuring density.

Learning Outcome 2.2.1:

Summarize historical and current rates of population increase.

Learning Outcome 2.2.2:

Compare global patterns of births and deaths.

Learning Outcome 2.2.3:

Explain the stages of the demographic transition model.

Learning Outcome 2.3.1:

Describe differences in health care services among countries.

Learning Outcome 2.3.2:

Explain reasons for risks to baby girls and mothers.

Learning Outcome 2.3.3:

Relate the demographic transition to the distribution of age groups.

Learning Outcome 2.3.4:

Explain four stages in the epidemiologic transition.

Learning Outcome 2.4.1:

Assess a possible stage 5 of the demographic transition.

Learning Outcome 2.4.2:

Describe two reasons for declining birth rates.

Learning Outcome 2.4.3:

List reasons for possible stage 5 of the epidemiologic transition.

Learning Outcome 2.4.4:

Explain arguments for and against Malthus’s theory.

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Chapter 2: Population & Health

Chapter 2 Outline I

Key Issue 1: Where are People Distributed?

A Population & Geography 1 Terms a carrying capacity—maximum population size of a species that the environment can sustain indefinitely, given the available resources such as food and water. b overpopulation—occurs when the number of people exceeds the carrying of the environment to support life at a decent standard of living. c demography—scientific study of population characteristics 2 Population Portions—seven areas of the world have approximately 1 billion people B Population Concentrations 1 Distribution—population distribution is uneven.

2 Sparsely populated cold lands a sparsely populated high lands b sparsely population dry lands c Europe Cluster d South Asia Cluster e East Asia Cluster f Southeast Asia 3 Population Cartograms—depicts the size of countries according to population rather than land area 4 Ecumene—areas of the Earth occupied by permanent human settlement C Population Density 1 Definitions a density—frequency in which something exists within a given unit of area b arable land—land suited for agriculture 2 Types a arithmetic density—total number of people divided by total land area b physiological density—number of people per unit of arable land c agricultural density—ratio of the number of farmers to the amount of arable land

II Key Issue 2: Why is Population Increasing A Natural Increase 1 Natural increase rate (NIR) a percentage by which population growth in a year b excludes migration 2 Population Growth in History a doubling time—number of years to double a population assuming a constant rate of natural increase B Births & Deaths 1 Fertility a crude birth rate—total number of life births in a year for every b total fertility rate—average number of children a woman will have throughout her childbearing years 35 .

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography 2

Mortality a infant mortality rate—annual number of deaths of infants under one year of age compared with total live births b crude death rate—total number of deaths per year per 1,000 people C The Demographic Transition—process of change in a society’s population 1 Stage 1—low growth a very high CBR b very high CDR 2 Stage 2—high growth a high CDR b rapidly declining CDR c Industrial Revolution—improvements in manufacturing goods and delivering them to market d medical revolution—medical technology and improved practices eliminated traditional causes of death in developing countries 3 Stage 3—moderate growth a rapidly declining CBR b moderate declining CDR 4 Stage 4—low growth a very low CBR b low or slightly increasing CDR c zero population growth III Key Issue 3: Why Does Health Vary by Region?

A Medical Services 1 Medical Facilities 2 Health Care—higher per capita expenditures in developed countries B Health & Gender 1 Mothers at Risk a maternal mortality rate—annual number of female deaths per 100,000 live births from any cause related to pregnancy 2 Baby Girls at Risk a sex ratio—number of males per 100 females in the population b “missing” females—gender-based abortion, killed in infancy, or sent to remote areas C Health & Aging 1 Caring for Older People a life expectancy—average number of years an individual can be expected to live b potential support ratio (elderly support ratio) number of working age people (15–64) divided by the number of persons 65 and older 2 Caring for Younger People 3 Comparing Young and Old a population pyramid—a bar graph that displayers the percentage of a place’s population for each age and gender b dependency ratio—number of people who are too young or too old to work (under 15 and over 65) 36 .

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Chapter 2: Population & Health D Epidemiologic Transition 1 Terms a epidemiology—branch of medical science concerned with the incidence, distribution, and control of diseases prevalent b epidemiological transition-focuses on distinctive health threats in each stage of the demographic transition 2 Stages a Stage 1: Pestilence & Famine i epidemic—widespread occurrence of an infectious disease in a community at a particular time ii pandemic—an epidemic that occurs over a wide geographic area and affects a very high proportion of the population at the same time b Stage 2: Receding Pandemics i cholera and John Snow—overlay showed relationship between cholera to contaminated water pumps c Stage 3: Degenerative Diseases d Stage 4: Delayed Degenerative & Lifestyle Diseases IV Key Issue 4: Why Might Population Change in the Future?

A Population Futures 1 Possible Demographic Transition Stage 5 b very low CBR c increasing CDR d declining NIR 2 China & India b Policies i pronatalist—government policies that support higher birth rates ii antinatalist—policy that supports lower birth rates c China’s population policies d India’s population policies B Family Futures 1 Lowering CBR through Education & Health Care 2 Lowering CBR though Contraception C Epidemiologic Futures 1 Reason for Possible Stage 5: Evolution—disease microbes becoming resistant to antibiotics, new strains of viruses and bacteria 2 Reason for Possible Stage 5: Poverty—diseases more prevalent in poor areas 3 Reason for Possible Stage 5: Increased Connections—spread of disease through relocation diffusion

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography D Population & Resources 1 Thomas Malthus—claimed rate of population growth increase was greater than the food supply 2 Neo-Malthusians—world population growth is outstripping a wide variety of resources (food, water, and energy) 3 Neo-Malthusians & Critics a food production increasing b population growth slower than Malthus predicted

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Chapter 2: Population & Health

Chapter Content Outline More people are presently alive than at any other point in Earth’s history, with population growth mostly concentrated in developing countries. Can Earth sustain more than the 8 billion people that currently call it home, let alone the added billions in the future? Geographers have unique perspectives on the ability of people to live on Earth. Population growth in developing countries, such as Indonesia (the fourth most populous country in the world), will greatly affect the future population of the world as a whole.

Key Issue 1: Where Are People Distributed?

Population & Geography Geographers examine population problems by first identifying where people are found across the Earth. The location of Earth’s 8 billion people forms a regular distribution. Chapter 2 explains the spatial variation in population growth rates. With the rate of world population growth slowing in the twenty-first century, geographers have turned their attention to the global differences in access to health-care.

The study of population geography is especially important for three reasons: • • •

More people are alive at this time than at any other point in Earth’s long history.

Virtually, all global population growth is concentrated in developing countries.

The world’s population increased at a faster rate during the second half of the twentieth century than ever before in history; the rate has slowed in the twenty-first century but is still high by historical standards.

The balance between resources and population distribution is a key thread woven throughout the chapter.

Carrying capacity is the maximum population of a given species that the environment can sustain indefinitely given the available resources such as food and water. The capacity of the land to sustain human life derives partly from characteristics of the natural environment and partly from human actions to modify the environment. Overpopulation occurs when the number of people in an area surpasses the ability of the environment to support life at a decent standard of living.

The scientific study of population characteristics is demography. Geographers examine demographic data such as age, gender, occupation, and fertility to answer the “what’s there” question.

Population Portions The world can be divided into seven portions each with a little more than 1 billion people each. These areas include the Western Hemisphere with Australia and New Zealand; sub-Saharan Africa; India and Sri Lanka; Europe, Russia, Turkey, and Northern Africa; Southwest and Central Asia; China; and East and Southeast Asia.

The world’s population is not distributed uniformly; two properties may be employed by Geographers to understand this distribution: concentration and density. These concepts can be displayed cartographically many ways, such as looking at concentration using a cartogram.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Population Concentrations Two-thirds of the Earth’s population is clustered in four regions. These four regions are characterized by low-lying terrain, with fertile soil and temperate climate. Concentrations of people are found near oceans (or rivers with easy access to an ocean) rather than in the interior of major landmasses.

Four Clusters The four aforementioned population clusters—East Asia, South Asia, Europe, and Southeast Asia—exhibit settlement in low-lying areas with fertile soil and temperate climates. Africa has several population clusters along its west coast (between Senegal and Nigeria) and along the east coast (between Eritrea and South Africa).

East Asia China is the most populous country in this cluster. China’s population is clustered near fertile river valleys and the Pacific Coast. The interior mountainous and desert regions of China are sparsely populated.

South Asia The major population cluster extends along a corridor from Lahore, Pakistan, through India and Bangladesh to the Bay of Bengal. The population is concentrated along the Indus and Ganges rivers, and also along the two coasts of India (the Arabian Sea to the west and the Bay of Bengal to the east).

Europe Four dozen countries constitute Europe, ranging from Monaco (with 2 square kilometers in land area) to Russia (the world’s largest country by land area, including its Asian part). The highest population concentrations are near the major rivers of Germany and Belgium and capital cities such as London and Paris.

Southeast Asia Indonesia, the world’s fourth-most populous country, is located in this cluster with highest population concentration of approximately 150 million people on the island of Java. Population clusters along river valleys and deltas on the Southeast Asian mainland.

Sparsely Populated Regions The sparsely populated regions include very dry areas, very wet areas, very cold areas, and mountains. These environments are not suitable for agricultural activities.

Dry Lands Twenty percent of Earth’s land surface is covered by areas too dry for farming. Sparsely populated deserts lack sufficient water supplies for crops, but some people raise animals adapted to the climate. Dry lands may contain natural resources such as petroleum reserves.

Wet Lands Located primarily near the equator few people live in lands with very high levels of precipitation and extreme heat. The heavy rains wash nutrients out of the soil and limit agricultural production.

Cold Lands Few humans live near the North and South poles, as much of the land is permanently frozen (permafrost) and unsuitable for agriculture. Few animals tolerate the extreme cold temperatures.

High Lands Many high elevation areas in the world are inhospitable to human settlement due to the mountains dominating these landscapes being steep and snow covered. Some plateau and mountain regions can support human settlement, especially those at low latitudes (near the equator) where agriculture is possible at high elevations.

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Chapter 2: Population & Health Population Cartogram A cartogram depicts the size of countries according to population. The population cartogram clearly shows the distinction between population and land area. India, China, and other countries of Asia dominate the map.

Canada with a large land area is very small when represented by population alone.

Ecumene The ecumene describes the areas occupied by permanent human habitation. Through time, the portion of the Earth used for human settlement has increased through time.

Population Density The number of people occupying a defined area of land, previously described in Chapter 1 as density, reveals the distribution of people compared to available resources. Three measures of density are widely used by geographers: arithmetic density, physiological density, and agricultural density.

Arithmetic Density In population geography, arithmetic density refers to the total number of people divided by the total land area (usually square kilometers or square miles). Arithmetic density enables geographers to compare the number of people per land unit in different regions of the world. However, arithmetic density does not pinpoint the population concentration within a given area.

Physiological Density Land suitable for agriculture is called arable land. In a region, the number of people supported by a unit area of arable land is called the physiological density. Physiological density can be considered a rough measure of a country’s food security. A large difference between the physiological density and arithmetic density indicates that most of a country’s land is unsuitable for intensive agriculture.

Agricultural Density The number of farmers per area of arable land is the agricultural density.

Agricultural density is used by geographers as a measure of development. A country with many farmers and limited arable land would have a high agricultural density. Agricultural densities are lower in developed countries because technology and financial capital make it possible for a few people to farm extensive land areas and feed many people. Physiological and agricultural densities may be used in concert to help geographers understand relationships between population and resources in a country.

Key Issue 2: Why Is Population Increasing?

Natural Increase The natural increase rate (NIR) is the percentage by which a population grows in a year, excluding growth by migration.

Population Growth in History For the several hundred-thousand-year occupancy of Earth, the NIR was essentially zero. While the world NIR peaked at 2.1 percent in the 1960s and has been in decline since the 1990s, the NIR during the second half of the twentieth century was considerably high by historical standards.

The number of people added annually has decreased from a historic peak of 93 million in 1988 to the present level of 85 million people. This drop is less acute than the drop in NIR as the world population base is larger now than in the past. World population increased from 3 to 4 billion in 14 years, from 4 to 5 billion in 13 years, from 5 to 6 billion in 12 years, and from 6 to 7 billion in 12 years.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography The NIR affects the doubling time, which is the number of years required to double a population, assuming a steady rate of natural increase. If the present rate of 1.2 percent per year holds, world population would double in approximately 58 years.

Births and Deaths Population increases rapidly in locations where more people are born than die, and it decreases in locations where more people die than are born.

Fertility The crude birth rate (CBR) is the total number of live births in a year per thousand people alive in society. The highest CBRs are concentrated in Africa and Southwest Asia.

The total fertility rate (TFR) is the average number of children a woman will have throughout her childbearing years (ages 15–49). The average world TFR is 2.4 with a TFR in sub-Saharan Africa of 4.9 and a 1.6 TFR in Europe.

Mortality Infant mortality rate (IMR) is the annual number of deaths of infants under one year of age per 1,000 live births. The highest IMRs are in sub-Saharan Africa and the lowest in Europe.

The crude death rate (CDR) is the total number of deaths in a year for every thousand people in society. The CDR is usually higher in developed countries.

The Demographic Transition The demographic transition is a model of population change where high birth rates and death rates transition to low birth rates and death rates. It is divided into four stages. Some demographers are anticipating a fifth stage.

Stage 1: Low Growth In stage 1, crude birth and death rates are both high, resulting in a low rate of natural increase. For most of this period, people depended on hunting and gathering for food. When food was easily obtained, a region’s population increased, but it declined when people were unable to locate enough animals or vegetation nearby. There are no countries presently in stage 1.

Stage 2: High Growth The move to stage 2 is caused by a rapid decline in crude death rates. Crude birth rates remain high, leading to rapid population growth. Developed regions such as Europe and North America entered stage 2 as a part of the Industrial Revolution. Many less developed countries entered stage 2 much later as a result of the diffusion of medical technologies and knowledge into the less developed world (the medical revolution).

Stage 3: Moderate Growth Stage 3 is marked by a decrease in fertility, which brings down the crude birth rate and decreases the natural increase rate. A society enters stage 3 when people have fewer children. The decision to have fewer children is partly a reaction to a decline in mortality. The crude death rate in stage 3 societies continues to fall but not as rapidly as the crude birth rate.

Stage 4: Low Growth Stage 4 is marked by a nearly equal low crude birth and death rates, and roughly zero natural increase. This condition is called zero population growth (ZPG), a term often applied to stage 4 countries. Stage 4 resembles stage 1 in terms of growth, but otherwise is very different. Total population of a country is much higher in stage 4 than in stage 1. Also, instead of high crude birth and death rates, both are low. Life expectancies are much longer in stage 4.

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Chapter 2: Population & Health

Key Issue 3: Why Does Health Vary by Region?

Medical Services Health conditions differ from country to country, and each country possesses different resources for people in need of health care. The different stages of the demographic transition affect the health care needs of individual countries.

Medical Facilities The state of medical facilities in a developed country mirrors the investment in health care. Most countries in Europe have more than 50 hospital beds per 10,000 people, compared to fewer than 5 in sub-Saharan Africa. Health care is available at little or no cost as a public service in most developed countries. In developing countries, private individuals bear the cost of health care. The United States, however, is an outlier among developed countries in that private individuals pay an average of 55 percent of their health care expenses.

Health Care Expenditures vary throughout the world. Per capita expenditures on health care are higher in developed countries than in developing countries.

Health & Gender Females the world over are exposed to a host of challenging health risks that deeply affect the size and composition of the population of individual countries and the world as a whole.

Mothers at Risk The maternal mortality rate is the annual number of female deaths per 100,000 live births from any cause related to or aggravated by pregnancy or its management (excluding accidental or incidental causes). The rate in many countries of Africa and Asia exceeds 100 deaths per 100,000 mothers, while fewer than 10 deaths per 100,000 mothers in most European countries. The maternal mortality rate in the United States is higher than that in Europe.

Baby Girls at Risk Every year, around 700,000 female babies are “missing” in China and India, as a result of gender-based selection. Over the past several decades, it is estimated that 117 million females have gone “missing”. The number of males per 100 females in the population is the sex ratio. The standard biological level for humans at birth is approximately 105 male babies for 100 female babies. Developed countries have more females than males because on average women live seven years longer than men. The large number of male babies in countries like China and India has raised the possibility that a relatively large number of female fetuses are being aborted due to cultural preferences on the part of parents to have sons rather than daughters.

In order to address the imbalance of male to female births, the “root cause” of this sex selection, gender inequality (as defined by the United Nations), must be recognized.

Health & Aging A country’s stage of the demographic transition determines the proportion of people in different age groups. The varying number of people in different age groups reveals the specific health challenges a country faces.

Caring for Older People Life expectancy is the average number of years an individual can be anticipated to live, assuming current social, economic, and medical conditions remain in place. Life expectancy in Europe is about 81 years, while in developing countries in sub-Saharan Africa is only 60 years.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography The “graying” of a country’s population places a burden on the working population to meet the needs of older people for income and medical care after they retire from their jobs. This burden can be analyzed using the potential support ratio (also known as the elderly support ratio) which is the number of working-age people (ages 15–64) divided by the number of persons 65 and older. As the ratio decreases, fewer working age people are supporting the elderly who have retired from work.

Caring for Younger People Countries in stage 2 of the demographic transition face challenges because higher CBRs, higher TRFs, and lower life expectancies result in a greater percentage of the population under age 15.

Comparing Young and Old One important way to compare age structure among countries is the population pyramid, a bar graph that shows the percentage of a place’s population for each age and gender.

A broad base indicates a higher percentage of young people. Population pyramids help geographers identify which stage of the demographic transition a country occupies.

The dependency ratio shows the people who are too young and too old to work, compared to the number of people in their productive years. People who are 0–14 years of age or over 64 years old are normally classified as dependents. The large number of children in a poor country strains the ability of that country to be able to provide needed services such as schools, hospitals, and day care centers. Similarly, a large portion of an older population places a burden on the country to meet their needs for income and medical care after they retire from their jobs.

The Epidemiologic Transition Epidemiology is the branch of medical science concerned with the incidence, distribution, and control of diseases that are prevalent among a population at a specific time and are produced by some special causes not generally present in the affected place. The epidemiologic transition, conceptualized by Abdel Omran in 1971, focuses on distinctive health threats in each stage of the demographic transition. Geographic concepts such as scale and connection are used by epidemiologists to understand the distribution and method of diffusion of possible epidemics, and to develop control and prevention strategies.

Stage 1: Pestilence & Famine In stage 1 of the epidemiologic transition, infectious and parasitic diseases were the principal causes of human deaths. Accidents and attacks by animals and other humans were also prevalent causes of death at the time. History’s most violent stage 1 epidemic was the Black Plague (bubonic plague), which was probably transmitted to humans by fleas from migrating infected rats.

Stage 2: Receding Pandemics A pandemic is an epidemic of an infectious disease that occurs over a wide geographic area and affects a very high proportion of the population. Improved sanitation, nutrition, and medicine during the Industrial Revolution reduced the spread of infectious diseases. Death rates did not decline immediately and universally during the early years of the Industrial Revolution. Poor people crowded into rapidly growing industrial cities and had especially high death rates. An early example of geographic tools used to study epidemiology is the GIS created by Dr. John Snow to determine the source of cholera in London in 1854. Dr. Snow overlaid maps of addresses of cholera victims and the location of water pumps over a map of the Soho neighborhood, displaying a cluster of victims around a single pump on Broad Street.

Stage 3: Degenerative Diseases Stage 3 of the epidemiologic transition is characterized by a decrease in deaths from infectious diseases and an increase in chronic disorders associated with aging. Chronic disorders 44 .

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Chapter 2: Population & Health associated with aging include heart attacks and various forms of cancer. Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia have the lowest incidence of cancer, primarily because of the relatively low life expectancy in those regions.

Stage 4: Delayed Degenerative Diseases The major degenerative causes of death—cardiovascular disease and cancers—linger, but the life expectancy of older people is extended through medical advances. Medical operations and healthier lifestyles increase people’s life expectancy in stage 4 of the epidemiologic transition.

Behavioral changes such as better diet, reduced tobacco use, and increased exercise has improved health in stage 4 counties. Increased deaths related to opioids are a challenge currently faced in stage 4 countries.

Key Issue 4: Why Might Population Change in the Future?

Population Futures Geographers and other researchers seek to project the future population and health trends. The United Nations estimates that the world population in 2100 could grow to 11.2 billion or decline to 7.2 billion.

Possible Demographic Transition Stage 5 A possible stage 5 of the demographic transition is predicted by demographers for some developed countries. Stage 5 would be characterized by very low CBR, an increasing CDR and, therefore, a negative NIR. The population of a country in stage 5 of the demographic transition would be much older.

China & India China and India together include more than one-third of the world’s total population. As the world’s two most populous countries, policies instituted in China and India will affect prospects for global overpopulation. Current projections predict that India may surpass China as the world’s most populous country. In the past, both China and India have implemented antinatalist policies. An antinatalist policy supports lower birth rates, a pronatalist policy supports higher birth rates.

China’s Population Policies The core of the Chinese government’s family-planning program has been the One Child Policy, adopted in 1980. Couples in China receive financial subsidies, a long maternity leave, better housing, and (in rural areas) more land if they agreed to have just one child Since 2000, China and the United States have had the same CBR. The number of people added to China’s population each year has dropped by one-half, from 14 million to 7 million, during the past four decades. The United Nations forecasts that in 2100 China’s population will decrease. The government has relaxed the One Child Policy but China’s CBR is not likely to dramatically increase due to three decades of intensive educational programs.

India’s Population Policies India became the first country to embark on a national family-planning program. The government spends several hundred million dollars annually on various family-planning programs including the distribution of birth-control devices and abortions. India’s most controversial familyplanning program was the establishment of sterilization camps. A sterilized person was entitled to payment, which was roughly equivalent to a person’s monthly income. People were opposed to the sterilization camps because they thought that eventually sterilization would be forced.

Family Futures The world CBR steeply declined between 1990 and 2015, from 27 to 20. In developing countries during the same time period, CBR dropped from 31 to 22. Two strategies have been successful in lowering birth rates: education and health care and the availability of contraception.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Lowering CBR through Education & Health Care Improving local economic conditions is one approach to decreasing crude birth rates. A community with more economic resources can increase expenditures on education and health-care programs that promote lower birth rates. According to this approach, women’s educational opportunities are encouraged, making them more likely to gain employment skills and take economic control over their lives. Women would also have knowledge of their reproductive rights, letting them make more informed reproductive choices, and an increased awareness of available methods of contraception. Improved health-care programs, such as prenatal care, counseling about sexually transmitted diseases, and child immunization, lead IMRs to decline. With the survival of more infants ensured, women would be more likely to choose to make more effective use of contraceptives to limit the number of children.

Lowering CBR through Contraception Short-term solutions included in family-planning programs, such as contraception, can reduce crude birth rates much more quickly than prolonged economic shifts.

Demand outstrips supply for contraceptives where they are needed most – in developing countries. Places where people have limited access to education and modern communication have experienced success in the diffusion of family-planning options. For example, in Bangladesh, 6 percent of married women used contraceptives in 1980 – in 2014, the number rose to 62 percent. Similar trends have occurred in Colombia, Morocco, and Thailand. Contraceptive use is very low in sub-Saharan Africa because of the reluctance of men to use them. The distribution of contraceptives in sub-Saharan Africa could have a relatively large impact on lowering CBR in the region.

Epidemiologic Futures While the possible stage 5 of the demographic transition is characterized by an increased elderly population, a theoretical stage 5 of the epidemiologic transition could occur through the reemergence of infectious and parasitic diseases. Three reasons help explain the possible emergence of a stage 5 of the epidemiologic transition: evolution, poverty, and increased connections.

Reason for Possible Stage 5: Evolution In a possible stage 5, infectious diseases thought to have been eradicated or controlled return, and new ones emerge. Infectious disease microbes have continually evolved and changed in response to environmental pressures by developing resistance to drugs and insecticides.

Antibiotics and genetic engineering contribute to the emergence of new strains of viruses and bacteria.

Reason for Possible Stage 5: Poverty Infectious diseases are more prevalent in poor areas than other places because unsanitary conditions may persist, and most people are unable to afford drugs needed for treatment.

Tuberculosis is an example of an infectious disease that has largely been controlled in developed countries but remains a major cause of death in developing countries. Tuberculosis is more prevalent in poor areas because the long, expensive treatment poses a significant economic burden.

Reason for Possible Stage 5: Increased Connections As they travel, people carry diseases with them and are exposed to the diseases of others.

AIDS The most lethal pandemic in recent years has been AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome).

39 million people have died worldwide since the beginning of the epidemic through 2017, and 37 million people currently have HIV (human immunodeficiency virus, the cause of AIDS). 26 million of the world’s 37 million HIV-positive people live in sub-Saharan Africa.

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Chapter 2: Population & Health Population & Resources English economist Thomas Malthus was one of the first to predict that population increases would soon outpace the development of food resources, leading to a dramatic crisis as a result of the strain on resources. Malthus claimed that the populations grow geometrically, while food supply increases arithmetically. England entered stage 2 of the demographic transition several decades before Malthus stated these conclusions. Malthus posited that the only thing to prevent a “Malthusian” crisis would be a country’s population following “moral restraint,” lowering CBRs (unless disease, famine, war, or other disasters produced higher CDRs).

Neo-Malthusians Malthus’s views remain influential today. Supporters of Malthus’s model suggest that characteristics of recent population growth pose even greater risks than when Malthus developed his thesis more than 200 years ago. In some countries in stage 2 of the demographic transition, the gap between population and resources is wide than Malthus predicted. Future shortages of food, water, and energy are predicted by the Neo-Malthusians.

Neo-Malthusians & Critics Some argue that carrying capacity in terms of food production has increased more rapidly than Malthus expected. Advances in technology and agricultural techniques have increased the food supply. But in other areas such as Africa, population growth may have exceeded the carrying capacity of the land.

Introducing the Chapter Chapter 2 opens with a discussion of why the study of population is important. The reasons make a powerful opener to any discussion of the chapter’s contents by emphasizing the “punch” of the fourth Key Issue: Why might population increase in the future? The three reasons we should study population are given as: • • •

More people are alive at this time—about 8 billion—than at any point in Earth’s long history.

Virtually, all global population growth is concentrated in less developed countries.

The world’s population increased at a faster rate during the second half of the twentieth century than ever before in history.

Student Engagement Activity Ideas Population “Count” This quick “simulation” is a good way to illustrate the relative distribution of the world’s population. Have the students count off from 1 to 5. Have all of the students who were a 5 to stand up. This is approximately 20 percent (China’s actual percent is 18.7). Tell the students that they represent China’s population.

Then, have all of the students who were a 4 to stand up. They represent another 20 percent of the world’s population (India’s portion of the world population is 17.2%). In order to more accurately reflect the total percentage of Chinese and Indians, 35.9, have 4 of the standing students sit down.

Tell the class that those seated represent the rest of the world’s population distributed among 193 countries (number derived from number of U.N. members minus China and India). Count the number of students and divide by 193. That gives an approximate number of countries each student would represent.

Discuss the implications for world population growth and the distribution of resources.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography The “Village of 100” Numerous examples on the web and in the text introduce the concepts of the world’s population as a “global village.” The elementary concept of percentages is dramatized by imagining the world has a population of only 100. This concept is most frequently attributed to Donella Meadow’s “State of the Village” (1990).

Beware: While there are many versions of this “village” on the Internet, not all are accurate. It is easiest to use reliably sourced data to construct your own village of 100.

With a large enough class, you might consider having the students play out the village on a virtual map. I have started a class by handing out 100 note cards to students in a large lecture class with different information on each card. The students then arranged themselves in an outside common area according to the categories on the cards (world regions, more developed/less developed, etc.).

Family size In a small class, have students fill out the number of children in their families, including themselves. Collect the slips and organize them in ascending order. Write the distribution on the board. Then, ask the following questions: • • • • •

What is the average family size? Mode? Median?

Is this representative of the average family size in the community (students may need to be reminded that not every couple has children)?

When did most parents start having children?

Do most parents practice conception?

How might these numbers vary elsewhere in the world?

The same exercise can be modified for a large-lecture class with a show of hands. Ask students who are only children to raise their hands, followed by those with only one brother or sister, continuing up until there are no more volunteers. It should be easy to estimate the average family size from this show of hands.

Population growth model Population Connection publishes a six-minute film on DVD (www.populationconnection.org) modeling population growth from 1 C.E. to 2030 C.E., with million-person dots added to a world map as the time progresses (about 5 years/second). Students are initially very bored by the slow progress of human population from 1 C.E. to around 1800 C.E. The rapid expansion of human populations in the last 30 seconds of the film stimulates discussion. The film can be accessed online at https://worldpopulationhistory.org/map/1/mercator/ 1/0/25/.

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Challenges to Comprehension Imagining Billions Students can have a very difficult time understanding the scale of world population size and growth. Here is an exercise that can be performed briefly in class (ask students with calculators to help with the calculation) or assigned as independent work: Imagine the equator was entirely land; that is, 40,000 kilometers of Earth’s surface. If we gave every person on Earth one square meter of soil, how many times would the present human population (about 7 billion in 2017) circle the globe?

Answer: 40,000 km X 1m/person= 40,000,000 people once around the equator.

7 billion divided by 40,000,000= 175 times Now, that your students are imagining a line of people long enough to circle the globe 175 times, have them calculate the speed at which the line would grow at the current population growth rate: 7 billion X 0.012= 84 million new people every year 84,000,000 m/year= 84,000 km/year 84,000 km/year= 9.59km/hr (Google can do the unit conversion very quickly) 9.59km/hr= a steady jog with no breaks, just to keep up with world population growth for one year!

Crude Death Rates Although it is addressed in the first paragraph after the measure is defined, students struggle with understanding how developed countries can have higher death rates than developing ones. It is helpful to take some time to discuss the age structure of a population and how older populations can have a moderately high rate even though the population is healthy.

Blaming the Victims Students can be challenged to appreciate how different life in other places can be. Students frequently hold the following misconceptions. a) Women in less developed countries often do not have the same reproductive choices as in the more developed world; and b) HIV/AIDS affects many innocent people (some are unforgiving of HIV/AIDS cases over the implied immorality of transmission).

To address (a), consider a discussion of what life is like in an underdeveloped country. A series of questions can help lead the discussion to a better understanding: •

In a less developed country, how many years of school would a typical girl or boy experience?

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Would the answer be different if he or she grew up on a farm or in a city?

If a young woman didn’t want to get married and have children, what choices might she have in a rural community in a less developed country?

What pressures might there be for the same for the woman to marry and reproduce?

To address (b), have the class consider whether everyone with HIV/AIDS is responsible for their illness.

Students will volunteer several examples, (e.g., mother-to-child transmission).

Additional Classroom Activities and Assignments Review/Reflection Questions These questions can be used in addition to the “thinking geographically” questions at the end of each chapter.

Students can be assigned these questions as homework, they can be given as essay questions on exams, or they can serve as focus questions for in-class discussions.

The italicized section that follows the question sets the criteria and parameters for student answers. Use these suggestions to provide guidance in the assessment of student answers. In addition, a sample answer has been provided. Know that student answers will vary based on the examples and explanations you provided in class.

•

Refer to Table 2-1, “Density Measures for Four Countries” on page 52 of your textbook. In terms of food supply, which measure of density is most important when considering whether a country’s population is too large? Why?

Student responses should indicate a working knowledge of each of the types of density presented in the table.

Sample answer The most important measure of density when determining a country’s ability to produce food would be agricultural density, which compares the percentage of farmers to the amount of arable land. Another essential factor is the percentage of arable land. A country with a high agricultural density and a low percentage of arable land would face challenges in producing food for its population. In this example, Egypt with a high physiological density, a high percentage of farmers, and a low percentage of arable land would exhibit the most pressure on its ability to produce enough food to sustain its population.

•

Describe the change brought about by the industrial and medical revolutions in terms of population growth. What effect did both revolutions have? List several differences between the industrial and medical revolutions. Why did both cause a move from stage 1 to stage 2? What is preventing countries now in stage 2 from moving to stage 3?

Students’ answers should indicate knowledge of the innovations in each of the revolutions and their shortand long-term effects on population growth. They should explain the link between the stages of the demographic transition and the effects of the revolutions.

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Chapter 2: Population & Health Sample answer Both the industrial and medical revolutions brought about innovations that supported population growth.

According to the text, some of the wealth generated by the Industrial Revolution was used to make communities healthier places to live. In the medical revolution, the discovery of the causes of diseases such as cholera, typhoid, and treatment protocols increased life spans. Healthier people living longer also had more opportunities to reproduce, which led to further population growth and a shift to stage 2 of the demographic transition.

Countries currently in stage 2 of the demographic transition may be hampered by high birth rates as family-planning policies have not yet caught up to the lower death rate brought about by the medical revolution. The medical revolution is also addressing high infant mortality rates. More babies are living and as they grow will contribute to further population growth. Another factor would be education and economic opportunities for women. Past trends have noted a decrease in the fertility rate as women become more educated and employed outside of the home.

•

What did Thomas Malthus predict about population growth? Was he right? Give an example of a neoMalthusian argument from your own experience (some resource you think might become rare because of population growth).

Students’ responses should accurately restate Malthus’s theory about the link between the food supply and population growth. They should be able adequately explain the viewpoint of neo-Malthusian for a current-day resource issues.

Sample answer In 1798, Malthus predicted that population growth would outstrip food supply because population increases geometrically while the food supply increases only arithmetically. Neo-Malthusians claim that recent population growth in many countries in stage 2 of the demographic transition threaten resources besides the food supply. Most notable would be the world’s supply of fresh water. The example about water shortages in South Africa illustrates the lack of balance between population and the supply of fresh water.

•

How is the epidemiologic transition like the demographic transition? How is it different? What does the epidemiologic transition mean when comparing the lives of people in the developed world with the lives of people in less developed countries?

Student answers should clearly identify at least one difference between the demographic and epidemiological transitions. They should also describe differences in the lives of people in developed and developing countries.

Sample answer The epidemiological transition links the causes of death with the various stages of population growth in the demographic transition.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Death rates are on the decline in both models. However, the causes of death in the countries in stage 2 deaths are accountable to infectious diseases, while those in the developed world are due to heart disease and cancer.

Demographic Data Collection and Analysis Purpose: students will look up demographic data for a variety of countries to become more familiar with demographic measures.

Choose or have the students choose 6–10 countries for analysis. You may wish to give students a representative sample of countries from around the world; if your teaching includes specific international examples it might be useful to include those countries.

Data selection: choose widely available data for the students to look up. Have the students assemble the data in a table.

Analysis: you may wish to have students perform regression analysis on two or more points of data, or simply to write a reflection on what they learned.

Here is an example: Use the following countries in your analysis: Afghanistan Bolivia Cambodia China France Lithuania Tanzania Turkey United States Look up the following information for each country on www.prb.org and assemble it into a table. Your table should be easy to read and fit onto one page. If you cannot fit it onto one page, please make sure that all column and row labels are present on the second page.

Crude Birth Rate (Births per 1,000 population) Crude Death Rate Rate of Natural Increase Infant Mortality Rate (Infant deaths per 1,000 live births) Life Expectancy GNI PPP per capita . . . and any other data you find personally interesting.

Include a column or row in your table in which you identify which stage of the demographic transition you believe each country to be in.

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Once you have assembled your table, write a two- to three-page paper (500 to 750 words) on what you have learned from assembling this information: Do there appear to be any trends or relationships between the data?

Are there any data that surprise you?

Mastering Geography™ provides additional assignable learning activities and ready-made resources designed to extend and reinforce student skills and mastery of key content, concepts, and vocabulary. The resources include MapMaster 2.0 interactive maps, videos, GeoTutor coaching activities, Google Earth Explorations, outline maps, chapter quizzes, Dynamic Study Modules, and more. Further details about these resources and recommendations for use are provided in the Resources section of this document. You can assign these media-rich activities as pre or post lecture homework.

Thinking Geographically Questions Key Issue 2.1: Human beings are highly clustered. Scientists disagree about the effects of high clustering on human behavior. Some laboratory tests show that rats display evidence of increased aggressiveness, competition, and violence when very large numbers are placed in a box.

1. Might living in a highly clustered place, such as São Paulo, cause humans to behave especially aggressively or violently? Why or why not?

Recall the concept of environmental determinism. Does the environment cause human behavior? Even though the population density in São Paulo may be high, the inhabitants make a choice as to whether or they turn to violence in their interactions with others.

Key Issue 2.2: Countries display distinctive age structures as a result of their stage in the demographic transition. The United States and other stage 3 and stage 4 countries have relatively large numbers of boomers (born 1946–1964). Compared with their parents’ generation, boomers received more education and women were more likely to work outside the home. Boomers married later (if at all), and were more likely to cohabit.

They had fewer children and more children while unmarried.

2. In what ways do you think the Gen Z generation (born after 1995) might display demographic characteristics similar to, or different from, those of boomers? Why? Answers will vary depending on student experiences. The trend of women working outside the home is likely to continue. The demographic trend of lower birth rates indicative of a stage 4 country is likely to continue.

Although many Gen Z families I have encountered are having three children. Might that be a response to having been an only child? The choice whether or not to have children is a personal one and hard to predict.

Key Issue 2.3: Healthcare varies widely around the world.

3. Health-care indicators for the United States do not always match those of other countries; what reasons might explain these differences?

In the United States, individuals are expected to pay for their own health care. The taxpayers in this country pay for the health care of the poor, disabled, and elderly. In Canada and Europe, medical care for all is provided 53 .

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography by the government. Health care is essentially free for everyone in Canada and Europe. The CDR in the United States is lower than it is in Europe. This is due to the fact that the population in the United States is generally younger than the population in Europe.

Key Issue 2.4: Although authorities on demography such as the Population Reference Bureau (PRB) and the U.N. Population Fund still prefer the four-stage model of the demographic transition, some geographers believe that the demographic transition now has a fifth stage in places such as Japan.

4. What sort of evidence might help to determine the existence of a possible stage 5?

A comparison of the birth and death rates would reveal the existence of a stage 5 in the demographic transition in which death rates exceed birth rates. This is the case for Japan and some European countries.

Pause & Reflect Questions 2.1.1

What challenges for human populations arise from Earth’s carrying capacity?

Earth’s carrying capacity is influenced by the supply of natural resources such as water and agricultural land. As the populations increase, more pressure is put on the land to sustain life. Human actions can have a positive effect by finding new resources and uses for existing resources. Carrying capacity is the maximum population that the environment can sustain indefinitely. The relationship between humans and resources is key to determining the carrying capacity. Carrying capacity can be affected by the natural resources available and human actions that can modify the environment resulting in positive and negative consequences.

2.1.2

Why are some land areas not part of the ecumene (refer to Figure 2-4)?

Areas of the Earth may be unsuitable for permanent human settlement, such as those dominated by a dry landscape, places that receive excessive amounts of precipitation, locations perpetually covered by ice, and some high-altitude mountain regions. However, there exist exceptions to all of the aforementioned landscapes that can support human settlement, such as dry landscapes where animals have adapted to the climate.

2.1.3

What regions of the world have relatively high population densities?

Areas with high arithmetic densities include South Asia, East Asia (China and Japan) parts of Europe, and portions of Southeast Asia (Indonesia, the Philippines).

2.2.1

Which region other than sub-Saharan Africa appears to have the highest natural increase rate?

High natural increase rates are present in North Africa and Southwest Asia, especially in Algeria, Egypt, Yemen, Iraq, and Jordan.

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Chapter 2: Population & Health 2.2.2

What region of the world appears to have the lowest CDR. What might account for that?

Countries in North Africa and Southeast Asia with few exceptions have lowest crude death rates in the world.

Countries with oil revenues in the region that have monies to invest in education and health care for their citizens.

2.2.3 Name a country not in Europe that appears to be in stage 4, according to Figures 2-12, 2-17, and 2-20.

Japan would fit the criteria of a country in stage 4 of the demographic transition with a low CBR, relatively low CDR, and an NIR near or below 0.

2.3.1

Why might levels of hospital beds and physicians in developed countries of Europe be higher than in North America?

Private individuals are required to pay a higher percentage of health care costs in the United States, whereas in Europe, health care is a public service and government expenditures are higher for health care services.

2.3.2

What other populous country in Asia, in addition to China and India, appears to have “missing” females?

Vietnam is in the same category as India and China. However, Nigeria, a highly populated country has more males than females born per year.

2.3.3

If the potential support ratio is declining, does that mean the percentage of elderly people is increasing or decreasing?

It means that the percentage of elderly people is increasing.

2.3.4

Why do pandemics decline during stage 2 of the demographic transition?

Pandemics declined during stage 2 because of improved sanitation, nutrition, and medical advances during the Industrial Revolution. Causes of diseases were also identified such as John Snow’s correlation of cholera and contaminated drinking water.

2.4.1

Based on Japan’s population pyramids, how might the potential support ratio change?

The support ratio for older people will increase dramatically as the population ages and is not replaced by younger age cohorts.

2.4.2

Why might birth rates have declined since 1990 less rapidly in Europe and North America than in other regions?

Birth control was readily available in Europe and North America since the 1960s. Countries in other parts of the world did not institute population control until years later.

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Which region within the United States has the lowest number of HIV-positive diagnoses? What geographic factor might account for this low level?

The northern states of the Mountain West, including Idaho, Montana, Wyoming, and the northern Plains states of North Dakota and South Dakota have the lowest cumulative AIDS cases in the United States. These states likely experience little in-migration, explaining this low level.

2.4.4 Calculate the units of population and food that Malthus predicted would exist in 200 years.

Malthus would predict that in 200 years, there would be 256 people for every 10 units of food.

Caption Questions Figure 2-10, Agricultural Density, 2018, p. 53 1. Compare Europe with South and Southeast Asia in terms of arithmetic, physiological, and agricultural density. What explains the main difference between these regions?

Europe and South and Southeast Asia have similar arithmetic densities, ranging from 50 to 100 people per square kilometer. Physiological density, the comparison of population to arable land, is much higher in South and Southeast Asia than it is in Europe. Values in Europe for this measure range from below 200 to less than 1,000. Agricultural density, which compares the number of farmers to arable land, is higher in South and Southeast Asia and considerably lower in Europe.

The calculation of density depends on population and size of country. South and Southeast Asia have higher populations than many European countries, which in turn, affects the density calculations.

Figure 2-17 Crude Birth Rate (CBR) 2018, p. 56 1. Where are the countries with the lowest CBRs located?

The countries with the lowest CBRs are primarily located in Europe. All of the CBRs are below 19 with many under 10.

2. Locate these low-CBR countries on the map of crude death rates in Figure 2-20. What pattern emerges from this comparison?

Countries with highest CDRs are in Europe, primarily in the eastern portion. Most of these countries have a CDR of 10 and above. Other countries in the western portion of Europe have death rates between 8 and 9 per thousand. With low birth rates and relatively high death rates, population in these countries will decline over time.

Figure 2-39, Potential Support Ratio, p. 64 1. Approximately what will the U.S. potential support ratio be in 2050?

The support ratio estimates the number of working people supporting the elderly population. Based on estimates for North America, the ratio for the United States is predicted to be around 3. This means that every elderly person will be supported by only 3 workers.

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2. What could the U.S. do between now and 2050 to raise its potential support ratio?

One way to raise the potential support ratio would be to raise the retirement age and provide incentives for elderly Americans to continue to work.

Figure -59, Malthus’s Theory, p. 74 1. Compare this graph with the population projections in Figure 2-46. What assumption did Malthus make that differed from the assumptions made by modern demographers?

Malthus’s predictions show population fairly equal with food resources in 2025 and beginning to diverge at a rapid rate. Based on the appearance of the graph population will rapidly increase. The modern-day graph is not as steep and shows population growing at a much slower pace.

Doing Geography, The Census, p. 49 The first section of this feature deals with the examination of two issues that make census, the counting of the U.S. population every 10 years, controversial. The first issue is nonparticipation of immigrants, ethnic minorities, and the homeless, which results in an undercount. The second is the use of sampling techniques, which may provide a more accurate county, but according to the Supreme Court, cannot be used to redraw census boundaries.

What Is Your POPULATION Geography?

1. Use your Internet browser to go to census.gov. What are the current populations of the United States and of the world?

Actual numbers students retrieve will be larger than those listed here. The U.S. population is 3285,314,522.

The world population is 7,547.742,510.

2. Select Data, then Data Main, then American Fact Finder. Enter the name of your community. What was the population of your community at the last census?

Virginia Beach, 2010 population is 437,994.

3. Select Annual Population Estimates. What is the current population of your community? Has the population grown or has it declined in recent years? What might account for the change?

Estimated population for 2017 is 450,435, a decline of almost 1000 since 2016. The population has grown steadily until the last decline. The cost of housing is higher in Virginia Beach than other neighboring cities, which may account for a decline in population. Many active-duty military people are stationed throughout the region with many living in Virginia Beach. If a squadron or ship is transferred to an installation in another part of the country, there would be a decline in population.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Debate It! Should the United States adopt universal health care? p. 61 1. Use your browser to go to Pew Research Center Health Care or enter http://www.pewresearch.org/topics/health-care/. Select a research paper that relates to U.S health-care issues.

The paper I selected was, “How far Americans live from the closest hospital differs by community type?”

2. What is the paper’s overall assessment of the strengths and weaknesses of the current health-care system?

Access to hospitals differs by the type of hospital, government-run, nonprofit, or proprietary and by the type of community, rural, urban, and suburban. Distance and drive time for rural residents is long, but rural residents have greater access to government-run hospitals.

3. Summarize the main points the paper makes about how problems with the current system could be remedied.

Access to health care is more of a problem for people living in rural areas. Rural residents live more than 10 miles from the nearest hospital. The issue has been made worse by the closure of hospitals. The underlying premise seems to be more equitable access for rural residents and greater access for suburban dwellers to government-run hospitals. No solutions were discussed in the article.

Sustainability & Our Environment: Earth’s Resources & Our Growing Population, p. 75 1. The red line in Figures 2-60 and 2-61 shows population change. Which population line more closely resembles Malthus’s theory of population growth, in Figure 2-59? What might account for this difference?

The population line for the Food Production and Population: Africa more closely resembles Malthus’s as it shows a trend of continuous growth. Africa as a whole has a higher birth rate and net population growth rate than China, which would account for the more rapid population growth rate represented by the line.

2. The brown line is the food production index. The index is calculated to be 100 in 2005. An index higher than 100 indicates more food production than in 2005, and an index below 100 indicates less food production than in 2005. How do the food production lines for the two areas compare with Malthus’s theory? What might account for the difference?

Malthus predicted that population growth would exceed food production. In both graphs, the food production has been greater than the population growth, in contrast to Malthus’s theory. The food production index differences between the two areas. The food supply in China has continued to increase in successive years, exceeding the index. The food supply in Africa has continued to increase in excess of the 2005 index, but is a bit lower than that of China. When food production per capita is compared, China shows a steady increase, but the production per capita in Africa has declined slightly or remained relatively stagnant.

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Writing Geographically Figure 2CR-5 shows government expenditures on health care as a percentage of GDP. 1. How do the levels of health-care expenditures in Europe and North America compare with those in South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa?

Governments in Europe and North America spend at least twice the percentage of GDP on health care than most of the countries in South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa.

2. How do variations in government health-care expenditures relate to stages of the demographic transition?

Countries with high expenditures on health care are located primarily in the developed world. With technological advances in medicine costs and a wide array of specialists, costs are higher than those in developing countries. With higher life expectancy, an aging population, and lifestyle-influenced diseases, people in countries in stages 4 and 5 of the demographic transition are likely to use access medical services over an extended period of time.

In countries in the developing world in stage 2 and 3 of the demographic transition, youth comprises a sizeable portion of the population. Their health care needs such as immunization and treatments for environmentally linked diseases, such as malaria, may be less expensive that the high-tech treatments in the developing world.

The continued increase in infectious diseases such as tuberculosis will challenge the limited health-care systems in these countries.

3. How do variations in government health-care expenditures relate to the share of young and old in various regions?

Based on the age cohorts within a country’s population government health-care expenditures would focus on immunizations for the young, and degenerative disease care for the old.

4. What future trends in population might cause changes in demand for health-care expenditures?

Increasing life expectancy and aging populations in developed countries would create a demand for geriatric medicine and depending on the culture nursing homes. As people in developed countries live longer, they have increased opportunities for experiencing heart disease or cancer. Based on medical treatments, their life spans would be extended, but may increase the need for hospice care.

In developing countries in stage 2 of the demographic transition, population growth continues. Periodic outbreaks of Ebola and AIDS are endemic in these countries. Government-funded health care in these countries will probably concentrate on controlling the spread of those diseases and improving the health of the population through immunizations and preventative care for the young.

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GeoVideo Questions Overpopulation in Rwanda 1. In what stage of the demographic transition does Rwanda appear to be?

Rwanda appears to be in stage 3 of the demographic transition as birth rates exceed death rates.

2. What happened in Rwanda in 1994? How might this be connected to the country’s overpopulation?

Rwanda experienced genocide as the Hutus and Tutsis undertook mutual mass killings. The ethnic enmity was exacerbated by high populations competing for the country’s scarce resources.

Geospatial Data Analysis Living with Young People The percentage of people under age 15 varies considerably among countries. Let’s compare Japan and Tanzania. Select Population Under Age 15. Then, select Dependency Ratio and join the two data layers.

1. How do the percent under age 15 and the dependency ratio compare between Japan and Tanzania? How do they compare with the United States?

In Japan, the dependency ratio is for older individuals, while in Tanzania, the dependent population is young.

For Japan, the percent under age 15 is 13% that is much lower than its dependency ratio of 65%. For Tanzania, the percent under age 15 is 44% and the dependency ratio is 94%. The United States has a dependency ratio of 51% with only 19% of the dependent population under age 15.

2. Based on these features, what challenges might Japan and Tanzania face with regard to their younger people?

Japan with such a small percentage of its population in the under 15 age, cohorts will face a declining population in the future. They will experience an increasing need for its older citizens and need for more moneis to be allocated to health care for the elderly. In contrast, Tanzania is challenged by the large percentage of young and will need to provide educational opportunities as well as health care. As the children age and enter the labor force, there may be unemployment if their numbers surpass the number of jobs available.

Explore Use Google Earth to explore Nagel-Gulab, a small town in Egypt along the banks of the Nile River. Search for Nagel-Gulab, Egypt.

1. What color is most of the land immediately to the west of the town? Does this indicate that the land is used for agriculture, or is it desert?

The town of Nagel-Gulab is surrounded by a tan color, representing a desert landscape.

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2. How wide is the green strip? Why is the green strip closer to the river and the tan area further away?

About 700 meters (2297 ft) from Nagel-Gulab to the Red Sea. The area is a desert and the area near the sea benefits from seasonal flooding and irrigation. Irrigation canals can be seen running from north to south in the green areas.

3. Zoom out to alt 1400 miles. Based on this view, state how population and land use are distributed in Egypt.

Most of Egypt’s population and agriculture land is distributed along the Nile River.

Resources Interactive population pyramids The U.S. Census Bureau’s International Data Base has an interactive population pyramid application at: https://www.census.gov/data-tools/demo/idb/informationGateway.php In the “Select Report” section of the page, select the “Population Pyramid Graph” option from the drop-down menu. You may select up to 25 years of data for any country, and once the request is submitted (by clicking the “Submit” button), you may use the “Play” button located above the population pyramid to animate the changes that take place over time.

Population Reference Bureau The Population Reference Bureau (www.prb.org) has a wealth of demographic data, as well as data on education, employment, health, and environment. It features data on the United States and most countries around the world. Search the site for lessons and videos on key topics at https://www.prb.org/contenttype/lesson-plans/

World Health Organization Statistical Information System (WHOSIS) The WHO is the authoritative source of health data for the world, especially valuable as a resource for further investigation into the chapter’s section on epidemiological transition. Visit the Global Health Observatory Data, www.who.int/gho/en/ and explore data such as adequate sanitation and health worker density.

Gapminder Gapminder, www.gapminder.org/ features an easy-to-use interactive chart tool and map. The chart allows users to select variables on each axis and watch trends unfold through time.

U.S. Census The U.S. Census, www.census.gov/, features a wealth of demographic and economic data on the U.S. population including the world population clock.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography GeoInquiries™ GeoInquiries by the Environmental Science Research Institute (ESRI) consist of scripted map-based online GIS activities designed to be completed within a 15-minute time frame. These Internet-based mapping activities run best in the Google Chrome browser and do not require the installation of any software. Access them at www.esri.com/en-us/industries/education/schools/geoinquiries-collections.

The Human Geography collection includes the following GeoInquiries™ aligned with this chapter’s content and concepts.

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World Population explores the patterns of world population distribution. Layers in the map include: total population by country, population density, infant mortality rate, total fertility rate, life expectancy, and the natural increase rate.

USA Demographics examines population density within the United States at the country level.

Demographic map layers include median age, median household income, and population density. In addition, the major cities of the United States are shown and included population data for 2010 and 2015. Median ages for Florida and Utah are provided at the census tract level to further illustrate spatial variation as the scale of geography changes.

The Environmental Science collection includes the following GeoInquiries™ aligned with this chapter’s content and concepts.

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Population Dynamics includes the annual percentage population growth rate for 2015 and links to current, past, and future population pyramids. Line graphs in the pop-ups show population growth from 1950 to 2050.

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Slowing Malaria shows the places in Africa where malaria is endemic and the incidence of plasmodium falciparum (the protozoan that causes malaria) and the change in the number of cases over time. Data also include the percent of the population using insecticide treated netting. The map and data could be used to support an examination of the epidemiological transition.

Mastering Geography Media & Assessment Resources Mastering Geography™ provides additional assignable homework activities and ready-made resources designed to extend and reinforce student skills and mastery of key content, concepts, and vocabulary. These resources are invaluable to implementation of the flipped classroom. Use the Instructor Course Home areas to build assignments for your students. Highlights include: •

MapMaster 2.0™ provides students with the opportunity to reinforce their understanding of spatial relationships, e.g., variation, distribution, interaction, and association. Students get hands on with map building, exploration, and spatial data analysis by layering a wide range of maps. Multiple-choice assessments in the Mastering Geography item library provide directions for building maps aligned with chapter content, and focus on the development of spatial thinking and analysis skills.

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GeoVideos and Google Earth Explorations linked to chapter content provide an opportunity for students to “visit” other places and build an appreciation for other cultures. Use as an out-of-class 62 .

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Chapter 2: Population & Health assignment and have students explain how the video or Google Earth Explorations illustrate concepts learned in class and make comparisons between cultures.

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Interactive Data Visualizations powered by Social Explorer provide interactive data explorations for each chapter's Key Issue, and include map stories, predictive graphing, interactive maps, interactive population pyramids, interactive charts, and more. These media are integrated into the Pearson eText and Study Area, and are also available for assignment with quizzes.

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GeoTutors are highly visual and data-rich assignable activities that help students master the most challenging concepts in geography.

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Dynamic Study Modules (DSMs) provide two sets of 25 multiple-choice questions per chapter topic.

Because this resource includes a “I don’t know yet” answer choice,” it can be assigned as a preassessment or content preview. The modules are interactive as students are prompted to select, “I am unsure” or “I am sure” as they submit their answers. The questions could also be used as self-check for students at the end of the chapter. An infographic gauge represents their accuracy visually.

Teachers can assign the DSMs for credit and or students can access these on their own for self study.

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Learning Catalytics is an interactive student response tool paired with Mastering Geography that encourages team-based learning by using students’ smartphones, tablets, or laptops to engage them in interactive tasks and thinking. As a teacher, you can pose a variety of open-ended questions that help your students develop critical thinking skills, while monitoring responses with real-time analytics to find out where they’re struggling. With this information, you can adjust your instructional strategy in real time and try additional ways of engaging your students during class. Learning Catalytics also lets you manage student interactions by automatically grouping students for discussion, team-based learning, and peer-to-peer learning.

The Mastering Geography student Study Area includes a variety of tools that students can access on their own, including: • • •

The eText provides a fully digital online version of the textbook, with search and bookmarking functionality. Available for offline reading.

Chapter Quizzes include 15 multiple choice questions based on the chapter’s content.

Key Terms Flashcards to help students master the key vocabsulary.

Downloadable Outline Maps containing political and physical features provide students the opportunity to label key countries and physical features. Consider assigning these maps throughout the course so that students can refer to them as they interpret the many thematic maps.

MapMaster 2.0 ™ The following map layers are included in the MapMaster 2.0 resource. In addition, multiple-choice map-based quizzes are also included: • • • • • •

Dependency Ratio Physiological Density Population (Arithmetic) Density, dot density map Population (Arithmetic) Density by County Rate of Natural Increase Population Growth Rates 63 .

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography • • • • • • • • •

Population Older than Age 65 Population under Age 18 United States Population Younger than Age 15 (percent of population) by country World Population (raw numbers) by Country Male-Female Ratio Maternal Mortality Rate Life Expectancy at Birth Infant Mortality Rate Total Fertility Rate

Additional resources in support of students with disabilities include the screen reader enabled e-text and more.

Further details about these resources are available at https://www.pearson.com/us/accessibility.html.

Connections between Chapters Back to Chapter 1 The introduction of Chapter 2 underlies the key geographic concepts associated with the study of population, reinforcing the geographic nature of population distribution and change. This introduction also helps students understand the types of questions asked in the Key Issues.

Forward to Chapter 3 Chapter 3, Migration, forms a natural step from Chapter 2, as those countries experiencing rapid population growth frequently are source regions for international migration, while countries in stage 4 of the demographic transition often experience net in-migration.

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3

Migration Learning Outcomes After reading, studying, and discussing the chapter, students should be able to: Learning Outcome 3.1.1:

Describe the relationship between the migration transition and the demographic transition.

Learning Outcome 3.1.2:

Recognize the principal streams of international and internal migration.

Learning Outcome 3.1.3:

Explain the difference between emigration and immigration.

Learning Outcome 3.1.4:

Describe the changing places of origin of U.S. immigrants.

Learning Outcome 3.2.1:

Describe migration patterns among U.S. regions.

Learning Outcome 3.2.2:

Compare interregional migration in several large countries.

Learning Outcome 3.2.3:

Describe three types of intraregional migration.

Learning Outcome 3.3.1:

Explain cultural reasons for migrating.

Learning Outcome 3.3.2:

Explain environmental reasons for migrating.

Learning Outcome 3.3.3:

Identify economic reasons for international migration.

Learning Outcome 3.3.4:

Describe the demographic characteristics of immigrants to the United States.

Learning Outcome 3.4.1:

Explain how governments control who can immigrate into a country.

Learning Outcome 3.4.2:

Explain the role of quotas in U.S. immigration policies.

Learning Outcome 3.4.3:

Summarize the diversity of conditions along the U.S.-Mexico border

Learning Outcome 3.4.4:

Describe patterns of immigration in Europe and issues resulting from the patterns.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography

Chapter 3 Outline I

Key Issue 1: Where are Migrants Distributed?

A Migration & Geography 1 Definitions a migration—permanent move to a new location b mobility—movement between locations 2 Reasons for migration a economic opportunity b cultural freedom c environmental comfort 3 Migration principles a migration transition—mirrors economic and population changes of the demographic transition B International & Internal Migration 1 International Migration a voluntary migration b forced migration c migration flows i Latin America to North America ii Asia to Europe iii Asia to North America 2 Internal Migration a interregional migration b interregional migration C Immigration & Emigration 1 Definitions a emigration—migration from a location b immigration—migration to a location c net migration—difference between immigration and emigration 2 Migration flows a involve two-way connections b Asia, largest number of migrants c U.S. has a higher number of foreign-born residents than any other country d highest in-migration rates are in the petroleum-exporting countries of Southwest Asia e largest flow of migrants from Mexico to the United States 3 Migration Patterns in Europe a About 10 percent of Europe’s population are immigrants b Highest foreign-born population in Luxembourg (41%) c Russia has the largest number of emigrants d Russia has a net in-migration e Large influx of refugees to Europe in recent years 4 Changing U.S. Immigration a at independence i Europe, primarily from British Isles ii Atlantic seaboard, Jamestown, Plymouth 66 .

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Chapter 3: Migration

b

c

iii Sub-Saharan Africa—imported slaves Nineteenth-century immigration i 1840s–1850s—Ireland and Germany ii 1870s—Ireland and Germany iii 1880s—Scandinavia iv 1905–1914—Southern and Eastern Europe Recent immigration i Latin America ii Asia iii Mexico is now the largest country of origin for migrants to the United States

II Key Issue 2: Where do People Migrate within Countries?

A Interregional Migration, United States 1 1790, hugging the coast 2 1800–1840, crossing the Appalachians 3 1850–1890, rushing to the gold 4 1900–1940, filling in the Great Plains 5 1950–2010, moving South B Interregional Migration in Other Large Countries 1 China a primarily rural to urban b immigration restrictions lifted by government 2 Brazil a encourage movement to interior through the building of Brasilia b net out-migration from coastal cities 3 Canada a Alberta largest in-migration b Quebec-largest out-migration 4 Russia a population clustered in the western European part b resources in the east c Soviets used forced migration to exploit resources d now, net in-migration to cities in the west near Europe C Intraregional Migration 1 Rural to Urban a began with the Industrial Revolution b migrants seek employment opportunities in cities c also evident in developing countries 2 Urban to suburban a developed countries b attracted to suburban lifestyle with single family homes, etc. c development may impinge on urban lands

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography 3

Urban to rural a developed countries b counterurbanization—net migration from urban to rural areas c facilitated by communication technologies

III Key Issue 3: Why do People Migrate?

A Ravenstein’s Principles 1 Most people migrate for economic reasons 2 Political and environmental reasons also induce migration, although not as frequently as economic reasons B Definitions 1 Push factor—factor that induces people to leave the old location 2 Pull factor—factor that attracts people to a new location 3 Intervening obstacles—an environmental or cultural feature that inhibits migration C Forced Migration of Native Americans 1 Trail of Tears D Forced Political Migration 1 Refugee a 25.4 million (2017) b largest numbers from Afghanistan, Syria, Myanmar, South Sudan (2017) c tend to migrate to neighboring countries 2 Internally displaced persons (IDPs)—40 million (2017) 3 Asylum seekers—3.1 million (2017) E Environmental Reasons for Migrating 1 Push Factor: Katrina Flooding a New Orleans located on a floodplain b most migrants were African Americans c population levels have yet to reach pre-migration levels 2 Push Factor: hurricanes Harvey & Maria 3 Pull Factor: Attractive environments a mountains and highlands b warm winters c coastal environments F Economic Reasons for Migrating 1 Developing Countries a South and East Asia—largest source region for employment-seeking migrants b Southwest Asia i oil producing countries major destinations for other Asians ii immigrants are 84% of population of the United Arab Emirates 2 Developed Countries 3 U.S. and Canada leading destinations for economic migrants 4 Remittances a migrants working in another country transfer monies to people in the country from which they emigrated. b most remittances sent to India 68 .

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Chapter 3: Migration G Gender & Age of Migrants 1 Ravenstein’s theory a most long-distance migrants are male b most long-distance migrants were adult individuals rather than families with children 2 Age of Migrants (patterns in the U.S.) a for the most part, Ravenstein’s theory hold true b most immigrants are young adults (between 20 and 39) c immigrants from developing countries are more likely to be elderly, than children d number of unaccompanied minors has increased 3 Gender of Migrants a true for migration to the U.S. in the nineteenth and much of the twentieth centuries b Female migrants to the U.S. began to outnumber male migrants around 1970 c in developing countries female migrants to developing countries has increased i high percentage of women working in developed countries attracts female immigrants ii wives may be joining husbands who had already migrated IV Key Issue 4: Why do Migrants Face Challenges?

A Government Immigration Policies 1 Maintain the current level of immigration, 120 countries 2 Increase the level of immigration, 24 countries 3 Reduce immigration, 25 countries 4 No formal policy B Unauthorized Immigration 1 Definition—migrants who enter a country without proper documents 2 Characteristics of U.S. undocumented immigrants a source country—most from Mexico, other Latin American countries b destination—California and Texas c children—1 million of 11 million unauthorized migrants d years in United States—residency in U.S. increasing, most at least 10 years e labor force, 8 million employed, likely to work in construction, hospitality jobs C Quotas 1 Definition—establishes the maximum number of people who can migrate into a country 2 U.S. Quota Acts a 1921 i 3 percent of residents from that country already living in the U.S. ii favored migrants from Northern and Western Europe b 1924 i based on 1910 census ii 2 percent of the number from that country already in the U.S. c 1965—country quotas replaced with hemisphere quotas d 1978—global quota set e 1990—global quota increased 3 Skill and Family-based Migration a current preferences for applicants i family reunification, ¾ of migrants ii skilled workers 69 .

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography iii diversity lottery for people from countries with few historical immigrants to the U.S. quotas do not apply to refugees brain drain—sending countries negatively affected by emigration of their highly educated and skilled people D U.S. Mexico Border Issues 1 Border issues a border security b workplace c civil rights d local initiatives 2 Diverse Border Crossings a 67 border crossings between the U.S. and Mexico b urban areas San Diego, CA; Brownsville, TX c pedestrian only crossings d sparsely inhabited areas E European Immigration Issues 1 Guest workers a policy of the 1960s and 1970s workers admitted temporarily to fill employment needs b expected workers would return home (circular migration) c these programs no longer exist d guest workers and families remained in host country 2 Attitudes toward immigrants a plank of some political parties b immigrants blamed for crime, unemployment, etc. c friction between different cultural customs and those of the host country d religious conflict between Muslim immigrants and predominantly Christian Europe b c

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Chapter 3: Migration

Chapter Content Outline Key Issue 1: Where Are Migrants Distributed?

Migration & Geography Migration is a permanent move to a new location and is a specific type of relocation diffusion. Geographers study migration because it helps reveal changes in population in places and regions around the world. The cultural exchange that occurs when migrants arrive at new locations provides the basis for analyzing and understanding cultural change.

Migration is a form of mobility, a broad term encapsulating all types of movements from one location to another. Movements that occur on a regular basis (daily, weekly, monthly, or annually), such as commuting from home to work, are called circulation. Most people migrate for three main reasons: economic opportunity, cultural freedom, and environmental comfort.

Migration Principles Nineteenth-century geographer E.G. Ravenstein’s “laws” are the foundation for contemporary geographic migration study. The “laws” are organized into three groups that help us understand where and why migration occurs: •

The distance that migrants typically move (discussed in Key Issues 1 and 2).

•

The reasons why migrants move (discussed in the first part of Key Issue 3).

•

The characteristics of migrants (discussed in the second part of Key Issue 3).

The migration transition identifies economic and social changes in a society that also produces the demographic transition. International migration usually occurs in stage 2 of the demographic transition, whereas internal migration often occurs during stages 3 and 4.

International Migration involves a permanent move from one country to another. International migration may be voluntary or forced. Voluntary migration is migration where a person has chosen to move (for economic or environmental reasons), while forced migration means a person was compelled to move (by cultural or environmental factors). This distinction is not always easily identifiable.

Approximately 9 percent of the world’s people are international migrants.

At the global scale, the three largest flows of migrants are: • • •

From Latin America to North America.

From Asia to Europe.

From Asia to North America.

Generally, the patterns show migration from developing countries to developed countries. Asia, Latin America, and Africa have net out-migration. North America, Europe, and the South Pacific have net in-migration.

Internal Migration is the permanent movement of a person or people within the same country. Internal migration can be divided into two types: interregional and intraregional. Interregional migration is the movement from one region of a country to another. The movement within the same region of a single country is called intraregional migration.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Immigration & Emigration The flow of migration always involves two-way connections – emigration is migration from a location, while immigration is migration to a location.

The difference between the number of immigrants and the number of emigrants is the net migration. If the number of immigrants is greater than the number of emigrants, the net migration is positive, and the region has net in-migration. If the number of emigrants is greater than the number of immigrants, the net migration is negative, and the region has net out-migration.

The United States has more foreign-born residents than any other country, approximately 45 million as of 2018. The highest in-migration rates are in the petroleum exporting countries of Southwest Asia. The largest migration flow is from Mexico to the United States.

Migration Patterns in Europe Europe, including Russia, is home to 78 million of the world’s 258 million immigrants in 2017. Russia is the country of origin for the largest number of emigrants. The migration of large numbers of refugees has changed migration patterns within Europe.

Changing U.S. Immigration The United States is situated in a unique position in the study of international migration, as it is inhabited overwhelmingly by direct descendants of immigrants. About 80 million people migrated to the United States between 1820 and 2018, including 45 million who were alive in 2018.

Immigration in the United States can be conceptualized into three main eras: • • •

Colonial settlement in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.

Mass European immigration in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.

Asian and Latin American immigration in the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries.

U.S. Immigration at Independence According to the first census in 1790, the U.S. population was 3.9 million, including 950,000 who had immigrated to one of the colonies currently part of the United States.

Immigration to the United States in this era primarily came from two key places: Europe and sub-Saharan Africa.

Most Africans were forced to migrate to the United States as slaves, while most Europeans were voluntary migrants.

Nineteenth-Century U.S. Immigration From 1840 until the outbreak of World War I, the source regions for new migrants coincided with the Industrial Revolution diffusing from its hearth in Great Britain. Most of the immigrants that came to the United States in the second half of the nineteenth century came from Germany, Ireland, and Scandinavia. In the early twentieth century many of the immigrants came from Eastern and Southern Europe.

Recent U.S. Immigration After World War II most new migrants to the United States came from Asia and Latin America. Asians and Latin Americans have come to the United States in recent decades after many of their countries entered stage 2 of the demographic transition.

Key Issue 2: Where Do People Migrate Within Countries?

Interregional Migration: United States The expansion of the United States to the western reaches of North America allowed for large-scale internal migration. Through mass interregional migration, the interior of the continent was settled and developed.

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Chapter 3: Migration The U.S. Census Bureau computes the population center of the United States every census. The population center is the average location of everyone in the country, the “center of population gravity.” Over the past 200 years, the center has reliably shifted westward, although the rate of this shift has fluctuated over time.

1790: Hugging the Coast Settlement was concentrated along the Atlantic Coast, as colonists depended on shipping links with Europe to receive provisions and to export raw materials. The Appalachian Mountains also presented a barrier to westward movement.

1800–1840: Crossing the Appalachians Transportation improvements, notably the construction of canals (especially the Erie Canal), encouraged westward settlement. The forested river valleys between the Appalachians and the Mississippi River provided cheap land for enterprising migrants.

1850–1890: Rushing to the Gold The population center drifted further west during the mid to latenineteenth century. The Gold Rush of the late 1840s pulled people past western frontiers that were not heavily occupied. In fact, explorers such as Zebulon Pike thought of the Great Plains as unfit for agricultural activity, leading many in the United States to conceptualize the region as the Great American Desert.

1900-1940: Filling in the Great Plains Emigration from Europe to the United States offset most of the migration from the East Coast to the U.S. West, preventing a major westward shift of the population center.

The Great Plains region was also beginning to pull more migrants, as advances in agricultural technology enabled people to cultivate the landscape.

1950-2010: Moving South The population center not only resumed its westward movement, but shifted southward as well, as Americans moved to the South for job opportunities and warmer climes. Interregional migration has diminished considerably, as regional differences in employment opportunities have narrowed.

Interregional Migration in Other Large Countries Long-distance interregional migration has played an important role in opening new regions for development in countries with large amounts of land area, such as China, Canada, Russia, and Brazil.

Interregional Migration: China The predominant flow of interregional migration is from rural to urban areas, where job prospects are higher. More than 150 million people have emigrated from rural areas in the interior of the China. Most migrate to the East Coast where factory jobs are plentiful. In recent years, China has lifted restrictions on migration.

Interregional Migration: Brazil While the Brazilian East Coast is more heavily populated than its densely forested interior areas, development of the interior region (along with the movement of the capital to Brasília) over the past half century has altered historic migration patterns. The coastal areas now have net outmigration, whereas the interior areas have net in-migration.

Interregional Migration: Canada Mirroring migration patterns in the United States, population expanded westward in Canada over the past 200 years. Alberta has had the largest in-migration, while Quebec has had the most net out-migration.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Interregional Migration: Russia The population of Russia is highly clustered in the western (European) portion of the country. The Soviet Union encouraged and forced people to move to the sparsely populated eastern portion of Russia to work in the factories located near the raw materials. In recent years there has been a net in-migration to the western portion of the Russia.

Intraregional Migration Intraregional migration is a more frequently observed phenomenon than interregional or international migration. Most intraregional migration occurs from rural to urban areas in developing countries, while migrants are moving from cities to suburbs in developed countries.

From Rural to Urban Areas Beginning with the Industrial Revolution in the 1800s, migration patterns in Europe and North America saw people move from rural to urban areas. Developing countries are starting to see similar trends, with agricultural job opportunities disappearing and factory and service prospects in urban areas growing.

From Urban to Suburban Areas The majority of intraregional migration in developed countries is from cities to surrounding areas, or suburbs. The population of city-based urban populations in developed countries has decreased since the mid-twentieth century, while suburban areas have grown rapidly.

Amenities such as private yards and garages have pulled people to the suburban lifestyle; however, this lifestyle is only possible with access to reliable transportation, such as a car or train. This transportation allows access to jobs, shopping, and recreational facilities.

From Urban to Rural Areas The late twentieth century saw the development of a new migration trend: counterurbanization. Counterurbanization is the net migration from urban to rural areas, a trend resulting, in part, from the rapid growth of suburbs. Rocky Mountain states such as Colorado and Utah have specifically experienced counterurbanization in the United States. The development of communication and transportation systems have economically and socially connected once isolated areas, allowing for this trend to take place.

Key Issue 3: Why Do People Migrate?

Ravenstein’s laws help geographers contextualize why people migrate: • •

Most people migrate for economic reasons.

Political and environmental reasons also induce migration, although not as often as economic reasons.

People migrate due to push and pull factors. A push factor motivates people to move from their present location, while a pull factor encourages people to move to a new location. Push and pull factors typically work in tandem for people deciding or being forced to migrate.

A political or environmental feature that deters migration is an intervening obstacle. While long-distance passage over land or sea was the traditional environmental barrier to international migration, transportation improvements have diminished the prominence of environmental features as intervening obstacles. Today the major barrier for migration is political as the migrant needs a passport to emigrate and a visa to immigrate to another country.

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Chapter 3: Migration Forced Migration of Native Americans Under the Indian Removal Act of 1830, Native Americans were forced to move from the lands they had historically occupied in the southeastern United States to Indian Territory (present day Oklahoma). Twenty-five million acres of land were opened for white settlement by these five removals. Many of the 46,000 Native Americans forced to move died on the journey to Indian Territory, with a dry climate unsuitable for agricultural activity awaiting them in the west. The route taken by these Native Americans is now known as the Trail of Tears; parts of it are preserved as a National Historic Trail.

Forced Political Migration The United Nations High Commission for Refugees (UNHCR) recognizes three groups of people who are forced to migrate for political reasons: •

• •

A refugee has been forced to migrate to another country to avoid the impacts of armed conflict, situations of generalized violence, violations of human rights, or other disasters and cannot return for fear of persecution because of race, religion, nationality, membership in a social group, or political views.

An internally displaced person (IDP) has been compelled to move for similar political reasons as a refugee but has not migrated to a different country.

An asylum seeker is someone who has migrated to another country in the hope of being recognized as a refugee.

In 2017, The UN counted 25.4 million refugees, 40 million IDPs, and 3.1 million asylum seekers. The largest number of refugees in 2017 were forced to migrate from Afghanistan, Syria, Myanmar, and South Sudan due to prolonged civil wars in each respective country. Neighboring countries received the most refugees.

Push Factor: Katrina Flooding A common environmental threat is water—both too much and too little can cause people to migrate. Many people are forced to move by water-related disasters because they live in a vulnerable area like the floodplain of a river. The rising waters associated with hurricanes, such as Katrina, 2005, have forced large-scale migration. New Orleans was especially vulnerable because the site of the city is below sea level and the system of dams and levees designed to protect it failed. The population of New Orleans declined by 53 percent between 2000 and 2006. By 2016 the population still had not recovered to 2000 levels.

Push Factor: Harvey & Maria Many African Americans fleeing from Hurricane Katrina moved to Houston. In 2017 Hurricane Harvey hit the Houston area forcing evacuations, causing severe flooding, and destroying many homes. Hurricane Maria, 2017, devastated the island of Puerto Rico with great loss of life and property. The electrical grid was destroyed and rebuilding it took almost a year.

Pull Factor: Attractive Environments include mountains, seaside locations, and warm climates.

Economic Reasons for Migrating Most people migrate for economic reasons, often due to a lack of job opportunities. Economic restructuring impacts job prospects at the international and intraregional levels.

Economic Migration: Developing Countries Some countries allow people to immigrate on a temporary basis for economic reasons, most notably in Asia and Europe.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography South and East Asia The world’s largest sources of economic migrants emigrate from South and East Asia, with more than 2 million people emigrating from India, Bangladesh, China, and Pakistan every year.

50 million Chinese and 25 million Indians live abroad, with the United States and other Asian countries being prominent destinations.

Southwest Asia Economic migrants from India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, the Philippines, Thailand, and other Southeast Asian countries travel to the oil-rich countries of Southwest Asia for work. Immigrants compose more than 50 percent of the population in the United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Kuwait, and Bahrain. Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates have the largest number of immigrants in the region. Working conditions are often poor and many of the countries fear that the large numbers of immigrants will challenge traditional Islamic life.

Economic Migration: Developed Countries Throughout history, the United States and Canada have drawn economic migrants. In the past Europeans were the predominant group immigrating to the United States and Canada, but today the lure of economic prospects attracts people from Latin America and Asia.

Sometimes, it is difficult to categorize migrants coming to the United States, Canada, and European countries—many move for economic reasons, while others flee government persecution. This distinction between the two is important because these destinations treat these two groups differently. Economic migrants are generally not admitted unless they possess special skills or have a close relative already in the new country, while refugees receive special priority in most cases.

Remittances The transfer of money by workers to people in the country from which they emigrated is a remittance. The total amount of remittances worldwide was $613 billion in 2017, with this figure rising by nearly 10 percent every year. In 2017, people in India received the most remittances, bringing in $69 billion, followed by China with $64 billion.

Gender & Age of Migrants theories: • •

Ravenstein detailed distinctive gender and family-status patterns in his migration

Most long-distance migrants were male.

Most long-distance migrants were adult individuals rather than families with children.

Age of Migrants Ravenstein theorized that most long-distance migrants were young adults seeking job opportunities rather than children or elderly people. Recent migration trends in the United States mirror this theory in some aspects, but not in others: • • •

Most U.S. immigrants are young adults, reflecting Ravenstein’s laws. 49 percent of recent immigrants to the United States are between the ages of 20 and 39.

Only 5 percent of recent U.S. immigrants are over the age of 65. However, in developing countries, the elderly are more likely to migrate, and comprise 8 percent of the immigrants.

Children under the age of 20 make up 21 percent of immigrants to the United States, while in developing countries, 23 percent of the same cohort are migrants.

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Chapter 3: Migration The number of unaccompanied minors attempting to enter the United States without proper documentation has skyrocketed in recent years, due to a mix of pull and push factors. Ninety percent of the children between 12 and 17 trying to immigrate to the United States have been males—these teenage boys are pushed by increasing gang violence in their home countries (such as Honduras and El Salvador), and pulled to the United States because of rumors that deportation will not happen if they are caught.

Gender of Migrants Ravenstein theorized that males were more likely to migrate long distances to other countries than females because searching for work was the main reason for international migration, and males were more likely than females to be employed. This theory held true for i m m i gr a nt s to the United States during the nineteenth and most of the twentieth centuries, when 55 percent were male. However, since 1970, female immigrants have outnumbered their male counterparts, comprising 55 percent of the total.

This trend can also be observed in other developed countries. Ravenstein theorized two reasons for this shift: • •

The high percentage of females in the workforce of developed countries attracts a high percentage of female immigrants.

Some developed countries have allowed wives to join husbands who have already immigrated.

Key Issue 4: Why Do Migrants Face Challenges?

Government Immigration Policies Most countries, including the United States, have instituted selective immigration policies that admit some types of immigrants while barring others. Visas are typically granted for specific employment placement and family reunification. The United Nations categorizes countries according to four types of immigration policies: (1) maintain the current level of immigration, (2) increase the level, (3) reduce the level, (4) no policy. Emigration policies are identified by the same four classes.

Unauthorized Immigration Migrants who enter the United States without proper documents are called unauthorized immigrants. More than half the unauthorized immigrants in the United States emigrated from Mexico. Academic observers favor the term “unauthorized immigrants” when referring to this group of immigrants, while “undocumented immigrant” is preferred by some of the groups that advocate for more rights for these individuals. An estimated 11 million unauthorized immigrants live in the United States.

Approximately 8 million unauthorized immigrants, comprise 5 percent of the total U.S. civilian work force.

They are most likely to be employed in construction and hospitality industries. The states with the largest number of unauthorized immigrants are California and Texas.

U.S. Quota Acts A quota is a law establishing a maximum limit on the number of people who can immigrate into a country. The United States has long used quota laws to limit the source regions and numbers of new migrants. The Emergency Quota Act of 1921 restricted the number of immigrants to 3 percent of people from that countries already living in the U.S. The 1924 act also established quotas preferential to Europeans. In 1965 quotas for hemispheres replaced the quotas for individual countries. In 1978 and 1990 adjustments were made to a global quota system.

Skill & Family-based Migration The number of applicants for admission exceeds the quotas set. The current system has three preferences: family reunification, skilled workers, and a diversity lottery for countries that have historically sent few immigrants to the United States. The quota system does not apply to refugees who may be admitted when their refugee status is verified.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography The preference for talented and skilled workers in wanted professions in the long run may affect the countries these professionals are emigrating from. A brain drain occurs when there is large-scale emigration by talented people which may result in a shortage of that profession in the home country. Presently, many professionals from Asian countries are immigrating to the United States, contributing to brain drain in their native countries. Family members of these professionals can immigrate under family-reunification provisions. Skilled professionals may use family-based migration which permits the migration of people to a specific location because relatives have previously migrated there.

U.S.-Mexico Border Issues The United States border with Mexico is 3,145 kilometers long and in some cases running through sparsely inhabited regions. The United States has constructed a barrier along the border that covers approximately one-fourth of the border’s length. Sometimes locating the border is difficult in sparsely inhabited remote areas.

Border Disputes American citizens are divided concerning whether unauthorized migration helps or hurts the country. This ambivalence extends to certain elements of immigration law. Four major issues divide American opinion regarding illegal border crossings.

Border Security While many Americans would like to see more effective border patrols and physical barriers, such as fences, constructed to prevent unauthorized border crossings, they cannot agree on the funding of these expenditures.

Workplace Most Americans acknowledge that unauthorized immigrants take jobs that no American citizen desires to take, so they support some type of temporary work visa to allow migrants to work in the United States.

Civil Rights Americans also favor letting law enforcement officials stop and verify the legal status of anyone they suspect of being an unauthorized immigrant; however, citizens also fear civil rights may be violated in doing so.

Local Initiatives According to polls, most Americans believe that enforcement of unauthorized immigrants is a federal, and not a local government responsibility. Others, especially residents along the border, favor stronger enforcement.

Diverse Border Crossings There are 67 official border crossing between the United States and Mexico.

Some crossings are in urban areas such as San Diego and have a high volume of motor traffic. Other crossings are only for pedestrians, and some are located in remote and sparsely populated areas.

Europe Immigration Issues

The number of immigrants in Europe has been increasing in recent years.

Guest Workers Germany and other wealthy European countries instituted guest worker programs, in which immigrants from poorer countries were permitted to immigrate temporarily to obtain employment.

These guest worker programs (operated primarily during the 1960s and 1970s) were anticipated to be examples of circular migration, which is the temporary movement of a migrant worker between home and host countries to seek employment. Guest workers were anticipated to return to their home countries once their work was done. Most of these migrants have remained permanently in Europe, becoming citizens of the host country.

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Chapter 3: Migration Attitudes Toward Immigrants Many political parties in countries across Europe have adopted hostile positions toward immigrants, labeling them as the source of increased crime, unemployment, and high welfare costs. They also claim that these immigrants are eroding the long-standing cultural traditions of the host country. Demographic change has played a major role in the source of this hostility, with most European countries currently in the fourth stage of the demographic transition, with very low or negative NIR. In many countries immigrants are now the sole source of population growth.

Student Engagement Activity Ideas Oregon Trail Many students in American classrooms have played “Oregon Trail,” a computer simulation of some of the challenges faced by migrants to the American West. Mentioning this game is likely to generate examples of physical barriers to migration: the sheer distance, river crossings, deserts, and other challenges such as disease, exhaustion, and hunger.

Discussion Starters Use these questions to engage student interest in the topic of immigration. Ask students how the geographic concepts they learned about in chapter one apply to the issues raised in each question.

•

In 2011, Alabama enacted an anti-immigrant law, Alabama HB 56, Beason-Hammon Alabama Taxpayer and Citizen Protection Act. The law prohibited or restricted unauthorized immigrants from attending publicly-owned colleges and required public schools to ascertain the immigration status of students. How do you think the denial of public education could affect legal and unauthorized immigrant flows to Alabama?

(Note: The ACLU and the U.S. Justice Department filed suit against Alabama. The U.S. Supreme Court denied a writ of certiori. The education prohibitions were held unconstitutional by a federal appeals court.)

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Americans purchase products made in foreign countries using cheap labor. Is this any different than allowing low-cost labor to immigrate to the United States? How? Should employers who knowingly hire undocumented immigrants be under less scrutiny than the immigrants themselves? Why or why not?

Should immigrants be counted in the U.S. Census? What are the arguments for and against having an immigration status question included on the census form?

Challenges to Comprehension Mobility vs. Migration Most college students have a great degree of mobility, much greater than that experienced by much of the world’s population. Therefore, students may have a difficult time imagining how little many people around the world actually move and how significant a migration decision is.

Illustrating the significance can be helped with a discussion of the difficulty of obstacles, both cultural and physical, faced by migrants. An understanding of how few resources most migrants have is especially useful.

This understanding also aids students in comprehending chain migration, as migrants are likely to travel where they have a connection to family or a group from their home country.

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Another approach is to ask students about where, provided they have the money, they would like to travel.

Compile a list of their favored destinations.

Now ask the students whether there are any places on the list where citizens are not free to visit the United States. A healthy discussion should follow.

Refugee/Internally Displaced Person The United Nations defines a refugee as “a person who has a well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group, or political opinion.” Most internally displaced people are essentially refugees that have not crossed an international boundary. For example, apartheid policies in South Africa forced approximately 3.6 million blacks to migrate to government-created homelands within the country. Sudan is estimated to have nearly 5 million internally displaced people due to the ongoing civil unrest.

Sometimes countries will forcibly relocate people if it is deemed to be in the best interests of the country.

China forcibly relocated 10 to 17 million people from urban areas to rural communities because they wanted to ease pressure arising from high urban unemployment. The Soviet government forced people to migrate to the Far North to construct and operate steel mills, hydroelectric power stations, mines, and other enterprises.

Explain the concept of eminent domain to the students. Ask the students if they think eminent domain is basically a small-scale version of what China and the Soviet Union did. Ask the students if they would be upset if their family had to relocate because of eminent domain.

Additional Classroom Activities and Assignments Review/Reflection Questions These questions can be used in addition to the “thinking geographically” questions at the end of each chapter.

Students can be assigned these questions as homework, they can be given as essay questions on exams, or they can serve as focus questions for in-class discussions.

The italicized section that follows the question sets the criteria and parameters for student answers. Use these suggestions to provide guidance in the assessment of student answers. In addition, a sample answer has been provided. Know that student answers will vary based on the examples and explanations you provided in class.

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Name an economic, social, and environmental “push” factor (three in all) that would make you migrate and explain each one. Do the same for three “pull” factors. Make sure you demonstrate an understanding of the difference between mobility and migration in your answer.

Student answers should show a clear differentiation among economic, social and environmental factors.

Student explanations should clearly indicate the reasons for the identification of the named factors as either “push” or “pull.” Student answers should differentiate between migration and mobility.

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Chapter 3: Migration Sample answer An economic “push” factor would be a high unemployment rate in my hometown. I would move to and settle in an area with available jobs suited to my skill set. A social “push” factor would involve the age distribution in my community. If I were the only young adult in a retirement-aged community, I would move to a new location to be near people of my own age. An environmental “push” factor would be a natural disaster such as a forest fire that burned by home. I would likely want to move to a place that did not have a climate conducive to forest fires.

An economic “pull” factor would the location with a job suited to my skill set. A social “pull” factor would be a clustering of people of my age in a neighborhood or city. An environmental “pull factor” would be a location with mild winters and access to recreation opportunities such as mountains or coastal areas. The “pull” factors will influence my decision to permanently migrate and settle in a new location whether it be a different city, state, or maybe country.

I would use mobility in my moves from one location to another as I explore different locations and job opportunities. When I make the decision to permanently relocate, I would migrate to my new permanent location.

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Why did 40 million Europeans leave for the United States to face unknown challenges in America?

Answer as though you were a European in the late 1800s preparing to migrate and give your reasons for leaving Europe as well as your reasons for choosing America.

Answers should be written from the perspective of a European emigrant from the late 1800s. Reasons for leaving Europe and selecting the United States as a destination should be clearly articulated.

Sample answer I am working to earn enough money to buy passage from a Croatian area in the Austro-Hungarian Empire in the late 1880s. There is talk of upcoming wars in the Balkans. I fear I may be caught up in the fighting and want to avoid seeing the bloodshed and suffering through what will be a difficult time. There is nothing to hold me here as my older brother will inherit all of the family’s land and I will have nothing. I have relatives who went to the United States and settled in Cleveland. They write back that they have food and a job and do not have to fight in any wars.

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Why are new migrants to an area frequently the butt of racist or ethnic jokes? Explain in the context of the history of European emigration to the United States. Which groups were more frequently made fun of?

Sample answer One of the ways groups build a social identity is through “othering,” that is distinguishing themselves from other racial and ethnic groups by denigrating the group that is different. In the course of American history different immigrant groups were discriminated against and then, when they had achieved acceptance in turn discriminated against the new arrivals. Pejorative names for various ethnic groups proliferated—the Irish were called micks, the Germans huns, krauts, the Italians dagos and wops, the Eastern Europeans endured Polish jokes, the Scandinavians Sven and Ollie jokes. The American-born citizens perceived their way of life to be threatened by the new arrivals.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Rather than going through the list of pejorative names for the various ethnic groups consider displaying some political cartoons from the Library of Congress.

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Which color is to be tabooed next? www.loc.gov/item/91793231/ The anti-Chinese wall www.loc.gov/item/2012645635 Uncle Sam Lodging house www.loc.gov/item/2004670115 Where the blame lies, www.loc.gov/item/97515495/ The great fear of the period That (sic) Uncle Sam may be swallowed by foreigners: The problem solved, www.loc.gov/item/98502829/

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Describe an interregional move made by your family, some friends, or some others you know.

Explain their migration decision using terminology from the book. Do the same for an intraregional move.

Student answers will vary. Their answers should provide a clear distinction between the terms interregional and intraregional. Terminology from the book may include push and pull factors and other concepts.

When I secured my first job, I undertook and intraregional move from the city of Cleveland to Fairview Heights, a suburb. Both locations were within Ohio, and Cuyahoga County. Later, I completed an interregional move leaving the Midwest to settle in the MidAtlantic or Southern state of Virginia.

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Based on your migration history, consider any “cultural baggage” that you have inherited. This baggage may include sports team allegiance, food, language, dress, and behavior.

Student answers will vary based on their migration history. They should name specific places in their migration history. Students will probably name their favored sports team based on living in a particular area. If they have lived in different locations, they may also include regional words they may have adopted from another area.

Sample answer I migrated from Cleveland, Ohio to Virginia Beach, Virginia. Granted Virginia Beach has no professional sports teams, but I still root for the Cleveland Browns rather than the Washington Redskins, our “local” football team.

Immigrants in my Community Ask students which immigrant groups live in your university’s or college’s city. Ask students to provide evidence from the cultural landscape to support their answer. Their observations may include restaurants, food stores, foreign alphabets seen on signs, and places of worship. Compare their observations with the percentage and list of foreign-born you have previously downloaded s from the American FactFinder of the U.S. Census Bureau, https://factfinder.census.gov/faces/nav/jsf/pages/index.xhtml.

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Chapter 3: Migration In the discussion that follows have students compare the data from American FactFinder with their observations of the cultural landscape. Extend the scale of geography by comparing the local data to that of the state. To what extent does the community’s data mirror that of the state? What geographic factors could account for the similarities and differences in the data?

Another interesting case would be that of Minneapolis St. Paul, Minnesota with a concentration of Laotian Hmong, the largest Asian group in that city.

Directions for accessing detailed data in American FactFinder follow.

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Select Guided Search, select “Get me started.”

Under the Start tab select, “I am looking for information about people.” Then click Next.

From Topics, Select Origins, Foreign Born and Place of Birth. Then click Next.

From Geographies, type in the name of your city in the search box. Then click Go. Under the Race/Ethnic Groups tab, select Detailed. Search results yields a list of tables.

Select all available races. Next.

Select the Select Place of Birth for the Foreign-Born Population in the United States (B05006).

From the page with the data table you can select Modify Table and delete extra columns before downloading as a pdf or spreadsheet.

International Migration Statistics Predictions In this activity students are asked to predict the destinations and relative quantities of migrants from a particular country. The exercise challenges students to evaluate Tobler’s First Law of Geography, “everything is related to everything else, but near things are more related that distant things” using actual migration data.

An interactive map on the Migration Policy Institute’s data hub provides students with the data to complete this activity.

Access the map at www.migrationpolicy.org/programs/data-hub/charts/international-migrant-populationcountry-origin-and-destination?width=1000&height=850&iframe=true. The map is contained in the Data Hub section of the site.

1. Ask students to identify a country and then predict possible destinations of the migrants.

2. Have students select a country from the dropdown menu on the “Immigrant and Emigrant Populations

by Country of Origin and Destination” map from the Migration Policy site.

3. Make sure the migrants originating from country (emigrants) button is selected.

4. Were your predictions correct? Did the migration follow Tobler’s law with more people migrating to nearby countries?

5. What geographic factors could account for the patterns observed?

Sample answer I predict that emigrants from the Philippines would migrate to nearby countries such as Indonesia. The results showed that over 2 million Filipinos migrated to the United States. The next largest segment migrated to oil-producing countries in Southwest Asia, one-half million to Saudi Arabia and another onehalf million to the United Arab Emirates. These data support the text’s claim that oil-producing countries in Southwest Asia attract workers from developing countries. The Philippines was once a possession of 83 .

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography the United States and that might account for the high number of immigrants to the United States. Overall, the data challenge Tobler’s law as the most migrants did not migrate to the closest countries.

Mastering Geography™ provides additional assignable learning activities and ready-made resources designed to extend and reinforce student skills and mastery of key content, concepts, and vocabulary. The resources include MapMaster 2.0 interactive maps, videos, GeoTutor coaching activities, Google Earth Explorations, outline maps, chapter quizzes, Dynamic Study Modules, and more. Further details about these resources and recommendations for use are provided in the Resources section of this document. You can assign these media-rich activities as pre or post lecture homework.

Thinking Geographically Questions Key Issue 3.1 1. What might be the impact of emigration on the country from which the migrants departed?

The impact would depend on the type of migrant and population pressure within the home country. If the country has a high population density and low carrying capacity, emigration would provide a release for the surplus population. If the migrants were highly educated and skilled professionals, there would be a brain drain on the home country as talented people and their skills move to other countries. The home country would not be able to benefit from their expertise and investment in their education.

Key Issue 3.2 2. Has your community experienced net in-migration or net out-migration in recent years?

My community has experienced a net in-migration 3. What factors might explain your community’s net migration?

The availability of jobs and building of new medical facilities have attracted new residents.

Key Issue 3.3 4. At some point in the future do you expect to migrate? If so, do you expect to undertake international, interregional, or intraregional migration? Why? After college I would expect to migrate to a place where I can maximize my investment in education. I do not desire international migration due to perceived difficulties in language in a different country. I would like to live in another environment within the United States with different topography and ethnic mix than my home or college town. Once settled in the new location, I would expect to participate in intraregional migration as my income increases and I move from an apartment to a townhouse or condo and then eventually to a singlefamily home with a large yard., Key Issue 3.4: The number of unauthorized immigrants from Mexico to the United States has been declining since 2007.

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Chapter 3: Migration 5. Given the push and pull factors underlying people’s reasons for migrating, what might account for its decline?

Many migrants are drawn to developed countries because of the pull factor of employment opportunities. If employment opportunities in the home country were to improve, there would be a lesser propensity to migrate internationally. Another reason why migration might decline is an increase in political stability in the home country.

Pause and Reflect Questions 3.1.1

What might the migration look like in a possible stage 5 of the demographic transition?

The possible stage 5 of the demographic transition is characterized by a negative growth rate in which the death rate exceeds the birth rate. As countries in stage 5 struggle to address the likely worker shortage due to an aging population and declining young population, they are likely to have an immigration policy that seeks to attract young workers. The country would support high international in-migration.

3.1.2

Reflect on a story of migration that is personal to you. Was it a voluntary international, forced international, interregional internal, or intraregional internal?

My grandmother migrated to the United States when she was 16-years old. It was a voluntary international migration, based on poor economic conditions in the home country.

3.1.3

Do the developed countries of Europe and North America appear in Figure 3-9 to have net in migration or net out-migration?

The developed countries of Europe and North America appear to have net in-migration greater than net outmigration.

3.1.4

In which stage of the demographic transition were most countries when they sent the most immigrants to the United States? Why was this the case?

Most countries were in stage 2 of the demographic transition when they sent the most immigrants to the United States. Stage 2 of the demographic transition is characterized by a rapid population increase due to the high birth rate and the decreasing death rate. Conditions in the home country would improve if the surplus population moved elsewhere.

3.2.1

How might climate change affect patterns of interregional migration in the United States?

If sea levels rise significantly and populations are not able to mitigate these developments, large-scale interregional migration in the United States from heavily-populated Atlantic Coast states such as Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia, to interior regions will have to occur. If drought conditions persist and water resources are improperly managed in areas such as the Plains states (where water is provided by the Ogallala Aquifer) and the southwestern U.S. (where the Colorado River supplies a great deal of water to states dominated by dry conditions), populations will be forced to migrate as well.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography 3.2.2

Does Russia’s interregional migration pattern more closely resemble that of the United States and Canada or that of Brazil and China?

Interregional migration in Canada and the United States was largely caused by westward expansion of each country’s territory, whereas in China and Brazil interregional migration was spurred by various government policies that encouraged migration to certain places. According to the map Russia’s population shifts are to the European west away from the remote areas of the east, similar to U.S. and Canadian patterns.

3.2.3

Why might rural to urban migration be the most intense in countries in stage 2 of the demographic transition?

As industry (economic advancement opportunities) and health care services grow in stage 2 of the demographic transition, these services are likely to be clustered in urban areas, encouraging rural to urban migration.

3.3.1

What similarities and differences do you see in the migration patterns of Native Americans and those of the larger U.S. population over the last 230 years (refer to Figure 3-14)?

Native Americans had in common the destination of Oklahoma when they were forcibly relocated in the mid-nineteenth century, while European Americans expanded to the wider western reaches of the U.S. by voluntary means.

3.3.2

Compare Harvey’s effects on Houston with Maria’s effects on Puerto Rico. Why did so many Puerto Ricans feel compelled to migrate?

Hurricane Harvey brought widespread flooding and property damage to the Houston area. When the flood waters receded, the infrastructure needed repair. Hurricane Maria devastated the infrastructure, especially the road and electrical infrastructure. In Puerto Rico the electrical grid had to be rebuilt, not just repaired.

Puerto Rico’s island location and devastation of the road network made reconstruction efforts more difficult than those in Houston. For example, electrical line men from other states could drive to Houston. They could not drive to Puerto Rico.

3.3.3

How would you expect a country with high remittances to differ from a country with low remittances with regard to GDP and net migration?

Migrants seek work in developed countries send remittances to relatives in their home country. A country receiving high remittances would likely have a lower GDP, and a negative net migration rate as people are leaving the country to work elsewhere. Countries with low remittances are likely to have high GDPs and a positive migration rate.

3.3.4

Why might elderly people be more likely than average to migrate in developing countries but less likely than average to do so in developed countries?

As one of the major motives for migration is employment, the elderly are less likely to migrate because they are retired and not actively seeking work. The elderly in developed countries are likely to receive a pension or government benefits and thus stay in order to collect their benefits.

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Chapter 3: Migration 3.4.1

Summarize the factors that influence whether a country opts to encourage, maintain, or reduce its level of immigration.

Major factors influencing a country’s immigration policies are public opinion, economic impacts of the immigrants, and humanitarian concerns. If a country’s population is declining they may be more willing to encourage immigration. That said, a country with a developed economy would prefer immigrants in needed skills professions. The immigrants would have a positive economic impact. If the immigrants were primarily unskilled labor, they could have a negative impact on the social safety net. Attitudes toward immigrants of the public and government officials serves to shape policy. Are immigrants portrayed as criminals or contributing members of society in the media?

3.4.2

What aspects of current U.S. immigration policy depart from a strict quota system? Over time, how does this affect the make-up of the country’s immigrant population?

As quota laws in the United States have changed to pull immigrants who have highly-valued job skills, immigration from Asia has greatly increased since the middle of the twentieth century. The implementation of family reunification policies has brought families to the country and their offspring will be American citizens by virtue of being born in the United States. The family reunification is likely to increase the immigrant population. The diversity lottery will broaden the number of ethnicities in the United States.

3.4.3

Why at border crossings is traffic entering the United States backed up further than traffic entering Mexico?

Border security crossing into the United States is heavily secure, while border security entering Mexico is minimal (as seen in Figure 3-55).

3.4.4

What demographic characteristics of European countries justified policies allowing a certain amount of immigration? Why have European attitudes toward immigrations changed in recent years?

Most European countries are in stage 4 or 5 of the demographic transition which is characterized by little or no population growth. Immigration helped to fill jobs for low-status and low-skilled workers. The immigrant workers were expected to be temporary, but instead they settled in the European countries and sent remittances home. Anti-immigrant attitudes are on the rise as some political parties blame immigrants for crime, unemployment and welfare costs. Differences in religion and culture contribute to the anti-immigrant attitudes. The influx of refugees from conflicts in Syria, Afghanistan, and Iraq has increased tensions.

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Caption Questions Figure 3-5, Global Migration Patterns, 2017, p. 81 1.

Do countries in stage 4 of the demographic transition generally display net in-migration or net out-migration. Why might that be the case?

Counties in stage 4 of the demographic transition generally display net-in-migration. Economic development is associated with the low NIR and low CBR resulting in slow population growth. The developed economy serves as a pull factor for workers from other countries seeking employment and a better life.

Figure 3-26, Urban to Suburban Migration: United States, p. 92 2.

Calculate the net migration between cities and suburbs, between suburbs and nonmetropolitan areas, and between cities and nonmetropolitan areas. Which of the three net migration flows is the highest?

Why might this be the case?

Net migration from cities to suburbs is 2,248,000; from suburbs to nonmetropolitan areas is 75,000; and between cities and nonmetropolitan areas is 71,000. Overall people are moving out of the city to other areas.

The net migration flow is the highest from the city to the suburbs. People move to the suburbs because they are attracted by the opportunity to live in a detached house with a yard, readily available parking, suburban schools, and less population density.

Figure 3-34, Migration from New Orleans after Hurricane Katrina, p. 96 3.

How do the concepts of relocation diffusion and distance decay discussed in Chapter 1 help to explain the distribution of people displaced from New Orleans by Katrina?

More people from New Orleans migrated to Mississippi, a neighboring state, than to Houston in Texas, taking advantage of proximity and the closer travel distance. Those factors of proximity might support their eventual return home to New Orleans. Those who migrated to Houston were more likely to be making a permanent move in relocation diffusion. Distance decay proposes that the interaction between two locales declines as distance increases. This could account for fewer migrants to Houston.

4.

What might account for the large number of migrants who went to Houston?

Even though it is further away people might have migrated to Houston because of friends and family who were already living there. Churches and charitable organizations may have provided financial and other relocation support.

Figure 3-49, Distribution of Unauthorized Immigrants, p. 103 1.

Why might California and Texas be home to the largest number of unauthorized immigrants?

Both California and Texas share borders with Mexico. There are also cultural ties to the Hispanic culture and Spanish speakers in each of those states.

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Chapter 3: Migration 2.

Why might the northern plains states have relatively few unauthorized immigrants?

The northern plains states are much further away from Mexico which confirms the concept of distance decay.

Also, there is not a high concentration of Hispanics in those states, so there would be little pull for chain migration, that is migrating to areas where your cultural group is already established.

Doing Geography, Ellis Island, p. 105 The first part of this feature recounts the role of maps in the ownership dispute between New York and New Jersey over Ellis Island.

What is your MIGRATION Geography?

The Statue of Liberty-Ellis Island Foundation maintains records for more than 50 million immigrants.

1. Select one of your relatives who immigrated to the United States since the late nineteenth century. Or ask a friend or neighbor for the name of someone, or research the name of a famous athlete, writer, scientist, or performer who came through Ellis Island from 1892–1954.

2. In your Internet browser, go to www.libertyellisfoundation.org. Select Passenger Search.

3. Enter the name of the person. In what year did the person arrive? By what means of transport did the person arrive?

My relative arrived in 1886 from Hungary on a ship named Rhein.

4. Does this information match what you expected to find? Why or why not?

The information matches my expectations. Even though of Slovak heritage during that time period Slovakia was part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire.

Sustainability & Our Environment: Rising Seas and Migration, p. 97 1. Describe two ways in which climate change affects coral atolls.

Corals grow in a specific range of ocean temperatures. As the ocean warms through climate change, the corals, tiny marine animals may not survive. The burning of fossil fuels contributes to climate change by releasing more carbon dioxide into the air. As carbon dioxide is absorbed by the ocean there is a chemical reaction with seawater forming carbonic acid. The acidification of the oceans makes it more difficult for corals to build skeletons and threatens their survival. Note: The EPA Web Archive contained this information, with the following note, “This content is not maintained and may no longer apply.”

2. Is there an alternative to migration for the inhabitants of low-lying Pacific islands? Explain.

As alternatives to migration, the country could invest in seawalls to keep back the ocean. The inhabitants could move further into the interior and raise their houses on stilts to better withstand threats from flooding.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Debate It! Should Europe restrict immigration? p. 109 1. The European Union has official immigration policies. Search for European Union immigration policy or scan the QR. Summarize what European countries have agreed to do for immigrants.

European Union policies for legal immigration and integration are under development. There are four major categories: better organization of legal immigration (conditions for entry for highly qualified workers, family reunification), enhancing the integration of non-EU nationals in EU societies, curbing irregular immigration, and managing migration through partnerships with non-EU countries. They are also working to develop uniform asylum procedures.

2. Based on Figure 3-47, do individual European countries seem to agree with the European Union's regional policy?

Based on Figure 3-47, immigration policies within the European Union differ. Most European Union members seek to encourage immigration, the United Kingdom, France, and Switzerland seek to reduce immigration, and countries in Southern Europe aim to maintain the current levels.

Writing Geographically Europe has played a leading role in international migration for the past 300 years.

1. Referring to Figure 3-13, describe how Europe’s pattern of immigration to the United States has changed over the past 200 years.

During the colonial period through the 19th century, an overwhelming majority of immigrants came from Western Europe. In the early 1900s most immigration originated in Eastern and Southern Europe. Between 1940 and 1950 European migration was at a low with less than 1 million immigrants. There has been a gradual increase through 2017 peaking at the 1.5 million level. Immigrants from the rest of the world have outnumbered European immigrants since about 1970.

2. Based on Figure 3-5, what region of Europe is most likely to be a major source of immigrants today?

Explain why this is the case.

The Eastern European countries of Poland, Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, and Bosnia-Herzegovina, and Portugal are likely to be the major source of immigrants within Europe because of their high net out-migration rates. The remaining countries in Eastern Europe also have net out-migration rates although not as high as those as the countries listed above. People are leaving their Eastern European homelands and Portugal in search of greater economic opportunities in other parts of Europe and abroad.

GeoVideo Questions Xenophobia in Lampedusa 1. What push and pull factors motivated the Tunisians to migrate to Lampedusa?

Most of the migrants are young men journeying to Lampedusa. The major push factor is unemployment in Tunisia, and the desire to live in Europe is the major pull factor.

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Chapter 3: Migration 2. How have most of the 6,000 inhabitants of Lampedusa reacted to the arrival of the Tunisians?

In short not well, feelings of invasion and fear of the African men walking around are prevalent. Citizens organized demonstrations protesting the migrant presence.

3. Explain why Tunisians have been migrating to Lampedusa, by consulting a map showing the location of the island?

Lampedusa is approximately 100 miles off the shore of Tunisia and 125 miles from the Italian island of Sicily. The island is used as a waypoint for migrants from Tunisia to Italy and to Europe.

Geospatial Data Analysis Migration and Remittances From the Economic theme, Select Remittances: Outflow and add data layer to map. Then select Foreign Born Population from the Political theme and join with the other map.

1. What can you infer about migration to Canada, Switzerland, Saudi Arabia, and Australia from the color they share on the joined map?

I observe that the listed countries have a high percentage of foreign-born population and send home remittances worth at least 905.1 million dollars. I infer that the listed countries provide employment opportunities and welcome foreign workers.

Select Remittances: Inflow and split map window.

2. What can you infer about migration from India, China, Mexico, Nigeria, and the Philippines from the volume of remittances they receive?

I observe that the countries listed above are in the highest category for the inflow of remittances, in excess of 59,999 million dollars.

I can infer that the workers in the countries listed above have many of their nationals working abroad.

Extending the Geospatial Analysis Use the map created above and remove the Remittances: Inflow layer.

Select Net Migration Layer and replace the Remittances: Outflow layer.

Deselect (uncheck) all items in the joined data layer except for the highest categories for foreign born population and net migration.

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Which countries are in the highest category for both a high percentage of foreign born and high net migration?

The countries with high rates for both variables include: Canada, Switzerland, Australia, New Zealand, Israel, Qatar, and the United Arab Emirates.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography •

What could account for migration to those countries?

After World War II, Israel was founded as a home for the Jewish people. Jews from around the world migrated to Israel which would account for the high percentages of a foreign-born population. Qatar and the United Arab Emirates are petroleum-producing countries with employment opportunities. The other countries have relatively low populations for their land size.

Explore Mexico’s Other Border Use Google Earth to explore Mexico’s southern border. Search for Talisman, Mexico border crossing.

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Use Street View for a ground level view of the border crossing. Which if any of Mexico’s border crossing with the United States in Figure 3-55 does the Talisman one resemble? Why?

The border crossing structure most closely resembles that at Colombus and Puerto Palmas with two gates one an entrance, the other an exit.

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Click the X in the upper left to return to aerial view. Zoom out to around 3 km.

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What is the country bordering Mexico? The border mostly follows a river. What is the river’s name?

Guatemala borders Mexico. The river dividing Guatemala and Mexico in this area is the Suchiate River. The border crossing has a bridge across the river.

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Follow the river to the south. Zoom in to 2,000 feet. Do you see any other official border crossings?

Does the border look easy to cross or difficult? Why?

The next official border crossing to Guatemala to the south of the Talisman crossing is near Ciudad Hidalgo.

It The border does not look difficult to cross as there is a paved road and a bridge across the river just north of the Ciudad Hidalgo. The two border crossings are approximately 20 miles apart in straight-line distance.

Resources United Nations High Commission on Refugees www.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/home Map and text-based information about refugees, photos, news, publications, videos data and educational materials, including the excellent “Global Trends 2017” video (www.unhcr.org/en-us/news/videos/2018/6/ 5b2793474/unhcr-global-trends-2017.html).

“Figures at a Glance” provides an infographic summary and is found under the data tab.

U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services www.uscis.gov/portal/site/uscis This is the official U.S. government site for immigration policy and applications.

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Chapter 3: Migration U.S. Department of State Bureau of Population, Refugees, and Migration www.state.gov/j/prm/ U.S. official government site for official news and views on immigration and refugee issues.

The Visa Wizard provides insight into the process of applying for a visa to the United States.

GeoInquiries™ GeoInquiries™ by the Environmental Science Research Institute (ESRI) consist of scripted map-based online GIS activities designed to be completed within a 15-minute time frame. These Internet-based mapping activities run best in the Google Chrome browser and do not require the installation of any software. Access them at www.esri.com/en-us/industries/education/schools/geoinquiries-collection.

Migration, on the move in the Human Geography Collection provides maps for students to investigate migration at the global, regional, and local scales. Content includes net migration rate, the Schengen Treaty, asylum seekers in 2014, and challenges from refugee migration at Lampedusa which is mentioned in this chapter’s GeoVideo.

Migration Policy Institute The site, www.migrationpolicy.org/, includes links to publications, interactive maps such as Top Immigrant Origins by Metropolitan Statistical Areas, Global Remittances Guide, International Migration Statistics, and more.

Index Mundi—Country Facts The site, www.indexmundi.com/, provides a wealth of charts, maps, graphs compiled from multiple sources in a convenient-to-use format. Data are presented at the country and regional levels and include links to the World Bank indicators information. Of particular use in this chapter would be the net migration rates for a specific country which can be viewed as a chart over time, rank, or a comparative map.

Mastering Geography Media & Assessment Resources Mastering Geography™ provides additional assignable homework activities and ready-made resources designed to extend and reinforce student skills and mastery of key content, concepts, and vocabulary. These resources are invaluable to implementation of the flipped classroom. Use the Instructor Course Home areas to build assignments for your students. Highlights include: •

MapMaster 2.0™ provides students with the opportunity to reinforce their understanding of spatial relationships, e.g., variation, distribution, interaction, and association. Students get hands on with map building, exploration, and spatial data analysis by layering a wide range of maps. Multiple-choice assessments in the Mastering Geography item library provide directions for building maps aligned with chapter content, and focus on the development of spatial thinking and analysis skills.

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GeoVideos and Google Earth Explorations linked to chapter content provide an opportunity for students to “visit” other places and build an appreciation for other cultures. Use as an out-of-class assignment and have students explain how the video or Google Earth Explorations illustrate concepts learned in class and make comparisons between cultures.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography •

Interactive Data Visualizations powered by Social Explorer provide interactive data explorations for each chapter's Key Issue, and include map stories, predictive graphing, interactive maps, interactive population pyramids, interactive charts, and more. These media are integrated into the Pearson eText and Study Area, and are also available for assignment with quizzes.

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GeoTutors are highly visual and data-rich assignable activities that help students master the most challenging concepts in geography.

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Dynamic Study Modules (DSMs) provide two sets of 25 multiple-choice questions per chapter topic.

Because this resource includes a “I don’t know yet” answer choice,” it can be assigned as a preassessment or content preview. The modules are interactive as students are prompted to select, “I am unsure” or “I am sure” as they submit their answers. The questions could also be used as self-check for students at the end of the chapter. An infographic gauge represents their accuracy visually.

Teachers can assign the DSMs for credit or students can access these on their own for self study.

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Learning Catalytics is an interactive student response tool paired with Mastering Geography that encourages team-based learning by using students’ smartphones, tablets, or laptops to engage them in interactive tasks and thinking. As a teacher, you can pose a variety of open-ended questions that help your students develop critical thinking skills, while monitoring responses with real-time analytics to find out where they’re struggling. With this information, you can adjust your instructional strategy in real time and try additional ways of engaging your students during class. Learning Catalytics also lets you manage student interactions by automatically grouping students for discussion, team-based learning, and peer-to-peer learning.

The Mastering Geography student Study Area includes a variety of tools that students can access on their own, including: •

The eText provides a fully digital online version of the textbook, with search and functionality.

Available for offline reading.

Chapter Quizzes include 15 multiple choice questions based on the chapter’s content.

Key Terms Flashcards to help students master the key vocabulary.

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Downloadable Outline Maps containing political and physical features provide students the opportunity to label key countries and physical features. Consider assigning these maps throughout the course so that students can refer to them as they interpret the many thematic maps.

The following map layers associated with this chapter’s content and concepts are included in the MapMaster 2.0™. In addition, there are a series of quizzes developed using MapMaster 2.0™.

• • • • • • • •

Chinese Migration to include Large Chinese Communities and Provinces of Origin Migration from the Caribbean to Canada Migration from the Caribbean to the Netherlands Migration from the Caribbean to the United States Origin of International Migrants Residing in Brazil, 2015 Origin of International Migrants Residing in China, 2015 Origin on International Migrants Residing in the France, 2015 Origin of International Migrants Residing in the United States, 2015 94 .

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Chapter 3: Migration • • • •

Syrian Refugees, 2011-2016 Syrian Refugees, 2016 Unauthorized Immigration Population (U.S.) Net Migration

Additional resources in support of students with disabilities include the screen reader enabled e-text and more. Further details about these resources are available at www.pearson.com/us/accessibility.html.

Connections between Chapters Back to Chapter 2 Students have an extremely difficult time connecting Chapter 2 with Chapter 3. A great number seem to have memorized that migrants came to the United States “to escape religious persecution.” Address this misconception by asking whether students believe that all 40-some-odd million European migrants to the United States were fleeing religious persecution. It is amazing how durable elementary tales of Pilgrims can be.

Forward to Chapter 4 A natural connection to Chapter 4 is the observation that migrants frequently bring unique elements of their culture with them in the form of unique foods, dress, and social customs.

This observation can be made even more poignant by emphasizing the most common destination of new migrants, large urban areas, are locations which feature cultural diversity.

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Culture & Social Media

4

Learning Outcomes After reading, studying, and discussing the chapter, students should be able to: Learning Outcome 4.1.1a:

Outline concepts of folk culture.

Learning Outcome 4.1.1b:

Outline concepts of popular culture.

Learning Outcome 4.1.2a:

Compare processes of origin, diffusion, and distribution of folk culture.

Learning Outcome 4.1.2b:

Compare processes of origin, diffusion, and distribution of popular culture.

Learning Outcome 4.1.3:

Trace the origin and diffusion of social media.

Learning Outcome 4.2.1:

Compare differences in geographic dimensions of folk and popular music.

Learning Outcome 4.2.2:

Describe how sports have been transformed from folk to popular culture.

Learning Outcome 4.2.3:

Compare reasons for distribution of clothing styles in folk and popular culture.

Learning Outcome 4.2.4:

Identify reasons for folk and popular food preferences.

Learning Outcome 4.2.5:

Analyze factors that influence patterns of folk housing.

Learning Outcome 4.3.1:

Compare the diffusion of TV and the Internet.

Learning Outcome 4.3.2:

Compare the distribution of social media platforms.

Learning Outcome 4.3.3:

Evaluate threats to freedom in the use of electronic media.

Learning Outcome 4.3.4:

Describe geographic features of cyberattacks and other misuse of social media.

Learning Outcome 4.4.1:

Summarize challenges for folk culture from diffusion of popular culture.

Learning Outcome 4.4.2:

Summarize two principal ways that popular culture can adversely affect the landscape.

Learning Outcome 4.4.3:

Describe how popular culture can vary by region.

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Chapter 4: Culture & Social Media

Chapter 4 Outline I

Key Issue 1: Where are Cultural Groups Distributed?

A Culture, Social Media, & Geography 1 Terms a Culture—body of material traits, customary beliefs, and social forms that together constitute the distinct tradition of a group b Habit—repetitive act that a particular individual performs c Custom—repetitive act of group, that becomes a characteristic of a group 2 Wine Geography a distinctive characteristics of soil, climate, and physical characteristics b cultural tradition of drinking wine 3 Folk & Popular Culture a folk culture—traditionally practice primarily by small, homogeneous groups living in isolated rural areas b popular culture—found in large, heterogeneous societies that share certain habits despite differences in other personal characteristics c Elements of culture i daily necessities of food, clothing, and shelter 4 Leisure activities, arts and recreation B Elements of Cultural Geography 1 Origin a folk culture—anonymous hearths, unknown originators, unknown dates, multiple hearths b popular culture—traceable to a particular person or corporation in a particular place 2 Diffusion a folk culture—relatively slow, small scale, primarily spread through relocation diffusion b popular culture—rapid, process of hierarchical diffusion, extensive spread through modern communication 3 Distribution a popular culture—widely distributed, influenced by access to content b folk culture—physical and cultural factors C Diffusion of Electronic Communications 1 Diffusion of Cell Phones & Smartphones a developing countries without traditional landlines b smartphone ownership higher in developed countries 2 Most Popular Social Network a Facebook b QZone in China

II Key Issue 2: Where are Leisure & Material Culture Distributed?

A Origin & Diffusion of Folk & Popular Music 1 Folk Music—conveys information about life-cycle events, or environmental features 2 Popular Music—written by specific individuals for the purpose of being sold or performed

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography B Origin & Diffusion of Folk & Popular Sports 1 Folk Culture: Origin of Soccer 2 Popular Culture: Diffusion of Soccer 3 Olympic Sports—practiced in at least 75 countries on 4 continents 4 Regionally Distinctive Sports a cricket—U.K., former British colonies b ice hockey—Canada, colder climates c wushu—China d baseball—North America diffused to Japan e Australia rules football f lacrosse—Iroquois C Distribution of Folk & Popular Clothing 1 Folk clothing preferences—derive from environmental reasons, religious beliefs 2 Rapid Diffusion of Popular Clothing Styles—likely to reflect occupation and income D Food Customs 1 Popular Food Culture—influenced more by cultural values 2 Folk Food Customs—embedded in local environment a terroir—sum of the effects on a particular food item of soil, climate, and other features of the local environment 3 Food Taboos a taboo—restriction on behavior imposed by religious law or social custom E Folk & Popular Housing 1 Folk Housing: Environmental Influences a available building materials b Style of construction—steep roofs, snowy areas 2 Folk Housing: Cultural Influences a Religious beliefs, sacred corners 3 U.S. Folk Houses 4 Popular Housing—massed produced housing III Key Issue 3: Why is Access to Culture Unequal A Electronic Diffusion of Culture 1 Diffusion of TV: Mid-Twentieth Century a most popular leisure activity b medium for the diffusion of popular culture 2 Diffusion of the Internet: Late Twentieth Century a Diffusion of TV and the Internet Compared B Social Media & Interconnectivity 1 Diffusion of Facebook 2 Diffusion of Instagram 3 Diffusion of Twitter C Challenges in Accessing Electronic Media 1 Banned Technology 2 Blocked Content 3 Violated User Rights 98 .

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Chapter 4: Culture & Social Media D Spatial Dimensions of Cyberattacks 1 Distribution of Victims a malware or malicious software—hostile or intrusive software designed to cause intentional harm b ransomware or cryptoviral extortion—encrypts victim’s files, making them inaccessible, until a ransom is paid to decrypt them c cyber espionage—unauthorized and clandestine deployment of a virus to observe or destroy data in the computer systems of government agencies and large corporations d Origin of attacks 2 Fake News & Alternative Facts a fake news—false report disseminated under the guise of an authentic news report b alternative fact—statement that can be proved to be false c trolling—posting of deliberately inflammatory, extraneous, or off-topic messages in social media in order to provoke quarrels or agitate people 3 Using Our Personal Data a Free services vs. disclosure of personal and demographic data IV Key Issue 4: Why do Cultures Face Sustainability Challenges?

A Maintaining Unique Folk Culture 1 Amish Migration: Preserving Cultural Identity 2 Marriage in India: Challenging Cultural Values 3 The Future of Folk Culture B Cultural Convergence 1 Cultural homogenization—spread of a popular culture product across larger spaces results in a loss of localized folk culture diversity and convergence of cultural preferences 2 Adverse effects of some popular customs a landscape pollution b depletion of scarce resources c crowding-out locally owned businesses 3 Uniform cultural experiences a franchise—agreement between a corporation and business to market the corporation’s product in the local area b golf C Cultural Divergence 1 Urban-rural differences 2 Cultural differences: Interregional scale 3 Cultural differences: Individual scale a gender b ethnicity c place of residence

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography

Chapter Content Outline Key Issue 1: Where Are Cultural Groups Distributed?

Culture is defined as the body of material characteristics, customary beliefs, and social forms that together embody the distinct tradition of a group of people. These three components of culture capture the interest of geographers. This chapter focuses on material culture, the visible elements of culture that a group possesses and leaves behind for the future, are discussed. Following the examination of migration in Chapter 3, links can be made to the discussion of culture in this Chapter; two locations have similar cultural beliefs, objects, and institutions because people bring along their culture when they migrate. Differences become apparent when two groups have limited interaction.

To analyze the relationship between culture and the behavior of people, geographers differentiate between habit and custom. Habit is a repetitive act that a particular individual performs, such as wearing jeans to class every day. A custom is a repetitive act of a group, performed to the extent that it becomes characteristic of the group, such as many students typically wearing jeans to class.

Wine Geography The spatial distribution of wine production is indicative of the importance of both environmental and cultural elements. Grapes needed for making decent wine grow better in some places compared to others. The distinctive character of a wine stems from the unique combination of soil, climate, and other traits at the place where the grapes are grown. Cultural elements also influence where wine is produced.

Folk & Popular Culture Geographers have identified two major categories of culture: folk and popular culture. Folk culture and popular culture differ in their patterns of origins, diffusion, and distribution. Folk culture is practiced by small homogenous groups living in isolated rural areas. Popular culture is found in large heterogeneous societies that share certain customs despite differences in other personal characteristics.

Landscapes heavily influenced by folk culture change relatively little over time, while popular culture’s foundation rests on rapid simultaneous global connections through communications systems, transportation networks, and other modern technology. Rapid diffusion promotes persistent changes in popular culture.

Scalar differences are observed in folk and popular culture, as well. Globally, popular culture is becoming more dominant (at least for those with the income to have access to it), while many folk cultures are locally based. This global phenomenon threatens the existence of unique folk cultures, potentially reducing local diversity the world over. Popular culture may also pose negative environmental effects, with “built environments” being unsustainable.

This chapter focuses on two facets of material culture: (1) culture deriving from the necessities of daily life such as food, clothing and shelter, and (2) leisure activities such as the arts and recreation.

Elements of Cultural Geography The distribution of folk and popular culture can be explained by two basic factors: the process of origin and the pattern of distribution.

Origin Customs originate from hearths. Folk culture hearths are often anonymous while popular culture hearths can be traced to a specific place.

Diffusion Folk culture diffuses slowly primarily through relocation diffusion (migration). Popular culture diffuses rapidly (usually hierarchically) through electronic communications and transportation networks.

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Distribution Popular culture is distributed widely across many countries, with little regard for physical factors. The primary barrier to access is lack of income to purchase the materials of popular culture. The distribution of folk culture is influenced by both environmental and cultural factors. Folk cultures often (though not always) incorporate elements of the local environment. Groups with relatively little contact with others develop unique folk cultures. Himalayan religious art is used as an example of how isolated religious groups, Buddhists, Hindus, Muslims, and folk religionists, depict the same environment much differently in their art.

Diffusion of Electronic Communications The diffusion of popular culture is facilitated by the use of electronic media. Anyone in the world who has access to the media can view the latest trends in material culture and leisure activities. The access to folk culture is also increased through the use of electronic media.

Diffusion of Cell Phones & Smartphones Cell phones have diffused rapidly throughout the world. Cell phone technology has eliminated the need for telephone wiring and so their use has widespread in Africa and other places with limited access to electricity. The number of cell phones has increased from 338 per 1,000 in 2005 to 1,045 in 2017. Smartphone ownership is more prevalent in developed countries.

Most Popular Social Network Facebook is the leading social media network widely diffused throughout the world. China’s government supports its own social media platform, QZone, and as Russia discourages Facebook use. The principal obstacle to the diffusion of popular culture is lack of access to electronic media.

Key Issue 2: Where are Leisure and Material Culture Distributed?

Origin & Diffusion of Folk & Popular Music Music researcher Daniel Levitan argues that every culture in human history has had some tradition of music. Music can be used to highlight differences in the origin, diffusion, and distribution of folk and popular culture.

Folk Music The purpose of folk music is to tell stories or to disseminate information about life-cycle events.

Folk music typically originates from an anonymous hearth and is transmitted among populations orally. As people migrate, folk music travels with them as part of the diffusion of folk culture.

Popular Music Popular music is deliberately written to be sold and performed. While some forms of popular music contain references to local places or events, the purpose of the music is still to appeal to a variety of people across Earth. As with other elements of popular culture, popular musicians have more connections with performers of similar styles, regardless of where in the world they happen to live, than they do with performers of different styles who happen to live in the same community.

In the past musicians clustered in particular communities according to their shared interest in specific styles.

Because of the globalization of popular music, musicians are less tied to the culture of a particular place. Now musicians cluster in communities where other musicians reside regardless of the style of music they play.

Musicians are also clustered in large metropolitan areas so they can be near sources of employment.

Origin & Diffusion of Folk & Popular Sports Many sports originated as isolated folk customs and were spread like other folk culture, through relocation diffusion (migration). The contemporary diffusion of organized sports, however, displays the traits of popular culture.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Folk Culture: Origin of Soccer Soccer is an example of a popular folk custom that was popularized and then globalized. The hearth of soccer is believed to be in England in the eleventh century. Following the Danish invasion of England between 1018 and 1042, workers excavating a building site discovered a Danish soldier’s head, which they began to kick. “Kick the Dane’s head” evolved into boys using an inflated cow bladder in the place of the head, and games were played between two villages. The victorious side was the one to kick the ball into the center of the rival village.

Popular Culture: Diffusion of Soccer In the 1800s, soccer transformed from a folk custom to popular culture. Several English soccer clubs formed an association to standardize the rules and to organize professional leagues. Spectators started to pay to see first-class events. Soccer then diffused to other parts of Europe. Soccer later diffused to other parts of the world by new communication systems such as the radio and TV. Today, the global popularity of soccer is exemplified in the World Cup, held every four years.

Olympic Sports If a sport becomes popular enough worldwide, it becomes part of the Olympics. For a sport to be to be included in the Olympics it must be widely played in at least 75 countries (50 countries for women’s sports) and on four continents.

Regionally Distinctive Sports Most other sports have diffused much less than soccer. Cricket, ice hockey, Wushu, baseball, Australia rules soccer, and lacrosse are examples of sports that never became very popular globally.

Distribution of Folk & Popular Clothing People living in folk cultures have traditionally worn clothing in part in response to characteristic agricultural practices and climatic conditions. In popular culture, clothing choices generally reflect class differences and occupations rather than particular environments.

Folk Clothing Preferences People wear distinctive folk clothing for a variety of environmental and cultural reasons. The wearing of traditional clothing in countries dominated by popular culture may be controversial such as the burqa and niqab, traditional clothing for women of Southwest Asia &North Africa. Some European countries have restricted where women can wear these clothes.

Rapid Diffusion of Popular Clothing Styles Popular clothing habits have little regard for the climate or topography of an area. The choice of clothing is linked most closely to occupation and income. The rapid diffusion of popular clothing styles can be attributed to global communication technology. Jeans provide a major example of the diffusion of Western popular culture to other parts of the world. The same clothing styles can be work in different cultural contexts.

Food Customs According to the nineteenth-century cultural geographer Vidal de la Blache, food supply is one of the most enduring connections that tie people to a particular environment. Food preferences are strongly influenced by cultural traditions, and shared food preferences may help to establish social, religious, and ethnic customs.

Popular Food Culture Popular food preferences are impacted more by cultural values than by environmental features. Despite this, some regional differences are apparent between and within countries, and environmental influences remain significant for some items.

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Chapter 4: Culture & Social Media The sales of soft drinks reveal differences in global preferences. While Coca-Cola accounts for more than half of the world’s soft drink sales, Pepsi is another prominent brand, making up one-fourth of the soft drink market. Pepsi is preferred in Québec, where marketing practices tied the soft drink to French Canadian identity. Political influences may play a role in preference, as seen in the Soviet Union and the Arab countries in Southwest Asia & North Africa.

Folk Food Customs The local climate presents a major influence on what can and cannot be grown. The contribution of a location’s distinctive physical features to the way food tastes is known as terroir. Folk cultures have had to adapt their food preferences to conditions in their local environment resulting in distinctive local cuisines around the world. Folk cultures also ascribe value to certain foods that are believed to enhance qualities that are considered desirable in their society.

Food Taboos Environmental and cultural preferences underlie the development of food taboos. Taboos are restrictions on behavior imposed by religious law or social custom. These taboos may help to protect endangered animals or to conserve scarce natural resources. Many religions have food taboos emanating from a need to protect the environment at the religion’s hearth. People in similar climates and with similar levels of income may consume different foods due to differences in social values.

Folk & Popular Housing The house, as theorized by French geographer Jean Brunhes, is a product of both cultural and natural conditions. American cultural geographer Fred Kniffen considered the house to be a good reflection of cultural heritage, current fashion, functional needs, and the impact of environment.

Folk Housing: Environmental Influences Folk housing styles also illustrate the influence of the physical environment, with housing design reflecting both cultural norms and environmental influences. Local conditions influence the type of building materials used and the shape and design of the house to more efficiently heat, cool, or shed water. Even in areas that share similar climates and available building materials, folk housing can vary because of minor environmental differences.

Folk Housing: Cultural Influences The distinctive design of some types of folk housing may also derive primarily from religious values and other customary beliefs. Houses in some folk cultures may have sacred walls or corners. Compass direction may play a big role in where and how the house was built and the arrangement of the interior of the house.

U.S. Folk Houses Older houses in the United States from the east coast toward the Mississippi River display a local folk-culture tradition. Housing built by the pioneers reflected whatever style was prevalent in the area of the East Coast from which they migrated.

Popular Housing Houses built in the 1940s were primarily mass produced and shows the shape, style, and building materials popular at the time the houses were built.

Key Issue 3: Why Is Access to Culture Unequal?

Electronic Diffusion of Culture The diffusion of popular culture is not uniform throughout the world. The principal obstacle to its diffusion is lack of access to electronic media.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Diffusion of TV: Mid-Twentieth Century The world’s most popular and important electronic media format is television (TV). Watching TV is now the most popular leisure activity in the world, with the average human watching 4.4 hours daily and the average American watching 5.1 hours daily. Popular culture is diffused faster and further than ever with the invention and diffusion of forms of electronic communication like television. Television allows images and messages about popular culture, such as professional sports, to spread instantaneously across the globe. Television ownership rates in developing countries climbing rapidly since the beginning of the twenty-first century.

Diffusion of the Internet: Late Twentieth Century The diffusion of the Internet has followed the pattern established by TV. Its diffusion has been an a much more rapid rate. As the Internet diffuses to other parts of the world, the share of Internet users in the United States shows a decline when compared with the increase in numbers of users throughout the world.

Diffusion of TV and the Internet Compared The Internet has diffused at a much more rapid pace than TV did. The United States has the highest number of televisions per 1,000, but with its spread throughout the world the U.S. has smaller percentage of the world’s televisions. The pattern was repeated for the diffusion of the Internet. Even though the United States has a high number of users, 886 per 1,000, its percentage of world users is only 7 percent in 2017 from 63 percent of the world’s users in 1995. Note that the data compare the users in one country to an aggregate number for all the countries in the world.

Social Media and Interconnectivity People in the United States have dominated the use of social media during the early years. Social networking websites like Facebook and Twitter still enjoy their greatest popularity in the United States, but are quickly diffusing to other countries. The possibility of other social media platforms gaining popularity outside the United States also exists.

Diffusion of Facebook Since the founding of Facebook by Harvard University students in 2004, it has diffused rapidly. Mirroring the early dominance of Internet in the United States, Facebook users in the United States outnumbered those in other countries during its early years. As of 2014, the United States and India claim more than 100 million Facebook users each, with developing countries such as Brazil, Mexico, and Indonesia behind. Facebook is not as popular in China and Russia, due to competing social media platforms and restrictions on Internet usage.

Diffusion of Instagram This social media platform’s diffusion pattern is similar to that of other social media platforms. The most frequently photographed country on Instagram is Japan and seven of the Instagram users with the largest number of followers in 2018 were Americans.

Diffusion of Twitter The United States was the leading source Tweets and Instagram messages in 2017.

India is the second leading country in terms of the number of tweets. Seven of the ten Twitter posters with the largest number of followers were in the United States.

Challenges in Accessing Electronic Media Not every country enjoys the same open access to information and modern electronic communications (e.g. the Internet and cell phones) as the citizens of the United States do. Based on a Freedom on the Net survey of the level of Internet and digital media freedom in 65 countries, only 19 countries were categorized as “free,” 31 were classified as “partly free,” and 15 were “not free.” Three categories of restrictions on the free use of the Internet are recognized by Freedom on the Net: banned technology, blocked content, and violated user rights.

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Chapter 4: Culture & Social Media Banned Technology Governments can prevent electronic technology deemed unwanted by regulating the underlying technology platforms that are supported by the infrastructure in the country. Some governments do not permit the sale of certain models of phones, tablets, and computers. Devices that are permitted must be configured to exclude certain functionality. Some travelers between free countries, such as from the United States to Western Europe, discover that their devices fail to operate due to incompatible cellular infrastructure.

China is an example of a country that aggressively monitors and restricts foreign applications, as evidenced by the relatively small fraction of Facebook and Twitter users living there.

Blocked Content Some websites and web content is censored or prevented altogether from being displayed on devices in a particular country. The leaders of some developing countries view American dominance of TV programming as a new method of cultural and economic imperialism. Social norms present in this programming may not match those of developing countries; many satellite and cable providers in these developing countries block programming containing such content. Three types of Internet content are routinely censored in select countries: • • •

Political content that expresses views in opposition to those of the current administration or that is related to human rights, freedom of expression, minority rights, and religious movements.

Social content related to sexuality, gambling, and illegal drugs and alcohol, as well as other topics that may be socially sensitive or perceived as offensive.

Security content related to armed conflicts, border disputes, separatist movements, and militant groups.

Violated User Rights Some citizens of countries that are not “free” digitally have devised ways of circumventing government restrictions on ownership of hardware, use of software, and viewing of online content. These governments have turned to physical attacks and imprisonment to intimidate their citizens into ceasing their Internet activities. Freedom on the Net has noted that women and the LGBTQ community have been targeted in several countries for their online activities. Iran, Syria, and China have been identified by Freedom on the Net as the worst-offending countries in using the oppressive actions. Russia and Turkey are identified as countries in which Internet freedom has declined in recent years.

Spatial Dimensions of Cyberattacks Social media has facilitated the interaction of people across distance.

Cyberattacks target individual privacy, national and corporate security, and disseminate false information.

Distribution of Victims Most victims of cyberattacks are in a few countries with the percentages varying with the different types of attacks. Three types of attacks have occurred each with a distinct target and purpose.

• • •

Malware, or malicious software, is used to cause intentional harm by taking control of another computer and stealing information.

Ransomware, or cryptoviral extortion, is a malware intrusion that then encrypts the computer’s files and renders them inaccessible until a ransom is paid to decrypt them.

Cyper espionage is the unauthorized deployment of a virus to observe or destroy data in computer systems, usually those of governments and large corporations.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Origin of Attacks The United States is both the country most affected by attacks on web applications, and the most frequent country of origin for those attacks.

Fake News & Alternative Facts Creators of fake news disseminate information they know is untrue and sensationalize the reports. Some politicians have used this term to refer to reputable news coverage that casts them in an unfavorable light. Alternative facts are incorrect statements that can be proven false but purposely presented in social media. Trolling is the practice of posting deliberate inflammatory messages in social media in order to provoke people or urge them to action.

Using Our Personal Data The free access to social media has a tradeoff—allowing advertisers and other third parties to access their demographic and personal data. The same personal data could be used to advertise products or to influence voter behavior.

Key Issue 4: Why do Cultures Face Sustainability Challenges?

Maintaining Unique Folk Culture Growing connections with popular culture can make it difficult for folk culture to maintain centuries-old practices and customs. In the transition to popular culture traditional values may be abandoned and Western perspectives become more dominant.

Amish Migration: Preserving Cultural Identity The Amish in the United States avoid the use of any mechanical or electrical power and have preserved their language and culture through the years. Even though numbering only one-quarter million people, their culture has diffused through migration and the practice of giving each adult son a farm of his own. This practice has led the Amish to move to places with lower land values such as Kentucky. The less concentrated Amish communities have encountered increased the difficulty of maintaining a distinctive cultural identity.

Marriage in India: Challenging Cultural Values The global diffusion of popular culture has challenged the subservience and traditional roles of women embedded in some folk cultures. This has been both a good thing and a bad thing for women in developing countries. The family of the bride in India is sometimes expected to provide the groom with a dowry. Some women in India have been killed because their family did not pay a large enough dowry to the groom. Although anti-dowry laws were enacted by the government of India in 1961, they are largely ignored, and women still face the consequences of the harsh reality of this custom.

The Future of Folk Culture Influences from the outside world, migration for economic opportunities, and international trade has increasingly challenged folk cultural traditions.

Cultural Convergence Popular culture’s tendency to create uniform landscapes and experiences can greatly modify the environment, with little regard for local environmental conditions. As popular culture spreads it replaces localized folk culture and creates a convergence of cultural preferences known as cultural homogenization. Some have labeled the dominance of the Western countries in creating these landscapes, cultural imperialism. The diffusion of some popular customs can negatively impact environmental quality and cultural diversity in three ways: landscape pollution, depletion of scarce natural resources, and the crowding out of locally owned businesses.

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Chapter 4: Culture & Social Media Uniform Cultural Experiences More uniform landscapes are created through the diffusion and distribution of popular culture. The spatial expression of a popular custom in one location will be similar to another. Fastfood restaurants spread through franchises, agreements between the corporation and the owner to market the corporation’s products in the local area. The franchise agreement permits the local owner use the company’s name, trademarks, and signs. Name and brand recognition attract customers as they move from one area of the country to another. Physical expression of uniformity in popular culture has diffused from North America to other countries, further establishing uniformity in the global landscape.

Golf Golf courses require large expanses of open, carefully managed grass. Some golf courses are designed partially in response to local physical conditions. Many courses have little regard for local conditions and usually dramatically alter the natural landscape of an area. Golf courses remake the environment by creating or flattening hills, cutting grass, carting in or digging up sand for traps, and draining or expanding bodies of water to create hazards.

Cultural Divergence Despite the rapid diffusion of popular culture, differences in cultural preferences persist at different scales.

Urban-Rural Differences Rural areas with economies focused on agriculture and manufacturing, tend to value more traditional forms of popular culture. In contrast, urban places with higher populations, a greater diversity of ethnic groups, and a concentration of wealth may value the more progressive forms of popular culture.

Cultural Differences: Interregional Scale display traditional cultural differences.

Vernacular regions such as the South or the Midwest often

Cultural Differences: Individual Scale Surveys of how people spend their time during the day vary by age, gender, ethnicity, and place of residence.

Student Engagement Activity Ideas Pop Culture Trivia An exercise in pop culture trivia will remind college students of how much they do know.

Organize a series of questions for the class on popular culture topics ranging from TV shows to Top 40 or “alternative” music, to sports, to Hollywood celebrities.

Now ask a series of questions on a folk-culture-based topic. You might have a favorite to pick from, such as bluegrass music or a lesser-known sport like Jai-Alai. It won’t take long for the students to tire of these meaningless (to them) trivia questions.

Now a discussion can be started on the nature of one trivia contest versus the other. Why do so many students know so much about the first category of culture, and so little about the other examples from folk culture? The discussion will serve as an introduction to the differences between folk and popular culture.

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Comparing Superstitions Depending the diversity of your students’ backgrounds a comparison of superstitions can be used to illustrate differences between folk and popular culture. Have groups of students generate a list of superstitions or customs popular among their family or friends.

Discuss which are the most widely diffused. Which may tend to be localized to a particular area and why?

Use this activity as a launching point for distinguishing between folk and popular culture.

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

cow tipping not stepping on a sidewalk crack because you will break your mother’s back seven years of bad luck from a broken mirror bad luck from a black cat crossing your path bad luck from walking under a ladder throwing salt over your shoulder to ward off bad luck giving someone the evil eye, or placing a hex knocking on wood to avoid jinxing yourself bad luck from trimming your finger or toenails at night Friday the 13th throwing the bride’s bouquet to single women; bride’s garter to single men something borrowed, something blue, something new placing flowers on graves chocolate and flowers on Valentine’s Day shamrocks eating black-eyed peas on New Year’s Day

Challenges to Comprehension Norms and “Normal” Younger students may not have previously encountered any discussion of cultural relativism or the construction of social norms. The text introduces this idea with a discussion of habits, customs, and taboos but does not explicitly address the challenge of understanding other material cultures from their own perspective.

Consider introducing a common North American custom in an unfamiliar context. For example, “A drug crop is grown in fields, where it is harvested and put into 100-pound bags. These bags are sold by the farmer for anywhere between $70 and $100. The product is then brought into another country, often using middlemen, where it is processed, refined, and sometimes mixed with other substances before being sold on the street. The final market value of the original bag can now be as high as seven to ten thousand dollars. What are we talking about?”

Some students will guess “cocaine”, many more “marijuana,” but few or none will guess the real subject of this word problem: coffee!

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Chapter 4: Culture & Social Media Ask your students how they reacted to the idea of the drug as an “illegal” or “abnormal” one versus a “normal” one; then discuss whether we bring these prejudices to bear on other material cultures.

Uniform Landscapes The Chamber of Commerce in your hometown wants to hire you to create a new town seal. Is there a symbol or symbols that reflect the unique identity of your town? Is the cultural and/or physical landscape of your town distinctive enough to create a real sense of place? Will you end up having to turn down the job because your hometown is the definition of “Anytown U.S.A.”?

Understanding numbers and rates This chapter includes a variety of statistics and comparisons between countries. Explain to students that we have been conditioned to use numbers as evidence to provide the veracity of a claim. But, as the examples below show numbers can be deceiving. Present the data to the students and have then consider ways the data could be used to draw misleading conclusions. This may be a good preparation for the section of the chapter dealing with alternative facts and fake news. What sensationalized headlines could be written based on the data?

The United States has more Internet users than anywhere else in the world.

• Absolute number: 312.82 million, 88.5% of population • Rate: per 1,000: 886 • % of U.S. Population: 88.5 • Share of World Internet Users: 7% • China: 772 million, 57.7 % of population • India: 462 million, 35% The percentage of Internet users in the United States has declined in a global comparison.

• •

Percent U.S. (one country): 7% Percent rest of the world (all other countries): 93%

China has few Muslims.

• Percent of population Muslim: 1.8% total population = 24,924,401 • Total number: 24,924,401 • Percent of population Muslim, Saudi Arabia: 90% • Total number, Saudi Arabia: 29,782,001 Depending on the source of data numbers will vary, but the general trends remain the same.

Additional Classroom Activities & Assignments Review/Reflection Questions These questions can be used in addition to the “thinking geographically” questions at the end of each chapter.

Students can be assigned these questions as homework, they can be given as essay questions on exams, or they can serve as focus questions for in-class discussions.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography The italicized section that follows the question sets the criteria and parameters for student answers. Use these suggestions to provide guidance in the assessment of student answers. In addition, a sample answer has been provided. Know that student answers will vary based on the examples and explanations you provided in class.

•

Describe a distinctive food preference that your family has and trace its origins to a folk hearth. If you don’t have one, use an example that you’ve heard or seen (not from the book).

Student answers should list examples of foods and link them to a food hearth.

Sample answer Stuffed cabbage and pierogis are traditional foods from Eastern Europe that my family prepares and eats throughout the year. Different variations derive from Eastern Europeans countries such as Poland, Serbia, Croatia, Slovakia, etc. Immigrants brought these foods to the United States and some like pierogis have diffused into popular culture.

•

List some of your food taboos and give an explanation for each. How many have to do with cultural traditions you’ve inherited, and how many have to do with cultural views you’ve adopted as an adult?

Student answers will vary. Student adherents to Islam, Hinduism, and Judaism will probably list foods avoided based on his or her religious beliefs.

Sample answer I really don’t have any food taboos based on a cultural tradition. I have had aversions to eating things such as liver, calamari, and raw oysters. The preference to avoid these foods in not based on any cultural tradition or view.

•

Social media, such as Facebook, Twitter, and YouTube are changing the way that popular and folk cultures are diffused. Give and support an argument for how the Internet might aid the preservation, or even expansion, of some folk cultural elements.

Student answers will vary and may be replete with current examples of cultural behaviors seen on social media and YouTube. Many may relate to challenges such as ingesting Tide Pods, driving while blindfolded, and other dangerous behaviors popularized by these forums. They may need to complete some research to find specific information about way folk cultural elements are preserved or expanded.

Sample answer Social media, especially through pictures and now streaming video provide a way to diffuse cultural trends. The Internet may provide a way to inform others about some folk cultural elements traditionally part of cultures within the United States. Quilting is a folk art that has transitioned into main stream culture. Many websites feature quilting ideas and materials. Some are dedicated to the preservation of traditional folk patterns and recounting the origins of the craft.

•

Describe one activity of popular culture that you engage in and evaluate its impact on the environment. What might a folk cultural alternative to your activity be?

Student answers will vary based on their perceptions of what constitutes an activity of popular culture.

Answers may center on recreation, entertainment, and fast-food establishments. Students should provide details rather than generalities. Many might be challenged to think of a folk culture alternative.

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Chapter 4: Culture & Social Media Sample answer I am hooked on playing Candy Crush Saga on my iPad. This game has diffused into popular culture with television commercials and a game show with larger than life screens. Incentives to keep playing are reaching the next level and comparing your progress with that of your friends. I am challenged to find an alternative in folk culture. Traditional games such as checkers may provide a folk culture alternative.

Both games involve strategizing for success.

•

Do you consider your culture to be part of the “dominant” culture at this school? If “yes,” explain how you observe other cultures and why you make these observations. If “no,” explain how the dominant culture influences your own culture.

Student answers will vary. Students may claim their ethnic heritage or their citizenship status as part of their cultural identify.

Sample answer Even though few share my Eastern European ethnicity, as an American born white person, I am part of the dominant culture my university. African American students comprise 31 percent of the student body.

There are many international students and the university sponsors a global exchange forum in which they share aspects of life in their home countries.

Cultural Observation Assignment For this assignment, you’ll observe the cultural landscape of one part of our community. You can choose a location that represents popular culture (e.g., a mall, the campus bookstore, a coffee shop, a park, a street intersection) or folk culture (e.g., a folk-art festival, a street market, a musical performance). You’ll need to use all five of your senses to study a particular/event and report on your observation.

Objectives First, prepare a plan for your objectives. Where will you go? What are you planning to observe? How will you record your observations? Write this plan down to give your investigation a more direct focus.

Observations Go to the location you’ve selected for your observation and spend some time there. Your report should include detailed observations of the site and situation characteristics of your location, so take careful notes.

Find a good place to make your observations and stay for at least one hour. Take notes on what you’ve decided to observe. You may also change your mind about what is most important to observe.

Attach your observation notes to the end of your assignment.

Results Present the results of your observations. Depending on what and how you choose to observe some elements of culture, you might arrange your results in a table, or you might summarize your observations in several paragraphs.

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Discussion Now write about 500 words discussing what you observed. Make sure to relate your observations to key concepts in Chapter 4 and earlier chapters.

Your final paper should have the following sections: Objective, Results, Discussion, and your observation notes attached after your bibliography.

Los Angeles Virtual Tour Take an armchair excursion to Los Angeles. Read through and analyze the descriptions of various cultural sites in the Los Angeles area. As you explore the sites and review the information provided in the “Around the World: Ethnic Areas Provide Glimpses of Other Cultures” document, consider how the places have shaped the cultural landscape of Los Angeles. Provide a written response to the questions that follow. Sample answers are provided.

1. Which cultural groups in the Los Angeles area are represented in the tour?

Germans, Koreans, Thai, Chinese, Japanese, African Americans, Hispanic, Indians, Vietnamese, and Jews 2. What type of geographic information did the author provide about the locations?

The author provided relative location descriptions and detailed the commercial activity in the area.

3. Based on the information contained in the descriptions, what may be a major concern for visitors to these sites?

Every description had information on parking. Finding a place to park your car must be a concern in this area.

4. What do all the descriptions have in common? How are they different?

All of the description include commercial opportunities in the area such as shops and restaurants. Some include references to cultural sites such as museums and places of worship.

5. By “visiting” these sites what did you learn about the cultural landscape of Los Angeles.

I learned that Los Angeles has a diverse population and many opportunities to sample the foods and wares of other countries. Most of the sites were associated with parts of East South, and Southeast Asia.

AROUND THE WORLD: ETHNIC AREAS PROVIDE GLIMPSES OF OTHER CULTURES Compiled by Lori E. Miller, Recreated from Los Angeles Times, Southland Funbook Site 1: Alpine Village in Torrance: www.alpinevillage.net 833 West Torrance Boulevard at Harbor (110) Freeway Features: This Bavarian-style marketplace, started by German speaking shopkeepers is laced with stores, eateries, nightly entertainment, a market and a wedding chapel. An outdoor Oktoberfest is held September–October.

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Chapter 4: Culture & Social Media Hours: Shops generally open from 11 A.M.–6 P.M. daily with extended hours for restaurants Parking: Free Site 2: Chinatown in Los Angeles: www.lachinesechamber.org Bounded by Cesar Chavez Boulevard and Bernard, Figueroa, and Alameda streets Features: Central Plaza, guarded by its Filial Piety, is flanked with narrow walkways and tiny shops. Nearby are herb shops, fresh fish stores, and eateries.

Hours: Shops generally open from 10 A.M.–6 P.M. daily with extended hours for restaurants Parking: Lots and metered parking along city streets Site 3: El Pueblo de Los Angeles (Olvera Street) in Los Angeles Intersection of Main and Alameda Streets Features: Considered to be the birthplace of Los Angeles, this historic enclave consists of 27 landmark buildings, as well as a strip of colorful shops and taquerias lining Olvera Street.

Hours: 10 A.M.–9 P.M. daily. Docent-led walking tours are offered at 10 A.M., 11A.M., and noon Wednesday through Sunday Parking: Various lots and metered parking along city streets Site 4: Fairfax District in Los Angeles Fairfax Boulevard between Beverly Boulevard and Melrose Avenue Features: Home to a large Jewish population. This district remains an intricate part of the city’s Jewish community. Lining the pavement are storefronts containing mostly delicatessens and kosher markets.

Hours: Stores generally open from 10 A.M.–6 P.M. daily with extended hours for restaurants Parking: Various lots and metered parking along city streets Site 5: Koreatown in Los Angeles Between 4th Street and Olympic Boulevard, and Western and Vermont Avenue Features: Colorful storefronts and restored bungalows can be found in this area that is home to the Korean Cultural Center (offering art exhibits and a resource library); Korean grocery, music, and clothing stores; and Korean restaurants.

Hours: Vary by establishment Parking: Various lots and metered parking along city streets

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Site 6: Leimert Park in Los Angeles Bounded by Crenshaw Boulevard, 43rd Street, Leimert Boulevard, and 43rd Place Features: Consisting of nearly a dozen pedestrian-friendly blocks, this urban village offers a wealth of Afrocentric themed shops and services. Also, a popular area for African-American artists, poets, and musicians.

Hours: Stores generally open from 10A.M.–6 P.M. daily with extended hours for restaurants Parking: Various lots and metered parking along city streets Site 7: Little India in Artesia Pioneer Boulevard between 183rd and 187th streets Features: Among the four-block stretch of mini malls and Indian eateries are shops laden with silk saris, jewelry, home accessories, and other exotic imports.

Hours: 11 A.M.–8 P.M. Tuesday through Sunday Parking: Two-hour street parking is available along Pioneer Boulevard from 7 AM–6 PM Site 8: Little Saigon in Westminster 9200 block of Bolsa Avenue Features: The Asian Garden and New Saigon Mall is the gateway to Orange County’s most exotic community. A variety of shops and restaurants, which number more than 200, contain healing herbs, imported wares, jewelry, and a variety of other items. A visit to the Cultural Court reveals a display of artwork and statues depicting Asian history.

Hours: Vary by establishment Parking: Free Site 9: Little Tokyo in Los Angeles: www.janet.org Bounded by Los Angeles Street, Central Avenue, and 1st and 3rd streets Features: This historic neighborhood is home to a cultural center, theater, museum, Buddhist temple, plazastyle shopping center, boutiques, and restaurants.

Hours: Stores generally open from 10 A.M.–6 P.M. daily with extended hours for restaurants Parking: Various lots and metered parking along city streets Site 10: Thai Town in Hollywood: thaicdc.org Along Hollywood Boulevard (between Western and Normandie Avenues) Features: Shops, marketplaces, bookstores, and cafes Hours: Most businesses operate from 8 A.M.–10 P.M. Parking: Free parking at Thailand Plaza, as well as metered parking along Hollywood Boulevard and neighboring streets

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Cultural Geography Landscape Exploration Ethnicity is identity with a group of people who share the cultural traditions of a particular homeland. Our own ethnicity (culture and experience) shapes our beliefs and also influences our perceptions of differing people and places encountered throughout our lives. Therefore, it is important to reflect on and understand our own opinions. Furthermore, we need to increase our awareness of the diversity of people and places not only in the world at large, but also in our local environment. You must, however, get out and about to experience and taste this richness for yourself.

This assignment (fieldwork) is intended to be enjoyable. You choose the time and the place. Many students have combined this assignment with a family outing, a date, time with friends or even have formed informal groups with classmates to venture out together. It is your choice.

Procedure 1. Identify a restaurant, food store, or retail shop representing a particular culture.

2. Thoughtfully answer the questions that follow including detailed descriptions. Use all of your senses.

What sights, sounds, and smells combine to create this unique sense of place?

3. Summarize your data and reflections of your field experience in essay format. There is no need to include the questions themselves, but subheadings may be useful when organizing your paper. Conclude with your overall impression of the group’s impact on the cultural landscape of the city.

Questions 1. Where did you go? Which ethnic, cultural group predominates?

2. Why do you think most of the people migrated to the United States? What do you think were the push/pull factors?

3. What landscape elements do you think give this area a distinctive appearance from surrounding areas?

4. Be specific—describe buildings, architecture, spatial arrangement, clothing, types of stores, and music that you encounter.

5. Try a new ethnic food (it doesn’t have to be expensive, just a little exotic to you and typical of what is common in the homeland). What did you try? Did you like or dislike it? What ingredients were in it?

6. Do you see outward symbols of religious systems that are associated with the homeland? Look closely and describe. Does it help or hinder your cultural understanding of this cultural group?

7. Do you see evidence of the convergence of traditional and modern worlds? If so describe them—look for impacts of communications and technological systems. What kind of connections are going on between the homeland and this region?

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography 8. Look at products sold in stores and businesses. Do you see references to specific locations in the homeland? What cities and regions are on the labels of products? Where are the goods made?

9. What types of economic activities and businesses do you find here? Are there any surprises? Are there any specific businesses that reflect social customs from the homeland? Describe.

10. Any interesting (or perhaps strange to you) items for sale in these stores? People and cultures perceive and utilize resources differently—what is your cultural response to the unique items you see?

Recreating the American Cultural Landscape New immigrant groups have always tried to recreate their homelands when they migrated to the United States.

An entertainment company from a country with a sizeable number of American expatriates seeks to create a “Bit of Home” themed marketplace. They want you to recommend ten to twelve “must haves” typical of American culture. Compile a list of what you think must be included to recreate the American culture landscape in a foreign land. Provide a brief explanation for each of the items that you recommend. Carefully consider how each item contributes to the uniqueness of the American culture.

Mastering Geography™ provides additional assignable learning activities and ready-made resources designed to extend and reinforce student skills and mastery of key content, concepts, and vocabulary. The resources include MapMaster 2.0 interactive maps, videos, GeoTutor coaching activities, Google Earth Explorations, outline maps, chapter quizzes, Dynamic Study Modules, and more. Further details about these resources and recommendations for use are provided in the Resources section of this document. You can assign these media-rich activities as pre or post lecture homework.

Thinking Geographically Questions Key Issue 4.1: Calcio Fiorentino is a form of soccer originating in Italy 500 years ago.

1. Based on this photo what are some differences between Calcio Fiorentino and modern soccer?

The field is covered in sand, not grass as it typical in other types of soccer. From the image it looks like players are allowed to use their hands and it looks like they are shoving or punching the other players. According to a description in Wikipedia, the goal is to incapacitate as many of the opposingt players and possible so that a goal can be scores.

2. What geographic process of origin, diffusion, and distribution might help to explain why Calcio Fiorentino is not the predominant form of modern soccer?

The sport originated in Florence, Italy 3. Do you, your friends, or classmates participate in a sport that differs from the most popular national and international sports. If so, how has your atypical sport originated and diffused?

Answers will vary depending on the area and age of students.

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Chapter 4: Culture & Social Media Key Issue 4.2: Think of a time when you are someone you know was expected or required to wear a specific outfit or type of clothing.

4. What individual or organization was responsible for setting this expectation or requirement?

School uniforms are required in some parochial and private schools. The outfit usually consists of a skirt and white blouse for girls and pants, white shirt, tie, and perhaps a blazer for the boys. The school prescribes the uniforms and parents are required to purchase them at authorized stores.

5. What cultural values were the clothing requirement created to support?

The use of uniforms fulfills two purposes: minimize the differences between social classes by having all in the same outfits, and prevent distractions from academics.

Key Issue 4.3: Consider the social media platforms that are most significant to you.

6. How might the organization of your social life and consumption of media change if you and your friends were not able to access these platforms?

Facebook and Twitter are the two social media platforms I engage with on a daily basis. I like to know what my friends are doing and enjoy updates on recipes and exercise from various commercial users of Facebook.

7. What challenges would you encounter if you suddenly lost access to these platforms in an emergency situation?

Social media is great in tracking folks during an emergency such as a flood, hurricane or other natural disaster.

Social media has been used to post “I am safe messages” to reassure family and friends in other parts of the country.

Key Issue 4.4: Zara sells clothing in many countries through stores and online. Go to the company’s website, zara.com. Review the clothing currently featured on the website for U.S. shoppers. Now select a country in Africa or Asia.

8. Is Zara featuring the same clothing as in the United States or different? Why do you think Zara has made this choice? How—if at all—does the clothing offered in the African or Asian country reflect the distinctive folk customs?

When visiting the site there is a wide choice of country sites to visit. The general look and feel of the site are the same for the foreign and U.S. locations. This shows the diffusion of popular culture and clothing. Sites the different areas of the world show some differentiation of the clothing, particularly in the dress section for the local culture. The patterned fabrics for dresses in Spain were very different from those included in Mauritania.

This shows customization for appeal to other cultures perhaps including elements of their folk culture.

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Pause and Reflect Questions 4.1.1

Can you think of an entertainer, a politician, or another public figure who displays a distinctive habit in choice of clothing?

Regarding political parties in the United States, the Republican and Democratic parties are generally associated with the colors red and blue, respectively. For instance, in a debate between two candidates for President, the participants will generally wear red or blue accented attire.

4.1.2

What geographic factors account for the diversity of cultures in the Himalayas?

Topographic features, primarily the Himalayan Mountains, played an important role in isolating groups of people. This isolation led these groups to develop distinct folk cultures in this region. The examples of art were included the perspectives of different religious groups.

4.1.3 Compare the impact on a society of cell phones that enable voice communication and simple texting with the impact of smart phones that give users access to a wide range of media.

Smart phones provide access to the Internet expanding the capabilities of the phone beyond simple one-onone communication to the access of information from throughout the world. The incorporation of camera and video functions facilitate the direct upload of images to Facebook and other media platforms. Smart phones support a faster and wider diffusion of culture as the portion of the elderly in developed countries increases more contact with grandparents in locations distant from their grandchildren.

4.2.1

What type of music do you like? Does the distribution of performers in Figure 4-16 match your preference?

I like the driving beat of disco-style music of the 1980s. Rihanna is the most watched performer in my state and not in sync with my preference for the “oldies.”

4.2.2

How many of the Olympic sports are played at your school?

Golf, tennis, basketball, volleyball, and women’s track are the Olympic sports played at my school.

4.2.3

Can you think of other restrictions on clothing styles in developed countries, perhaps in schools?

School dress codes prohibit students from wearing clothes with obscene images or words. Girls are forbidden from wearing revealing clothing and boys’ pants need to be worn without exposing their underwear. Clothing related to gangs may also be banned from schools. Some developed countries have also passed laws on the wearing of clothing that obscures women’s faces. On the same note, many countries have bans on wearing masks outside of Halloween.

4.2.4

What foods do you avoid? Do you avoid foods because of taboos or for other reasons?

I am a vegan, so I abstain from any foods containing animal products. I avoid these foods for health reasons.

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Chapter 4: Culture & Social Media 4.2.5

What factors were considered in the arrangement of the bed in your bedroom?

I have my bed arranged in my bedroom to maximize floor space, as there isn’t much room in my apartment.

4.3.1

The United States has slightly less than 1 TV per person. Does your household have more than 1 TV or less than 1 TV per person?

My household has more than one television per person. The two of us have televisions in three different rooms.

We have exceeded the national average.

4.3.2 A recent study of University of Maryland students found that not using any electronics for 24 hours produced anxiety, craving, and other symptoms. How do you think you would react to a 24-hour ban on all electronics?

I think I could manage without electronics for 24 hours without experiencing a hardship. If fact, I often leave my phone at home when going to class and other places.

4.3.3

If you lived in a “not free” country, what use of electronic media might get you into trouble? Why?

Social media and the use of message boards (a relatively outdated web phenomenon) would probably get me in trouble, as all manner of issues are discussed in the outlets. These topics can be critical of the government (and other people in power), so they most likely would see reason to censor it.

4.3.4

What steps do you take to verify the accuracy of reports on social media?

I follow the news using a variety of the mainstream media such as ABC, CNN, CBS, and MSNBC as well as the New York Times and the local newspaper. I trust them to report the facts although sometimes the headlines may be designed to sway public opinion. Crosschecking among the various sources is the extent of my efforts to verify and filter posts on social media.

4.4.1

In what ways might Amish people need to interact with popular culture?

As far as participating in any sort of leisure activity, they would see little reason to interact with popular culture. However, if they are enterprising, they could open a gift shop on their property and sell Amish-made goods to tourists who are not familiar or a part of the Amish community. Their children up to a certain age could attend public schools and encounter main-stream American culture.

4.4.2

Roughly what percentage of businesses at your local mall are franchises? What are the main differences between franchises and the independent businesses?

I would estimate about 95 percent of the stores in the nearest mall are franchises. The list of businesses located in the mall are nation wide in scope. The exceptions are a few custom jewelry stores and individually owned and named nail salons.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography 4.4.3

Do you watch more of less TV than average? What accounts for your habit?

On most days, I watch close to or above the national average of 5. 1 hours. Viewing habits include the local news, the national news, two to three sit-coms, the late news, and Stephen Colbert. I have my laptop computer on my lap and am working on other projects while listening to television.

Caption Questions Figure 4-10, Most Popular Social Media Network, p. 119 1. Referring to Figures 4-10 and 4-11, identify at least 3 countries in sub-Saharan Africa that have both Facebook as their most popular social network and Google Street View.

South Africa, Nigeria, Ghana, Tunisia, and Madagascar all have access to both Facebook and Google Street View.

2. How might these countries differ from neighboring countries that have very limited use of any social network (shown in gray on Figure 4-10) and no Google Street View?

I would suspect that citizens in neighboring countries may not have access to the Internet and fewer computers and cell phones. In addition, per capita incomes in those countries is likely lower.

Figure 4-18, Regions of Baseball Fans, p. 123 1.

In which team’s region do you live?

I live in the Baltimore Orioles team’s region. Norfolk has the Tides, a farm team for the Orioles.

2.

Approximately how far are you from the team’s home field?

I live 246 miles from the Orioles’ home stadium, Camden Yards in Baltimore. Google Maps estimates the driving time as 4.5 hours.

3.

Are you a fan of this team or of another team? Explain your answer in geographic terms, such as distance decay.

As my city has no major league team and the distance to Baltimore is too great for a day trip, I do not attend games. In terms of following baseball teams, I revert to the Cleveland Indians from my home town and view their games on television.

Figure 4-40, Internet Freedom, p.134 1.

Pick one country where the Internet is partly free and one where it is not free.

I chose Argentina where the Internet is free and Venezuela where the Internet is not free.

2.

Go online to research the restrictions on Internet use in both countries.

The Freedom on the Net 2018 report provides assessment of countries based on 9 Internet controls.

Argentina’s overall score is 28, Venezuela’s 66. A higher score indicates less freedom.

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Chapter 4: Culture & Social Media 3.

Compare and contrast the two countries’ Internet policies

Argentina has only 1 control listed, technical attacks against government critics.

Venezuela has a total of 8 controls that include: control of social media platforms, blocked content, progovernment manipulation of online discussions, laws or policy increasing censorship, increasing surveillance and restrictions on anonymity, arrests of bloggers, physical attacks against bloggers, and technical attacks against government critics. The overall score for Venezuela is 66.

Figure 4-51, Protesting Against Dowry, New Delhi, India, p. 139 1.

How did the custom of dowry change during the twentieth century?

Previously the husband’s family provided a small dowry to the bride’s family. In the twentieth century the recipient of the dowry shifted. Today the family of the bride is expected to provide a substantial dowry to the husband’s family.

2.

What societal problems in India have spurred the recent anti-dowry protests?

Anti-dowry protests have been fueled by the mistreatment of women including murder, torture, and cruelty because dowries were not paid or considered insufficient.

Debate It! Regulating social media content, p. 133 1.

Are you familiar with, and have you adjusted, the privacy settings of your favorite social media? If not, why not? If so, are you confident your privacy is adequately protected? Explain.

I know that Facebook, has privacy settings, but I have yet to adjust mine. I do not have secure information or credit card information stored on my computer, so feel that my information is fairly secure. I do use a virus and malware protection program and am using a Windows-based PC broadcasting a Mac address. I still am amazed at the amount of information from my Internet browsing gets connected with ads for products I am interested in.

2.

Overall, how do you weigh the benefits and potential risks of your use of social media, given the current amount of government regulation?

I feel that I have freedom of speech in my posts in social media and feel free of government oversight of what I would write. I am not aware of government regulation of the Internet other than the controversy over net neutrality.

Doing Geography, Withstanding Cyberattacks, p. 137 What cyberattacks are occurring at this moment? CheckPoint Software Technologies is an example of a service that provides users with information about threats as they occur as well as protection against threats.

A publicly available map shows in real time the current cyberthreats.

Use your web browser to search for live cyberattack threat map, or go to https//threatmap.checkpoont.com/ ThreatPortal/livemap.html.

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From what countries are the current threats originating?

The site indicates over 9 million cyberattacks today and provides a map with real-time lines showing origin and destinations. The map also includes a table showing each threat, its origin, and the targeted area. The origin sites include the United States, Brazil, France, Japan, Russia, China. Interesting to watch is how threats may originate from one area and are directed at the same target. The map confirms the status of the U.S. as an originator of many attacks as stated in the text.

2.

What countries are currently under attack?

The top targets are listed in a dropdown menu and include: United States, Philippines, Australia, United Kingdom, India, Germany, Mexico, Indonesia, Israel, and Brazil.

3.

Do these origins and destinations match the principal origins and destinations as shown on other maps in this spread?

The patterns I observed on the site mirror those shown in Figure 4-47 in the textbook.

4.

What sorts of cyberattacks are underway at this time?

The table at the bottom of the screen changing at a rapid speed shows primarily Trojan attacks. Other attacks are for worms, virus, and phishing.

Sustainability & Our Environment, Skiing in Dubai, p.140 1.

As a populous city located where the Arabian Desert meets the salty waters of the Persian Gulf, Dubai needs large amounts of fresh water and electricity. Go online to research how Dubai could more sustainably obtain its water and electrical power and outline a sustainability plan for the city.

The site provides the following suggestions for water conservation in Dubai. Surprising was a recommendation to recycle and reuse rainwater which seems an odd recommendation in a desert climate.

However further research revealed that they are sometimes subject to heavy rains. Practice such as swimming pools and open fountains could be curtailed in order to conserve water. Irrigation should be delivered with targeted emitters rather than pivot irrigation.

Fresh water is currently generated through energy-intensive desalinization plants fueled with natural gas. The cloudless environment should be used to generate solar power rather than burning fossil fuels. To fulfill its water and energy needs I would continue desalinization as other options are limited, rainwater collection would not be sufficient to supply the water needs. But the electrical grid that provides the electricity to treat the water should be based on solar power.

2.

What are your community’s main sustainability challenges and how could they be addressed?

The major sustainability challenge for Virginia Beach is fresh water. The tidal rivers in the area are brackish and unsuitable for drinking. Virginia Beach, a coastal city that due to proximity to the ocean does not have its own water supply. Its fresh water supply once came from neighboring Norfolk which still processes and delivers the water to the city. There are only two fresh water lakes in the entire state—Lake Drummond in the 122 .

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Chapter 4: Culture & Social Media Dismal Swamp and Mountain Lake in the western part of the state. The bodies of water that dot the landscape are either borrow pits or reservoirs. The water table is relatively high and consequently most houses in the Tidewater region do not have basements.

Currently, the fresh water supply comes from Lake Gaston (created by a dam) located on the North CarolinaVirginia border and is delivered via a 70-mile pipeline. The building of the Lake Gaston pipeline was contested in courts because it involved a dispute between two states. It is unusual and unsustainable for a city to develop in an area without access to a fresh water supply.

Geospatial Data Analysis TV & Internet Many people in the world get information from TV or the Internet. Add the Internet Users layer. Select the settings icon from the Legend and select Show Political Labels. Add the TV Ownership layer and select Join with Data Layer. In the Legend, deselect the middle class for both TV Ownership and Internet Users.

1.

Of the countries that remain selected, nearly all are in the highest class for both variables, or the lowest class. Name two countries that are exceptions.

United Arab Emirates, Madagascar, Azerbaijan, and Mali.

Madagascar has a relatively high rate of Internet users, but an extremely low rate of TV ownership.

2.

Do these countries have higher than expected TV ownership compared with Internet users, or lower than expected? Why might this be the case?

The countries have high rates of Internet users, but low rates of TV ownership. Further research indicates more radio stations than television broadcasting stations. Except for the United Arab Emirates low incomes may account for the lack of television ownership. Other expenditures for food and shelter may be viewed as more important. For the same countries access to electricity for extended periods of time may be an issue limiting television ownership. Internet access may not be located in individual homes, but in community centers.

GeoVideo Questions Surveillance & Privacy Your use of social media is being tracked by Amazon, Google, and other Internet services.

1.

Why are social media companies “racing to map the world,” as asserted in the video?

Phone companies can map your location based on the phone’s WIFI signal. Location data can be used by governments to track its citizens and business enterprises to target potential customers. As seen in the 2016 election, social media can also be used to target and influence voter preference. The company with the most data would be the most “powerful.”

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography 2.

Why is it especially useful for Internet providers to access data documenting where you go?

The advertising to convince you to buy things you may not want to buy by frequent reminders. Analysis of the data can lead to predicting consumer behavior. Governments can track criminals and intercept potential terrorist threats.

Writing Geographically The advertising technology company The Trade Desk has studied the characteristics and distribution of people who pass along fake news stories through social media. Figure 4CR-7 shows the distribution of people who saw a fake news story disseminated by a politically biased source.

1.

The higher the score, the more likely people in that state saw a fake news story with a conservative bias.

Conversely, people in states with relatively low scores on this map were more likely to see a fake news story disseminated by a progressive source. Discuss regional differences within the United States that could account for this difference.

I predict there would be a strong spatial association between the source of fake news stories based on the percentage of rural land in the various states. States in the South and Wyoming seem to be more likely to see fake news stories with a conservative bias. States in the Northeast, the Midwest, and California are more likely to see stories with a progressive bias. Past voting patterns would also reveal a spatial association. States that vote predominantly for Republican candidates are likely to have viewed conservative ads, while those where Democratic candidates are usually elected viewed the more progressive ads.

2.

Describe another example of regional divergence in popular cultural identity within the United States.

Another example of regional divergence would be the distribution of evangelical Christians who tend to be more conservative as contrasted with Roman Catholics and Jews who tend to be more liberal.

Explore Use Google Earth to explore similarities and differences among the five Disneylands in the world.

1.

Select or drag to enter street view at Le Château de la Belle au Bois Dormant. Use an app to translate this feature into English. Do other Disneylands have this feature?

Sleeping Beauty Castle is the rough translation. Disneyland Park in Anaheim, California has a Sleeping Beauty Castle. Walt Disney World in Orlando, Florida has Cinderella’s Castle. Disney World Tokyo has a Cinderella’s Fairy Tale Hall, and Disneyland Hong Kong has a castle hub. The castles in all five parks are located near a central circular plaza.

2.

Return to 2D, zoom in to around 500 meters (1,500 feet), and drag to enter street view at Main Street USA. As you move along the street, do you see any evidence that you are in France?

For the most part the places have American names. The Cookie Kitchen is also called Patisserie which is a French word.

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Chapter 4: Culture & Social Media 3.

Check out some of the other street views. Any evidence anywhere that you are in France?

For the most part, the style and look of the buildings are not French. Building names include Bixby Babies, California Kitchen, Cable Car Bake Shop, Market House Deli etc. The evidence alluding to France is Toilettes for the rest rooms.

4.

Zoom out to around 2,000 meters (6,000 feet). What transportation feature is immediately to the east of Eurodisney? How does that differ from the transportation used to reach the U.S. Disneylands?

Railroad lines are to the east. The U.S. Disney lands are reached by road and have airport links nearby.

5.

On balance, does Eurodisney represent cultural convergence or cultural divergence with U.S. Disneylands? Why?

Eurodisney shows cultural convergence as it contains many of the features that are in the U.S. Disneylands.

Resources American Cultural History, 19th and 20th Centuries Entertaining and informative details of American popular culture from the last 200 years. Produced by Lone Star College Library reference librarians, Kingwood, Texas. www.lonestar.edu/library/kin_AmHistory2.htm The National Museum of American History www.americanhistory.si.edu/ Exhaustive resource for educators and students.

Geoinquiries™ GeoInquiries™ by the Environmental Science Research Institute (ESRI) consist of scripted map-based online GIS activities designed to be completed within a 15-minute time frame. These Internet-based mapping activities run best in the Google browser and do not require the installation of any software. Access them at www.esri.com/en-us/industries/education/schools/geoinquiries-collections.

The following GeoInquiries™ support the development of the concepts and content of this chapter.

You claim it, you name it! from the Human Geography collection examines the variation of toponyms in different regions of the Americas.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography

Mastering Geography Media & Assessment Resources Mastering Geography™ provides additional assignable homework activities and ready-made resources designed to extend and reinforce student skills and mastery of key content, concepts, and vocabulary. These resources are invaluable to implementation of the flipped classroom. Use the Instructor Course Home areas to build assignments for your students. Highlights include: •

MapMaster 2.0™ provides students with the opportunity to reinforce their understanding of spatial relationships, e.g., variation, distribution, interaction, and association. Students get hands on with map building, exploration, and spatial data analysis by layering a wide range of maps. Multiple-choice assessments in the Mastering Geography item library provide directions for building maps aligned with chapter content, and focus on the development of spatial thinking and analysis skills.

•

GeoVideos and Google Earth Explorations linked to chapter content provide an opportunity for students to “visit” other places and build an appreciation for other cultures. Use as an out-of-class assignment and have students explain how the video or Google Earth Explorations illustrate concepts learned in class and make comparisons between cultures.

•

Interactive Data Visualizations powered by Social Explorer provide interactive data explorations for each chapter’s Key Issue, and include map stories, predictive graphing, interactive maps, interactive population pyramids, interactive charts, and more. These media are integrated into the Pearson eText and Study Area, and are also available for assignment with quizzes.

•

GeoTutors are highly visual and data-rich assignable activities that help students master the most challenging concepts in geography.

•

Dynamic Study Modules (DSMs) provide two sets of 25 multiple-choice questions per chapter topic. Because this resource includes a “I don’t know yet” answer choice,” it can be assigned as a preassessment or content preview. The modules are interactive as students are prompted to select, “I am unsure” or “I am sure” as they submit their answers. The questions could also be used as self-check for students at the end of the chapter. An infographic gauge represents their accuracy visually.

Teachers can assign the DSMs for credit or students can access these on their own for self study.

•

Learning Catalytics is an interactive student response tool paired with Mastering Geography that encourages team-based learning by using students’ smartphones, tablets, or laptops to engage them in interactive tasks and thinking. As a teacher, you can pose a variety of open-ended questions that help your students develop critical thinking skills, while monitoring responses with real-time analytics to find out where they’re struggling. With this information, you can adjust your instructional strategy in real time and try additional ways of engaging your students during class. Learning Catalytics also lets you manage student interactions by automatically grouping students for discussion, team-based learning, and peer-to-peer learning.

The Mastering Geography student Study Area includes a variety of tools that students can access on their own, including: • • •

The eText provides a fully digital online version of the textbook, with search and bookmarking functionality. Available for offline reading.

Chapter Quizzes include 15 multiple choice questions based on the chapter’s content.

Key Terms Flashcards to help students master the key vocabulary.

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Chapter 4: Culture & Social Media Downloadable Outline Maps containing political and physical features provide students the opportunity to label key countries and physical features. Consider assigning these maps throughout the course so that students can refer to them as they interpret the many thematic maps.

MapMaster 2.0 The following map layers are included in the MapMaster 2.0™ resource. In addition, multiple choice mapbased quizzes are also included.

• • • • • •

Women in the Workforce Facebook Users Internet Users TV Ownership Cellular Phones Tourist Arrivals

Additional resources in support of students with disabilities include the screen reader enabled e-text and more. Further details about these resources are available at www.pearson.com/us/accessibility.html.

Connections between Chapters Back to Chapter 1 The spread and influence of different elements of material culture can be understood in the discussion of diffusion. Remind students of the importance of these terms in understanding how folk and popular cultures spread. The globalization of culture is also referenced in Chapter 1.

Back to Chapter 3 Remind your students that folk cultures are most often spread by relocation diffusion, so the link between Chapters 3 and 4 should be clearer. Students might reflect on whether it is simply migration that is a source of conflict, or whether culture plays a larger role.

Forward to Chapter 5 Language and popular culture are interrelated in the formation of new slang and the creation of new words.

As a transition to Chapter 5, have the students list words that did not exist 10 to 20 years ago. Numerous examples from the Internet and technology will be offered.

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5

Languages Learning Outcomes After reading, studying, and discussing the chapter, students should be able to: Learning Outcome 5.1.1:

Explain how geographers classify languages.

Learning Outcome 5.1.2:

Locate on a map the distribution of principal language families.

Learning Outcome 5.1.3:

Identify the world’s most used languages and language families.

Learning Outcome 5.1.4:

Identify the distribution of Indo-European languages.

Learning Outcome 5.1.5:

Describe the distribution of language families other than Indo-European.

Learning Outcome 5.2.1:

Identify processes of origin and diffusion of a language branch and a family.

Learning Outcome 5.2.2:

Analyze processes underlying current distribution of English.

Learning Outcome 5.2.3:

Explain the concept of lingua franca.

Learning Outcome 5.3.1a:

Explain the concepts of official languages.

Learning Outcome 5.3.1b:

Explain the concept of informal languages.

Learning Outcome 5.3.2:

Analyze the ways that dialects vary.

Learning Outcome 5.3.3:

Describe the distribution of principal U.S. dialects.

Learning Outcome 5.3.4:

Summarize challenges in distinguishing between some languages and dialects.

Learning Outcome 5.3.5:

Give examples of countries that embrace more than one language.

Learning Outcome 5.4.1a:

Define endangered languages.

Learning Outcome 5.4.1b:

Relate the concept of endangered languages to language policies in Australia and New Zealand.

Learning Outcome 5.4.2:

Analyze geographic factors resulting in isolated and extinct languages.

Learning Outcome 5.4.3:

Describe how some lesser-used languages are being protected.

Learning Outcome 5.4.4:

Summarize processes of growing and reviving languages.

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Chapter 5: Languages

Chapter 5 Outline I

Key Issue 5.1: Where Are Languages Distributed?

A Languages & Geography 1 Terms a language—system of communication through speech, movement, sounds or symbols that a group of people understands to have the same meaning b centripetal force—force that tends to unify people c centrifugal force—force that tends to pull people apart 2 Language & Migration a distribution of languages largely results from past migrations b languages diverse because of lack of interaction among groups 3 Organizing Languages a Ethnologue Categories i institutional—used in education, mass media, government, has a literary tradition ii developing—daily use by people of all ages iii vigorous—daily use by all ages, but lacks literary tradition iv threatened—used in face-to-face communication, but losing users v dying—still used by older people, but not transmitted to children b Divisions i language family—collection of languages related through a common ancestral language that existed before recorded history ii language branch—collection of languages within a family, archaeological evidence can confirm derivation from the same family. iii language group—collection of languages within a branch that share a common origin in the relatively recent past and display many similarities in grammar and vocabulary B Distribution of Languages a Quentin Atkinson theory that language developed first in Africa C Language Families 1 Seven major language families (90 percent of speakers) a Indo-European (45.7 percent) b Sino-Tibetan (21.1 percent) c Niger-Congo (6.9 percent) d Afro-Asiatic (6.3 percent) e Austronesian (5 percent) f Dravidian (3.5 percent) g Turkic (2.6 percent) D Distribution of Indo-European Languages 1 Indo-Iranian Branch a Iranian—Persian (Farsi), Pashto, Kurdish b Indo-Aryan—Hindi, Urdu 2 Germanic Branch a West Germanic—English, German, Dutch i North Germanic—Swedish, Danish, Norwegian, Icelandic

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E

Balto-Slavic Branch a East Slavic group—Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian b West Slavic group—Czech, Slovak, Polish i South Slavic group—Croatian, Serbian (Cyrillic), Bosnian c Romance Branch—Spanish, French, Portuguese, Italy, Romanian, Moldovan Distribution of Other Language Families 1 East Asia Language Families—Sino-Tibetan, Japanese, Korean a Southeast Asia Language Families—Austronesian b Austro-Asiatic c Tai-Kadai 2 Other Asian Language Families a Dravidians—South Asia b Turkic—Turkish, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan 3 African Language Families a Afro-Asiatic—Arabic, Hebrew b Niger-Congo c Nilo-Saharan

II Key Issue 5.2: Why Do Languages Diffuse?

A Origin & Diffusion of Indo-European 1 Origin & Diffusion of Romance Languages—Roman empire 2 Common Ancestry of Indo-European Languages 3 Theories a nomadic warrior theory—Kurgan people b dedentary farmer theory—Anatolia B Origin & Diffusion of English 1 German Invasion—Angles, Saxons, Jutes 2 Norman Invasion 3 Diffusion of English C Sharing Languages 1 lingua franca—languages of international communication 2 English on the Internet 3 Chinese: The Next lingua franca III Key Issue 5.3: Why Do Languages Vary Among Places A Official Languages 1 Official language—used by government to enact legislation, publish documents, and conduct public business a working language—designated by international organization as primary means of communication for daily correspondence and conversation b U.N. has six official and working languages c EU has 24 official and working languages 2 Informal Languages—Franglais, Spanglish, Denglish 3 Pidgin—English a simplified form

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Chapter 5: Languages B English Dialects 1 Terms a dialect b subdialect 2 American and British English a vocabulary b pronunciation c spelling 3 Dialects in the United Kingdom a standard language b Received Pronunciation (RP) C U.S. Dialects 1 Isogloss—word usage boundary 2 Origin of U.S. Dialects—South, North, Midland 3 American Sign Language 4 Appalachian English 5 African American English 6 Changing Distribution of U.S. Dialects 7 Creolized language—results from the mixing of a colonizer’s language with the indigenous languages; becomes creolized when the colonized group adopts the language with some adaptations D Dialect or Language?

1 Dialects Become Languages a mutual intelligibility 2 Examples a Catalan-Valencian-Balear b Galician c Moldovan d Italy’s Languages e Occitan 3 Standardizing Languages a French b Spanish c Portuguese 4 Gender Differences in Languages a distinguish between masculine and feminine forms b men and women use different words and converse differently c genderless language families—Austronesian, Turkic, Uralic E Multilingual Places 1 Switzerland: Institutionalized Diversity a four official languages—German, French, Italian, Romansh 2 Belgium: Barely Speaking—two regions, Walloons (south) speak French; Flemings (north) speak Dutch

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4

Nigeria: Spatial Compromise—528 distinct languages, different languages different regions, moved capital to area when none of the three major languages (Hausa, Igbo, Yoruba) predominates Canada: Bilingual Autonomy—two official languages English, French clustered in Quebec

IV Key Issue 5.4: Why Do Language Survive or Perish?

A Endangered Languages—language no longer learned by children 1 Categories a vulnerable languages b definitely endangered—no longer taught to children as a principal language c severely endangered languages—spoken by older generation, but parents do not speak them among themselves or with children d critically endangered—spoken only by older people, infrequently 2 Endangered Languages in the South Pacific a Australia b New Zealand—Maori a threatened language B Isolated & Extinct Languages 1 Isolated Languages—unrelated to any other language and therefore not attached to any language family a Basque: Europe’s Only Isolated Language b Icelandic: An Unchanging Landscape 2 Extinct Languages—once used by people in daily activities, but no longer in use a steps to extinction i vulnerable to extinction—used only in homes, can be spoken by children ii endangered—children no longer learning language iii moribund—spoken by only older people iv extinct—language no longer spoken C Preserving Languages 1 Byrthonic Celtic a Welsh b Cornish c Breton 2 Goidelic Celtic a Irish b Scottish Gaelic D New & Growing Languages 1 Growing Languages a Hebrew 2 Reviving Languages 3 New Languages

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Chapter 5: Languages

Chapter Content Outline Key Issue 1: Where Are Languages Distributed?

Language is a system of communication through speech, a collection of sounds, or movements that a group of people understands to have the same meaning. Language is an important element of culture that people value. Beginning an analysis of the geographic elements of cultural values with language is useful because it is the medium through which other cultural values, such as religion and ethnicity, are communicated.

Languages & Geography Most people in the United States only know how to speak English. Only 20 percent of students take foreign language courses in the United States, whereas in Europe, 92 percent of students learn English in addition to their native languages. The sharing of a common language is a centripetal force, a force that tends to unify people. At times the use of different languages serves as a centrifugal force, a force that tends to pull people apart.

Language & Migration The contemporary distribution of languages across Earth can be attributed to the past migrations of peoples. For example, the native language of Madagascar is part of the same language family as the languages spoken in Indonesia and the Philippines. The shared language family provides evidence of migration between these two places. Forces of isolation and interaction help to explain the distribution of languages. Geographers analyze the similarities among languages to explain the diffusion and interaction of people around the world.

Organizing Languages Earth’s cultural diversity is readily apparent through the collection of languages spread across its continents. According to Ethnologue, one of the most authoritative sources of languages (see: ethnologue.com), there are an estimated 7,099 languages, including 90 spoken by at least 10 million people, 307 spoken by between 1 and 10 million people, and 6,702 spoken by fewer than 1 million people.

The distribution of some languages is easy for geographers to determine, while others (especially in Africa and Asia) can be difficult (or perhaps even impossible) to document. Ethnologue categorizes languages into five classes: institutional, developing, vigorous, threatened, and dying.

An institutional language is a language used in education, work, mass media, and government. Ethnologue identifies 576 institutional languages, including English.

A developing language is spoken daily by people of all ages in a population. Ethnologue identifies 1,601 developing languages.

A vigorous language is spoken daily by people of all ages in a population, but lacks a literary tradition.

Ethnologue identifies 2,455 vigorous languages.

A threatened language is used for face-to-face communication but its number of users is declining. Ethnologue identifies 1,547 threatened languages.

A dying language is still used by older people but is not being passed down to children. Ethnologue identifies 920 dying languages.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Some languages are only spoken. A language with a literary tradition is written as well as spoken. All institutional languages have a literary tradition. Even though a developing language may have a literary tradition, it is one that is not widely distributed. Some languages with literary traditions may use more than one alphabet.

Languages are organized into families, branches, and groups. A language family is a collection of languages related through a common ancestral language that existed long before recorded history.

Indo-European is the language family with the most speakers. English is one of the languages of the Indo-European language family.

A language branch exists within a family, comprising a collection of languages that are related through a common ancestral language that existed several thousand years ago. Archaeological evidence is often used to link language branches to the same family. English belongs to the Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family.

A language group is a collection of languages within a branch that share a common origin in the relatively recent past and exhibit many similarities in grammar and vocabulary. English is in the West Germanic group within the Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family.

Distribution of Languages Figure 5-4 includes the language families with at least 7 million native users and labels individual languages with at least 50 million users. Ethnologue identifies 141 language families.

The origin of language families predates recorded history, so exact origins and diffusion patterns of language families is unknown. Based on the complexity and diversity of languages present in Africa today Quentin Atkinson, a New Zealander biologist, posits that all languages originated in Africa. He further claims that languages outside of Africa show less linguistic diversity because they have had a shorter time period in which to evolve.

Language Families Over 90 percent of the world’s people speak a language belonging to one of seven language families. Two-thirds use a language that is in either the Indo-European or Sino-Tibetan language families. The remaining 9 use a language belonging to one of the other 134 smaller language families. Other than Indo-European, Quechuan is the most widely used language family in the Western Hemisphere.

Figure 5-9, Language Family Trees, provides a visual representation of the divisions within language families. Individual languages are displayed as leaves with larger leaves indicating a greater number of users.

Language families are represented as the trunks of the trees. Some trunks are divided to illustrate branches within the language family. The width of these trunks and branches also represents the relative number of users of the language. Some major branches such as Germanic are further divided into language groups.

Superfamilies are shown below the ground level because their existence is still speculative and controversial.

Distribution of Indo-European Languages Indo-European is the most extensively used language family and is the major language group used in Europe, South Asia, and North and Latin America. Of its eight branches, four are widely used (Indo-Iranian, Germanic, Romance, and Balto-Slavic), while the other four branches are used by relatively fewer people (Albanian, Armenian, Celtic, and Greek).

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Chapter 5: Languages Indo-Iranian Branch The Indo-Iranian branch is the Indo-European language family with the most speakers. The Indo-Iranian branch is further divided into the Iranian and Indo-Aryan groups. The Iranian group (Western) includes Persian (also called Farsi) in Iran, Pashto in eastern Afghanistan and western Pakistan, and Kurdish. The Indo-Aryan group (Eastern) includes Hindi, the most widely used language in this group, Bengali, the second most widely used language in this group, and Urdu, Pakistan’s official language.

Germanic Branch English is part of the West Germanic group of the Germanic branch of the Indo- European language family. Other West Germanic group languages include Dutch, Flemish, Frisian, Afrikaans, and German. The other important Germanic group is North Germanic. The North Germanic group includes four languages spoken in Scandinavia—Swedish, Danish, Norwegian, and Icelandic.

Balto-Slavic Branch Slavic was once a single language, but differences developed when a group of Slavs migrated from Asia to Eastern Europe. The Slavs were isolated from each other and the languages changed over time. The Balto-Slavic branch is further divided into East, West, and South Slavic groups and a Baltic group. East Slavic languages include Russian, Ukrainian, and Belarusian. Russian is the most pervasive as the Soviet government forced all of its residents to learn Russian. The West Slavic group includes Polish, Czech, and Slovak. The South Slavic language group is centered in the former Yugoslavia. The language spoken there was once known as Serbo-Croatian and used two alphabets. Serbian is written in Cyrillic and Croatian in Latin letters. Since independence each country has rebranded the language with the country name, e.g., Croatian in Croatia, Serbian in Serbia, and Bosnian in Bosnia, etc.

Romance Branch. The four most widely used Romance languages are Spanish, Portuguese, French, and Italian. Romanian is separated from other Romance languages by Slavic-speaking countries.

Distribution of Other Language Families There are eleven other language families with at least 50 million speakers distributed throughout Asia and Africa.

East Asia Language Families Most people in Asia use a language within the Sino-Tibetan family. Japanese and Korean are the two most commonly used language families in Asia, excluding those in China.

Sino-Tibetan Sino-Tibetan is the second-most widely used language family in the world. Mandarin (known by the Chinese as Putonghua, or “common speech”) is the world’s single most-spoken language. Mandarin is the official language of the People’s Republic of China and Taiwan and is one of the U.N.’s official languages. Seven other Sino-Tibetan languages, each have over 20 million speakers.

Japanese Written in part with Chinese characters, Japanese also uses two systems of phonetic symbols, used either in place of Chinese characters or alongside them. While the original form of writing Japanese was influenced by the Chinese writing system, the two languages are structurally distinct.

Korean The Korean written system, known as hankul, is distinct from Japanese and Sino-Tibetan languages in that each letter represents a sound, as in Western languages. Most of the Korean vocabulary originated from Chinese words.

Southeast Asia Language Families The three largest language families present in Southeast Asia are Austronesian, Austro-Asiatic, and Tai-Kadai.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Austronesian Approximately 5 percent of the world’s population speaks languages of the Austronesian family, with most speakers concentrated in Indonesia. As Indonesia is composed of several thousand different islands, many distinct languages and dialects can be found across the country—according to Ethnologue, 706 living languages are spoken in Indonesia. The most spoken first language in Indonesia is Javanese, spoken by 84 percent of the population who live on the heavily populated island of Java.

Austro-Asiatic The Austro-Asiatic language family is used by approximately 2 percent of the world’s population, with Vietnamese being the most widely used language in the family. Written Vietnamese features a Latin alphabet, a legacy of the work of Roman Catholic missionaries in the seventeenth century.

Tai-Kadai The Tai-Kadai family was once categorized as a branch of Sino-Tibetan. The primary languages of this family are spoken in Thailand and adjacent areas of China. Some scholars believe that populations speaking Tai-Kadai languages may have migrated from the Philippines.

Other Asian Language The Dravidian and Turkic language families are also two widely used languages in Asia.

Dravidian Dravidian is the second most widely used language in South Asia and the main language family used in India. Telugu and Tamil are the two most commonly used Dravidian languages. The origin of Dravidian is unknown except for the fact that it was present in South Asia prior to the arrival of speakers of Indo-European.

Turkic The Turkic languages, formerly called Altaic, are theorized to have emerged from the steppe areas bordering the Qilian Shan and Altai mountains between Tibet and China. Turkish is the most commonly used language in this group. After the Soviets gained control of Central Asia in the mid-twentieth century, the Turkic languages of the region were suppressed. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union in the early 1990s, languages from the Turkic family were recognized as the official languages in Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan. Once categorized as Turkic, the Uralic languages originated from a common language spoken by people in the Ural Mountains region of Russia some 7,000 years ago are now considered distinct.

African Language Families Language scholars dispute the categorization of African languages into families. Some scholars do not even agree on the exact number of languages used in Africa. Ethnologue identifies 2,146 languages in Africa, with only 699 having a literary tradition. Africa is home to the world’s third- and fourth-largest language families: Afro-Asiatic in North Africa and Niger-Congo in sub-Saharan Africa.

Afro-Asiatic Arabic is the primary language in the Afro-Asiatic family, with 206 million speakers. Two dozen countries in Southwest Asia & North Africa have adopted Arabic as their official language. In addition to Arabic, most people use a second language that is distinct from official Arabic. Ethnologue identifies 34 individual Arabic languages. Many of the 1.9 billion Muslims across the world speak some Arabic, as Islam’s holiest book, the Quran (Koran) was written in the seventh century in the language. Hebrew is also a member of the Afro-Asiatic language family, being the original language of Judaism’s Bible (Tanakh) and Christianity’s Old Testament.

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Chapter 5: Languages Niger-Congo More than 95 percent of sub-Saharan Africans use a language belonging to the Niger-Congo family. Yoruba, Igbo, and Swahili are the three most widely spoken Niger-Congo languages. Nigeria is home to the Yoruba and Igbo languages, and Swahili serves as the official language of Kenya, Rwanda, Tanzania, and Uganda. Swahili developed through interactions between African groups and Arab traders, so its vocabulary has a pronounced Arabic influence. Swahili is one of the few African languages with an extensive literary tradition.

Nilo-Saharan Across north-central Africa 53 million people speak languages of the Nilo-Saharan family.

Divisions within this group illustrate the problem of classifying African languages. Even though there are relatively few people speaking these languages, this language family is divided into six branches, along with many groups and subgroups.

Key Issue 2: Why Do Languages Diffuse?

Origin & Diffusion of Indo-European The geographic processes of origin and diffusion have played a role in the distribution of languages across the world. While these roots can be traced throughout history, language families predate any recording of their development and spread, allowing scholars to only speculate about their beginnings. The origin and distribution of the Romance language branch and the Indo-European language family illustrate these circumstances.

Origin & Diffusion of Romance Languages The Romance languages developed from Latin. The Romans helped diffuse Latin from the Atlantic Ocean on the west to the Black Sea on the east and encompassed all lands bordering the Mediterranean Sea. Most people in the provinces controlled by Rome learned Vulgar Latin, which was a form of Latin used in daily conversation instead of the strict dialect that was used for official documents. After the Roman Empire collapsed, communication among the former provinces declined that distinct languages began to evolve. French, Spanish, and Portuguese diffused throughout the world as a result of colonization.

Common Ancestry of Indo-European Languages Linguists generally agree that the Indo-European languages descended from a single ancestral language. This conclusion is based on shared words.

Origin & Diffusion of English When the Celts landed on the shores of the British Isles around 2000 B.C.E, they brought with them the Celtic languages. Tribes from mainland Europe invaded the Celtic people around 450 C.E. driving them to remote northern and western parts of Britain, including Cornwall and the highlands of Scotland and Wales.

German Invasion Three Germanic tribes invaded the British Isles: the Angles, Jutes, and Saxons. The Jutes invaded from northern Denmark, the Angles from southern Denmark, and the Saxons from northwestern Germany. The languages spoken by these three tribes have each contributed to the evolution of modern English. In fact, the name England stems from “Angles’ Land,” with Angles being spelled Engles in Old English. Before recorded history, all Germanic peoples spoke a common language. The differences that developed between Germanic languages are used to trace their evolution. Other groups such as the Vikings from Norway who invaded northeastern England in the ninth century played a role in the development of English.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Norman Invasion In 1066, the Normans from present-day Normandy in France conquered England. This invasion was key in the divergence of today’s English from the current German language. From the time the Normans invaded until the mid-fourteenth century, French was the official language of England. However, while the entitled class (such as the royal family and nobility) spoke French, most people (who had little education) continued to speak English. After Parliament enacted the Statute of Pleading in 1362, English once again became the official language of England. Modern English is influenced by both its Germanic and French ancestors.

Diffusion of English The worldwide distribution of English speakers throughout the world today is a legacy of four centuries of English colonialism. As the British empire acquired colonies in North America, Ireland, South Asia, the South Pacific, and southern Africa, the English language followed. Although English was the official language of British colonial possessions, generally only the rulers installed by the crown and a select group of elite local residents could speak it. The United States also played a role in the diffusion of English in the twentieth century through its territorial acquisitions.

Sharing Languages In the era of globalization, a common language is essential for the global connections.

English is the most important language of international communication. The predominance of the English language has facilitated the spread of pop culture and international trade. Populations for whom English is not their first language should consider the costs and benefits of using English.

Lingua Franca A language used for international communication is called a lingua franca. To aid trade, speakers of two different languages agree to use a lingua franca or common language. Meaning “language of the Franks,” the lingua franca was originally used by Arab traders during the Middle Ages to communicate with Europeans, whom they called Franks. The increasing importance of English as a lingua franca is evidenced by the high percentage of students learning English as a second language in middle or high school.

Other modern-day lingua franca languages include Swahili, German, French, or Russian.

English on the Internet More than one-half of all Internet content is in English, meaning that some knowledge of the language is crucial for engagement with others online. The English language websites predominate even though the number of English only Internet users has declined substantially. The U.S.based Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) assigns domain names and the suffixes following the dot, such as “com” and “edu.” U.S.-based websites do not need to add the two-letter suffix indicating the country. Since 2009, however, domain names in characters other than Latin, such as Arabic and Chinese may be used.

Chinese: The Next Lingua Franca? In addition to the sheer amount of people who speak Chinese languages, the way the languages are written broadens their appeal for use in social media. Chinese languages are written with logograms, which are symbols that represent words or meaningful parts of words.

Considering this, Chinese would be an ideal language for Twitter, where message length is limited. A 280-character message in English could be written in Chinese in only 140 characters.

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Key Issue 3: Why Do Languages Vary Among Places?

Official Languages Some countries designate one or more official languages. The official language is used by the government to enact legislation and conduct other public business. In some countries, the official language is the only one used in public schools. A working language is selected by an international corporation or organization as its primary means of communication for daily correspondence and conversation. The United Nations has six official and working languages: Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian, and Spanish. The European Union recognizes 24 official and working languages.

In 56 countries, English is an official language, more than any other language. More than 2 billion people live in a country that has designated English as an official language, whether they can speak it or not. Even though English is the predominant language in Australia, the United Kingdom, and the United States, it does not hold official status in these countries.

Informal Languages New languages are being created through the combination of English and other languages.

Franglais is mixture of French and English; Spanglish combines Spanish and English; and Denglish is an amalgamation of German and English.

In order to communicate with speakers of other languages a pidgin language mixes words and grammar rules from a lingua franca with elements of another language. A pidgin language has no native speakers—it is always spoken in addition to one’s native language.

A dialect is a regional variation of a language distinguished by distinctive vocabulary, spelling, and pronunciation. Generally, speakers of one dialect can understand speakers of another dialect. A subdialect is a subdivision of a dialect. Two subdialects of the same dialect have relatively few differences, primarily in pronunciation and vocabulary. These dialects and subdialects are of keen interest to geographers, as they generally reflect distinctive features of the environments in which groups live.

American and British English Due to its widespread diffusion around the world, English has an especially large number of dialects and subdialects. The colonists from England who settled along the Atlantic Coast in the seventeenth century established English as the dominant language of North America. Isolation from one another allowed British and U.S. English to develop differences in three key ways—vocabulary, spelling, and pronunciation.

Vocabulary New objects and experiences spurred the development of a unique vocabulary in U.S. English.

The settlers named new landforms and incorporated many Native American words such as raccoon, moccasin, and canoe into the language. As technological advances occurred on both sides of the Atlantic, they were given different names—an elevator in the U.S. is referred to as a lift in England.

Pronunciation Many words with unaccented syllables are pronounced more clearly in the United States as compared to England. For example, “necessary” is four syllables long in U.S. English, while it contains only three in British English.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Spelling Differences in spelling between British and U.S. English can largely be attributed to Noah Webster, who with his first comprehensive American dictionary, set out to establish a unique national identity with his work (by dropping the u from many words, and substituting an s for c in many words).

Dialects in the United Kingdom Dialects are also present within individual countries—in both the United States and England, distinct northern and southern dialects exist. In a language with multiple dialects, one dialect may be designated as the standard language, which is a dialect that is well established and widely agreed upon as the most acceptable for government, business, education, and mass communication.

Received Pronunciation (RP) is the standard language in England, and is commonly used by elected officials, broadcasters, and actors. Three main dialects are spoken today in England—Northern, Midland, and Southern. The boundaries between these dialects shift due to migration patterns.

U.S. Dialects The distribution of dialects is examined through the regional use of particular words. Every word that is not used nationally has some geographic extent within the country and therefore has boundaries.

Such a word-usage boundary is known as an isogloss. An isogloss can be constructed for each word.

Origin of U.S. Dialects The four major dialects of the United States are reflected in individual regions: North, Midland, South, and West. The three eastern dialect regions can also be divided into several subdialects. The current distribution of U.S. dialects can be traced to differences in the origin of the English colonists along the East Coast. The early colonies were home to three dialects: North, South, and Midland.

The diffusion of particular English dialects across the United States is a result of the westward expansion of colonists from the three East Coast dialect regions. The American West was settled primarily by people from the Midland dialect region which then set the pattern for standard pronunciation. The Northern and Southern accents are viewed as different from the standard pronunciation.

American Sign Language, originated by Thomas Gallaudet in Connecticut in 1817 is based on methods he had observed in France. Approximately one-half million use American Sign Language.

Appalachian English Appalachian English, spoken in areas such as rural West Virginia, is a distinct American English dialect. It uses the double negative, and the adding of “a” in front of verbs ending in “ing” (e.g. a-walking). Some speakers of Appalachian English are “bidialectic,” in that they can speak both their regional dialect and the “standard” English dialect.

African American English The forced migration of enslaved Africans to the United States during the eighteenth century influenced the development of a distinctive dialect. This dialect was created partially to communicate in a code that could not be understood by their white masters. Black dialect words such as jazz and gumbo have since diffused into the standard English language. After many African Americans migrated to the large cities of the Northeast in the twentieth century, they preserved this dialect known as African American Vernacular English (AAVE). Some in the African American community see this as a boon to preserving their cultural heritage, while others see it as an obstacle to success in the United States.

Changing Distribution of U.S. Dialects Many distinctive regional words are now national in their distribution because of the influence of mass media. However, regional dialect differences persist such in the use of various words to refer to a soft drink.

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Chapter 5: Languages Creole Languages A creole, or creolized language, is a language that results from the combination of a colonizer’s language with the language of the indigenous people. A creole language forms when the colonized population adopts the languages of the colonizer, but makes some changes, such as simplifying the grammar and adding words from their native language. These creole languages are considered separate languages because of major differences from the languages of the original colonizers. Examples include French Creole in Haiti and Papiamento in Netherlands Antilles.

Dialect or Language? Global-local tensions contribute to the difficulty in characterizing dialects and distinct languages. Geographic concepts such as migration, increased interaction (connections), and other globalization processes can be used to analyze the relationship between standard languages and dialects. In most cases of this scenario, the standard language strengthens while regional dialects are suppressed. In some instances, the drive for cultural identity has resulted in the development of distinct languages that were once characterized as dialects.

Dialects Become Languages Many linguists consider mutual intelligibility when distinguishing between two different languages and a dialect. If two people speaking differently can understand each other, then a dialect is probable as two different languages would not be understood by both individuals. There are some exceptions to this test.

Catalán-Valencian-Balear Catalán was once considered a dialect of Spanish, but is now recognized as a separate Romance language by linguists. Catalán is the official language of the country of Andorra, and the highly autonomous Catalonia province in Spain. Linguists have also identified distinct dialects of Catalán, such as Balear, spoken in the Balearic Islands of Majorca and Ibiza. Most linguists consider Valencian a dialect of Catalán, while many others consider it a language unto itself.

Galician Whether Galician, which is spoken in northwestern Spain and northeastern Portugal, is a dialect of Portuguese or a separate language remains a point of debate among speakers of Galician. Some, such as the Academy of Galician Language, view it as a separate language, while others, such as the Galician Association of the Language, see it as a dialect of Portuguese.

Moldovan Moldovan is generally recognized as a dialect of Romanian. Upon independence from the Soviet Union, the government changed the name of the language to Moldovan. In 2013, a Moldovan court ruled the language’s official name is Romanian based on their constitution.

Italy’s Languages Many regional dialects of Italian, such as Lombard, Napoletano-Calebrese, Piemontese, Sicilian, and Venetian are now recognized by Ethnologue as different enough to be recognized as separate languages.

Occitan Occitan is a language spoken in southern France and neighboring countries, derived from the name of the French region of Aquitaine. The French government has set up bilingual elementary and high schools called calendretas, teaching both French and Occitan.

Standardizing Languages In efforts to promote a unified cultural identity, many governments have designated a single dialect as the official or standard language.

French In France, the Francien French dialect became the standard form of French as Francien was spoken in the Île-de-France region, where Paris, the largest city of the country, is located.

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Spanish In an effort to standardize Spanish in the Western Hemisphere with European Spanish, a Spanish Royal Academy meets weekly to clarify rules for vocabulary, spelling, and pronunciation. The official dictionary includes words introduced to the language from both locations.

Portuguese Brazil, Portugal, and some Portuguese-speaking countries in Africa agreed in 1994 to standardize the written language. Some are upset because the changes more closely reflect Brazilian Portuguese.

Gender Differences in Languages Languages vary by gender to two main ways: the grammar may distinguish between masculine and feminine words, and word choice and the content of men and women’s conversations. One analysis of Facebook messages concluded that women used words associated with compassion and politeness while men used words that were more hostile and impersonal.

Multilingual Places Multiple languages coexist in some countries, with varying levels of success. Some countries are relatively segregated concerning the geographic distribution of language, while others see speakers of multiple languages intermingle. In some countries language is a centripetal force and in others a centrifugal force.

Switzerland: Institutionalized Diversity The boundary between the Romance and Germanic language families runs through Belgium and Switzerland. The government of Switzerland recognizes four official languages (German, French, Italian, and Romansh), and delegates power to the local level, helping to preserve this linguistic harmony.

Belgium: Barely Speaking Belgium is roughly divided in half by language—Southern Belgians, (Walloons) speak French, while northern Belgians (Flemings) speak Flemish, a dialect of Dutch. Within Belgium, the northern region of Flanders is more economically prosperous than the southern region of Wallonia. These cultural, linguistic, and economic differences are further underscored by the creation of autonomous regional governments. Some residents of Flanders even advocate for full independence.

Nigeria: Spatial Compromise Ethnologue recognizes 529 distinct languages in the country, but only three of those languages are used by more than 10 percent of its population: Hausa, Igbo, and Yoruba. Religious differences further divide the country with Muslims concentrated in northern Nigeria and Christians in the south. In order to reduce regional tensions, the government moved the capital from Lagos to Abuja, where no one culture or language predominates.

Canada: Bilingual Autonomy Canada recognizes two official languages, French and English. French speakers are most concentrated in the province of Québec, where they were once governed by an Englishspeaking minority. In recent years tension between English and French speakers (Québécois) within the province have decreased and neighborhoods in Montréal have become more linguistically mixed.

Key Issue 4: Why Do Languages Survive or Perish?

The distribution of a language is often an indicator of the fate of a cultural group—the patterns of diffusion and isolation affect a language’s survival.

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Chapter 5: Languages Endangered Languages Even though the counts differ, both the United Nations and Ethnologue identify a significant number of the world’s languages as endangered. Through concerted community efforts, these languages persevere against globalizing forces. The South Pacific, Latin America, and North America are the world’s regions with the largest share of dying languages, due to the dominance of English, Spanish, and Portuguese in these areas.

Endangered Languages in the South Pacific Even though English is dominant, languages that existed prior to the arrival of Europeans still remain. New Zealand and Australia differ on policies for language preservation.

Australia Although Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people make up only 1 percent of Australia’s population, 211 living indigenous languages exist today. English is the official language of instruction throughout the country.

New Zealand Fourteen percent of New Zealand’s population is of Maori descent, whose ancestors migrated from Polynesia over 750 years ago. Maori is one of New Zealand’s three official languages. Few (4 percent) are fluent and most are over age 50. Ethnologue classifies Maori as a threatened language.

Isolated & Extinct Languages Language patterns reflect the competition between two geographic trends— globalization and local diversity.

Isolated Languages Similarities and differences between languages mirrors the degree of interaction among groups of people. Isolation may preserve some languages, but doom other languages to extinction. An isolated language is a language that is unrelated to any other and thus not categorized in any language family.

The major cause of an isolated language is limited interaction with other groups. A vibrant isolated language is spoken in all areas of life by all members of a community. Seven isolated language in the world today are classified as vibrant. The remainder of the isolated languages are classified as dying.

Basque: Europe’s Only Isolated Language Basque (Euskara) is the only example of a vibrant isolated language in Europe. Basque is a remnant of languages that existed prior to the arrival of speakers of Indo-European languages. Located in an isolated location in the Pyrenees Mountains of Spain and France, no connections between Basque and other languages have been made.

Icelandic: An Unchanging Language While Icelandic is not considered an isolated language because it is in the Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family, its geographic isolation has affected is development. The language has changed little since the time of Norwegian colonization in 874 C.E. Extinct Languages An extinct language is a language that was once used by people in daily activities but is no longer in use. There are four stages in the extinction of a language: (1) restrictions on the use of the language in public places (2) the language is no longer taught to children (3) the language is only spoken by older people and (4) the language is no longer spoken and becomes extinct. Ethnologue estimates that 367 languages have become extinct since 1950, at rate of 6 per year.an annual rate of 6. Language loss can be attributed to globalization as people abandon their indigenous language and adopt a more widely used language.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Preserving Languages

In 2003 the United Nations instituted a program to preserve endangered languages.

Brythonic Celtic The Celtic language branch is divided into Goidelic and Brythonic groups. Speakers of Brythonic are concentrated in Wales, Cornwall, and the Brittany peninsula in France.

Welsh Wales was conquered by the English in 1283. In the 19th century many English speakers migrated to Wales bringing the English language with them. Efforts have been made to preserve the Welsh language— compulsory subject in school, the publication of official government documents, and television programming.

Even though Welsh has become the official language in Wales, 73 percent of people living there reported no Welsh language skills.

Cornish Cornish is the Celtic language that originated in the county of Cornwall in southwestern England.

Although the last native speaker of Cornish died in 1777, a revival has seen 577 people alive today claiming to be fluent. Classes are taught in schools for both children and adults seeking to learn the language.

Breton Spoken in the Brittany peninsula of France, the number of people fluent in the language has declined from 1 million in 1950 to approximately 200,000 today, with three quarters of the speakers being over the age of 65. In addition to facing this generational problem, the French government has mandated French as the principal language of instruction in public schools.

Goidelic Celtic

Irish Gaelic and Scottish Gaelic are the two remaining Goidelic languages.

Irish English and Irish are the two official languages in Ireland. On a daily basis, Irish is spoken by 94,000 people, with an additional 1.3 million stating that they can speak it and use it occasionally. Use of Irish is more concentrated in the remote areas of the country. The revival of the Irish language is led by young Irish living in other countries. As part of this effort, many rock groups have begun to record and perform in Gaelic as they seek to recapture their heritage.

Scottish Gaelic 59,000 people, or 1 percent of the population, in Scotland speak Scottish Gaelic. This language is more likely to be located in the more remote areas of Scotland’s northern highlands and islands.

New & Growing Languages Coincident with a decline in the number of languages worldwide, several languages are being invented or revived. These actions reflect the value groups place on language as an element of local culture.

Introducing the Chapter The previous chapter focused on material culture, tangible objects of a culture. In addition to religion, and ethnicity, language helps to shape cultural values and cultural identities. Language issues are often at the center of debates over immigration, national identity, and separatist movements around the world. Language not only provides a medium for communication, but can serve as a centripetal or centrifugal force based on the context. Initiate the discussion of language by assessing its role in the diffusion of culture at a variety of scales.

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Student Engagement Activity Ideas American Monolingualism The chapter introduces the concept of language diversity with a discussion of how few languages most Americans speak or understand. Another way to introduce this topic is with the following joke: Q: What do you call a person who speaks multiple languages?

A: A polyglot.

Q: What do you call a person who speaks two languages?

A: Bilingual.

Q: What do you call a person who speaks only one language?

A: American.

Follow this attempt at humor with a question on why so few Americans know more than one language.

Answers will vary from the global prominence of English to the misconception that “English is easy.”

Dialects Ask the students if they think they speak a U.S. dialect. Then go to this website: alphadictionary.com/articles/ yankeetest.html or alphadictionary.com/articles/yankeetest_advanced.html.

You can do this in class. Just have students write their answers on a piece of paper and discuss the answers when they are done. Your students will enjoy this.

Dialect Quiz The New York Times dialect quiz, “How Y’all, Youse and You Guys Talk” at www.nytimes.com/interactive/ 2014/upshot/dialect-quiz-map.html uses questions similar to the yankee test but adds the element of a map showing the distribution of the terms. As an introduction to this unit, have students complete the quiz outside of class. Ask students to comment on the information presented in the “quiz” with their own experiences with local language.

Challenges to Comprehension “English Is Easy” Students who speak English and have since birth have the impression that English is an easy or “natural” language to learn while other languages are not.

Try having a conversation with the class on why so few Americans speak other languages other than English.

A few students may volunteer that English is simple, but students with knowledge of other languages will be able to correct them. Some may also offer that it is not necessary to speak any other languages, which can prompt a discussion on globalization and the value of understanding other languages.

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Additional Classroom Activities & Assignments Review/Reflection Questions These questions can be used in addition to the “thinking geographically” questions at the end of each chapter.

Students can be assigned these questions as homework, they can be given as essay questions on exams, or they can serve as focus questions for in-class discussions.

The italicized section that follows the question sets the criteria and parameters for student answers. Use these suggestions to provide guidance in the assessment of student answers. In addition, a sample answer has been provided. Know that student answers will vary based on the examples and explanations you provided in class.

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Why do so few Americans speak another language other than English? Answer the question from a personal perspective and a national perspective.

Student answers should identify and explain why so few Americans speak a world language. The answer should also incorporate language from a personal and a national perspective.

Sample answer English has diffused worldwide and English speakers are likely to be encountered in an American’s travel abroad. The desire and ability of many people in other parts of the world to speak English is a disincentive for Americans to learn another language.

Personally, I try and learn a few essential words in the language of the country I am visiting. The people in the host country are delighted at my feeble attempts to communicate. At a national level fluency in English is supported by the news and television media, education, and government proceedings.

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How do you think Americans who travel abroad but don’t speak other languages are perceived by residents of the places they visit? Compare this to the way recent immigrants to the United States are perceived by English-only speakers in the United States. Can a direct comparison be made? What is the difference between these situations?

Student responses should include both negative and positive responses of residents from the countries visited when encountering English-only speakers. In comparing immigrants to the U.S. to American tourist travels, student answers should recognize differences in duration of the interactions.

Sample answer Residents of the country visited may feel insulted that their language is not considered worth studying.

They may also view the tourist as ignorant because he or she only speaks one language. On the other hand, some residents in the country may be delighted to hone their English skills by communicating with a native speaker and insist on only speaking English. Despite language differences tourist dollars are always welcomed.

Americans in the United States look down upon most immigrants not fluent in English. A pervasive attitude is if you come to the United States to live you should be willing to assimilate and speak the language. The comparison is probably not valid because an immigrant intends to take up permanent residence in the United States whereas the American visiting abroad is only there for a short time.

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Give several inoffensive examples of words you use that your parents wouldn’t understand. What does this reveal about the nature of languages?

Student answers should include specific words that they use that are not understood by their parents. The answer should also mention the ability of languages to evolve and modify in light of new inventions and events.

Sample answer The abbreviations for text messages, such as BFF, LOL BTW, would baffle my parents. The invention of new words and short cuts for thoughts show that languages are alive and developing words to capture changes within society. Each year the Merriam-Webster Dictionary adds new words to the lexicon.

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Apply the book’s comparison of language in multilingual states to the United States. Which approach do you believe would work better, and why? Given current immigration trends, will this be a concern?

Student answers should indicate knowledge of the approaches of multilingual states, Switzerland, Belgium, Nigeria and Canada detailed in the text. The student should then, to the best of his or her knowledge, describe the multilingualism within the United States. One or more aspects of the U.S. approach should be compared to the approaches used in at least one of the other countries. The answer should conclude with a hypothesis about the possible effects of migration trends.

Sample answer Four examples of multilingual states, Switzerland, Belgium, Nigeria, and Canada, are presented in the textbook. Each country has its own unique approach to dealing with multiple languages.

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The Swiss have four official languages and recognize the right of people to make decisions at the local level of government. These policies underscore recognition and support of language diversity.

In Belgium, the linguistic differences are exacerbated by economic and political divides.

Linguistically the two major languages used French and Dutch are in different branches of the Indo-European language family.

In Nigeria, an overwhelming number of dialects and religious differences divide the country. In an attempt to not favor one of the major linguistic groups over another, the government has moved its capital to a “neutral” area.

In Canada, the minority of French speakers are concentrated in Quebec which in the past has put forward a bid for autonomy. Officially both languages are recognized.

The four approaches detailed above show varying degrees of tolerance for linguistic diversity with Switzerland having the most and perhaps Belgium the least. In Nigeria the government approach may be described as one of benign neglect while in Canada tolerance and cooperation are the norm today.

The comparison to the multilingual policy of the United States is complex. Unlike the linguistic policies described above, the United States has no official language. English is the language of government documents and education. However, many government notices and telephone messages acknowledge the large number of Spanish speakers by providing an option for Spanish. Is this a policy or a practice of common courtesy?

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Medicare providers routinely ask if there are any communication needs and some written documents include statements in over a dozen languages, many with different alphabets.

I would recommend that the U.S. policy mirror that of Switzerland with respect for multiple languages, while still using English as the primary means of communication. After all, 32 states have adopted English as their official language. Unlike the groups with linguistic links to individual pieces of territory in which their group is concentrated, U.S. society is more mobile. As a result, or perhaps due to a spirit of nationalism, most citizens of the U.S. pledge allegiance to the country, not its constituent states. The country is further unified by principles of life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness that are legally protected by the U.S. Constitution and guaranteed in the Bill of Rights.

The tolerance and appreciation of linguistic diversity faces a challenge today. Efforts to restrict immigration are part of today’s public debate. Some anti-immigrant groups may seek to limit migration to the U.S. to English only speakers in order to preserve their perceptions of cultural “purity.” The current method of toleration of other languages and functional use of English throughout the country may be the norm for years to come.

Toponym Analysis Toponyms reveal a lot about the culture, history, and physical geography of your state. Find a detailed map of your state. It needs to have both political features (cities and counties) and physical features (rivers, mountains, and lakes) labeled.

First, identify what non-English language or languages are prominently used in your state’s place names. Are Native American words commonly used in your state’s place names? Identify any place names that are transplanted from elsewhere (e.g., New London, Connecticut, or Rome, New York). What do these place names reveal about the cultural history of your state?

Next, identify any historical people used in your state’s place names (Columbus, Ohio, or Lincoln, Nebraska)?

Some of the names of the people used in the place names of your state may be very important to the history of the local area, but unknown nationally. Places may also be named for the kings and dukes associated with the home country.

Lastly, identify any descriptions of physical features used in your state’s political place names (e.g., Grand Rapids, Michigan, or Long Beach, California)? Do these names accurately represent the physical landscape of the area? Are there any place names in your state that represent the native flora and fauna (e.g., Southern Pines, North Carolina, or Wolf Point, Montana)?

Summarize your findings in a few paragraphs. What other questions does your analysis raise?

Student answers should include specific place names for the various categories identified in the question.

There should be a concluding statement describing the role of place names in shaping the cultural legacy of the area. Encourage the practice of using a topic sentence to introduce a list.

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Chapter 5: Languages Sample answer Toponyms reveal the physical and cultural landscape of a place. Virginia’s place names reflect: • • • • • • • •

members of the British royal family such as Jamestown, King and Queen County, Prince Edward County, Prince George County, Cape Henry, and Cape Charles replication of place names in England such as Suffolk, Norfolk, Westmoreland, Sussex, Bristol, Portsmouth, and Essex and more places in other cultures such as the Germans in Harrisonburg, Lynchburg, Blacksburg (Germany) Warsaw, New Bohemia. Pulaski (Eastern Europe), Dumfries, Glen Allen (Scotland), and Vienna, classical place names such as Rome, Palmyra, and Athens name of famous political and military leaders such as Leesburg, counties named after Jefferson, Madison, and Washington Indian names such as Chincoteague, Accomack, Chickahominy, Mattaponi River, Massanutten Nottaway, Rappahannock, and Shenandoah economic activities, occupations, and resources such as Mechanicsville, Central Garage, Burkes Garden, Providence Forge, Sugar Grove, Blue Grass, Farmville, and Steele’s Tavern physical features such as Big Stone Gap, Great Falls, Cave Springs, Saltville, Blackstone, Grottoes, and Timberville.

The toponyms used on the map reveal the cultural history of the people who settled the land. Some place names were reminiscent of the homeland and others commemorated famous individuals. Most interesting were the places names that revealed the economic activities and physical features associated with a place.

Are you literate? Exploring languages and alphabets As an out-of-class assignment have students assess their literacy in another language by exploring one or more language tutorials and at least two different alphabets. This activity provides students with hands-on experience with the diversity of the world’s languages and alphabets. The activity is ideal for posting on a learning management system such as Blackboard. The sites are pre-identified so that students will be able to discuss their common experience in language exploration with their peers.

Provide students with a list of websites similar to the ones below. Keep in mind that the addresses of websites may change. Have students explore two language “lessons” and two alphabets.

Have students provide a response to the following questions.

• •

Write a brief description detailing what you learned about language through your examination of the sites.

Explain how language influences the development of a culture.

Online language “lessons” • • • • •

Useful Basque phrases, omniglot.com/language/phrases/basque.php Romany phrases, www2.arnes.si/~eusmith/Romany/phrases.html Bahasa Indonesia, seasite.niu.edu/indonesian/percakapan/indonesia7days/indo7days_fs.htm Papiamento word, omniglot.com/language/phrases/papiamento.phps What is Esperanto?, language-learning-advisor.com/what-is-esperanto.html 149 .

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography • • • • •

Esperanto phrases, omniglot.com/language/phrases/esperanto.php What is Gullah?, knowitall.org/series/gullahnet Listen to Gullah children’s tale, knowitall.org/interactive/little-red-hen-gullah-gullah-tales Xhosa click sound lesson, youtube.com/watch?feature=fvwp&v=31zzMb3U0iY&NR=1 National Geographic explores click languages, youtube.com/watch?v=c246fZ-7z1w

Alphabets • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Chinese Characters, clavisinica.com/compounds.html Chinese (Mandarin) Flashcards, semanda.com/printable.aspx?ID=img Kanji, japan-guide.com/e/e2046.html Sanskrit, omniglot.com/writing/sanskrit.htm Arabic Alphabet, omniglot.com/writing/arabic.htm Arabic Numbers, sakkal.com/instrctn/Arabic_Numerals.html Armenian Alphabet, omniglot.com/writing/armenian.htm Hebrew Alphabet, omniglot.com/writing/hebrew.htm Georgian Alphabet, krysstal.com/writing_georgian.html Russian Alphabet song, youtube.com/watch?v=GIKX9RYOX5w Greek Alphabet, physlink.com/reference/GreekAlphabet.cfm Greek Alphabet song, youtube.com/watch?v=ZUrZHF_WBeI Persian Alphabet (Farsi), omniglot.com/writing/persian.htm Persian Alphabet song, youtube.com/watch?v=fh-lfHbIi5o&feature=youtu.be Kurdish Alphabet, omniglot.com/writing/kurdish.htm Another Russian Alphabet song, youtube.com/watch?v=OHYE0zXxwGo

Mastering Geography™ provides additional assignable learning activities and ready-made resources designed to extend and reinforce student skills and mastery of key content, concepts, and vocabulary. The resources include MapMaster 2.0™ interactive maps, videos, GeoTutor coaching activities, Google Earth Explorations, outline maps, chapter quizzes, Dynamic Study Modules, and more. Further details about these resources and recommendations for use are provided in the Resources section of this document. You can assign these media-rich activities as pre or post lecture homework.

Thinking Geographically Questions Key Issue 5.1: Nearly one-half of the world’s people speak a language in the Indo-European family.

1. This road sign is in four languages. How many can you identify?

I can definitely identify the first language on the sign. The first language is Serbian and the second Croatian or Slovak. The last is Romanian or possibly Hungarian or maybe even Albanian. The town of Kovačiča is located in the autonomous Vojvodina province of Serbia. The area’s major ethnic groups include Slovaks, Serbians, Hungarians, and Romanians.

The Geographical Names site using the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency as a source places the third spelling in Serbia. The site uses English equivalents of the place names. So, I deduced that English is the language for the third spelling.

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Chapter 5: Languages Geographic Name Server, www.geonames.nga.mil/namesgaz/gnsquicksearch.asp, identifies the following countries with a populated place named some variant of Kovačica: Albania, Bosnia, Bulgaria, Kosovo, and Montenegro.

2. How many writing systems appear to be represented in the sign?

Two writing systems are included on the sign—Latin letters and Cyrillic.

3. Where in the world is this sign?

The sign is located somewhere in the Balkans. Many countries in the Balkans have a town with a similar name.

4. What accounts for the choice of languages on this sign?

The neighboring countries account for the choice of languages on the sign.

Key Issue 5.2: In prehistoric times, languages may have diffused along with agriculture or through warfare.

5. Apart from the Kurgans’ warlike character, what feature of Kurgan culture greatly facilitated the diffusion of Indo-European—assuming the nomadic warrior theory is correct?

The Kurgans moved westward on horse. The use of horses allowed them to cover greater distances in a shorter period of time. As they moved westward, they left behind a legacy of language.

Key Issue 5.3: Natives of Appalachian communities, such as in rural West Virginia, have a distinctive dialect, pronouncing hollow as holler and creek as crick, for example.

6. What positive elements and challenges might people of Appalachia experience as result of the distinctive dialect?

Positive elements include a sense of belonging to a unique cultural identity. A negative result of a distinctive dialect is the view of some that the speaker is less intelligent or backward because he or she does not use standard English pronunciations for words.

Key Issue 5.4: This sign, erected by the Fingal County Council, is in Irish Gaelic only.

7. What are the benefits and challenges of erecting a sign only in Irish?

Only people literate in Irish Gaelic will be able to read and understand this sign. The major benefit of posting a sign in Irish Gaelic underscores the linguistic identity of the people of the region and serves as a unifying force. The challenge of posting a sign in Irish Gaelic is the other people who are excluded from understanding the sign’s message. This would be especially problematic as the sign is a warning of some sort.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography 8. If you encountered this sign on a visit to Ireland, what would you do?

I would first stand there mystified at the lack of understanding. Once my language app translated rabhadh as warning, I would have an incentive to ask a native speaker for a translation.

9. Does your translation app adequately translate the purpose of the sign?

Not at all. The best I could get Google translate to offer is “the bag for your personal property seen or nobody is a vehicle in your vehicle anyway.” Could this possibly mean keep valuables out of sight?

Pause and Reflect Questions 5.1.1

Give an example of another language that has diffused far from where it originated, identifying its origin and how it reached its destination?

Portuguese has diffused from Portugal on the Iberian Peninsula to Brazil in South America a distance of 7,710 kilometers. The Portuguese also established their language in Timor Leste, an independent country located within the eastern portion of the Indonesian archipelago, a distance of 16,133 kilometers. The language diffused due to Portuguese colonialism and trade routes.

5.1.2

Sino-Tibetan is the second-most widely used language family, but it appears on Figure 5-4 to encompass a smaller land area than several other language families? Why is this the case?

The areas where people speak languages belonging to the Sino-Tibetan language family are relatively more densely populated than, say, the Niger-Congo language family, which actually covers more land area but only has a third of the speakers.

5.1.3

Based on Figure 5-9, which four other languages with at least 5 million users belong to the same language family, branch, and group as English?

Afrikaans, German, Bavarian, and Dutch all have at least 5 million speakers and belong to the same language family, branch, and group as English.

5.1.4

Which branch of Indo-European predominates to the north in Europe, which to the south, and which to the east?

The Germanic branch predominates to the north, the Romance branch predominates to the south, and the Balto-Slavic branch predominates to the east.

5.1.5

Most language families are named for regions or countries. Based on their names, how would you expect the distributions of the three largest Southeast Asian language families to differ??

The three largest language families are Austronesian, Austro-Asiatic, and Tai-Kadai. I would expect Austronesian languages to be located closer to Australia and insular Pacific locations. The Austro-Asiatic languages are located in coastal areas in Southeast Asia, south of China. The Tai-Kadai language family has a peninsular location in the further inland than the Austro-Asiatic group. The Tai-Kai would be closer to China as it was once identified as a Sino-Tibetan language.

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Chapter 5: Languages 5.2.1

Pick an English word for an animal or plant. Use a translation app to see the word in French or Spanish. Does the word look very similar or different? Why??

The word I chose was cat. In French the word is chat, in Spanish the word is gato. Dog is chien in French and Spanish perro. Except for chat in French the words are very different. This is because French and Spanish belong to the Romance language family whereas English belongs to the Germanic language family.

5.2.2

School and university: Which word entered the English language through the German invasions and which through the Norman invasion?

School entered the English language through the German invasions, and university through the Norman invasion.

5.2.3

Can you spot the spelling error in Figure 5-23? Why might that have occurred?

The sign on the Internet café states “facialities” instead of facilities. The error may have occurred because English and Hindu use two different alphabets.

5.3.1

Name a language in Europe on Figure 5-26 that is not an official language. Why might that be the case?

Irish Gaelic is not indicated on the map as an official language of the European Union. Irish Gaelic is identified as a language in need of preservation and protection. The Irish Gaelic language does not have millions of native speakers. The official languages in the Republic of Ireland are English and Irish Gaelic. English would serve as a lingua franca for Ireland in dealings with the European Union.

5.3.2

How could you become familiar with differences between American and British English?

It is quite easy to familiarize oneself with British English through watching British television and movies, and reading British literature. It also helps to communicate directly with someone from the U.K., whether that be online or in person.

5.3.3

Does your English fall into one of these dialects? Why or why not?

My spoken English does not fall into either the Northern or Southern dialects. Living in Ohio, I was raised with the standard English of the Midwest dialect, that used by television broadcasting throughout the United States.

5.3.4

Does your Internet search engine show tildes, cedillas, and circumflexes?

My search engine does, however my keyboard doesn’t have dedicated keys for these accent marks.

5.3.5

What is the most widely used language in the same family as Hausa? What religion’s holiest book is written in that language?

The most widely used Afro-Asiatic language is Arabic. Islam’s holiest book, the Quran (Koran) is written in Arabic.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography 5.4.1

Asia has 60 percent of the world’s population but only 20 percent of the world’s dying languages.

Why might Asia’s large population centers have relatively few dying languages?

Because the effects of globalization may not have diffused fully to these areas, allowing for a diversity of languages. Parents may be continuing to teach their languages to their children, and the governments of these countries may also have implemented policies to protect and preserve these languages.

5.4.2

The top line in Figure 5-42 is in Basque. Use your translation app to identify the language in the second line. Why might that language be displayed on the sign?

According to the Google translate app the sign says, “Pedestrians have priority.” The app detected the second language as Spanish with the same message.

Spanish is included on the sign because most of the territory in which Basque is spoken in located in northern Spain on the border with France.

5.4.3

In your translation app, enter something in English and see whether similar words are used in Irish and in Welsh and whether the words are similar to English.

“Good morning” is “maidin mhaith” in Irish and “bore da” in Welsh. They aren’t very similar at all to their English counterpart, although in the Welsh phrase I suppose “da” may be related to “day.”

Caption Questions Figure 5-9, Language Family Trees, p. 153 1. Which is older, the Greek branch or the West Germanic group? Explain.

Greek because it is further down on the trunk of the tree.

2. Name two European languages that are related to each other, but not related to other European languages. Explain.

Finnish and Estonian are related to each other because they are both non-Indo-European languages belonging to the Uralic language family. They differ from the rest of European region where Indo-European languages predominate.

Figure 5-20, Bayeux Tapestry, p. 159 The tapestry depicts the Norman invasion. It was woven a few years after the invasion. It normally is displayed at a museum in Bayeux, France.

1. What does “exercitu” (the word in the upper left) mean? army 2. In what language is “exercitu?”

The word is from Latin.

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Chapter 5: Languages

3. Why was this language used, rather than English or French?

Latin was the lingua franca of the Middle Ages among the educated. The tapestry is in France and their language is in the Romance language family which derived from Latin.

Figure 5-32, Soft Drink Dialects, p. 169 1. What similarities and differences do you see between the distribution of soft-drink dialects and the distribution of dialects in Figure 5-31?

Over all there is a spatial association between the distribution of the dialects and the words used for soft drinks. The notable exception to this trend is between Missouri and Indiana.

2. What probably explains why the greatest diversity of dialects is in the East?

The east is more heavily populated than other parts of the country.

Figure 5-45, Languages in the United States Extinct Since 1950, p. 177 1. What explains why there are so many recently extinct languages along the West Coast, but only a few in the East?

The higher number of extinct languages on the west coast of the United States is due to the wider variety of Native Americans there. As the native speakers of the languages die, the languages become extinct.

Sustainability & Our Environment, Warriors or Farmers, p. 159 Linguists and anthropologists disagree on when and where Proto-Indo-European originated and the process and routes by which it diffused. The two theories are “nomadic warrior” and “sedentary farmer.”

1. Identify the type or types of diffusion involved in each scenario.

Kurgan warriors spread their language through conquest. This would be a form of relocation diffusion as they took their language with them. Relocation diffusion also underlies the “sedentary farmer” theory. As agricultural practices diffused to new lands so did the speakers.

2. Which hypothesis appeals more to you: the “war” hypothesis or the “peace” hypothesis? Why? The war hypothesis because of the invasion of the tribes from the east into western Europe brought settlers and their language to the region. The folk costumes of the Hungarians show evidence of a horse-based culture.

Doing Geography, Languages of the United States, p. 165 English is the de facto language of the United States even though it does not have the status of an official language. Thirty-two states have laws that make English the official language.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography What is Your LANGUAGE Geography?

In American Community Survey, enter your community or zip code.

1. How many people in your community speak a language other than English at home?

Out of 70,427 people in my zip code, 10,594 speak a language other than English.

2. What language other than English is most predominant in your community? What might account for that language?

Asian and Pacific Island languages are the highest with 5,303 speakers. There is a large Filipino population in my zip code due to the presence of many U.S. Navy installations in the area.

3. Is a language other than English commonly spoken in your home or among your family?

English is the only language spoken in our home.

Debate It! French Only in Quebec, p. 179 Search for Official Languages Act Canada or scan the QR. 1. What are the principal features of the Act? The main stated purpose of the Act is to ensure the equality of status between the official languages of Canada, English and French, as well as provide support for minority languages.

2. In what ways might Québec’s policy on the use of French conflict with Canada’s Official Languages Act? Québec’s policy of French only within its borders is a violation of Canada’s Official Languages Act. 3. How might Québec’s French-only language policy impact interregional migration patterns within Canada? Refer to Figures 3-20 and 5-39.

Citizens of Québec who only speak French may face difficulties in communication when migrating to other areas within Canada. However, as official government documents must be in both languages the difficulties faced may be minor. On the other hand, the map presented as Figure 5-39 shows a low concentration of French speakers around heavily populated sections of Canada where employment is likely to be found. The migration patterns in Figure 3-20 show out-migration from Ontario and Québec and in-migration to the far western regions of Alberta and British Columbia where French is not the prevalent language.

Writing Geographically Figure 5CR-5 is a map of a language other than English spoken by 40 million people in the United States.

1. Name the language.

The language is likely Spanish.

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Chapter 5: Languages 2. Identify geographic factors explaining why this is the second most frequently spoken language in the United States.

Relocation diffusion is the primary geographic factor influencing the distribution of the 53 million Spanish speakers throughout the United States.

3. State geographic factors explaining the distribution of speakers of this language within the United States.

Proximity to Mexico is one of geographic factors that account for the distribution of the Spanish language throughout the United States. Historically, the Spanish colonized the North American Southwest translating their language to the region. The concentration of Spanish speakers in Florida is due to migration from Cuba both before and after the communist revolution there. The concentrations the northeast may be due to chain migration as residents of Puerto Rico joined their family members already settled in the United States.

4. Discuss cultural and economic advantages and challenges that might be derived from being able to speak this language in the United States.

Whether official or not, Spanish is a second language in the United States. Businesses with a bilingual appeal may serve more customers. Culturally, television shows are increasingly showing interaction with the Spanish-speaking community by featuring dialog and commercials in Spanish. A bilingual speaker may serve as translator/interpreter in a variety of contexts.

However, not all individuals in the U.S. recognize bilingualism as an advantage. Limited English skills can limit the opportunities for high paying jobs and social mobility. In some extreme case, Spanish-only speakers may be targets of discrimination, violence, and suspicion of undocumented status. In order to fit into American society some Spanish speakers may abandon their heritage as they seek to assimilate.

GeoVideo Questions Israel: Reinventing Hebrew 1. What were the advantages to using Hebrew as the national language of Israel?

Israel is a nation of migrants, and the different groups of people that came to live in Israel spoke different languages. Russian was “too limited” and Yiddish was “polluted,” so they resolved to revive Hebrew as a standard language.

2. What are the disadvantages to using an ancient language in the modern world?

Many objects in the modern world do not have a word from Hebrew that can properly encapsulate their function or meaning, so some words are borrowed from other languages or old words are reconfigured to be associated with modern day objects.

3. How does the video explain using a modernization of an ancient term (such as for “battery”) and for using an English term (such as for “puncture”)?

Many objects had Hebrew words created for them, but did not “catch on,” so an English loan word was used in its place; in other instances, old words are reconfigured to be associated with modern day objects.

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Geospatial Data Analysis Languages of Timor-Leste Languages based in Europe can show up in all sorts of places. Zoom to Southeast Asia. In Legend, show Political Labels. Timor-Leste is one of the world’s smallest countries. In Add Data Layer, Cultural Theme, select Language Families and add Data Layer to the Map. 1. What non-Indo-European language families are spoken in Timor-Leste?

Austronesian and Papuan are languages on the island of Timor.

2. MapMaster can show the distribution of four Indo-European languages: English, French, Portuguese, and Spanish. Select English as Official or de facto language, then Replace Data Layer. Is English the official or de facto language of Timor-Leste?

No, English is not the official or de facto language of Timor-Leste.

3. Select from among French, Portuguese, and Spanish. Keep trying until you find the Official language of Timor-Leste. What would account for that choice as one of the country’s official languages?

The official language of Timor-Leste is Portuguese. Timor Leste was a colony of the Portuguese who left the legacy of their language and Roman Catholic religion in the region.

Explore Multilingual Belgium Brussels, the capital of Belgium, is officially bilingual, but many languages comingle there. In Google Earth, search for 62 rue de Flandre, Brussels.

1.

What is housed in 62 rue de Flandre? What language is displayed on the banner and in the window?

Why might that language be used?

Global Cleaning Belgium is housed at this address. The language displayed in the banner and the window is English. English may be used at a neutral lingua franca aiming to attract customers who speak Dutch and French.

2.

Zoom in on the front door of #62. What language is written on the door? Why might that language differ from that of the business?

The language on the front door appears to be French at the top and then Dutch in the lower portion. The door does not list the services provided by the company in English because of their nature and need to advertise to the both groups of people who might engage their services.

3. Scan up and down rue de Flandre. Which of Brussels’ two official languages is more common? Why might that be the case? Can you find examples along the street where both official languages are displayed?

Why might both official languages be used in these cases?

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Chapter 5: Languages Most of the place names of the stores are in French or English. Some places of importance are in both names such as Pharmacie and Apotheek. Both official languages are used for street names that are posted on the sides of buildings. A traffic sign exempting bicycles from the one-way street restrictions is in both languages.

Seems like items that reflect official involvement of the government such as traffic signs are in both languages. Individual businesses seem to have the freedom to choose which language they use to name their store. Drug stores provide an important service to all and so are both languages are used for identification.

Resources Ethnologue This is the definitive online source for cataloging, documenting, and understanding world languages. Lewis, M. Paul (ed.), 2009. Ethnologue: Languages of the World, sixteenth edition. Dallas, Texas: SIL International.

Online version: www.ethnologue.com/

National Association for Bilingual Education www.nabe.org/ The site details the efforts of the group in advocating for funding and educational programs for English-language learners.

Omniglot omniglot.com/ This site provides a wealth of information about writing systems and languages throughout the world.

U.S. English, Inc. Despite widespread belief to the contrary, there is no official language of the federal government of the United States. Here is the website of one organization that hopes to make it so: www.usenglish.org/

Office of English Language Acquisition, U.S. Department of Education www.2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/oela/index.html This government-funded site provides information about resources and data on preparing English learners for college and careers. The department also administers grants for training professionals to support English language learners and provides data on student achievement for English language learners. Why would the U.S. government be interested in supporting English language learners?

GeoInquiries™ GeoInquiries™ by the Environmental Science Research Institute (ESRI) consist of scripted map-based online GIS activities designed to be completed within a 15-minute time frame. These Internet-based mapping activities run best in the Google Chrome browser and do not require the installation of any software. Access them at www.esri.com/en-us/industries/education/schools/geoinquiries-collections.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography The following GeoInquiries™ support the development of the concepts and content of this chapter.

Language and religion from the Human Geography collection explores patterns of distribution for the world’s major religions and similarities to the diffusion patterns of the world’s language groups.

Medieval Europe: Invasions from the World History collection shows the invasion routes of Germanic tribes through time. This map could be used to show the influences on the English language discussed in the chapter.

Africa’s bounty and borders from the World History collection contains a map of Africa in 1914. This map could be used to illustrate the diffusion of European languages to Africa.

Mastering Geography Media & Assessment Resources Mastering Geography™ provides additional assignable homework activities and ready-made resources designed to extend and reinforce student skills and mastery of key content, concepts, and vocabulary. These resources are invaluable to implementation of the flipped classroom. Use the Instructor Course Home areas to build assignments for your students. Highlights include: •

MapMaster 2.0™ provides students with the opportunity to reinforce their understanding of spatial relationships, e.g., variation, distribution, interaction, and association. Students get hands on with map building, exploration, and spatial data analysis by layering a wide range of maps. Multiplechoice assessments in the Mastering Geography item library provide directions for building maps aligned with chapter content, and focus on the development of spatial thinking and analysis skills.

•

GeoVideos and Google Earth Explorations linked to chapter content provide an opportunity for students to “visit” other places and build an appreciation for other cultures. Use as an out-of-class assignment and have students explain how the video or Google Earth Explorations illustrate concepts learned in class and make comparisons between cultures.

•

Interactive Data Visualizations powered by Social Explorer provide interactive data explorations for each chapter’s Key Issue, and include map stories, predictive graphing, interactive maps, interactive population pyramids, interactive charts, and more. These media are integrated into the Pearson eText and Study Area, and are also available for assignment with quizzes.

•

GeoTutors are highly visual and data-rich assignable activities that help students master the most challenging concepts in geography.

•

Dynamic Study Modules (DSMs) provide two sets of 25 multiple-choice questions per chapter topic.

Because this resource includes a “I don’t know yet” answer choice,” it can be assigned as a preassessment or content preview. The modules are interactive as students are prompted to select, “I am unsure” or “I am sure” as they submit their answers. The questions could also be used as self-check for students at the end of the chapter. An infographic gauge represents their accuracy visually.

Teachers can assign the DSMs for credit and or students can access these on their own for self study.

•

Learning Catalytics is an interactive student response tool paired with Mastering Geography that encourages team-based learning by using students’ smartphones, tablets, or laptops to engage them in interactive tasks and thinking. As a teacher, you can pose a variety of open-ended questions that help your students develop critical thinking skills, while monitoring responses with real-time analytics to find out where they’re struggling. With this information, you can adjust your instructional 160 .

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Chapter 5: Languages strategy in real time and try additional ways of engaging your students during class. Learning Catalytics also lets you manage student interactions by automatically grouping students for discussion, team-based learning, and peer-to-peer learning.

The Mastering Geography student Study Area includes a variety of tools that students can access on their own, including: • • •

The eText provides a fully digital online version of the textbook, with search and bookmarking functionality. Available for offline reading.

Chapter Quizzes include 15 multiple choice questions based on the chapter’s content.

Key Terms Flashcards to help students master the key vocabulary.

Downloadable Outline Maps containing political and physical features provide students the opportunity to label key countries and physical features. Consider assigning these maps throughout the course so that students can refer to them as they interpret the many thematic maps.

MapMaster 2.0™ The following map layers are included in the MapMaster 2.0 resource. In addition, multiple choice map-based quizzes are also included. The following layers support an exploration of languages and their distribution.

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

English as Official or de facto Language Foreign Born Population French as Official or de facto Language Hispanic American Population Language Families Language Families, East Asia Language Families, Central Asia Language Families, Australia & Oceania Language Subfamilies, Europe Languages, Russian Domain Languages by Country Portuguese as Official or de facto Language Scattered Indigenous Language Communities Soft Drink Dialects, North America American Indian Population Asian American Population Hispanic American Population Unauthorized Immigrant Population (U.S.)

Additional resources in support of students with disabilities include the screen reader enabled e-text and more. Further details about these resources are available at https://www.pearson.com/us/ accessibility.html.

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Connections between Chapters Back to Chapter 4 An obvious parallel is comparing culture’s globalization and corresponding diminishment of folk cultures and cultural diversity to the globalization of English and the corresponding threat to smaller languages. While efforts to preserve both folk cultures and local languages are underway, globalization poses a threat to diversity in each case.

Forward to Chapter 6 A major difference between language and religion is the problem of exclusive adherence: While conflicts can arise over language differences, it is possible for people to learn more than one language and/or for translation to occur. Contrastingly, most religious ideologies prohibit the practice of more than one faith and strongly discourage communication with other religions for any purpose other than conversation!

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6

Religions Learning Outcomes After reading, studying, and discussing the chapter, students should be able to: Learning Outcome 6.1.1:

Identify the world’s major religions and classify them by type.

Learning Outcome 6.1.2:

Summarize the distribution of major religions.

Learning Outcome 6.1.3:

Analyze regional variations in the distribution of Christian branches.

Learning Outcome 6.1.4a:

Describe the distribution of the major branches of Islam.

Learning Outcome 6.1.4b:

Describe the distribution of the major branches of Buddhism.

Learning Outcome 6.1.5:

Describe the distribution of Hinduism and other ethnic religions.

Learning Outcome 6.1.6:

Identify religions other than the most numerous ones.

Learning Outcome 6.2.1a:

Recount the origins of Christianity.

Learning Outcome 6.2.1b:

Recount the origins of Islam.

Learning Outcome 6.2.2a:

Discuss the origin of Buddhism.

Learning Outcome 6.2.2b:

Describe the reason the origin of Hinduism is unknown.

Learning Outcome 6.2.3:

Analyze the process of diffusion of universalizing religions.

Learning Outcome 6.2.4:

Describe the distinctive migration patterns of Christian groups in modern times.

Learning Outcome 6.2.5a:

Trace the distinctive migration patterns of Muslims.

Learning Outcome 6.2.5b:

Trace the distinctive migration patterns of Jews.

Learning Outcome 6.3.1:

Describe places of worship in various religions.

Learning Outcome 6.3.2a:

Describe places to which Buddhists make pilgrimages.

Learning Outcome 6.3.2b:

Describe places to which Muslims make pilgrimages.

Learning Outcome 6.3.3a:

Give examples of religious settlements.

Learning Outcome 6.3.3b:

Give examples of religious toponyms.

Learning Outcome 6.3.4:

Compare the administrative organization of hierarchical and locally autonomous religions.

Learning Outcome 6.3.5:

Discuss the importance of the physical geography in ethnic religions.

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Learning Outcome 6.3.6:

Understand the roles of holidays and calendars in various religions.

Learning Outcome 6.4.1:

State reasons for geographic conflicts between religious and secular cultural groups.

Learning Outcome 6.4.2:

Understand geographic elements of conflicts among religious groups in Southwest Asia.

Learning Outcome 6.4.3:

Explain Israeli and Palestinian perspectives on Israel.

Learning Outcome 6.4.4:

Explain the importance of Jerusalem to Jews and Muslims.

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Chapter 6: Religions

Chapter 6 Outline I

Key Issue 6.1: Where Are Religions Distributed?

A Religions & Geography 1 Classifying Religions a four largest religions (78 percent) b folk religions (6 percent) c other religions (1 percent) d unaffiliated (16 percent) i atheism—belief God does not exist ii agnosticism—belief that the existence of God cannot be proven 2 Universalizing & Ethnic Religions a universalizing—global, appeal to all people b ethnic—appeal primarily to one ethnic or cultural group, specific region B Global Distribution of Religion 1 Distribution of Major Religions a Christianity—Western Hemisphere, Europe, sub-Saharan Africa b Islam—Southwest Asia & North Africa, Central Asia, Indonesia c Buddhism or Hinduism—Asia d Judaism—Israel e one religion may predominate, but other religions are represented in the region as minority religions 2 Regional Diversity of Religions a East Asia—one-half unaffiliated, one-half divided between Buddhism and folk religions b South Asia—two-thirds Hindu (India), one-third Muslim (Bangladesh and Pakistan) c Southeast Asia—40 percent Muslim (Indonesia, 87 percent Muslim), 23 percent Buddhists (Cambodia and Thailand, 90 percent Buddhist), and 23 percent Christian (Philippines, 90 percent Christian). d Sub-Saharan Africa—two-thirds Christian (south), one-third Muslim (north) C Distribution of Christians 1 Terms a congregation—local assembly of persons brought together for common worship b denomination—unites number of local congregations in a single administrative body c branch—large and fundamental division i Roman Catholic ii Protestant iii Orthodox 2 Distribution of Branches in Europe 3 Distribution of Branches in Western Hemisphere D Distribution of Buddhists & Muslims 1 Distribution of Buddhists a universalizing religion b clusters in East Asia and Southeast Asia c main branches i Mahayana 165 .

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E

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ii Theravada iii Vajrayana 2 Distribution of Muslims a Southwest Asia & North Africa, Central Asia 3 Islam’s Branches 4 Islam in Europe & North America Distribution of Ethnic Religions 1 Distribution of Hindus 2 Primal-Indigenous Ethnic Religions 3 Chinese Traditional Ethnic Religions a Syncretic b Confucianism c Taoism 4 African Traditional Folk Religions a animism Distribution of Other Religions 1 Religions with 14 to 23 Million Adherents a Sikhism b Junche c Spiritism d Judaism e terms i monotheism—belief in only one God ii polytheism—belief in a collection of Gods 2 Religions with 2 to 10 Million Adherents a Baha’i b Tenrikyo c Jainism d Shinto e Cao Dai—1920s, Vietnam f Zoroastrianism

II Key Issue 6.2: Why Do Religions- Have Distinctive Distributions?

A Origin of Christianity & Islam in Southwest Asia 1 Origin of Christianity a Roman Catholic Branch b Orthodox Branch c Protestant Branch, 1517 2 Origin of Islam a Five Pillars of Islam i Shahadah ii Salat iii Zakat iv Sawn of Ramadan v Hajj 166 .

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Chapter 6: Religions b c

Muhammad, The Prophet of Islam Branches i Shiite ii Sunni B Origin of Buddhism & Hinduism in South Asia 1 Origin of Buddhism a founder b beliefs: Four Noble Truths c branches i Theravada ii Mahayana iii Vajrayana 2 Unknown Origin of Hinduism C Historical Diffusion of Religions 1 Diffusion of Buddhism 2 Diffusion of Islam 3 Diffusion of Christianity a relocation diffusion of Christianity i missionaries b expansion diffusion of Christianity i hierarchical diffusion ii contagious diffusion D Recent Migration of Christians 1 Migration Patterns of Christians 2 Immigration of Christians to North America E Recent Migration of Muslims & Jews 1 Migration Patterns of Muslims 2 Migration Patterns of Jews III Key Issue 6.3: Why Do Religions Organize Space in Specific Patterns?

A Places of Worship 1 Religious Structures for Assembly a Christian churches b Islamic mosques c Sikh gudwara d Jewish synagogues e Bahai houses of worship 2 Religious Structures of Individual Meditation a Buddhist pagodas b Hindu temples B Pilgrimages to Religious Shrines 1 Pilgrimage 2 Holy places in Islam a Makkah—birthplace of Muhammad b Madinah 167 .

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography 3 Buddhist Shrines C Religious Settlements & Toponyms 1 Utopian Settlements 2 Religious Place Names D Administration of Religious Space 1 Locally Autonomous Religions a Local Autonomy ins Islam b Protestant Denominations c Ethnic Religions 2 Hierarchical Religions—well defined geographic structure with territory organized into local administrative units a Latter-Day Saints—organized into wards b Roman Catholic hierarchy—parishes, diocese, province, archdiocese E The Landscape in Ethnic Religions 1 Cosmogony and Spirits—set of religious beliefs concerning the origin of the universe 2 Hinduism’s South Asian Landscape 3 Disposing of the Dead a burial b other methods of disposing of bodies 4 Religious Calendars & the Environment a Types i solar calendar—months correspond to the seasons ii lunar calendar—months correspond to phases of the moon iii lunisolar calendar—lunar months aligned with solar year through periodic adjustments b The Calendar in Several Religions i Islam—lunar calendar, holidays vary through the years, Ramadan ii Christianity—Protestants and Roman Catholics use Gregorian calendar, Orthodox use the Julian calendar, Easter iii Buddhism—holidays associated with Buddha’s life; branches vary on dates celebrated iv Sikhism—major holidays associated with births and deaths of 10 gurus v Bahá’i—use calendar by Bab, year is divided into 19 months of 19 days with extra days in leap year. c The Calendar in Judaism—calendar connected to agriculture, holidays—Passover, Shavout, Sukkot, Rosh Hashana, Yom Kippur d The Solstice—longest hours of daylight, December and March IV Key Issue 6.4: Why Do Territorial Conflicts Arise Among Religious Groups?

A Religions & Social Change 1 Fundamentalism—literal interpretation and strict, intense adherence to their definition of the basic principles of the religion 2 India: Hinduism & Social Equality—caste system based on class/heredity 3 Communism: Religion & Revolution—discouraged religious belief and practice 4 China: Buddhism & the Dalai Lama—believe spirit enters the body of a child, reincarnated

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Chapter 6: Religions B Challenges for Religions in Southwest Asia 1 Jews, Christians, & Muslims in the Eastern Mediterranean 2 Arab-Israeli Wars a 1948–1949 War b 1956 Suez War c 1967 Six-Day War d 1973 Yom Kippur War e Peace Treaty C Geographic Perspectives in South Asia 1 Israeli Perspectives 2 Palestinian Perspectives D Jerusalem’s Challenging Geography 1 Judaism’s Jerusalem—Western Wall, Temple Mount 2 Islam’s Jerusalem—Dome of the Rock, al-Aqsa Mosque

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Chapter Content Outline Key Issue 1: Where Are Religions Distributed?

The distribution of religions throughout the world varies among and within regions. As religion is an essential component of culture, geographers observe the distribution of religions and offer explanations to account for why some religions are widespread and others remain clustered.

Religions & Geography In many cultures religion provides a source of identity. Migrants take their religion and language with them to new locations. Migrants may learn the language prevalent in their new location, but are less likely to change their religious beliefs as most religions require exclusive adherence.

The number of adherents to specific religions is difficult to ascertain. Self-reported statistics are gathered by organizations and governments around the world do not include census questions on religious membership or practice.

Classifying Religions The world’s religions are grouped into the following categories: four largest religions, folk religions, other religions, and unaffiliated.

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Four largest religions Seventy-eight percent of the world’s population follow one of these four religions: Christianity (2.4 billion people), Islam (1.9 billion people), Hinduism (1.2 billion people), and Buddhism (507 million people).

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Folk religions Six percent of the world’s population adhere to “folk religions,” although this count is hard to estimate. Chinese traditional, primal-indigenous, and African traditional religions are all prominent folk religions.

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Other religions One percent of the world’s population practice several other religions. In this group, Juche, Judaism, Sikhism, and Spiritism are the four claiming the most adherents, counting between 14 and 23 million in their ranks. Bahá’í, Cao Dai, Jainism, Shinto, Tenrikyo, and Zoroastrianism are religions with between 2 and 10 million adherents.

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Unaffiliated The remaining 16 percent of the world’s population consider themselves unaffiliated with any religion. Some folks in this group espouse atheism, which is belief that God does not exist, or agnosticism, which is belief that the existence of God can not be empirically proven.

Universalizing & Ethnic Religions Geographers distinguish between two types of religions mainly by analyzing their spatial extent.

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A universalizing religion appeals to people in a broad range of locations. The three universalizing religions with the largest number of adherents are Christianity, Islam, and Buddhism.

Ethnic religions appeal to a particular group of people in a particular place. The largest ethnic religion by far is Hinduism, with folk religions also being classified as ethnic.

These two categories differ in their origin, diffusion, and distribution patterns, but some display characteristics of both types.

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Chapter 6: Religions Global Distribution of Religions In most countries, the religion with the largest share of adherents is either Islam or Christianity. Christianity is the most widely practiced religion in the Western Hemisphere and in most countries of Europe and sub-Saharan Africa. In Southwest Asia, Central Asia, and North Africa, Islam is predominantly practiced. Buddhism and Hinduism are also widely practiced in Asian countries. China, the most populous country in the world, is home to the most unaffiliated people. Judaism is most heavily concentrated in Israel.

Regional Diversity of Religions The four regions with relatively more religious diversity are East Asia, South Asia, Southeast Asia, and sub-Saharan Africa.

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In East Asia, more than one-half of the people are unaffiliated with any religion. Most of the other one-half are divided about equally between Buddhism and folk religions.

In South Asia, approximately two-thirds of the population practices Hinduism, while the remaining one-third adheres to Islam. At the national scale, divisions are more pronounced: India is 80 percent Hindu, while more than 90 percent of people in Bangladesh and Pakistan adhere to Islam.

Overall in Southeast Asia, 40 percent are Muslims, 23 percent each Buddhists, and Christians. At the country scale the divisions among religions are more pronounced: Indonesia is 87 percent Muslim, while more than 90 percent of Cambodians and Thai are Buddhist, and the Philippines are more than 90 percent Christian.

In sub-Saharan Africa, two-thirds of the people are Christian, while one-third are Muslim. There is a marked spatial division with Christians more predominant in the south and Muslims in the north.

Distribution of Christians Universalizing religions can be divided into congregations, denominations, and branches. A congregation is a local assembly of people brought together for common religious worship. A denomination is a division of a branch that unites a number of local congregations into a single legal and administrative body. A branch is a large, fundamental division within a religion.

Christianity has three major branches: Roman Catholic, Protestant, and Orthodox. However, these three major branches do not encompass all people who adhere to Christianity. Roman Catholics make up 50 percent of the world’s Christians, while Orthodox comprise 12 percent. The remaining 38 percent are split between Protestants and others, although sources cannot come to a consensus on the magnitude of each.

Distribution of Branches in Europe In Europe, 47 percent of Christians are Roman Catholics, 18 percent are Protestants, and 35 percent are Orthodox. Roman Catholicism is extensively practiced in the southwest and east, Protestantism in the northwest, and Orthodoxy in the east and southeast. Within countries, divisions between Roman Catholics and Protestants have sharp boundaries.

Distribution of Branches in the Western Hemisphere Christianity is the most widely practiced religion in the Western Hemisphere. Christianity accounts for 86 percent of its population, In Latin America, 81 percent of the Christians are Roman Catholic and 18 percent Protestant. In contrast in North America, 63 percent of Christians are Protestant with only 32 percent are Roman Catholic. In terms of spatial distribution, Roman Catholics are in the northeast and southwest, Evangelical Protestants in the southeast, and adherents of the Church of Latter-day Saints (Mormonism) are, concentrated in Utah and neighboring states.

Before 1800, historically black congregations were founded by free blacks and combined elements of Christianity and African spiritual traditions.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Distribution of Buddhists & Muslims In Central Asia, Southwest Asia, and North Africa, Islam is the predominant religion. Buddhism is clustered primarily in East Asia and Southeast Asia.

Distribution of Buddhists Buddhism, the world’s third largest universalizing religion, is clustered primarily in East Asia and Southeast Asia. Three main branches comprise greater Buddhism: Mahayana, Theravada, and Vajrayana. Mahayanists make up approximately 56 percent of Buddhists, primarily in China, Japan, and Korea. 38 percent of Buddhists are Theravadists, being primarily concentrated in Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, and Thailand. Vajrayanists (also known as Lamaists and Tantrayanists) comprise 6 percent of Buddhists, with adherents located primarily in Tibet and Mongolia. It is difficult to estimate the number of Buddhists, because Buddhism is not an exclusive religion. People can practice both Buddhism and another religion. This is in contrast to Christianity and Islam which both require exclusive adherence.

Distribution of Muslims The word Islam in Arabic means “submission to the will of God,” and it has a similar root to the Arabic word for “peace.” One who practices Islam is known as a Muslim, which in Arabic means “one who surrenders to God.” While countries in Central Asia, Southwest Asia, and North Africa are home to majority Muslim populations, there are actually greater numbers of Muslims in South and Southeast Asia. Believers in Indonesia, Pakistan, India, and Bangladesh comprise 40 percent of the world’s Muslims.

Islam’s Branches Islam is divided into two main branches: Sunni and Shiite (sometimes spelled Shia).

88 percent of Muslims adhere to the Sunni branch, and are the major branch in most Muslim countries in Southwest Asia and North Africa, as well as in Southeast Asia. There are various schools of thought in Sunni Islam with corresponding geographic distributions – Hanafi, Hanbali, Maliki, and Shafi’i school are among the most widespread, named after their founders. Shiites are the largest branch in Azerbaijan, Bahrain, Iran, Iraq, Lebanon, and Yemen. The Ithna Ashari, Ismaili, and Zaidi schools of thought are major sects of Shiite Islam.

Islam in Europe & North America In recent years, North American and European Muslim populations have increased. In Europe, 7 percent of the population are Muslim. Germany has the largest number of Muslims, 5.5 million, based on immigration from Turkey. France has the second largest number of Muslims in Europe, 5.4 million, also a result of immigration from its former colonies in North Africa. In Southeast Europe Albania, Bosnia & Herzegovina, and Serbia have about 2 million Muslims. Between 1 and 5 million Muslims currently reside in North America, a dramatic rise from just a few hundred thousand that were living there in 1990.

Distribution of Ethnic Religions The distributions of ethnic religions are generally more clustered than those of universalizing religions. While universalizing religions may diffuse from one culture to another, the adherents of ethnic religions have remained embedded in the culture where they first emerged.

Distribution of Hindus Hinduism, the world’s third-largest religion, is the ethnic religion with the largest number of followers by a large margin, with 1.2 billion adherents. Compared to the world’s universalizing religions, adherents to Hinduism are geographically clustered in one country, India (97 percent). Hindus live in the bordering countries of Nepal (2 percent) and Bangladesh (1 percent) with small numbers scattered elsewhere. Hinduism allows for adherents to worship a god or concept from a wide spectrum of possibilities.

Despite this diversity of choice of deity, 80 percent worship Vishnu (Vaishnavism), a loving god incarnated as Krishsna. The second largest contingent of Hindus worship Shiva, a protective and destructive god.

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Chapter 6: Religions Primal-Indigenous Ethnic Religions Several hundred million people practice what Adherents.com has classified as primal-indigenous religions. People who practice these religions primarily live in Southeast Asia or on South Pacific islands, particularly in Vietnam and Laos. Practitioners of primal-indigenous religions believe that God is present in all things, and that nature is spiritual. Shamanism and Paganism are included in these religions. Shamans believe that invisible forces or spirits affect the lives of the living. Paganism encompasses many different beliefs, although it is mostly associated with the practices of ancient people, such as the Greeks and Romans.

Chinese Traditional Ethnic Religions Religions based in East Asia are illustrative of the difficulty of categorizing ethnic religions and calculating the number of adherents. Chinese traditional religions are syncretic, meaning they combine several traditions. In China, these syncretic religions combine Buddhism with Confucianism, Taoism, and other traditional Chinese practices.

Confucianism Confucius was a philosopher and teacher from the Chinese province of Lu. His teachings emphasize the importance of the Chinese tradition of li, which can be translated roughly as “propriety” or “correct behavior.”

Taoism Originating with the government administrator Lao-Zi (also spelled Lao Tzu), Taoism prioritized the mystical and magical aspects of life over the importance of public life, which is emblematic of Confucianism. Tao, which means “the way” or “the path,” cannot be comprehended by reason and knowledge because not everything is knowable.

African Traditional Folk Religions Roughly 35 million Africans are estimated by Pew Research Center to follow folk religions, sometimes called animism. Animists believe that inanimate objects such as plants and stones, or natural events such as thunderstorms and earthquakes, are “animated,” or imbued with discrete spirits and conscious life. In present day Africa, 51 percent of the continent’s population is Christian, while 43 percent is Muslim. In the past, folk religionists made up a much larger share of the population; in 1900, 70 percent of the continent’s population adhered to these beliefs, while as recently as 1980 one-half was still classified as practicing folk religions. Remaining folk religionists live in a belt that separates predominantly Muslim North Africa and predominantly Christian sub-Saharan Africa.

Distribution of Other Religions In the following sections, 10 religions are outlined in order of the estimated number of adherents. Most of these religions are clustered in one or two countries, except for Bahá’í.

Religions with 14 to 23 Million Adherents Sikhism, Juche, Spiritism, and Judaism.

Four religions have an estimated 14 to 23 million adherents:

Sikhism All but 3 million of the 23 million Sikhs around the world are clustered in the Punjab region of India. Guru Nanak (1469–1538) founded Sikhism near present-day Lahore, Pakistan. God was revealed to Nanak as The One Supreme Being, or Creator, who rules the universe by divine will. The followers of Guru Nanak became known as Sikhs, Hindu for “disciples.” The Guru Granth Sahib (the Holy Granth of Enlightenment), compiled and edited by Guru Arjan in 1604, is the Sikh holy book.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Juche Most North Koreans are categorized by Adherents.com as following Juche, which is Korean for “selfreliance.” Juche was organized by Kim Il-sung, the leader of North Korea between 1948 and 1994. Some sources classify Juche as a government ideology rather than a religion. In contrast, Pew Research Center and Religious Database classifies 71 percent of North Koreans as unaffiliated, 12 percent as folk religionists, and 13 percent as other.

Spiritism Spiritism is the belief that the human personality continues to exist after death and can communicate with the living through the agency of a medium or psychic. Most Spiritists live in Brazil.

Judaism About 40 percent of the world’s 14 million Jews reside in the United States and another 40 percent in Israel. The name Judaism derives from Judah, one of the patriarch Jacob’s 2 sons (Israel is another biblical name for Jacob). The Tanakh tells the ancient history of the Jewish people and the laws of the Jewish faith.

Judaism is the first recorded religion to espouse monotheism, belief that there is only one God. Judaism offered a sharp contrast to polytheism, or the belief in more than one god. Christianity and Islam find some of their roots in Judaism.

Religions with 2 to 10 Million Adherents Six religions have an estimated 2 to 10 million adherents: Bahá’í, Tenrikyo, Jainism, Shinto, Cao Dai, and Zoroastrianism.

Bahá’í Bahá’í is a universalizing religion, distributed between India, other Asian countries, Africa, and the Western Hemisphere. Bahá’í was established in Shíráz, Iran, in 1844. It developed from the Bábi faith, under the leadership of Siyyid Ali Muhammad, known as the Báb. Shiite Muslims reacted violently to the birth of the Bahá’í faith, executing the Báb and 20,000 of his followers in the mid-nineteenth century. Husayn Ali Nuri, one of the Báb’s disciples, became known as Bahá’u’lláh and recognized by followers of Bahá’í as the prophet and messenger of God. Bahá’u’lláh believed that he was sent by God to overcome the disunity of religions and establish a universal faith through abolition of racial, class, and religious prejudices.

Tenrikyo Formerly viewed as a branch of Shinto, Tenrikyo was organized as a separate religion in 1854 by a woman named Nakayama Miki (1798–1887). Adherents of Tenrikyo believe that God expressed the divine will through Nakayama’s role as the Shrine of God. Adherents.com estimates that there are 2 million adherents of Tenrikyo worldwide, with 95 percent clustered in Japan.

Jainism Jainism emerged in South Asia approximately 2,500 years ago. With the rise of Buddhism and Hinduism in the region, Jainism faced a decline in importance, especially since Jains believe that nonviolence and self-control are the means to achieve liberation. Four million Jains, comprising 95 percent of the total Jain population, reside in India. Jains are also distributed in the United States, with 25 of the 50 states having Jain centers.

Shinto The cultural history of Japan is firmly grounded in the country’s ethnic religion, Shinto. The Japanese government reports that the country is home to roughly 100 million Shintos, or nearly 78 percent of Japan’s population. Despite this figure, only 4 million Japanese identify themselves as Shinto in response to opinion polls. Some Japanese people view Shinto as a cultural feature rather than a religion.

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Chapter 6: Religions Cao Dai Cao Dai originated in Vietnam in the 1920s. The name is attributed to adherents’ belief in God as the Supreme Being, Creator, and Ultimate Reality of the Universe. Cao Dai existed in opposition to the French colonial administration and Communists that came to rule the country throughout the twentieth century. With the recognition of Cao Dai by the Vietnamese government in 1997, the number of adherents grew to an estimated 4 million, with the vast majority living in Vietnam.

Zoroastrianism Zoroastrianism was founded around 3,500 years ago by the Prophet Zoroaster (or Zarathustra). Zoroastrianism was more formally organized around 1,500 years ago in the Persian Empire and was the state religion for several ancient empires in Central Asia. The number of adherents decreased in response to the rise of Islam in the region. There are between 2 and 3 million Zoroastrians worldwide, with concentrations in India, Iran, and the United States. It is hard to estimate their numbers as Zoroastrians are said to be reserved in identifying themselves.

Key Issue 2: Why Do Religions Have Distinctive Distributions?

Origin of Christianity & Islam in Southwest Asia Both Christianity and Islam originated in Southwest Asia. It is characteristic of universalizing religions, such as Christianity and Islam, that their places of origin are known and rooted in the events in the life of its founder.

Origin of Christianity Christianity was founded upon the teachings of Jesus, who was born between 8 and 4 B.C.E. in Bethlehem and died crucified in Jerusalem about 30 C.E. Raised a Jew, Jesus preached the coming of the Kingdom of God. The four Gospels of the Christian Bible (Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John) document miracles that the writers attributed to Jesus. He was referred to as Christ, from the Greek word for the Hebrew word Messiah, which means “anointed.” After being betrayed by his follower Judas Iscariot in the third year of his mission, he was executed as an agitator. On the third day after his death, his tomb was found empty, Christians believe that Jesus died to atone for human sins, that he was raised from the dead by God, and his resurrection from the dead provides people hope for salvation.

Roman Catholic Branch Roman Catholics accept the teachings of the Bible, as well as the interpretation of those teachings by the Church hierarchy, led by the Pope. The Pope is viewed by Roman Catholics as possessing a universal primacy or authority, and they believe the Church is infallible in resolving theological disputes. The seven sacraments of Baptism, the Eucharist, Penance, Confirmation, Matrimony, Holy Orders, and Anointing the Sick are seen by Roman Catholics as God conveying His grace directly to humanity.

Orthodox Branch Orthodoxy encompasses the faith and practices of a collection of churches that emerged in the eastern part of the Roman Empire. In the fifth century, the Roman and Eastern churches split due to a growing rivalry between the Pope and the Patriarch of Constantinople. In 1054, Pope Leo IX condemned the Patriarch of Constantinople, finalizing the split between Rome and Constantinople’s churches. Orthodoxy accepts the seven sacraments but rejects Roman doctrines adopted since the eighth century.

Protestant Branch Protestantism originated with the principles of the Reformation in the sixteenth century.

The Reformation movement is viewed as beginning when Martin Luther nailed 95 theses on the door of the church at Wittenberg on October 31, 1517. According to Luther, Christians have primary responsibility for achieving personal salvation through direct communication with God. Grace is achieved through faith rather than through sacraments performed by the Church.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Origin of Islam The foundation of Islamic belief involves performing five practices, known as five pillars of faith: 1. Shahadah, which means that Muslims frequently recite their belief that there is no deity worthy of worship except the one God, the source of all creation, as well as their belief that Muhammad is the messenger of God. 2. Salat, which means that five times daily, a Muslim prays, facing the city of Makkah (Mecca), as a direct link to God. 3. Zakat, which means that a Muslim gives generously to charity as an act of purification and growth.

4. Sawm of Ramadan, which means that a Muslim fasts during the month of Ramadan as an act of selfpurification.

5. Hajj, which means that if physically and financially able, a Muslim makes a pilgrimage to Makkah.

Islam, Christianity, and Judaism all consider humanity originating with Adam and Abraham to have been one of his descendants. Jews and Christians trace their story through Abraham’s first wife, Sarah, and her son Isaac. Muslims trace their story through his second wife, Hagar, and her son Ishmael. Muslims believe Abraham took his wife Hagar and son Ishmael to Makkah. Hundreds of years later, according to Islamic belief, one of Ishmael’s descendants, Muhammad, became the Prophet of Islam.

Muhammad, The Prophet of Islam In 570 C.E. Muhammad was born in Makkah. Muslims believe that at age 40, during a meditative retreat, Muhammad received his first revelation from God through the Angel Gabriel. Gabriel revealed God’s words to Muhammad, which were collected as Islam’s holy book, the Quran.

Muhammad and his followers faced persecution, and in 622 he was commanded by God to emigrate to the city of Yathrib (present-day Madinah), in an event known as the Hijra (marking the beginning of the Muslim calendar). He returned to Makkah several years later and established Islam as the city’s religion.

Shiite and Sunni Branches The two largest branches of Islam, Sunni and Shiite, harken back to the earliest days of the religion and reflect the disagreement over the line of succession in Islamic leadership. As Muhammad had no son, his father-in-law, Abu Bakr, became caliph (“successor of the prophet”).

Following Abu Bakr, Umar and Uthman were caliphs, expanding the reach of Islam to Egypt and Persia. Shiite Muslims believe the line of succession lies with Ali, a cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad, while Sunni Muslims believe Abu Bakr as the true caliph.

Origin of Buddhism & Hinduism in South Asia Buddhism has a determined origin, based on the events in the life of a man. Hinduism, however, has unknown or unclear origins, not tied to a specific historical individual.

Origin of Buddhism Buddhism was founded by Siddhartha Gautama, born in about 563 B.C.E. in Lumbinī in present-day Nepal. Gautama lived a privileged life as the son of a lord. After witnessing a decrepit old man, a disease-ridden man, and a corpse on three separate journeys and determining that he could no longer enjoy his comfortable life, Gautama set out on a fourth trip and saw a monk, who taught him about withdrawal from the world. At age 29 Gautama left his palace one night and lived in a forest for the next 6 years, experimenting with techniques of meditation. Gautama emerged as the Buddha, the “awakened or enlightened one,” and spent 45 years spreading his beliefs across India.

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Chapter 6: Religions The Four Noble Truths are core to Buddhist beliefs: 1. All living beings must endure suffering.

2. Suffering, which is caused by a desire to live, leads to reincarnation (repeated rebirth in new bodies or forms of life).

3. The goal of all existence is to escape suffering and the endless cycle of reincarnation into Nirvana (a state of complete redemption), which is achieved through mental and moral self-purification.

4. Nirvana is attained through an Eightfold Path: rightness of belief, resolve, speech, action, livelihood, effort, thought, and meditation.

Theravada Buddhism Theravada is the older of the two largest branches of Buddhism. Theravada means “the way of the elders,” illustrating the Theravada Buddhist belief that they are more aligned with Buddha’s original approach. Theravadists believe that to be a good Buddhist, one must renounce worldly possessions and become a monk.

Mahayana Buddhism Roughly 2,000 years ago, Mahayana split from Theravada Buddhism. Mahayana is translated as “the great vehicle.” Mahayanists believe that that their approach to Buddhism can help more people because it is less demanding than the all-encompassing Theravadist system. Mahayanists emphasize Buddha’s later years of teaching and helping others, while Theravadists affirm the Buddha’s approach to selfhelp and introspection.

Vajrayana Buddhism Vajrayanas highlight the practice of rituals, known as Tantras, which have been recorded in texts. Vajrayanas believe that Buddha began to practice Tantras during his lifetime, although other Buddhists view Vajrayana as an approach to Buddhism that developed from Mahayana Buddhism several centuries later.

Unknown Origin of Hinduism In contrast to the universalizing religions, Hinduism has unknown origins as the religion existed before any recorded history. The earliest Hindu religious documents are about 3,500 years old. The Aryan tribes from Central Asia invaded India about 1400 B.C.E. and brought their religion with them. Centuries of intermingling with the Dravidians already living in the area modified their religious beliefs.

Historical Diffusion of Religions Universalizing religions have diffused from specific places of origin (or hearths) to other regions of the world, while most ethnic religions have generally remained clustered in a defined area. Islam, Christianity, and Buddhism all originated in Asia and diffused the world over from there.

Diffusion of Buddhism Buddhism diffused through missionaries also but diffused rather slowly compared to Christianity and Islam. The hearth of Buddhism is in northeastern India. The person most responsible for the diffusion of Buddhism was Emperor Asoka of the Magadhan Empire. The Magadhan Empire controlled a large area of South Asia between the sixth B.C.E. and the eighth century C.E. and Asoka sent missionaries to territories not controlled by the empire. Merchants diffused Buddhism to China and the Chinese were quite receptive to it. It later diffused to other countries in East Asia, though it lost its original base of support in India.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Diffusion of Islam Within a century of Muhammad’s death, Muslim armies conquered areas in Africa, Asia, and Europe. Some of the territory that was conquered by Islamic armies was eventually lost and some of those areas started practicing another religion. As was the case with Christianity, Islam diffused well beyond its hearth. Indonesia, which is the world’s fourth most populous country, is predominately Muslim because Arab traders brought the religion there in the thirteenth century.

Diffusion of Christianity Geographers can describe the diffusion of Christianity by reconstructing patterns of communications, interaction, and migration.

Relocation Diffusion of Christianity Christianity first spread from the eastern Mediterranean through relocation diffusion. Missionaries—individuals who help to transmit a universalizing religion through relocation diffusion—relayed the teachings of Jesus along the Roman Empire’s land and sea networks to people in other places.

Expansion Diffusion of Christianity Two types of expansion diffusion established the dominance of Christianity throughout the Roman Empire in the fourth century: hierarchical and contagious diffusion. After the Emperor Constantine converted to Christianity and the Emperor Theodosius proclaimed it as the empire’s official religion in 380 C.E., the religion spread into Eastern Europe through hierarchical diffusion through the conversion of kings and other elites over the subsequent centuries. Contagious diffusion spread Christianity throughout the world. The permanent resettlement of Europeans further spread Christianity to North and South America, Australia, and New Zealand through relocation diffusion. Conquest and the conversion of indigenous populations and intermarriage further spread the religion. Recently, it has further diffused to Africa, where it is widely practiced.

Recent Migration of Christians Even though Christians are only one-third of the world’s population they account for one-half of the world’s international migrants. Jews especially have migrated from one country to another at some point of their lives, with migrants accounting for 25 percent of the Judaism’s adherents. In contrast, around 5 percent of all Christians and 4 percent of all Muslims have migrated, compared to only 1 or 2 percent of other religious groups. Buddhist, Hindus, and folk religionists are less likely to migrate.

The destinations of international migrants who are Christian is not reflected in the distribution of Christians.

12 percent of the world’s Christians reside in North America, but is the destination for 34 percent of migrating Christians. 26 percent of the world’s Christians live in Europe, but is the destination for 38 percent of migrating Christians. In contrast, Latin America and sub-Saharan Africa attract relatively few Christian migrants.

Immigration of Christians to North America Most immigrants to the United States are Christian, 61 percent in 2102. Unauthorized immigrants were 83 percent Christian. The percentage has declined to 68 percent in 1992. Muslims and Hindus have supplanted the Christian immigrants.

Canada (except Québec) and the United States have Protestant majorities because their early colonists traveled predominantly from Protestant England. Likewise, some regions of North America are predominantly Roman Catholic due to flows from Roman Catholic areas of Europe and Latin America. Mormons are concentrated in Utah due to the migration of Brigham Young and his followers to the Salt Lake Valley in the mid-nineteenth century.

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Chapter 6: Religions Recent Migration of Muslims & Jews Compared to Christianity, the pattern of international migration of Muslims and Jews is even less reflected in the distribution of both groups around the world.

Migration Patterns of Muslims Although 20 percent of the world’s Muslims reside in Southwest Asia and North Africa, 34 percent of Muslim migrants are pulled to the region. Saudi Arabia attracts the largest share of Muslim migrants, making up 10 percent of the world total. The largest number of immigrants to Saudi Arabia come from Egypt. 34 percent of Muslims who migrate internationally travel to Europe, which is the home of 3 percent of the world Muslim population. Most Muslims migrate to Russia, Germany, and France when going to Europe. The largest number of Muslim immigrants to Europe have come from Turkey to Germany and from Algeria to France. In contrast, South Asia, with 30 percent of the world’s Muslims, attracts only 6 percent of the migrants.

Migration Patterns of Jews Israel is the major destination of Jews who migrate internationally. As a state with a Jewish majority, Israel is the major destination of Jews migrating internationally (73 percent). The United States accounts for 10 percent of Jewish international migrants. The Romans forced Jews to migrate from the eastern Mediterranean in 70 C.E. and became dispersed throughout the world. Even though the Jews lived among other nationalities they retained their religious practices, but adopted the language and customs of their new country. In Europe Jews were often persecuted and were legally restricted to neighborhoods, known as ghettos. The distribution of Jews changed after the mass extermination of Jews by the Nazis in World War II, Many Jewish refugees from Europe and Southwest Asia migrated to Israel after its establishment in 1948.

Key Issue 3: Why Do Religions Organize Space in Distinctive Patterns?

Geographers examine the impact of religion on the landscape at several scales. The ways people use the landscape are influenced by their beliefs.

Places of Worship Sacred structures are physical “anchors” of religion. Some structures are designed for a group to gather, while others are designed for individual meditation.

Religious Structures for Assembly Familiar names that identify places for collective religious expression include church, basilica, mosque, temple, and synagogue.

Christian Churches The word church can be traced back to the Greek term meaning “lord,” “master,” and “power.” Church refers both to a gathering of believers and the structure at which the gathering occurs.

All three branches emphasize the congregation of people in a church to worship. In the past, churches dominated the landscape, often being the tallest building. Today churches may not dominate the landscape in large cities, but may still do so in smaller cities and towns. Church architecture varies based on religious heritage from the ornate Byzantine-style of the domed Orthodox churches to simplistically-styled Protestant churches.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Islamic Mosques The word mosque is rooted in the Arabic for “place of worship.” Mosques are generally found in larger cities, with simpler structures present in rural villages – both serve as a place for people to gather together for worship. A mosque is designed around a central courtyard – traditionally open-air, although it may be enclosed in harsher climates. The pulpit is placed at the end of the courtyard facing Makkah. Minarets are a distinctive feature of mosques, a tower where people are summoned to worship by a man known as a muezzin.

Sikh Gurdwara Sikh places of worship are known as gurdwaras. The Harmandir Sahib, or Golden Temple, in Amritsar, India, is the most important gurdwara in the world. The holiest book in Sikhism, the Guru Granth Sahib, is kept at the Golden Temple.

Jewish Synagogues The word synagogue derives from the Greek word for “assembly.” The building is often referred to by the Yiddish word shul. The origin of the synagogue is unclear—it is theorized to have emerged in the sixth century B.C.E. when Jews were exiled in Babylonia.

Bahá’í Houses of Worship Bahá’i Houses of Worship have been built in every continent in the world to represent Bahá’í as a universalizing religion with adherents the world over. All Bahá’í Houses of Worship are required to be built in the shape of a nonagon (a nine-sided building).

Religious Structures for Individual Meditation Rather than a place for groups to gather, some religious structures serve as a place of introspection and meditation.

Buddhist Pagodas Following Buddha’s death, his clothes and parts of his body were collected by followers as relics. These relics are kept in Buddhist religious structures known as pagoda. Pagodas typically include tall, many sided towers arranged in a series of tiers, balconies, and slanting roofs. Pagodas are not intended for congregational worship; rather, individual prayer and meditation takes place at an adjacent temple, at a remote monastery, or in a home.

Hindu Temples Homes are generally the location of important Hindu religious functions. A Hindu temple is a structure designed to bring individuals closer to their gods, and serves as a place for individual reflection and meditation. The size of temples is determined by local preferences and availability of resources, rather than mandated religious standards.

Pilgrimages to Religious Shrines Universalizing religions are more likely to consider places holy that are associated with key events in the founder’s life. Places are considered sacred because they are locations of key events in the lives of Buddha and Muhammad. Pilgrimages, journeys to places considered sacred by religions, are part of religious rituals in Buddhism and Islam.

Holy Places in Islam The holiest places in Islam are in cities associated with the life of Muhammad. The Great Mosque, Masjid al-Haram, located in Makkah is the largest mosque in the world. In the Great Mosque is the al-Ka’ba, a cube like structure thought by Muslims to have been built by Abraham and Ishmael. Inside the Ka’ba is a black stone given to Abraham by Gabriel that is considered by Muslims to signify the covenant with Ishmael and the Muslim people. Muslims, if financially and physically able, are expected to undertake a pilgrimage, or hajj, to Makkah in their lifetimes. Madinah is also a holy city in Islam, and is home to the world’s second-largest mosque.

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Chapter 6: Religions Buddhist Shrines Buddhism recognizes eight holy places because of their association with events in Buddha’s life. The holiest is Lumbini in Nepal, the birthplace of Buddha. Four other sites in northeast India are sacred because they were the location of Buddha’s miracles.

Religious Settlements and Toponyms While churches and burial sites represent smaller-scale anifestations of religion on the landscape, entire settlements centered around a religion reflect larger- scale examples of religion’s imprint on the landscape.

Utopian Settlements An utopian settlement is a community based around a religious way of life. Buildings and economic activities are planned to integrate religious principles into all aspects of daily life. The first utopian settlement in America was Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, founded by Moravian Christians in 1741. Today, Salt Lake City remains as the most prominent utopian city, founded in 1848 and designed around a plan of the city of Zion. Many utopian communities fell by the wayside due to minimal economic prospects or the members of the community maintaining celibacy.

Religious Place Names Roman Catholic immigrants regularly bestowed religious place names, or toponyms, to their settlements in the New World. These religious toponyms are especially prevalent in Québec and the U.S. Southwest.

Administration of Religious Space The method of communication and consistency of doctrine varies between universalizing religions, branches, and denominations, although some administration is present. In ethnic religions, centralized authorities generally do not exist.

Locally Autonomous Religions Other faiths, known as autonomous religions, give authority to individual churches and only loosely coordinate their operations. Islam and some Protestant denominations are examples.

Local Autonomy in Islam Islam provides a great deal of local autonomy because it does not have a formal religious hierarchy or formal territorial organization. Strong unity within the Islamic world is maintained by a relatively high degree of communication, migration and Islamic doctrine.

Protestant Denominations Protestant Christian denominations vary in geographic structure from extremely autonomous to somewhat hierarchical. Episcopalian, Lutheran, and most Methodist churches resemble the Roman Catholic Church in its hierarchical structure, while Baptist and United Church of Christ congregations are extremely autonomous.

Ethnic Religions Hinduism is an example of a highly autonomous religion, because worship is generally performed alone or with others in a household. Hinduism has no centralized structure of religious authority.

Hierarchical Religions have a well-defined geographic extent, with territory organized into local administrative units.

Latter-Day Saints The Mormons have a strong organizational structure. The territory occupied by Mormons is managed by the president and board of the Mormon Church. Small-scale units of territory known as wards contain several hundred people. These wards then make up stakes, a larger unit of territory with a population of roughly 5,000 people.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Roman Catholic Hierarchy The Roman Catholic Church has organized much of Earth’s inhabited land into an administrative structure ultimately accountable to the Pope in Rome. The basic geographic unit is a diocese administered by a bishop. A diocese is then divided into parishes which vary in size. Dioceses are organized into provinces headed by archbishops. Archbishops report to the Pope who is also the bishop of the Diocese of Rome.

The Landscape in Ethnic Religions Ethnic religious holy places are typically based on the physical environment of the hearth region of that religion. Pilgrimages may be taken to those specific physical features.

Cosmogony and Spirits A set of beliefs that seek to explain the origin of the universe defines cosmogony.

Christians and Muslims belief that God created the physical environment and humans. Chinese traditional religion explains the universe with two forces, yin and yang, interacting to reach balance and harmony.

Religion provides a conception of the relationship between humans and nature. Primal-indigenous folk religions view the universe as mystical and believe that spirits and gods can be placated. They accept environmental hazards as normal and unavoidable.

Hinduism’s South Asian Landscape The physical geography of India is integral to Hinduism. Indian riverbanks and coastlines are likely to rank among the holiest shrines in Hinduism, according to the geographer Surinder Bhardwaj. Hindus undertake pilgrimages, known as tirthas, to these holy sites as an act of purification. The Ganges is the holiest river in India based on the Hindu belief that it sprang forth from the hair of Shiva. Many Indians travel from other parts of the country to bathe in the Ganges at Haridwar. Another pilgrimage site is Mt. Kailās, located at the source of the Ganges, which is sacred because Shiva lives there.

Disposing of the Dead disposing of the dead.

Climate, topography, and religious doctrine account for differences in methods for

Burial Christians, Muslims, and Jews all practice burial in dedicated cemeteries. Cemeteries are used as parks in Muslim countries, where the idea of using a cemetery as public open space faces less opposition than in Christian societies. In some countries, burying of the dead can remove arable land from use. In China, for instance, roughly 10 percent of the land from productive agriculture is removed by burial sites. The Chinese government encourages cremation.

Other Methods of Disposing of Bodies Hindus favor cremation to burial. Hindus consider cremation an act of purification because it frees the body from the soul for departure to the afterworld. Other groups, such leave the bodies exposed to scavengers or dispose of the human remains at sea.

Religious Calendars & the Environment Calendars used by different religions can be described as solar, lunar, and lunisolar. Months in the solar calendar used by Christians correspond to the position of the sun in relation to the stars. Months in a lunar calendar used by Muslims correspond to the phases of the moon. A lunisolar calendar used by Jews has lunar months adjusted periodically to align with the solar year. In universalizing religions, major holidays reflect events in the life of the founder rather than traits of the physical landscape. In ethnic religions, the physical geography of their hearths may play a role in determining holidays and reflect the shared history and culture.

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Chapter 6: Religions The Calendar in Several Religions The main purpose of calendars in universalizing religions is to commemorate events in the founder’s life.

Islam Islam uses a lunar calendar. Within its 30-year cycle, the calendar includes 19 years with 354 days and 11 years with 355 days. As a result, Muslim holidays occur on different dates in different seasons from generation to generation. This is of importance to the timing of Ramadan, the period during which Muslims fast from sun rise to sundown. Because of variations in the calendar over time Ramadan cycles through different seasons.

Christianity A major holy day in Christianity is Easter, observed on the first Sunday after the first full Moon following the spring equinox. However Roman Catholics and Protestants use the Gregorian calendar whereas Orthodox churches use the Julian calendar, so Easter is seldom celebrated on the same day.

Buddhism Buddhists celebrate the Buddha’s birth, enlightenment, and death. However, not all Buddhists commemorate these holidays on the same days.

Sikhism Sikhs observe the birthdays and dates of death of the 10 Sikh guru. Holidays in Sikhism commemorate historical events centering around the birth or death of a guru.

Bahá’í Bahá’í employs a calendar established by the Báb and confirmed by Bahá’u’lláh, in which the year is divided into 19 months of 19 days each, with the addition of 4 extra days (with 5 in leap years). Their year begins on the first day of spring.

The Calendar in Judaism Judaism bases its calendar on the agricultural calendar of the religion’s homeland in present-day Israel. Major holidays include Pesach (Passover) celebrating the liberation of the Jews from slavery in Egypt; Shavuot, considered the date Moses received the Torah from God, which also coincides with the barley harvest; and Sukkot which recalls the 40 years Jews wandered in the desert around the time of the final harvest of the year. The holiest observances, Rosh Hashanah (New Year) and Yom Kippur (Day of Atonement) occur in the fall.

The Solstice The solstice, derived from the Latin to “stand still,” holds a significant purpose in some ethnic religions. The winter solstice (December 21 or 22 in the Northern Hemisphere) is a major holiday in some pagan religions. Stonehenge is an ancient monument in southwestern England that is apparently constructed to align with the sun in the summer and winter solstices.

Key Issue 4: Why Do Territorial Conflicts Arise Among Religious Groups?

Religions and Social Change Religious conflict has intensified due to the rise of fundamentalism, the literal and strict adherence to what they define as the basic principles of a religious group. Recently these groups have mixed politics with religious belief and are convinced only their views are correct and may resort to violence in support of their convictions.

India: Hinduism and Social Equality Changing cultural, political, and economic customs may challenge traditional religious values. In South Asia, Hinduism has recently come into conflict with secular ideas introduced from the West. In East Asia, Communist doctrine has challenged Buddhism and its place in society.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography India in the nineteenth century. The caste system is based on the class or distinct hereditary order into which a Hindu was born. When the Aryans invaded India circa 1500 B.C.E., they divided themselves into four castes that stratified social and economic positions.

These four castes are: 1.

2.

3.

4.

Brahmans, the priests and top administrators.

Kshatriyas, or warriors.

Vaisyas, or merchants.

Shudras, or agricultural workers and artisans.

A fifth class of people, Dalits (untouchables), were theorized to have descended from the indigenous people who were invaded by the Aryans. Until recently, social relations between the castes were limited, and the rights of non-Brahmans, especially Dalits, were restricted. In recent years, the caste system has grown relatively relaxed, but remnants persist today.

Communism: Religion & Revolution Communist governments have downplayed the role of religion in everyday life or openly opposed religion. The Soviet Union felt religious doctrine was a potential threat to the success of the Marxist revolution. All church buildings and property were nationalized and could be used only with local government permission. Countries in Central Asia, such as Uzbekistan with Muslim majority populations need to decide whether to maintain secular laws or adopt laws conforming to Islamic tradition.

China: Buddhism & the Dalai Lama Conflict between communism and religion is evident today in relations between the People’s Republic of China government and its autonomous Xizang (widely known as Tibet) province, home of the Dalai Lama. Communist China took over the region in 1950 and put down an unsuccessful rebellion in 1959.

Challenges for Religions in Southwest Asia Religious disputes have become embedded in ethnic and political conflicts in Central and Southwest Asia.

Jews, Christians, & Muslims in the Eastern Mediterranean Jews, Christians, and Muslims have fought one another for control of a small strip of land in the Eastern Mediterranean (or Middle East) in a prolonged series of conflicts. These conflicts are the result of overlapping histories of the three religions. The Crusades were a series of wars fought against Muslims in the Middle East by Christians intent on reclaiming Jerusalem.

The Muslim Ottoman Empire controlled Palestine/Israel for most of four centuries between 1516 and 1917.

After the Ottoman Empire’s defeat in World War I, the United Kingdom took control of the region. The present-day conflict in Palestine/Israel has its roots in ancient history, but more recently with the creation of the state of Israel by the United Nations in 1947.

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Chapter 6: Religions Arab-Israeli Wars Following the United Nations’ 1947 partition of Britain’s Palestine Mandate into two independent states, one Jewish and one Arab. Four wars have been fought over conflicting territorial claims: The 1948-1949 Independence War, 1956 Suez Canal War, 1967 Six-Day War, and 1973 Yom Kippur War. The Old City of Jerusalem changed hands several times. In the Six-Day War, the West Bank, the Golan Heights, the Gaza Strip, and the Sinai Peninsula were all captured by Israel. In the Camp David Accords, U.S. President Jimmy Carter mediated an agreement between Egypt’s President Anwar Sadat and Israel’s Prime Minister Menachem Begin where Israel returned control of the Sinai Peninsula to Egypt in exchange for Egypt’s recognition of Israel as a sovereign nation.

Geographic Perspectives in Southwest Asia The Palestinians view themselves as the legitimate rulers of Palestine which in their view, is comprised of the territory occupied by the independent state of Israel.

Israeli Perspectives The relatively small size of the state of Israel and its three distinct physiographic regions (the coastal plain, a series of hills, and the Jordan River valley) all play a role in Israel’s interaction with its neighbors. After Israel captured the West Bank from Jordan in 1967, Israel permitted settlement in the area. Israelis have moved to the area due to their perceived right to live in their historical homeland, and lack of affordable housing within Israel’s pre-1967 borders. A barrier or security fence has been constructed around the West Bank.

Palestinian Perspectives Five groups of people consider themselves Palestinians: • • • • •

People living in the West Bank, Gaza, and East Jerusalem territories captured by Israel in 1967.

Some citizens of Israel who are Arabs.

People who fled from Israel to other countries after the 1948-1949 war.

People who fled from the West Bank or Gaza to other countries after the 1967 Six-Day War. Some citizens of other countries, especially Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, Kuwait, and Saudi Arabia.

Until his death in 2004, Yassir Arafat lead the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO) in the fight against Israel. Israel permits a limited form of government for Palestinians in the West Bank and Gaza, called the Palestinian Authority. The Palestinians are generally not satisfied with either the territory or the power they have been given thus far. Currently, the struggle for power between the Fatah and Hamas parties colors many internal conflicts.

Jerusalem’s Challenging Geography Jerusalem feature sites holy to Islam, Judaism, and Christianity.

Controlling Jerusalem represents a key geographic problem to peace in the region.

Judaism’s Jerusalem Jerusalem is particularly holy to Jews as the location of the Temple, their center of worship in ancient times. The First Temple was destroyed by the Babylonians in 586 B.C.E., and the Second Temple was destroyed by the Romans in 70 C.E. The Western Wall of the Second Temple remains today.

Following the capture of the Old City of Jerusalem in the 1967 Six-Day War, the Western Wall became a site for daily prayers by observant Jews.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Islam’s Jerusalem The holiest Muslim structure in Jerusalem is the Dome of the Rock, built in 691 C.E. Muslims believe that the large rock beneath the structure’s dome is the place from which Muhammad ascended to heaven, as well as the altar on which Abraham prepared to sacrifice his son Isaac (according to Jews and Christians) or his son Ishmael (according to Muslims). The al-Aqsa Mosque was built on the site of the ruins of the Jewish Second Temple. However, because the holy Muslim structures literally sit on top of the holy Jewish structures, the two sets of holy structures cannot be logically divided by a line on a map.

Introducing the Chapter Many instructors find themselves particularly challenged with this chapter, as emotions run high and the classroom has become more politicized with movements for an “academic bill of rights.” Students also can be uncomfortable with issues of faith and observance and/or intolerant of other points of view.

This discomfort can serve as a point of conversation in introducing the chapter. Point out that the geographic study of religion is not interested in whether a particular religion is “right” or “wrong,” but rather that geographers are interested in how religious belief affects the use of space and impacts on the landscape.

Students should have no difficulty realizing the geographic nature of studying religious competition for space, since conflicts based on religions with overlapping claims have been some of the most enduring.

This being said, the brave-of-heart instructor (perhaps with tenure) should not shy away from a discussion of the role of religion in demarcating political space in the United States, as Christian fundamentalism has played a pivotal role in the politics of early twenty-first century America.

Student Engagement Activity Ideas Class Survey With a large (and diverse) enough class, you might perform an anonymous survey of faith. Ask students what faith they consider themselves to be a member of, how often they practice their faith at a formal service or gathering, and whether they participate in any religious activities outside of a formal service. A statistical portrait of the class could serve as an introduction to the topic of religious diversity and the North American standard of separation of church and state. Caution: Be careful to not single out minority religions if the class is overwhelmingly of one faith.

Challenges to Comprehension Counting Believers Even though they have already seen countless world maps generalizing all sorts of population data, students frequently wonder aloud in this chapter, “How do they know what percentage of each religion there is?”

This presents an excellent opportunity to discuss random sampling and estimates.

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Chapter 6: Religions

True Believers Overcoming dominant worldviews and prejudices is a major obstacle to a better understanding of our world.

However, in the case of religion, some individuals will be unwilling to compromise their beliefs to understand the relative position of other beliefs. This is generally not a problem in terms of memorizing distributions of religions and the like; but you may find some who are unable to think critically beyond an “us” versus “them” mentality.

Additional Classroom Activities & Assignments Review/Reflection Questions These questions can be used in addition to the “thinking geographically” questions at the end of each chapter.

Students can be assigned these questions as homework, they can be given as essay questions on exams, or they can serve as focus questions for in-class discussions.

The italicized section that follows the question sets the criteria and parameters for student answers. Use these suggestions to provide guidance in the assessment of student answers. In addition, a sample answer has been provided. Know that student answers will vary based on the examples and explanations you provided in class.

•

How are the differences between universalizing and ethnic religions similar to the differences between folk and popular culture? List several similarities.

Student responses should demonstrate an understanding of the difference between universalizing and ethnic religions. The answer should also describe the extent of area affected by the different types of culture.

Sample answer A universalizing religion has a wide geographic distribution as the adherents actively seek converts. This is analogous to popular culture. In contrast ethnic religions are concentrated primarily in one area as folk cultures are most concentrated in their hearth region.

•

Describe some major differences between language and religion.

Student answers should mention the likelihood of an individual adhering to religious beliefs even though they may readily use another language if they were to move to another country.

Sample answer Religion is one of the five social institutions all societies have. Language is often viewed as the transmitter of culture and provides a means to communicate ideas and supports interaction among groups. At the level of the individual, a migrant might adopt the language of his or her new home, but would be less likely to abandon his or her religion.

•

Explain why religious conflicts occur. Is it only that religious ideologies disagree, or is geography involved? How do you think religious conflicts can be resolved?

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography competition for leadership. Student answers on the methods to resolve religious conflicts will vary based on their point of view.

Sample answer In some cases, religious doctrine has been the root of a split in a religious community. For example, the split of the Roman Catholic Church into the eastern and western branches with the eastern branches subscribing to Orthodoxy. The Shiite and Sunni branches of Islam, each believe they better represent the tenets of Islam and each is predominant in specific territory.

I think that most religious conflicts involve contested territory. Each religion considers a given place sacred to their religion and deeply resents the intrusion of another religious group on what is viewed as “theirs.” This element of human geography, the division of space on Earth, is the driving force for ethnic cleansing perhaps even rising to genocide.

Religious conflicts are best resolved through negotiation and compromise. This has proved difficult as in the case of Palestine, both sides believe that God has given them the land. Perhaps the best resolution that could be achieved is an agreement to stop fighting.

Sacred Sites Sacred sites to adherents of a religion can be natural or human created sites that have special meaning for the followers. Some sacred spaces, such as structures or pilgrimage sites, are formal spaces. Others sites, such as the apparition of the Virgin Mary on a building or a roadside memorial, are less formal. Sacred spaces can also be part of the natural landscape, for example, Mt. Fuji in Japan or Uluru in Australia.

Choose any religion and select a sacred site to research. Read the chapter for ideas and examples of sacred sites. Here are some additional resources for selecting a sacred site if you’re not sure what to research.

Places of Peace and Power

www.sacredsites.com/

Sacred Destinations

www.sacred-destinations.com

Sacred Sites International Foundation

www.sacred-sites.org/preservation/index2.html

Once you have selected your site, research the following: • • • • •

How did it become a sacred site? Why is it a sacred site?

What is its religious significance? Why is it important to the religion?

Are there any requirements for visiting the site?

Is there controversy surrounding the site? Why or why not?

How does the site affect the economy of the local area? Does it benefit the community?

Turn in a two-page paper describing your research or findings. Also include anything else interesting you learned about the religious site you selected.

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Chapter 6: Religions Mastering Geography™ provides additional assignable learning activities and ready-made resources designed to extend and reinforce student skills and mastery of key content, concepts, and vocabulary. The resources include MapMaster 2.0 interactive maps, videos, GeoTutor coaching activities, Google Earth Explorations, outline maps, chapter quizzes, Dynamic Study Modules, and more. Further details about these resources and recommendations for use are provided in the Resources section of this document. You can assign these media-rich activities as pre or post lecture homework.

Thinking Geographically Questions Key Issue 6.1: The percentage of the world’s people adhering to Islam is forecast by the Pew Research Forum to increase from 23 percent in 2010 to 30 percent in 2050.

1. What demographic factors presented in Chapter 2 (Population & Health) would underlie this increase?

Conversely, why might the percentage who are Christians not be increasing?

High birth rates in traditionally Muslim countries such as Indonesia, and countries in North Africa & Southwest Asia would contribute to an increase in the number of Muslims. Muslim migrants tend to have more children than families in the countries to which they have migrated. In contrast, most European countries have been traditionally Christian. Population growth rates in Europe are declining and so would not contribute to population growth among Christians in those countries.

Key Issue 6.2: Most Christians accept that Jesus was buried and resurrected from a tomb that is now housed in a shrine called the Edicule inside the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem.

2. In 2016, researchers unsealed the burial site. What did they find? In your Internet browser, search for “Jesus tomb uncovered.”

Researchers exploring the tomb found out that they may have uncovered the actual tomb that was the burial place of Jesus.

Key Issue 6.3 3. Based on your understanding of reasons for migration discussed in Chapter 3, as well as the distribution of Muslims by country, what factors might account for the distinctive origin of pilgrims?

Distance is a major consideration in migration as well as a travel to Makkah. Most migrants move only a short distance as do many Muslim pilgrims. As the expenses involved in making the pilgrimage would be lower for people traveling shorter distances, individuals from nearby countries with large Muslim populations are more likely to make the journey.

Key Issue 6.4: Three-fourths of the Chinese people adhere to a Chinese traditional religion or are unaffiliated with any religion.

4. Given the relatively small percentage of Chinese who adhere to the principal universalizing religions, why might the government of China be engaged in conflicts with Tibetan Buddhists and Muslims living in the western portion of the country?

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography According to communist doctrine, the Chinese state is supreme. Universalizing religions such as Buddhism and Islam threaten the government’s hold on the hearts and minds of its people. In addition, Tibet has sought to regain its independence and so further strains relationships with China.

Pause and Reflect Questions 6.1.1

Although they may appear very different at first glance, what similarities do you see in the religious buildings depicted in Figures 6-2 and 6-4?

Both buildings have spires or arches ascending toward the sky. Both buildings have a public space in front of them, where congregants may gather.

6.1.2

In what ways are the distribution of religion and language families similar?

Overall when languages diffused so did other cultural characteristics such as religion. For example, the South American continent is dominated by both the Spanish and Portuguese languages and Roman Catholicism. In another example, the United Kingdom and the United States both predominantly speak English and have Protestant majorities in their populations.

6.1.3

Which migration factors help to explain the distribution of branches of Christianity within North America?

The English migrated to the United States bringing their Protestant beliefs with them. Some, such as the Puritans, arrived because of persecution of their religious beliefs in the home country. Canada was originally settled by the French and their missionaries who sought to spread Roman Catholicism on the continent. The Spanish Empire included the western portion of the United States where they established Roman Catholic missions and churches.

6.1.4

How does the ancestry of Muslims in the United States differ from the worldwide distribution of Muslims as shown in Figure 6-12?

The cartogram shown in Figure 12 shows a very small number of Muslims in the United States. Most of the Muslims originated from Pakistan and South Asia. The cartogram shows those countries with Muslim populations over 100 million. The other source of U.S. Muslims is Southwest Asia which probably due to its desert environment has a lower population and consequently a lower number of Muslims.

6.1.5

What is the most-numerous universalizing religion in India?

According to Figure 6.7, “Most Numerous Religions by Region,” Islam is the most numerous universalizing religion.

6.1.6

Most of the religions with at least 2 million adherents are clustered in which continent?

Except for Bahá’í, most of the religions with at least 2 million adherents are clustered in Asia.

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The government of Saudi Arabia spells some place names differently than is common in English (such as Makkah instead of Mecca). Given your knowledge of the principal language used in predominantly Islamic countries including Saudi Arabia, what might account for this preference?

The spellings preferred by the government of Saudi Arabia may more closely reflect the original names in Arabic, rather than the rough translations and/or spellings provided by English translators when the place names were first translated.

6.2.2

Rank the origins of the four largest religions from earliest to the most recent.

In ranked order, from earliest to most recent, the four largest religions are Hinduism, Buddhism, Christianity, and Islam.

6.2.3

Does the diffusion of Islam provide a good example of hierarchical diffusion, relocation diffusion, or both?

The diffusion of Islam can be attributed more to relocation diffusion rather than hierarchical diffusion.

6.2.4

Based on religious preference, which two provinces of Canada appear to have the largest migrants from Québec?

Neighboring New Brunswick and Ontario have areas with over 50 percent Roman Catholics. Another area of concentration of Roman Catholics is in Northern Saskatchewan.

6.2.5

What country had the largest Jewish population in 1910?

Russia had the largest Jewish population in 1910.

6.3.1

What differences appear in the images of a Buddhist pagoda and a Christian church?

In the Buddhist pagoda pictured there appears to be a platform facing an open area. There are statues and 3D images, of seated people. Traditionally Buddhist pagodas are tall, multi-storied towers narrowing as the height increases. In this image the entire structure is not shown. There is no visible book or trappings that could be associated with a ceremony.

The Orthodox Christian church features images of saints and Jesus on a wall of icons and other pictures on the interior walls of an enclosed building. A large chandelier hangs from the ceiling over a stand with prayer books that is flanked by candles.

6.3.2

Based on the lives of Buddha and Muhammad, what types of sites are likely to be goals of pilgrimage for the followers of a universalizing religion?

The sites related to the life of the founder of a universalizing religion are likely to be goals of pilgrimages for followers of these religions.

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What examples of religious toponyms can you find in your community?

There are relatively few religious toponyms in my region (the Deep South of the United States). In the western United States, places such as San Francisco and Santa Cruz are examples of religious toponyms.

6.3.4

What are the different spatial units of administration of the Roman Catholic Church?

The spatial units of administration of the Roman Catholic Church are archdioceses, dioceses, and parishes.

6.3.5

What are some of the cultural or religious factors that influence methods of disposing of bodies other than burial?

Hindus perform cremation for most adherents, seeing it as an act of purification. Ancient Zoroastrians traditionally exposed their dead to scavenging birds and animals in an effort to keep the bodies from contaminating the sacred elements of fire, earth, or water.

6.3.6

Why do some religions organize their annual calendars according to the lunar or lunisolar cycle?

The lunar calendar is not tied to an agricultural cycle which provides flexibility in terms of observances.

For instance, through the use of a lunar calendar, Ramadan, the Islamic practice of fasting from sun up to sun down, does not occur during the same season each year.

6.4.1

Why would the Chinese Communists feel it important to dismantle the religious institutions of a poor remote territory?

Following the Chinese conquest of Tibet in the mid-twentieth century, the government of the People’s Republic of China views the religious identity of a poor remote country such as Tibet as a threat to its total control of the cultural identity of China. They see the Dalai Lama as a competing political force that could possibly inspire ideas counter to those that the Chinese government wishes to impart on its citizens.

6.4.2

How does the market street in Jerusalem differ from where you get your food?

The market shows a variety of bulk goods available for purchase. I get my food in a grocery store where meat and other foods are prepackaged.

6.4.3

How does the physical geography of Israel affect Israeli perspectives on the country’s security issues?

Highland areas within Arab territories to the east of Israel pose a strategic threat to Israel’s security. High areas such as the Golan Heights will likely not be returned to Syria, its former owner, because doing so would make Israel vulnerable to attacks from above.

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Why is the Western Wall important in Judaism, and why is the Dome of the Rock important in Islam?

The Western Wall is important in Judaism because it is the last remnant of the Second Temple, constructed in 516 B.C.E. The Dome of the Rock is important in Islam because it is the site where Muhammad ascended to heaven.

Caption Questions Figure 6-5, Most Numerous Religions by Country, Figure 6-7, Most Numerous Religions by Region, Figure 6-8, Most Numerous Religions and Branches in Europe, pp. 188–190 1. Based on what you see in Figures 6-5 and 6-7, what religion has the large number of adherents in the green area of Figure 6-8?

For those regions, Islam has the largest number of adherents.

Figure 6-39, Largest Flows of Islamic Immigrants, p. 206 1. What two regions appear to be the main destinations of Islamic migrants?

Western Europe and Saudi Arabia are the major destinations of Islamic migrants.

2. What push or pull factor is probably most important in each of these flows?

Economic conditions and civil unrest are the primary push factors for immigrants to Western Europe. In addition, the possibility of employment and a better life would be pull factors for the migrants to Western Europe.

Saudi Arabia attracts the largest number of Islamic migrations. This flow could be due to the location of Islam’s holiest sites within its borders which would be a definite pull factor. In addition, an economic pull factor would be jobs in the petroleum industry.

Figure 6-62, Stonehenge, p. 219 1. Why might the builders of Stonehenge have wanted a monumental structure to help them track the annual cycle of summer and winter solstices?

The solstices mark the changes of the seasons and the builders of Stonehenge built a structure to document their occurrence. The changing of the seasons is related to the agricultural cycle. Knowing when spring planting time would arrive would have been invaluable. In addition, the culture ascribed religious meaning to the edifice as they sought to explain man’s place in the universe and the cycle of nature.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Figure 6-67, Physical Geography of the Eastern Mediterranean, p. 224 1. What is the approximate distance and difference in elevation over the distance between Jerusalem and the Dead Sea? The straight-line distance from Jerusalem to the center of the Dead Sea is about 30 kilometers (18.6 miles).

The change in elevation is around 700 meters in Jerusalem to below sea level at the Dead Sea.

Sustainability & Our Environment, Holy Places in Buddhism, p. 211 1. Use your search engine to look up Buddha Bodh Gaya. Describe the structure that currently occupies the site.

The Mahabodhi temple occupies the site as well as the Bodhi tree. An image of this temple is included on page 200 of the text. The temple of stone is many stories tall and has ornate carvings. It commemorates the site where the Buddha gained enlightenment.

2. Look up each of the other seven important sites and describe what you see there.

Students may encounter challenges in completing this assignment as Wikipedia presents beautiful pictures of Buddhist monuments and temples, but the exact location is not always clearly specified. For example, the same image is shown for Rajgir and Viashali.

Lumbini, Nepal—Buddha’s birthplace contains a large white brick temple, ruins of ancient monasteries, and gardens.

Deer Park in Sarnath, India—site of Buddha’s first sermon has a park and a bullet-shaped circular stone edifice.

Kushinagar, India—place where Buddha died containes a large mount built over the reputed site of Buddha’s ashes. The city contains a gold colored stupa, close to the shape of a Hershey kiss.

Shravasti, India—site of Buddha’s greatest miracle has the stone foundation of Buddha’s hut and a stone stupa.

Sankasa, India—site of Buddha’s second miracle and ascension to heaven and return features an elephant statue under a protective roof and ruins of old monasteries and temples.

Rajgir—site where Buddha tamed a wild elephant has a white bell-shaped pagoda, one the world’s 80 peace pagodas.

Vaishali—site of Buddha’s announcement of his impending death has a bell-shaped white stupa with steps leading to a balcony and shows a golden statue of Buddha surrounded by a niche.

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Doing Geography, Religions in the United States, p. 213 What’s Your GEOGRAPHY OF RELIGIONS? 1. Does your county appear in Figure 6-54? Make a list of several places of worship near where you live and their denomination or congregation. Based on your list and Figure 6-54, describe the degree of religious uniformity or diversity in your community.

My county appears on the map categorized as Southern Baptist Convention. Churches in my immediate area include: 2 Episcopal, 2 Roman Catholic, 1Church of Jesus Christ of the Latter Day Saints, 1 Korean place of worship, 2 Presbyterian 1 Seventh Day Adventists, 1 Russian Orthodox in a storefront, 1 Methodist, 1 Mennonite, 4 non-denominational Christian, 1 fundamentalist Christian, 2 Baptist, and 1 Lutheran. My county is also home to the Christian Broadcasting Network and the Edgar Cayce Center for Research and Enlightenment. The diversity of religions represented belies the area’s categorization as primarily Baptist.

2. Describe your family or group of friends based on its degree of religious uniformity or diversity.

My friends and teaching colleagues represent a diversity of religions.

3. Explain how the pattern of religious adherence in your family or among your friends compares with that of the community in which you live.

The patterns of religious adherence mirror those of the community.

Debate it! How do perspectives on the separation barrier differ? p. 225 1. Describe the location of Israeli settlements in the West Bank (Figure 6-68) in relation to the separation barrier, Israeli territory, and areas administered by the Palestinian authority.

The green line denotes the borders of the Palestinian West Bank according to the armistice. Israel controls territory along the Jordan River. Many Jewish settlers are well within the jointly administered territory. Israeli settlements in the West Bank are bordered by Israeli territory on both sides of the barrier wall. According to the site, 77 percent of Jewish settlers live inside the security barrier which is between the 1967 border and the security wall which is technically territory comprising the West Bank. Israeli settlement have expanded into the West Bank.

2. Given this distribution, what are some practical obstacles that complicate future arrangements on governance of the West Bank?

The distribution and intermixing of the Israeli settlers within the walled off area is problematic. If the West Bank were to become a Palestinian state would the Jewish settlers be asked or forced to leave? The site has many options, all with consequences, for reapportioning the land.

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Geospatial Data Analysis Nigeria’s Cultural Diversity Nigeria’s diversity of languages was discussed in Chapter 5 (page 173). How does the country’s language diversity relate to distribution of religions and political unrest?

Zoom to sub-Saharan Africa. Add Data Layer Religions and in the Legend settings, select Show Political Labels.

1. What are Nigeria’s predominant religions in the north? In the south?

The predominant religion in northern Nigeria is Islam and Christianity in the south. There is a small portion of ethnoreligionists (Tribalists) along the southwestern border with Benin.

2. Add Data Layer African Languages, and select Split Map Window. Relate the distribution of language families to religions.

Afro-Asiatic languages are in the north, Niger-Congo languages in the south, and Nilo-Saharan in the northeastern corner. Arabic is an Afro-Asiatic language and the northern area roughly corresponds with the Muslim area. The Niger-Congo languages correspond with the Christian area.

3. Remove African Languages Data Layer and add Data Layer Global Terrorist Attacks. Describe the distribution of terrorist attacks within Nigeria and compare with the distribution of religions.

The terrorist attacks are concentrated in the Muslim areas of the country with most in the northeast quadrant of the country.

GeoVideo Ethiopian Orthodox Christians The Coptic Church in Ethiopia, part of the Orthodox branch of Christianity, has developed unique practices in Africa.

1. Which saint is being honored in this annual event?

St. Michael 2. How has the faith been adapted to suit the harsh local environment?

The church was hewn out of the rock of the mountain.

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3. Christianity is described in the film as a “relatively new religion” in Africa. What type of beliefs may have existed before?

Ethnic religious beliefs of the indigenous people would have existed before Christianity diffused to Ethiopia.

Writing Geographically A universalizing religion typically originates in a hearth and diffuses to other parts of the world.

1. Define a hearth, as it applies to the geography of religions.

A hearth is a core area from which something diffuses. In terms of religion the hearth is the area in which the religions developed.

2. Identify on the map the hearths that correspond with the three universalizing religions.

A is at Jerusalem the hearth from which Christianity diffused. B is Makkah the site of the hearth of Islam, and C is the site of the origin of Buddhism.

3. Choose one of the three universalizing religions and discuss its historical and current distribution.

Christianity appears to be the most widely diffused religion. Missionaries traveled throughout an area and diffused the religion. European colonists spread the religion through relocation diffusion as they settled new lands. Current distribution includes believers on all inhabited continents.

Explore Sacred Spaces: Jerusalem Use Google Earth to observe the complex and lively space of Jerusalem’s Old City.

Search for Dung Gate, Jerusalem. Enter Street View at the Dung Gate.

1. In Street View, head north through the Dung Gate toward the modern one-story structure with the row of curved roofs. Notice that the road ends, but people can pass through the structure. What is the purpose of that structure?

Looks like the structure is a series of security portals for pedestrians.

2. Return to 2D, and enter street view immediately north of the Dung Gate. What important religious structures are now visible?

The Temple Mount and the Western Wall, the al-Aqsa Mosque are visible with the 3D view.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography 3. The space in front of the Western Wall is divided by a wall. What differentiates the people in each of the two spaces?

As also seen in the picture, Figure 6-71 a small plaza is in the foreground and people in Jewish religious dress pray in front of the wall.

Resources Adherents.com Detailed statistics on religious adherence, bibliographic materials, sections on “famous adherents,” and religions by geographic location are contained at the site, www.adherents.com.

Religious Tolerance This site gives a thorough treatment of world religions, controversies among and within religions, and discussions of moral philosophy regarding religion, tolerance, intolerance, and conflict.

Particularly interesting to view is the section dedicated to e-mails the website authors have received over the years. Access the site at, www.religioustolerance.org.

World Religious History in 90 Seconds A basic, but useful, geography of religious influence in the Old World from 3,000 B.C.E. to the present day. www.mapsofwar.com/ind/history-of-religion.html.

GeoInquiries™ GeoInquiries™ by Environmental Science Research Institute (ESRI) consist of scripted map-based online GIS activities designed to be completed within a 15-minute time frame. These Internet-based mapping activities run best in the Google Chrome browser and do not require the installation of any software. Access them at www.esri.com/en-us/industries/education/schools/geoinquiries-collections.

From the Human Geography collection •

Language and Religion provides an interactive map showing the distribution of the world’s major religions and languages.

•

Sacred Place, Sacred Space, explores religious sites in the Old City of Jerusalem and sacred places for Buddhism and Hinduism.

•

Language and Religion: The Diffusion of Islam, an activity that uses analysis tools to illustrate the correlation between the Arabic language and Islam.

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Mastering Geography Media & Assessment Resources Mastering Geography™ provides additional assignable homework activities and ready-made resources designed to extend and reinforce student skills and mastery of key content, concepts, and vocabulary. These resources are invaluable to implementation of the flipped classroom. Use the Instructor Course Home areas to build assignments for your students. Highlights include: •

MapMaster 2.0™ provides students with the opportunity to reinforce their understanding of spatial relationships, e.g., variation, distribution, interaction, and association. Students get hands on with map building, exploration, and spatial data analysis by layering a wide range of maps. Multiple-choice assessments in the Mastering Geography item library provide directions for building maps aligned with chapter content and focus on the development of spatial thinking and analysis skills.

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GeoVideos and Google Earth Explorations linked to chapter content provide an opportunity for students to “visit” other places and build an appreciation for other cultures. Use as an out-of-class assignment and have students explain how the video or Google Earth Explorations illustrate concepts learned in class and make comparisons between cultures.

•

Interactive Data Visualizations powered by Social Explorer provide interactive data explorations for each chapter's Key Issue, and include map stories, predictive graphing, interactive maps, interactive population pyramids, interactive charts, and more. These media are integrated into the Pearson eText and Study Area and are also available for assignment with quizzes.

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GeoTutors are highly visual and data-rich assignable activities that help students master the most challenging concepts in geography.

•

Dynamic Study Modules (DSMs) provide two sets of 25 multiple-choice questions per chapter topic.

Because this resource includes a “I don’t know yet” answer choice,” it can be assigned as a preassessment or content preview. The modules are interactive as students are prompted to select, “I am unsure” or “I am sure” as they submit their answers. The questions could also be used as self-check for students at the end of the chapter. An infographic gauge represents their accuracy visually.

Teachers can assign the DSMs for credit and or students can access these on their own for self-study.

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Learning Catalytics is an interactive student response tool paired with Mastering Geography that encourages team-based learning by using students’ smartphones, tablets, or laptops to engage them in interactive tasks and thinking. As a teacher, you can pose a variety of open-ended questions that help your students develop critical thinking skills, while monitoring responses with real-time analytics to find out where they are struggling. With this information, you can adjust your instructional strategy in real time and try additional ways of engaging your students during class. Learning Catalytics also lets you manage student interactions by automatically grouping students for discussion, team-based learning, and peer-to-peer learning.

The Mastering Geography student Study Area includes a variety of tools that students can access on their own, including: • • •

The eText provides a fully digital online version of the textbook, with search and bookmarking functionality. Available for offline reading.

Chapter Quizzes include 15 multiple choice questions based on the chapter’s content.

Key Terms Flashcards to help students master the key vocabulary.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Downloadable Outline Maps containing political and physical features provide students the opportunity to label key countries and physical features. Consider assigning these maps throughout the course so that students can refer to them as they interpret the many thematic maps in the text.

MapMaster 2.0™ The following map layers are included in the MapMaster 2.0 resource. In addition, multiple choice map-based quizzes are also included.

• • •

Muslim Populations, Sub-Saharan Africa Religions Religious Groups, Sub-Saharan Africa

Additional resources in support of students with disabilities include the screen reader enabled e-text and more. Further details about these resources are available at www.pearson.com/us/accessibility.html.

Connections between Chapters Back to Chapter 4 The relationship between universalizing and ethnic religions can be compared to the relationship between folk and popular cultures. Ethnic religions, like folk cultures, tend to be concentrated in one geographic region and generally do not diffuse outside the region. Universalizing religions, like popular culture, tend to be widespread.

Back to Chapter 5 Chapter 5, Language, can be contrasted with religion after the world’s religions are studied. To recap, language presents a formidable barrier to cultural communication, just like religion. However, most religions require exclusive adherence, whereas multiple languages can be learned without affecting the first language.

Forward to Chapter 7 Chapter 7 deals with another significant component of cultural identity (and also of competition for space): ethnicity. A couple differences between religion and ethnicity can help students understand both better: •

•

Religion is often kept inviolate with migration, even over long distances. Ethnicity, however, can change dramatically over even a few generations. This is visible in the formation of new, “hyphenated” ethnicities in the United States and elsewhere.

Ethnic conflict can occur when groups observe different religions. However, ethnicity can serve as grounds for conflict even when both groups share a common religion.

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7

Ethnicities Learning Outcomes After reading, studying, and discussing the chapter, students should be able to: Learning Outcome 7.1.1:

Distinguish between ethnicity and race.

Learning Outcome 7.1.2:

Summarize changes in the classification of race and ethnicity in the United States.

Learning Outcome 7.1.3:

Compare the distribution of U.S. ethnicities.

Learning Outcome 7.1.4:

Compare race and ethnicity in Brazil.

Learning Outcome 7.1.5:

Describe the distribution of ethnicities within urban areas.

Learning Outcome 7.2.1:

Describe forced migration from Africa.

Learning Outcome 7.2.2:

Describe the patterns of migration of African Americans within the United States.

Learning Outcome 7.2.3a:

Explain the laws once used to segregate races in the United States.

Learning Outcome 7.2.3b:

Explain the laws once used to segregate races in South Africa.

Learning Outcome 7.2.4:

Describe how ethnicities can be divided among more than one nationality.

Learning Outcome 7.3.1:

Explain the differences between ethnicities and nationalities.

Learning Outcome 7.3.2:

Identify the principal ethnic conflicts in Western Asia.

Learning Outcome 7.3.3:

Identify the principal ethnic conflicts in West-Central Asia.

Learning Outcome 7.4.1:

Analyze current and past examples of ethnic cleansing and genocide.

Learning Outcome 7.4.2:

Describe the breakup of Yugoslavia and its consequences for Balkan ethnic groups.

Learning Outcome 7.4.3:

Explain the concept of ethnic cleansing in Bosnia & Herzegovina.

Learning Outcome 7.4.4:

Identify the principal recent episodes of genocide in Africa.

Learning Outcome 7.4.5:

Identify the principal recent episodes of genocide in Central Africa.

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Chapter 7 Outline I

Key Issue 1: Where are Ethnicities Distributed?

A Ethnicities & Geography 1 Terms a ethnicity—identity with a particular group of people who share cultural traditions of a homeland (cultural heritage) b race—identity with a group of people who are perceived to share physiological traits (biological composition) c nationality—identity with a group of people who share a legal attachment to a particular country (country of citizenship) d racism—belief that race is the primary determinant of human traits and capacities and racial differences produce an inherent superiority of a particular race. e racist—person who displays discrimination or feels prejudice against people of particular races B Classifying Race & Ethnicity in the United States 1 Race & the U.S. Census a Classifications i White ii Black or African American iii American Indian or Alaska Native iv Asian v Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander b 1997 guidelines permit selection of one or more races c Hispanic is considered an ethnicity d Individuals self-identify C Distribution of U.S. Ethnicities 1 Hispanic Americans a primarily from Mexico and Puerto Rico b clustered in the Southwest 2 Portion in population California ⅓; Texas ⅕; Florida and New York ⅙ 3 Asian Americans a largest numbers from China, the Philippines, and India b clustered in the West c California ½; 12 percent of state’s population 4 African Americans a from three areas of West Africa b clustered in the Southeast c comprise at least ¼ of the population of Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, Maryland, and South Carolina; ⅓ in Mississippi 5 Descendants of Indigenous People a Most numerous Native Hawaiians, Cherokee, Navajo, Chippewa, Sioux, and Choctaw b Clustered in the southwest and north-central U.S. as well as Alaska c Over 10 percent of population in Alaska, Oklahoma, New Mexico, and South Dakota d Over 4 percent of Canada’s population: First Nations, Inuit, and Métis.

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Chapter 7: Ethnicities D Ethnically Complex Brazil 1 Census classifies people by skin color a branco (white) b pardo (brown) c preto (black) d amarelo (yellow) e indigenous 2 Clusters a south—brancos, São Paulo, legacy from Europe b north—indigenous, Amazon rainforest area, interior c northeast—northern coast, legacy of migration from Africa d west-central—mixed, site of Brasilia, the capital E Ethnic Enclaves 1 Ethnic enclave—high concentration of an ethnic group distinct from those in the surrounding area 2 Changing Urban Ethnic Enclaves a major cities home to ethnic enclaves—Cleveland, Chicago, Detroit, groups from Southern and Eastern Europe in the inner cities (early 20th century) b descendants of European immigrants moved to the suburbs (late 20th century) c ethnoburbs—suburban area with a cluster of a particular ethnic group 3 Urban Ethnic Enclaves a clustering evident at neighborhood scale II Key Issue 2: Why Do Ethnicities Have Distinctive Distributions?

A Forced Migration of Slaves from Africa 1 Slavery—system in which one person owns another person as property and can force the slave to work for the owner’s benefit 2 Forced migration of Africans 3 Triangular slave trade—Europe to Africa to the Americas 4 Voluntary Migration from Latin America & Asia B Internal Migration of African Americans 1 Interregional Migration a sharecropper—works fields on rented land; pays rent by turning over a share of the crop to the landowner b African American migration i after both world wars African Americans migrated north and west to factories in the North 2 Intraregional Migration a expansion of African-American neighborhoods—migration within cities and metropolitan areas b “White Flight”—emigration of whites from an area in anticipation of blacks moving in i blockbusting—real estate agents convince white homeowners to sell homes at low prices because blacks would cause values to decline ii redlining—financial institutions refused to lend money within an area drawn on a map 3 Ethnic & Racial Segregation 203 .

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography United States: “Separate but Equal”—upheld by Supreme Court in Plessy v. Ferguson, 1896 b U.S. Civil Rights Movement i Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka—segregation was unconstitutional ii Black Lives Matter—campaign against violence and racism toward blacks c South Africa: Separate Development i apartheid—legal separation of races into different areas Dividing Ethnicities a Ethnicities in South Asia i after British colonial rule division based on ethnicity and religion (India, Hindu; East and West Pakistan, Muslim) ii disputed territory in Kashmir b Dividing the Kurds i ethnicity divided among several countries—Turkey, western Iran, northern Iraq, Syria a

4

III Key Issue 3: Why Might Ethnicities Face Conflicts?

A Ethnicities & Nationalities 1 Ethnicity & Nationality in North America a nationality—citizenship, born in the country and immigrants that acquired citizenship b ethnicity—groups with distinct ancestry c Québecois—debate over whether it is a nationality or ethnic group 2 Ethnicity & Nationality in the British Isles a two countries—the United Kingdom and Ireland b nationality within the U.K.—English, Welsh, Scot, and Irish 3 Nationalism—loyalty and devotion to a nationality, centripetal force B Ethnic Diversity in Western Asia 1 Ethnicities in Turkey—primarily Turkish (75%) and Kurds (18%) 2 Ethnicities in Iraq—divided by branches of Islam 3 Ethnicities in Syria—minority Alawites hold political power 4 Ethnicities in Lebanon—divided by Christians, Muslims, and Druze each considering themselves ethnically distinct C Ethnic Diversity in West-Central Asia 1 Ethnicities in Pakistan—primarily Punjabi (45%), Pashtuns (15%) 2 Ethnicities in Iran—primarily ethnic Persians (61%), Azerbaijani (16%), Kurds (10%) 3 Ethnicities in Afghanistan—Pashtun (42%); Tajik (27%), fighting among ethnicities 4 Ethnicities in the Caucasus a Azerbaijan—primarily Azerbaijani (90%), Shiite Muslim, Turkic language b Armenia—98% Armenian, Christian, Indo-European language c Georgia—82% Georgian d Abkhazia and South Ossetia—seceded from Georgia, recognized by Russia as independent countries 5 Ethnicities in Central Asia States a More ethnically diverse—Tajikistan (80% Tajik), Turkmenistan (80% Turkmen), Kyrgyzstan (70%), Uzbekistan (70% Uzbek), Kazakhstan (70% Kazakh)

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Chapter 7: Ethnicities IV Key Issue 4: Why Do Ethnic Cleansing & Genocide Occur?

A Ethnic Cleansing & Genocide Past & Present 1 Terms a ethnophobia—fear of people of a particular ethnicity b xenophobia—fear of people from other countries 2 Past Ethnic Cleansing & Genocide: World War II Europe a ethnic cleansing—purposeful policy designed by one ethnicity or religious group to remove by violent means that civilian population of another ethnic group b genocide—mass killing of a group in an attempt to eliminate the entire group from existence c Nazis deported and exterminated around 17 million people including 6 million Jews d Mass movement of people within Europe after World War II due to boundary changes 3 Contemporary Ethnic Cleansing & Genocide Myanmar a Rohingya—ethnic group from Rakhine state, Sunni Muslim i stripped of citizenship and rights by Myanmar’s government ii subject to ethnic cleansing and forced migration A Ethnic Cleansing in Southeast Europe 1 Multiethnic Yugoslavia—major ethnic groups (Croat, Serbian, Macedonian, Montenegrin, Slovene) granted relative autonomy 2 Ethnic Cleansing in Kosovo a autonomous region in Serbia b 82% of Kosovo’s population ethnic Albanian c Serbs launched ethnic cleansing in 1990s d Kosovo declared independence in 2008 B Ethnic Cleansing in Bosnia & Herzegovina 1 Ethnic Diversity in Bosnia & Herzegovina a most ethnically diverse of former Yugoslavia--44% Bosniak, 31% Serb, 17% Croat, each sought to maximize their territory through ethnic cleansing 2 Srebrenica massacre—1995, largest single ethnic cleansing event in Bosnia 3 Bosnia & Herzegovina After Ethnic Cleansing a territory divided after the 1995 Dayton accords, joint Croatian (20% of land) and Bosnian (30% of land) region, Serbian region (50% of land) 4 Balkanization—process by which a state breaks down through conflicts among its ethnicities C Ethnic Cleansing & Genocide in Africa 1 Ethnicities & Nationalities in Africa—identity primarily based on ethnicity rather than nationality 2 Ethnic Cleansing & Genocide in Sudan a Dafur—civil war between Arab dominated government vs. black African ethnicities (western Sudan) b South Sudan—civil war 1983-2005, ended with establishment of South Sudan c Abyei—borderland, considered citizens of both Sudan and South Sudan d South Kordofan and Blue Nile—borderlands e Eastern Front—borders Eritrea, major issue oil profits

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography D Conflict in Central Africa 1 Ethnic Cleansing & Genocide in Rwanda & Burundi a large-scale ethnic cleansing between the Hutus and Tutsis 2 Ethnic Cleansing & Genocide in the Congo a ongoing civil wars, ethnic conflicts b ethnic cleansing c genocide

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Chapter 7: Ethnicities

Chapter Content Outline Key Issue 1: Where Are Ethnicities Distributed?

Ethnic identity is unchangeable. Ethnicity may be complex: our parents come from two ethnic groups or our grandparents from four. Geographers study the distribution of ethnicities and their effect on local diversity.

The cultural traits of an ethnic group drive from the conditions and practices in the group’s homeland.

Ethnicities & Geography The meaning of ethnicity is often confused with the definition of race and nationality. Ethnicity is identity with a group of people who share cultural traditions of a particular homeland or hearth. Ethnicity is often confused with race, which is identity with a group who are perceived to share a physiological trait, such as skin color. The traits that characterize race are those that can be transmitted genetically from parents to children. Nationality is identity with a group of people who share legal attachment to a particular country.

Both ethnicity and nationality are place-based and so are of particular interest to geographers.

Key questions frame the controversial issues associated with ethnic diversity within the United States.

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To what extent does discrimination persist against minority ethnicities, especially African Americans and Hispanics?

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Should preferences be given to minority ethnicities to correct past patterns of discrimination?

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To what extent should the distinct cultural identity of ethnicities be encouraged or protected?

Geographers study the efforts and effects of various ethnic groups seeking to balance the need to preserve their diversity even though challenged by trends toward globalization. Even though language and religion often serve as agents of globalization, no single ethnicity is attempting to achieve global dominance. However, ethnicities often compete with each other to control territory.

Ethnicity & Race The terms nationality, race, and ethnicity are often used interchangeably, but each has a distinct definition. Nationality refers to a person’s country of citizenship, ethnicity to a person’s cultural heritage, and race to a person’s biological make-up.

Conceptions and classifications of races are based on biological features. However, biological classifications of race are now rejected by scientists and geographers because of the high degree of variability of individuals within racial groups. Skin color, a frequently used trait, has been used by many societies to segregate groups, define roles and social norms, and limit participation in a society.

Classification by race is the basis for racism, the belief that race is the primary determinant of human traits and capacities. Racial differences are often used to advance the claim of inherent superiority of a particular race. A racist is a person who resorts to discrimination and prejudice in perceptions and actions toward other groups.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Classifying Race & Ethnicity in the United States Every ten years the U.S. Census Bureau collects information about individuals living in the United States. The blurred lines between race and ethnicity are reflected in the census. Hispanic American is classified as an ethnicity, but Asian and African Americans are both classified as races even though they could be considered place-based ethnicities.

Race & the U.S. Census Since 1997 the U.S. Census Bureau has used the following classifications: White, Black or African American, American Indian or Alaska Native, Asian, and Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander. Individuals may select more than one of the races when self-reporting their race. Further categorizations such as African American from a Caribbean Island or countries of origin for people of European descent are not included.

Distribution of U.S. Ethnicities The three most numerous ethnicities are Hispanic American (17 percent), African American (12 percent), and Asian American (5 percent). American Indians, Native Hawaiians, and Alaskan Natives comprise 2 percent of the U.S. population.

Hispanic Americans A Hispanic or Hispanic American has ancestors in a Spanish-speaking country in Latin America. Nearly two-thirds of Hispanic Americans came from Mexico with one-fourth from the Caribbean Islands. The second largest group of Hispanics in the United States is from Puerto Rico. Instead of using the gender-based terms Latino and Latina, most Americans of Latin American heritage prefer to use terms linking themselves to a more specific ethnicity or national origin. Hispanics are clustered in the Southwest (Arizona, New Mexico, Texas, California) as well as Florida, and New York.

Asian Americans The term Asian American includes Americans who trace their heritage to various countries in Asia. Only 19 percent of Asian Americans identify with the Asian American ethnicity, while 62 percent prefer to identify with their ethnicity as the country of origin of their ancestors. Asian Americans are clustered in the west, particularly Hawaii and California.

African Americans The precise origins of African Americans are relatively unclear. 300 years ago, some Africans were forcibly taken from lands in Africa. No records were taken to document the ethnic origin of those slaves. DNA testing has narrowed down the ethnic heritage of most African Americans to three areas in West Africa (present-day Senegal, Mali, Gambia, Guinea, Sierra Leone, and Liberia; Southern Ghana, Togo, Benin, and Nigeria and southeastern Cȏte d’Ivoire; and Western Democratic Republic of Congo and Angola).

African Americans are clustered in the Southeast.

Descendants of Indigenous Peoples Three principal ethnic identities are used to group people who lived in North America prior to European colonization: Native American, Alaska Native, and Native Hawaiian. The indigenous ethnic identities with the largest numbers are Native Hawaiians, Cherokee, Navajo, Chippewa, Sioux, and Choctaw. However, the majority of Native Americans do not specify a group. Canada’s aboriginals are grouped into three main ethnic identities: First Nations, Inuit, and Métis. Forced migration in the 1800s included the current distribution with Native Americans clustered in the southwest and north-central regions of the United States as well as Alaska.

Ethnically Complex Brazil Brazil struggles with characterizing its population by race or ethnicity.

Ancestors of Brazil’s population emigrated from many places with majorities from Portugal and West Africa.

Others have migrated to Brazil from other European countries, Japan, and Southwest Asia. Indigenous peoples predating immigration are part of Brazil’s ethnic diversity.

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Chapter 7: Ethnicities

Brazil’s Races and Ethnicities According to genetic surveys, approximately 70 percent of Brazilians have predominantly Europeans ancestry, 20 percent predominantly African, and 10 percent predominantly Native American. Despite this breakdown, most Brazilians have a mix of backgrounds. Brazil’s census categorizes people based on skin color. Five races are available as options on the census: branco (white), pardo (brown), preto (black), amarelo (yellow), and indigenous. More than 90 percent of the country’s population are brancos and pardos. Many Brazilians, however, do not self-identify using this classification scheme.

Distribution of Races in Brazil Distinct regional variation can be seen in the distribution of races in Brazil.

Whites are predominantly clustered in the south. In Brazil’s interior north, with the Amazon tropical rain forest as a backdrop, indigenous people make up the population, categorized by the Brazilian census as pardo (brown). In the northeast along Brazil’s coast, people classified as pardo (brown) also are the majority race.

The largest number of (pretos) blacks forced to migrate to Brazil from Africa in the slave trade also inhabit the northeast. The west-central region of Brazil is occupied by a mix of branco (white) and pardo (brown) populations. Distinct distribution of the various races is evident at the local scale as reflected in the quality of housing in São Paulo.

Ethnic Enclaves A location with a high concentration of an ethnic group that is distinct from those in the surrounding area is known as an ethnic enclave. Most ethnic enclaves are neighborhoods in large cities.

Ethnic enclaves form through the migration of a cultural group who in turn use their language, religion, and art to create a place with an appearance and social structure of their ethnicity. As family-based migration occurs, new migrants share cultural ties and receive economic and social support from those living within the ethnic enclave.

Changing Urban Ethnic Enclaves The areas inhabited by ethnicities have shifted over time. In the early to mid-twentieth century, emigrants from Southern and Eastern Europe traveled to Midwestern U.S. cities to find work in the manufacturing and related industries. Neighborhoods were named based on the predominant ethnicity, such as Chicago’s Ukrainian Village or Little Italy. By the late twentieth century, many children and grandchildren of these immigrants moved from urban enclaves to suburbs, sometimes forming ethnoburbs. An ethnoburb is a suburban area with a cluster of a specific ethnic population.

Urban Ethnic Enclaves The clustering of ethnicities is notably apparent at the local, neighborhood scale.

In major metropolises across the world, specific ethnicities primarily reside in distinct neighborhoods. In Paris, the Goutte d’Or neighborhood is emblematic of an ethnic enclave, with immigrants from former African colonies occupying the area. In London, South Asian Indians have clustered in the west, Pakistanis and Bangladeshis have clustered in the northeast, African blacks in the east, and Caribbean blacks in the north and south. In the United States, Chicago is illustrative of the variety of ethnic enclaves that may be present in an urban area, with whites clustered on the North Side, African Americans on the South and West sides, and Hispanics on the Northwest and Southwest sides.

Key Issue 2: Why Do Ethnicities Have Distinctive Distributions?

The distribution of ethnicities within the United States reflects two types of migration—international (voluntary or forced) and internal (interregional and intraregional).

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Forced Migration of Slaves from Africa Most African Americans are descended from Africans compelled to migrate to the Western Hemisphere as slaves in the eighteenth century. In contrast to this forced migration, most Asian Americans and Hispanics are descended from voluntary immigrants to the United States during the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries (excluding those who felt they were forced to emigrate from their homelands, such as Vietnamese and Cubans.)

Slavery Under the slavery system, people were viewed as property of the person who owned them. Africanled raiding expeditions captured Africans from the interior of the continent, brought them to coastal areas, sold them to Europeans who in turn transported them to the Americas where they were sold again. Forced migration brought the first enslaved Africans to Jamestown in 1619 where they were forced to work for the benefit of their owners. Even though the United States banned the importation of Africans as slaves in 1808, about 250,000 were illegally imported during the next half-century.

Triangular Slave Trade Different European countries transported slaves from the west coast of Africa to different regions throughout the world. Large cotton and tobacco plantations developed in the southeastern region of the United States and imported slaves provided the labor force. A system of triangular slave trade connecting Europe, Africa, and the Americas developed. Under this system European ships transported goods to Africa and purchased slaves, then the ships transported the slaves from Africa to the Caribbean, picked up sugar and molasses from the Caribbean and returned to Europe. In an extension of the trade route molasses was transported to New England and rum then transported to Europe.

Voluntary Migration from Latin America & Asia Quota laws limited the number of people who could immigrate to the United States from Latin America and Asia. After the immigration laws were changed during the 1960s and the 1970s, the population of Hispanic and Asian Americans in the United States increased rapidly.

Internal Migration of African Americans In the twentieth century, African American migration within the United States followed distinctive interregional and intraregional migration patterns.

Interregional Migration At the close of the Civil War, most African Americans were concentrated in the rural South working as sharecroppers, working a landowner’s cotton fields and turning over a share of the crop as rent. With the introduction of farm machinery and a decline in the amount of land devoted to cotton, sharecropping declined. With the prospect of jobs in the rapidly industrializing North, African Americans migrated north and west in two main waves, the first in the 1910s and 1920s before and after World War I, and the second in the 1940s and 1950s before and after World War II. Intraregional Migration When African Americans arrived in the big cities of the North, they clustered in one or two neighborhoods. These neighborhoods became known as ghettos, after the term for neighborhoods in which Jews were forced to live in the Middle Ages.

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Chapter 7: Ethnicities Expansion of African-American Neighborhoods During the 1950s and 1960s, African Americans moved from the compact ghettoes into immediately adjacent neighborhoods. Their diffusion followed major avenues that radiating outward from the city center. In Baltimore, for example, the west-side African American ghetto expanded from 1 square mile in 1950 to 10 square miles by 1970, along with a 2-square-mile area on the eastside becoming predominantly African American.

“White Flight” The expansion of black neighborhoods in American cities was made possible by the emigration of whites from a neighborhood in anticipation of blacks immigrating into the area. Rather than integrate, whites fled. White flight was encouraged by unscrupulous real estate practices. Under blockbusting, real estate agents convinced white homeowners living near a black area to sell their houses at low prices, preying on their fears that black families would soon move into the neighborhood and cause property values to decline. Redlining was used to limit African Americans from obtaining mortgages in white areas. In this process financial institutions drew red-colored lines on a map and refused to lend money to people to purchase on improve property within than area.

Ethnic & Racial Segregation Geographers look for patterns of spatial interaction. In the United States and South Africa spatial interaction among some groups was limited through legal means, known as segregation laws. Even though these segregation laws are no longer in effect their legacy helps to explain the geography of ethnicity in both countries.

United States: “Separate but Equal” In Plessy v. Ferguson, the Supreme Court ruled the laws providing for separate facilities for whites and blacks were constitutional. Equality did not mean that whites had to mix socially with blacks. Once the Supreme Court permitted “separate but equal” treatment of the races, Southern states enacted a series of laws to separate blacks from whites as much as possible. These “Jim Crow” laws required blacks sit in the back of buses and permitted restaurants and other businesses to limit their services to whites only. Throughout the country, house deeds contained restrictive covenants that prevented owners from selling to blacks, Roman Catholics, or Jews. Schools were also segregated.

U.S. Civil Rights Movement Another Supreme Court decision Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas in 1954 ruled that separate schools for whites and blacks were inherently unequal. A year later, the Court ruled that schools should be desegregated with “all deliberate speed.” The Civil Rights Acts during the 1960s outlawed racial discrimination. The civil rights movement continues through Black Lives Matter, an organization that campaigns and educates against violence and perceived racism against black people. The consequences of racial discrimination for African Americans and recent immigrants are still felt in the United States today.

South Africa: Separate Development While the United States was repealing laws that segregated people by race, South Africa was enacting them. Apartheid is a legal system that separates different races into different geographic areas. In South Africa, a newborn baby was classified as being one of four races—black, white, colored (mixed white and black), and Asian. Each four races had a different legal status. To ensure separation of the groups the white-minority South African government designated ten homelands in which blacks were expected to live. The apartheid laws determined where different races could live, attend school, work, shop, and own land. Blacks could not vote or run for political office. The white-minority government repealed the apartheid laws in 1991. In 1994, Nelson Mandela after 27 years of imprisonment was elected the country’s first black president. Even though South Africa’s blacks have achieved political equality, economic equality has not yet been realized.

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Dividing Ethnicities Few ethnicities live in a territory that corresponds with a nationality. Ethnicities are often divided among more than one nationality.

Ethnicities in South Asia When the British ended their colonial rule of the Indian subcontinent in 1947, they divided the country into two irregularly shaped countries—India and Pakistan, The division was based on ethnicity and religion with Pakistan predominantly Muslim and India predominantly Hindu. Pakistan was comprised of two noncontiguous areas, West Pakistan and East Pakistan, a thousand miles apart, separated by India. East Pakistan became the independent country of Bangladesh in 1971.

Throughout history, Muslims have fought Hindus for control of territory in South Asia. The partition of South Asia into two states resulted in massive migration because the two boundaries did not correspond precisely to the territory inhabited by the two ethnicities. Pakistan and India have never agreed on the border separating the two countries in the northern region of Kashmir. The division of land is further challenged by the Sikhs who inhabit the Punjab who advocate for more control or even independence of the region.

Dividing the Kurds The Kurds provide an example of an ethnicity divided among several countries. The Kurdish homeland straddles the border between Iraq, Turkey, Iran, and Syria. The Muslim Kurds speak a distinctive language in the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European family and have their own literature, dress, and other cultural traditions. Many Kurds would like an independent homeland, but the countries in which they are the minority are unwilling to relinquish that territory. Kurdish nationalists have waged a guerilla war against Turkey since 1984. Until 1991, the use of the Kurdish language in Turkey was banned, and is still illegal to use in broadcasts and classrooms across the country. With destabilization of the government in Iraq, Iraqi Kurds have achieved more autonomy. However their bid for independence was rejected by the Iraqi Parliament in 2017.

Key Issue 3: Why Might Ethnicities Face Conflicts?

Nationality is defined as an identity with a group of people who share legal attachment and personal allegiance to a particular country.

Ethnicities & Nationalities

Sorting out ethnicity and nationality can be a challenging for many individuals.

Ethnicity & Nationality in North America Nationality identifies citizens of the United States, including those born in the country and those who immigrated and became naturalized citizens. Ethnicity identifies groups with distinct ancestry and culture, such as African Americans, Mexican Americans, or Polish Americans. These distinctions are not as clear and are more controversial in Canada. Québecois are easily distinguishable from other Canadians vis-à-vis cultural traditions, especially language. However, do the Québecois constitute a distinct ethnicity within the Canadian nationality or a second French-speaking nationality separate altogether from English-speaking Canadians?

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Chapter 7: Ethnicities Ethnicity & Nationality in the British Isles Distinctions between ethnicity and nationality become challenging in many places. The British Isles contain 133 inhabited islands within two countries—the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland (Eire). The United Kingdom contains four principal parts: England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland. The nationality of citizens of the United Kingdom is disputed. Are all classified as the British nationality or as English, Scottish, Welsh, or Irish? A strong element of ethnic identity in the United Kingdom comes from sports. Even though they are not separate countries, England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland field their own national soccer and rugby teams. They even compete separately in international tournaments, such as the World Cup. Nationalism Nationalism is loyalty and devotion to a particular nationality. States foster nationalism by promoting symbols of the country, such as flags and songs. Nationalism is an example of centripetal force, which is an attitude that tends to unify people and enhance support for the state. Most countries find that the best way to achieve citizen support is to emphasize shared attitudes that unify the people.

Ethnic Diversity in Western Asia The lack of correspondence between territories occupied by ethnicities and nationalities is especially pronounced in Western Asia. Major ethnicities of Western Asia include Turks, Iraqi Arabs, Azerbaijanis, Kurds, Syrian Arabs as well as many other minor ethnicities.

Ethnicities in Turkey Ethnic Turks constitute roughly three-quarters of the population of Turkey. Turks are descended from migrants to present-day Turkey about 1,000 years ago. The most numerous minority is the Kurds, comprising 18 percent of the population and clustered in eastern Turkey.

Ethnicities in Iraq Ethnic Arabs comprise 90 percent of Iraq’s population and are divided between the Sunni and Shiite branches of Islam.

Ethnicities in Syria Ethnic Arabs comprise 90 percent of Syria’s population. This ethnicity is divided among a variety of religious groups—Sunni Muslim (64 percent), Alawi Muslims (11 percent), Christians (10 percent), Druze (3 percent), and other Muslim denominations (2 percent). Greek Orthodox and Greek Catholic are the most numerous Christian denominations. The Alawi, led by the Assad family, have held power in Syria since 1970. A civil war has ravaged the country since 2011, fought between the Assad government and its opponents.

Ethnicities in Lebanon Religious groups in Lebanon include 55 percent Muslim, 40 percent Christian, and 5 percent Druze. The Druze are sometimes categorized as Muslim, but they do not follow the Five Pillars of Islam and do not self-identify as Muslim. Lebanon’s religious groups have tended to live in different regions of the country. There was a civil war between the two religious groups in 1975 and 1990, with each group forming its own militia to control its territory. Lebanon’s constitution grants official recognition to 18 religious groups and requires each be represented in their legislature based on its percentage in the 1932 census.

Ethnic Diversity in West-Central Asia Dozens of ethnicities inhabit West-central Asia. The most numerous ethnicities are Punjabis, Persians, Pashtuns, Uzbeks, and Azerbaijanis who are also present in Western Asia.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Ethnicities in Pakistan The Punjabi have been the most numerous ethnic group in the territory occupied by present-day Pakistan for thousands of years. Today the Punjabi comprise 45 percent of Pakistan’s population. The British established the border between Pakistan and Afghanistan in the 1890s. The border is not recognized by Afghanistan and it divides the Pashtun and Baluch ethnic groups between the two countries.

Ethnicities in Iran The major ethnicity in Iran is Persian, comprising 61 percent of Iran’s population. Other ethnicities include: Azerbaijanis (16 percent), Kurds (10 percent), Lurs (6 percent), Turkmen, Shiite Arabs, and Baluchi (2 percent each).

Ethnicities in Afghanistan The most numerous ethnicities in Afghanistan include Pashtun (42 percent), Tajik (27 percent), and Uzbek and Hazara (each 9 percent). The current conflicts in Afghanistan stem from a 1979 rebellion by several ethnic groups against the Afghan government. In 1995, a Pashtun faction called the Taliban took control of most of Afghanistan, with their governance informed by their fundamentalist interpretation of Islamic doctrine. The Taliban was overthrown in 2001 by invading U.S.-led forces, leading to further instability among the country’s ethnicities.

Ethnicities in the Caucasus The Caucasus region was once part of the Soviet Union with Azerbaijan, Georgia, and Armenia achieving independence after the breakup of the Soviet Union. Ethnic Armenians (98 percent) predominate in Armenia and adhere to Orthodox Christianity. Azerbaijanis comprise 90 percent of Azerbaijan’s people, and are a Turkic group and primarily Shiite Muslim. Ethnic Georgians comprise 82 percent of Georgia’s population. Other ethnic groups in Georgia include Azerbaijani (6 percent), Armenian (5 percent), Abkhazian (3 percent), Ossetians (2 percent), and Russian (1 percent). Russia has recognized breakaway regions of South Ossetia and Abkhazia even though most of the world’s other countries do not.

Ethnicities in Central Asian States Central Asia was part of the Soviet Union. The five independent states that emerged from this area show varying degrees of ethnic diversity. Tajiks and Turkmens comprise 80 percent of the population of their respective countries. Kyrgyz and Uzbeks comprise more than 70 percent of their respective countries. Kazakhs comprise only 60 percent of the population of Kazakhstan.

Key Issue 4: Why Do Ethnic Cleansing & Genocide Occur?

Fear of a particular ethnicity is ethnophobia. Xenophobia is fear of people from other countries. These fears drive forced migrations and can result in ethnic cleansing and genocide.

Ethnic Cleansing & Genocide Past & Present Ethnic cleansing is defined as a purposeful policy by one ethnicity or religious group to remove by violence the civilian population of another ethnic or religious group from a given area. Genocide is the mass murder of a group of people in an attempt to eliminate the existence of the entire group. Ethnic cleansing and genocide aim to remove every member of the targeted ethnicity— men, women, and children. Cultural geographers study the change in the spatial distribution of ethnicities as a result of these policies.

Past Ethnic Cleansing & Genocide: World War II Europe The population of Europe was affected by ethnic cleansing and genocide before, during, and immediately after World War II (1939–1945). The Nazis deported and then exterminated around 17 million people including 6 million Jews (one third of the world’s and two-thirds of Europe’s Jewish population). As a result of national boundary changes following World War II, millions of ethnic Germans, Poles, Russians, and others were forced to migrate.

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Chapter 7: Ethnicities Contemporary Ethnic Cleansing & Genocide: Myanmar The Rohingya, an ethnic group living in Myanmar’s Rakhine State, is Asia’s most recent example of ethnic cleansing and genocide. The Rohingya are predominantly Sunni Muslims speaking an Indo-European language who migrated from present-day Bangladesh to Myanmar when both were British colonies. This is in sharp contrast to Myanmar’s population who are primarily Tibetan Buddhists who speak Sino-Tibetan languages.

In 1982, the government of Myanmar revoked the Rohingya’s citizenship, land, and the rights to work and attend school. In response to a Rohingya attack on a police guard house, the Myanmar military launched an ethnic cleansing campaign. Villages were destroyed, and according to the United Nations more than one million Rohingya have been ethnically cleansed.

Ethnic Cleansing in Southeast Europe The most recent ethnic cleansing in Europe has been in the Balkans although not on as great a scale as the ethnic cleansing in Europe during World War II. Multiethnic Yugoslavia After World War I, the allies created Yugoslavia to unite several Balkan ethnicities that spoke similar South Slavic languages. The President of Yugoslavia, Josip Broz Tito, attempted to forge a national Yugoslav identity through acceptance of ethnic diversity in language and religion. The major ethnicities: Croat, Macedonian, Montenegrin, Serb, and Slovene, were allowed to exert control over the areas they inhabited. Rivalries among the different ethnicities resurfaced after the death of President Tito in 1980, leading to the breakup of the country into six small countries. The borders of these new countries did not reflect the distribution of ethnicities, leading to several episodes of ethnic cleansing.

Ethnic Cleansing in Kosovo With the breakup of Yugoslavia, Kosovo became an autonomous region within Serbia. Over 82 percent of the population of Kosovo was ethnic Albanians and only 10 percent Serbian.

Serbia had historic ties to Kosovo where they were defeated by the Ottoman Turks in 1389 and Serbian blood was spilled. With the breakup of Yugoslavia and the 610th anniversary of the Battle of Kosovo, Serbia began a campaign of ethnic cleansing targeting Kosovo’s Muslim Albanian majority. Serb initiated ethnic cleansing forced over 800,000 of Kosovo’s two million ethnic Albanian residents from their homes, to camps in Albania.

NATO launched an air attack against Serbia and the Serbs eventually agreed to withdraw from Kosovo.

Kosovo declared its independence from Serbia in 2008. Approximately 115 countries, including the United States, recognize the independence of Kosovo, but it is opposed by Serbia, Russia, and China.

Ethnic Diversity in Bosnia & Herzegovina The largest scale of ethnic cleansing in the former Yugoslavia occurred in Bosnia & Herzegovina. Between 1991–1992. Bosnia & Herzegovina was the most ethnically diverse republic of the Yugoslavia with its population comprised of Bosniaks (44 percent), Serbs (31 percent), and Croatians (17 percent). Bosniak is the term used to identify Bosnian Muslims, the predominant religious group.

Serbs and Croats practiced ethnic cleansing of Bosniak Muslims in Bosnia & Herzegovina in hopes of unifying their respective regions with Serbia and Croatia. Ethnic cleansing ensured that areas did not merely have Serbs and Croats, but were ethnically homogeneous and therefore better candidates for union with Serbia and Croatia.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Bosnia & Herzegovina After Ethnic Cleansing Following the 1996 accords reached in Dayton, Ohio by leaders of the various ethnicities, Bosnia & Herzegovina was divided into regions. The map on page 260 shows the regions: Republika Srpska, controlled by the Serbs, the Federation of Bosnia & Herzegovina, a federation between the Croats and Bosniaks, and the small neutral Brčko District.

Balkanization The term balkanized is used to describe a small geographic area that could not successfully be organized into one or more stable states because it was inhabited by many ethnicities with complex, longstanding antagonisms toward each other. Balkanization is a process by which a state breaks down through conflicts among ethnicities. Balkanization led directly to World War I because the various nationalities in the Balkans dragged the larger powers that they had alliances with into a war. The Balkans were again balkanized after the fall of communism in the region. Peace has come to the Balkans as the tragic result of ethnic cleansing which was used to form ethnically homogeneous areas.

Ethnic Cleansing & Genocide in Africa The mass killing of a group of people in an attempt to eliminate the entire group from existence is known as genocide. In recent years, several areas of Africa have been affected by conflicts among ethnicities that have led to genocide. Other countries have been either unable or unwilling to stop genocides from occurring.

Ethnicities & Nationalities in Africa Ethnicity was traditionally the most important element of cultural identity in Africa – nationality was considered secondary to ethnicity. Several thousand distinct ethnicities are present in Africa, each with its own language, religion, and social customs. It is hard to precisely determine the number of ethnicities due to boundaries that may not accurately reflect their geographic distribution, and difficulties in defining what constitutes a “distinct” ethnicity. Conflict today can be traced to the European colonization of Africa in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, which divided up the continent into countries with little regard for distribution of ethnicities.

Ethnic Cleansing & Genocide in Sudan In Sudan, several civil wars have ravaged the country since 1983, resulting in genocide and ethnic cleansing. Ethnic diversity is at the core of Sudan’s conflicts. Sudan is 70 percent Arab and 97 percent Muslim. The remainder belongs to many other ethnicities descended from groups living in Sudan prior to the arrival of Arabs in the twelfth century. The non-Arab ethnicities are clustered in the west, south, and east of Sudan.

Darfur In response to discrimination and neglect by the Arab-led government in Khartoum, Darfur’s black African ethnicities launched a rebellion in 2003. Janjaweed, marauding Arab nomads, decimated Darfur’s black population. Roughly 300,000 people in Darfur have been victims of genocide and another 3 million victims of ethnic cleansing, many currently living in refugee camps.

South Sudan South Sudan was established as an independent country in 2011 following a war (1983–2005) between Sudan’s northern and southern ethnicities. The conflict resulted in the deaths of 2 million Sudanese and the ethnic cleansing of approximately 700,000. South Sudan’s ethnicities are the Christian Dinka and the folk religionist Nuer. Despite gaining independence, the ethnicities of South Sudan have been unable to cooperate to create a stable government.

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Chapter 7: Ethnicities Abyei An area along the border between Sudan and South Sudan known as Abyei is now the center of conflict among the two groups. Abyei contains ethnicities aligned with both Sudan and South Sudan. Its legal status as a part of either country was due to be settled by a referendum of its people although this referendum has since been postponed. People living in Abyei are citizens of both countries. In the meantime, a peacekeeping force from Ethiopia is preventing either country from seizing control of the territory.

South Kordofan and Blue Nile South Kordofan and Blue Nile are two other border areas containing large numbers of ethnicities aligned with both Sudan and South Sudan. A referendum was to be held in both territories for self-determination by its citizens, but both have been canceled, leaving their status unsettled.

Eastern Front Neighboring Eritrea has supported ethnicities in east Sudan in their conflict with Sudanese government forces. The disbursement of oil profits originating from resources in the area is the source of the conflict.

Ethnic Cleansing & Genocide in Rwanda & Burundi Ethnic conflict between the Hutus and Tutsis has occurred in Rwanda and Burundi. The two ethnicities speak the same language, hold similar beliefs, and practice similar social customs. Intermarriage has even lessened the physical differences between the two groups. The Hutus were farmers and the Tutsis were herders, and relations between settled farmers and herders are often uneasy. Hutus constituted a majority of the population of Rwanda and Burundi historically, but Tutsis controlled the kingdoms there for several hundred years and turned the Hutus into their serfs. During colonial times, the Tutsis continued to control the governments of both countries.

After Rwanda became independent in 1962, the Hutus gained power and undertook ethnic cleansing and genocide against the Tutsis. In Burundi where the Tutsis remained in power, a civil war erupted with geocide committed by and against both the Hutus and Tutsis. After the airplane carrying the presidents of Rwanda and Burundi, both Hutus, crashed the Hutus launched a genocide campaign killing 800,000 Tutsis in Rwanda and 300,000 in Burundi. Today Rwanda continues to be governed by Tutsis, while Burundi has a democratically elected Hutu leader.

Ethnic Cleansing & Genocide in the Congo The mineral-rich Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) is the region’s largest most populous country, home to over 200 distinct ethnicities. During the ongoing civil wars during the last 70 years more than 5 million have died, many from malaria, other diseases and malnutrition. But conflict among the country’s ethnicities continues.

Introducing the Chapter Ethnicity and race are so commonly confused that the terms should be defined at the start of any discussion on the subject.

The first parts of this chapter are concerned with describing the numbers and concentration of generic ethnic groups in the United States, and the origin of migration of one particular group, the African Americans. Note that some figures included in this section and labeled as ethnicities use a racial term, “white,” to describe European ethnicities as a class. The remainder of this section concentrates on the construction of race, racism, and its spatial expression through segregation in the United States and South Africa.

A major goal of teaching should be the deconstruction of race and racism, a formidable challenge in an entrylevel course.

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Student Engagement Activity Ideas The topics of race and ethnicity are often sensitive ones for the class; try to avoid singling out minority members of the audience (visible or not) through example or question. The delicate nature of this issue makes an effective “icebreaker” even more valuable.

Geography Jokes Tell these jokes at your discretion. Some students will detect you’re up to something other than trying to be funny.

Q: How do you confuse a geographer?

A: Put him in a round room and tell him to sit in the corner. Q: How do you keep geographers happy in old age?

A: Tell them a joke when they are still young.

Q: How many geographers does it take to change a lightbulb?

A: Only one, to hold the bulb while the Earth turns around him or her.

Q: What’s the difference between a geographer and a large pizza? A: The pizza can feed a family of four.

All these jokes were obviously not initially written about geographers, but serve to deconstruct the idea of many ethnic “jokes”—the geographer can be replaced with an unpopular ethnic group. Ask the class: Why are ethnic “jokes” frequently interchangeable? What is the purpose of most of these “jokes”?

This discussion can be furthered by noting the changing butts of ethnic jokes . . . a moment of reflection on students’ part will demonstrate that the most recent migrants to the country or place are frequently subjected to ridicule and scorn. A constructive discussion about the nature of prejudices and stereotypes should follow.

Ethnicity vs. Nationality After the discussion of ethnicity vs. race, students are next challenged with the distinction between ethnicity and nationality. The linchpin to the text’s definition of nationality as separate from ethnicity is whether an ethnic group has a history of, or desire for, self-determination.

Ethnic Conflict vs. Religious Conflict Students will occasionally ask why a conflict is portrayed as ethnic in nature instead of religious. An example of an ethnic group that competes for national identity or potential sovereign status is that of the Kurds, who share Islam with other ethnic groups from Turkey, Iran, and Iraq.

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Additional Classroom Activities & Assignments Review/Reflection Questions These questions can be used in addition to the “thinking geographically” questions at the end of each chapter.

Students can be assigned these questions as homework, they can be given as essay questions on exams, or they can serve as focus questions for in-class discussions.

The italicized section that follows the question sets the criteria and parameters for student answers. Use these suggestions to provide guidance in the assessment of student answers. In addition, a sample answer has been provided. Know that student answers will vary based on the examples and explanations you provided in class.

•

Give some examples from your personal experience that demonstrates the difference between race and ethnicity.

Student responses will vary. The distinction between race and ethnicity should be clearly articulated.

Sample answer Race has a biological element. One would expect a person from Africa to be black as that is the origin on the Negro race. However, all who were born and live in Africa are not black. I still recall the amazed looks on the faces of my African American student when a Caucasian proudly proclaimed she was an African. She was born in South Africa of Caucasian ethnicity and was a national of South Africa.

In another instance a student was of Arab ethnicity with family ties to Lebanon. Hearing the word Arab, the class assumed she was a Muslim and were surprised to learn that she was a Christian Arab.

•

List some genetically inherited traits that are usually not associated with race. Why do you think these traits are not used to define race, and skin color so often is?

Student answers should focus on physical traits independent of race. Answers should also suggest reasons why skin color is/was often used to distinguish among various groups.

Sample answer Some scientific studies propose that left-handedness is a genetically inherited trait. Additional genetic traits include attached or detached earlobes, the ability to roll one’s tongue, as well as the shape of the hairline. Most of those traits are less obvious than skin color. Therefore, skin color was used to distinguish one race from other.

•

Support the argument “every ethnicity should have its own state.” Now criticize this argument from a geographic perspective.

Student responses should demonstrate understanding of the relationship between ethnicity and political territory. Answers should include speculation on the short- and long-term consequences of division along ethnic lines and the survivability of the small states that would emerge.

Sample answer The claim that every ethnicity should have its own state is based on the principle of self-determination.

Ethnically homogeneous states would ideally be free of conflict and strife as everyone shares the same cultural values and allegiance to the state. However, ethnic purity is an illusion. Throughout history humans have intermarried and produced multi-ethnic children and societies. People have migrated to territories occupied and controlled by another ethnic group. Defining boundaries for ethnically 219 .

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography homogeneous states would be difficult at best. The multiplicity of ethnic groups on a global scale would make the drawing of political boundaries an insurmountable task.

•

If two conflicting groups have different religions, should the conflict be termed “religious” or “ethnic?” Does the distinction matter?

Students need to clearly select one term, either religious or ethnic. Answers should further discuss the implications of each.

Sample answer Conflicts between different ethnic groups have occurred throughout the centuries. It is easier to label a conflict as religious as the adherents are part of a larger group of believers. The conflict in Bosnia & Herzegovina is easier to define as the struggle between the Muslim Bosniaks and the Orthodox Serbs.

People are more familiar with religious rivalry than they are with the subtle and historical differences between ethnicities.

•

Briefly research and summarize an ethnic conflict not mentioned in the text. Why does ethnic cleansing continue to happen? What can we do to prevent it?

The student-provided example should not include those mentioned in Key Issue 3 of the text—Myanmar, Kosovo, Bosnia & Herzegovina, Sudan, Rwanda and Burundi, and Congo. Based on research student answers should clearly identify the ethnic groups involved, the contested territory, and reasons for the rivalry. In addition, students should suggest ways that ethnic conflict could be avoided.

Sample answer Nagorno-Karabakh is an area located within Azerbaijan about 40 miles from the border with Armenia.

The Armenians claim it is an independent country. The people inhabiting Nagorno-Karabakh are comprised of Indo-European language family ethnic Armenian Christians whereas the area that surrounds it is comprised of Muslim, Turkic language family Azerbaijanis. Three layers of culture are involved in this conflict—religion, ethnicity, and language.

After independence from the Soviet Union an armed conflict ensued lasting from 1991 until the ceasefire in 1994. Armenia refuses to relinquish claims to the area. Azerbaijan claims the land is under Armenian occupation and has accused the Armenians of genocide and terrorism. There is a section on the website of the Azerbaijani government entitled, “Historical, Cultural, and Architectural monuments destrucuted (sic) as a result of Armenian aggression.”

Nationality, Ethnicity, and the World of Sports During the recent Olympic Games students may have noticed Americans competing for other countries. In fact, 178 athletes competed for a non-native nation in the 2018 winter Olympics. The International Olympic committee requires an athlete to be a “national” of the country he or she represents. Have students conduct Internet research to identify athletes who have done so and trace their links to the country for which they have competed. Have them prepare answers to the following questions that will serve as the basis of a class discussion.

• • •

How does the Olympic committee define national?

Are there any countries whose entire roster was made up of only non-native athletes?

Why did the athlete choose to compete for another country?

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Have students share their findings with the class. Discuss to what degree ethnicity influenced their decision to join another country’s team.

Ethnicity Field Studies Paper Ethnicity is identity with a group of people who share the cultural traditions of a particular homeland. Our own ethnicity (culture and experience) shapes our beliefs and also influences our perceptions of differing people and places encountered throughout our lives. Therefore, it is important to reflect on and understand our own opinions. Furthermore, we need to increase our awareness of the diversity of people and places not only in the world at large, but also in our own fascinating, multicultural environment. You must, however, get out and about to experience and taste this richness for yourself.

This assignment (fieldwork) is intended to be enjoyable. You choose the time and the place. Many students have combined this assignment with a family outing, a date, time with friends, or even have formed informal groups with classmates to venture out together. It is your choice.

Procedure 1. Choose one of the locations from the attached list (the instructor needs to provide this list). No passports are required to explore your city’s many ethnic neighborhoods.

2. You need to thoughtfully answer the questions below using as much detail as possible in your descriptions. Be observant of the sights, sounds, and smells that create this unique sense of place.

3. You need to write an essay discussing your visit from a geographical perspective. Some possible topics in your essay could be: (1) how the landscape is arranged, (2) the creation of a cultural landscape (architecture), (3) characteristics of the homeland country (political, economic, environmental, cultural) that creates push factors for migration, etc. Be sure to connect the attributes of the homeland your ethnic enclave represents. Include your internal reactions and feelings about this place briefly in your conclusion.

Questions 1. Where did you go? Which ethnic, cultural group is dominant here?

2. Why do you think most of the people in this area migrated to the United States? What do you think are the push/pull factors?

3. What landscape elements do you think give this area a distinctive appearance from surrounding areas?

Be specific—describe buildings, architecture, spatial arrangement, clothing, types of stores, and music that you encounter.

4. Try a new ethnic food (it doesn’t have to be expensive, just a little exotic to you and typical of what is common in the homeland). What did you try? Did you like or dislike it? What ingredients were in it?

5. Do you see outward symbols of religious systems that are associated with the homeland? Look closely and describe. Does it help or hinder your cultural understanding of this ethnic group?

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6. Do you see evidence of the convergence of traditional and modern worlds? If so describe them—look for impacts of communications and technological systems. What kind of connections are going on between the homeland and this region?

7. Look at products sold in stores and businesses. Do you see references to specific locations in the homeland? What cities and regions are on the labels of products? Where are the goods made?

8. What types of economic activities and businesses do you find here? Are there any surprises? Are there any specific businesses that reflect social customs from the homeland? Describe.

9. Any interesting (or perhaps strange to you) items for sale in these stores? People and cultures perceive and utilize resources differently, what is your cultural response to the unique items you see?

10. New immigrant groups have always tried to recreate their homelands when they migrated to the United States. Why do you think it is helpful for new arrivals to the United States to live in or near an ethnic enclave? Do you think you would be attracted to an American enclave if you moved to a foreign country?

Mastering Geography™ provides additional assignable learning activities and ready-made resources designed to extend and reinforce student skills and mastery of key content, concepts, and vocabulary. The resources include MapMaster 2.0 interactive maps, videos, GeoTutor coaching activities, Google Earth Explorations, outline maps, chapter quizzes, Dynamic Study Modules, and more. Further details about these resources and recommendations for use are provided in the Resources section of this document. You can assign these media-rich activities as pre or post lecture homework.

Thinking Geographically Questions Key Issue 7.1: A century ago, European immigrants to the United States created ethnic enclaves within U.S. cities.

1.

Why have most of these European ethnic enclaves become much less prominent in U.S. cities, or disappeared altogether? What are examples of ethnic foods that are now regularly consumed by people of other ethnicities?

In the United States, Mexican restaurants are regularly patronized by other Americans. Many rural communities even have at least one Mexican restaurant, solidifying them as a common feature of the American cultural landscape. Other ethnic restaurants, such as Indian and Vietnamese, are increasingly becoming more common across the United States, as well.

Key Issue 7.2: Since the repeal of apartheid laws, races in South Africa continue to be highly segregated.

2.

Why might separation persist despite the end of legal segregation?

Blacks living in the former homelands may have chosen to stay within the region of their birth, a place they have an attachment to. Economic circumstances may prevent migration to other more expensive living areas and so the segregation landscape is perpetuated by lack of income equality.

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Chapter 7: Ethnicities Key Issue 7.3: The Kurds claim to be the world’s largest ethnic group not in control of a country.

3.

Based on Figures 7-43 and 7-46, what other ethnic groups might have a strong claim to reorganize territorial boundaries so that they could become the majority?

It appears as if the Pashtun, Punjabi, Sindhi, Hazara, and Baluchi ethnicities could all carve out territory to constitute a country with majorities of each respective ethnicity from the existing countries of Afghanistan and Pakistan. These new nations would radically change the map of South and Central Asia.

4.

What are some of the obstacles that might be faced in sharing power with other ethnicities?

Historical memory is long and the remembrance of past wrongs against a group of people would make collaboration with that group difficult.

Key Issue 7.4: Professional divers hold competitions to dive off the Stari Most bridge in Mostar.

5.

Why might the bridge be an important place to hold professional diving competitions?

Diving competitions at the bridge have been an integral recreational activity for hundreds of years, with the first recorded diving event taking place in 1664. Since 1968, professional diving competitions have been held at the bridge. The historical importance of these competitions has influenced the citizens of Mostar to continue to hold these events. Also, by holding these competitions at the bridge, they are expressing nationalism by carrying on their traditions. The rebuilt bridge serves as a symbol of the spirit of the people inhabiting Bosnia & Herzegovina.

6.

The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) has placed the bridge on its list of World Heritage sites. Why would the bridge be considered a World Heritage site? Consult unesco.org and search for World Heritage site #946

Stari Most is designated as a World Heritage site because it represents the heritage of the area’s Muslims, Christians (Roman Catholic and Orthodox), and Jews. The bridge built by the Ottomans in the 1400s was an architectural masterpiece containing elements of Western European, pre-Ottoman, Eastern Ottoman, and Mediterranean features. The bridge and its surrounding areas were rebuilt to recognize the “unlimited efforts of human solidarity for peace and powerful cooperation in the face of overwhelming catastrophes.”

Pause and Reflect Questions 7.1.1 How might children born to the Duke and Duchess of Sussex be considered in terms of race, ethnicity, and nationality?

The children of the Duke and Duchess of Sussex would be considered biracial as the mother is half white and half black, and the father is white. In terms of ethnicity she is Caucasian and African American, and he is of English heritage. The child’s nationality would be that of a citizen of the United Kingdom. She became a citizen of the U.K. and so had relinquished her claim to American citizenship and nationality.

7.1.2 What might be benefits and challenges of changing the census questions about ethnicity and race from multiple choice to short answer format?

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography format to let people decide on their own how they choose to self-identify. This may lead to more accurate demographic information in the country. However, this format change would likely require increases in census staff to process forms, and the effort would be hampered by budgetary concerns. Also the variety of ways a person could write in their race would vary from African-America, African American, african american, all of which a computer would recognize as discrete terms.

Note: There are two Pause and Reflect Questions for 7.1.2 7.1.2 Nearly 10 million Americans changed their answer to question 8 or 9 between 2000 and 2010. The most frequent changes involved Hispanics who changed their race from white to something else or from something else to white. Why might that be the case?

As Hispanic ethnicity is derived from ancestral ties to a Spanish-speaking Latin American country, a variety of races fit that description. The breakdown of Hispanic to specific regions of origin may have confused some.

Based on the perception of discrimination answers may have changed. In addition, the option of other may have been chosen by those with mixed heritage.

7.1.3 What region of the United States has low concentrations of all four of the ethnicities? Why might that be the case?

Maine and some areas of the northern states in the U.S. West, such as Montana and the Dakotas, have relatively low concentrations of all four of the ethnicities. Low populations would account for this lack of diversity.

7.1.4 If you had to fill out Brazil’s census, what race would you select for yourself? Why? I would check the “branco” box, as I self-identify as a white person.

7.1.5 Can you give an example of an ethnoburb in or near your community?

I live in a suburb area in a city that was formed in 1963, so there are no examples of ethnoburbs in or near my community. However, the closest thing resembling an ethnoburb in my community would be a Filipino Cultural Center near my neighborhood, but people of the Filipino ancestry are dispersed throughout the city.

I grew up in a Slovenian community in the inner city of Cleveland, Ohio, home to the largest Slovenian Roman Catholic church in the world. As they could afford to move out of the central city to the suburbs, Slovenians migrated from East 65th Street to 185th Street and the eastern suburbs They established a Slovenian hall and specialty shops in the area.

7.2.1 Which area of Africa appears to have been the place of origin for most slaves sent to the North American colonies?

The upper coastal region of West Africa (Senegambia) appears to have sent the most slaves to North America according to Figure 7-24, Origins and Destinations of Slaves.

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Chapter 7: Ethnicities 7.2.2 What were the push and pull factors that motivated the interregional migration of African Americans in the early decades of the twentieth century?

The major push factor was the decline of sharecropping through the mechanization of agriculture and the decrease in the amount of land devoted to cotton production in the South. The major pull factor was the prospect of jobs in the industrialized cities of the North.

7.2.3 More than 50 years after the Civil Rights Acts, why might schools in cities like Baltimore and Detroit still be racially segregated (refer to Figures 7-28 and 7-29)?

Schools may still be segregated in Baltimore and Detroit due to the patterns of population distribution. Many African Americans are concentrated in the inner city, a legacy of housing discrimination and income. As whites have fled the city limits to the suburbs, African Americans have remained in the city increasing their percentage of its inhabitants. The maps in Figure 7-28 show the increasing percent of African Americans in Baltimore.

Schools draw their pupils from the surrounding neighborhoods. If a neighborhood is 96 percent black, then the students of that school would likewise be 96% black. The graph in 7-29 shows the increase in the African American population within Detroit with fewer white residents. This type of segregation is known as de facto segregation which results from social and economic differences among groups rather than government policies.

7.2.4

Explain why an independent state of Kurdistan would be opposed by the governments of Iran, Iraq, Syria, and Turkey?

Throughout the years international borders have been established and defended. No country would willingly cede a portion of their territory. Figure 7-37 shows the borders of Kurdistan. Note that such boundaries would give the new state control over the headwaters of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers which in this water-scarce region would be untenable. In each of the countries the Kurds are a minority. If the governments would grant independence to this minority might the countries further disintegrate into various ethnically-based entities?

7.3.1. What are some examples of centripetal forces that help hold the United Kingdom together as one nation in spite of nationalist aspirations of some of its ethnicities?

Centripetal forces holding the United Kingdom together are a shared history, the English language, and a commitment to democratic government within a constitutional monarchy. Even though the Scots held a referendum for independence in 2014, they chose to remain part of the United Kingdom. The economies of the constituent parts of the United Kingdom also serve as a centripetal force.

7.3.2

How do religious differences complicate the ethnic conflicts discussed on this page? Which country is an exception in this respect? Explain.

Iraq is divided by adherence to two different branches of Islam—Sunni and Shiite. The Arab ethnic group in Syria is divided by adherence to different religions. The minority Alawites who were in control of the government suppressed the majority Sunni Muslims. Lebanon has the most religious divisions—Muslims, Christians, and Druze. The religious differences exacerbate rivalry between the religious groups as Lebanon’s Christians and Muslims consider themselves distinct ethnicities.

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Turkey with a preponderance of ethnic Turks is the exception. Turks are primarily Sunni Muslims and share a common language. The Kurds are concentrated in the eastern portion of Turkey and their aspirations for an independent state are an ongoing issue for Turkey.

7.3.3

Compare Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia in terms of ethnic diversity. Which has recently experienced the most ethnic conflict? Explain.

Armenia and Azerbaijan both have their titular ethnicity in the 90 percent range and consequently have little internal conflicts based on ethnicity. Georgia with only 82 percent ethnic Georgians has had two ethnic groups, Abkhazians and Ossetians declare their independence and break away in the 1990s. The regions border the Russian Federation and their secession was supported and recognized by Russia. Georgia considers the two regions part of Georgia under Russian military occupation.

7.4.1

Search online for information on the persecution of the Rohingya in Myanmar. Do descriptions of the recent forced migration of Rohingya people suggest to you that the Myanmar military has engaged in genocide? Explain.?

Human Rights Watch details the number of Rohingya who have fled “to escape the military’s large-scale campaign of ethnic cleansing.” The United Nations International Fact-Finding Mission on Myanmar issued a report detailing genocide undertaken by the security forces within the country.

7.4.2

What is another example of a country that is inhabited primarily by ethnic Slavs?

Besides the six countries that emerged from former Yugoslavia Bulgaria is a country that is inhabited primarily by people of Slavic ethnicity.

7.4.3

In which regions within Bosnia & Herzegovina did Serbs gain most of their territory?

The eastern part of Bosnia & Herzegovina contiguous to Serbia is where the Serbs consolidated most of their territory.

7.4.4

Why might the areas of individual ethnicities be much larger in northern Africa than in the rest of the continent? Refer to Figure 1-70 on page 36 and Figure 2-4 on p. 50.

Areas of individual ethnicities might be larger in northern Africa due to the low population density. Not many people live here as a result of the harsh desert climate.

7.4.5

Why might the European colonial powers have preferred to place members of minority ethnicities in leadership positions?

By placing a minority in leadership positions, European colonizers may have wished to engender social strife based on ethnicity in order to maintain power in the country.

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Caption Questions Figure 7-20, Cartograms of Ethnic Groups in Chicago, p. 240 1.

What ethnic group provided the most immigrants in 1910? In 1990?

In 1910, Germany provided the most migrants to the United States. In 1990, the major source of immigrants was Mexico 2.

In 1990, which ethnic group was the largest source of immigrants from a European country? An Asian country?

In 1990 most migrants from Europe originated in Poland and most migrants from Asia were from either India or the Philippines.

Figure 7-29, Ethnic Population Change in Detroit, p. 245 1.

Which has changed the most in Detroit, the number of African Americans or the number of whites?

The white population declined from a peak of 1.7 million in 1950 to less than .1 million in 2010. The African American population peaked in 1990 with 0.8 million people. The change for whites was 1.6 million, whereas the change in African American population was only 0.8 million from 1910 to 2000.

Figure 7-46, Ethnicities in West-Central Asia, p. 254 1.

What ethnic group is found throughout Iran? Does it occur anywhere outside Iran?

The Persians are the predominant ethnic group distributed throughout Iran. Persians are clustered in bordering Turkmenistan.

2.

What ethnic groups does Iran share with its neighbors to the west? To the east?

The Azerbaijani ethnic group has diffused into Iran along its northwestern border. In addition, Pashtun from Iraq have also diffused into Iran. Baluchi has a sizeable minority in eastern Iran as well as neighboring Pakistan and Afghanistan.

Figure 7-57, A Symbol of Ethnic Cleansing in Bosnia & Herzegovina, p. 261 1.

Why would the Croats consider blowing up a bridge to be an important element in their ethnic cleansing?

Blowing up a bridge is symbolic of severing connections among the inhabitants of a region. Seeing the bridge destroyed may cause some of the inhabitants to wonder what would come next and impel them to flee.

2.

Why would the Bosniaks consider it important to rebuild the bridge after the war?

The bridge had served as a river crossing since the time of the Ottomans and was an important part of the cultural landscape. The Bosniaks had cultural ties to the Ottomans as fellow Muslims.

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Compare the rebuilt bridge with the original. Why do you think it was important for the Bosniaks to make the new bridge appear almost identical to the original one?

The two bridges are almost identical as they are both made from the same stone material. It would be important to the Bosniaks to restore their heritage and integrity by having a replica of the original bridge reconstructed.

Doing Geography! History of Asking About Race on U.S. Census, p. 235 Classifications of race have changed from free whites, other free people, and slaves in the early censuses to a multiplicity of choices today. Table 7-1 shows some of the changes in defining persons who are currently classifieds as Black, African, or Negro.

How have changes in race relations in the United States affect changes in classification?

Before the civil war the major division was free or slave with another category for freed colored. From 1850 to 1890, racial classification and accompanying prejudice against non-whites is reflected in the census with categories for mulatto, quadroons, and octroons, which measured an individual’s percentage of African blood.

Changes in society between 1900 and 1920 may be responsible for the removal of the term mulatto from the census.

During the time period of legally-sanctioned discrimination betweeen1930 and1960, the term Negro was exclusively used. With the advent of Supreme Court cases in the 1950s and the civil rights movement of the 1960s and beyond, the term Black was added in addition to Negro. Perhaps this is reflective of the Black Power movement and slogans such as “black is beautiful.”

By 2000, the acknowledgement of nationality crept in with the classification of African American added to the previous classification of Black or Negro. Notice a respondent does not have the option to choose, Black, Negro, or African American, the descriptors are lumped into one category. The addition of African American communicates the subtle message that those of African ancestry are a part of American society.

What is Your ETHNIC Geography?

1.

Figure 7-4a displays the wording of the questions about ethnicity and race on the 2010 census. Are you able to answer questions 8 and 9 on the 2010 census? Are you able to answer the questions for your mother? For your father?

Yes, yes, and yes. The answers would be No for Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish origin and race as White.

2.

Figure 7-4b displays the anticipated 2020 census questions about race and ethnicity. Do the changes make it easier or harder for you to answer? Why or why not? Does the proposed form change the answers for your mother and your father?

Multiple categories can now be selected in the Hispanic category with the option for an association with a particular country of origin. The changes in question 9, make my answer more difficult. Does this question only apply to immigrants or the ethnic ancestry of those born here? In my case it would be mixed ancestry, Croatian and Slovak, but alas there is only one line. For my children it gets a bit more complex as they are Croatian, Slovak, Slovenian, and Scots Irish. For my father, although born here and claiming to be of Slovak ancestry, the country of origin for his relatives was Austro-Hungary, a country which no longer exists.

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Chapter 7: Ethnicities Question 9 has all persons identify not only a race but a country of origin. This may be problematic for African Americans descendants of slaves whose exact country of origin in undocumented. Again, this raises the question of the applicability of the question to native-born Americans vs. immigrants.

3.

What changes would need to be made to the 2010 census to clarify the difference between ethnicity and race, as defined by geographers? Does the proposed 2020 census help to clarify or muddle the difference between ethnicity and race? Why?

Race would be basic three plus the indigenous people—white, black, Asian, and Indian. Instead ethnicity is used for Hispanic. For example, when looking at census data for voting, one may encounter entries for total Hispanics, white Hispanics and non-white Hispanics. This could lead to double counting. In question 9 on the 2010 some nationalities (countries of citizenship) or perhaps ethnicities are listed as races for the Asians, but not for the other groups.

The proposed 2020 census only makes things more confusing with the opportunity to list ethnic origins. I wonder how many people will fill in American? Data are already collected on the foreign born so why is the additional classification needed. This is time for reflection on the purpose of the census to count the American people so that representation in the House of Representatives can be equitably apportioned. To what extent does ethnic origin fulfill that goal?

4.

Table 7-1 depicts the changes in the census categories of race. How comfortable are you with the classifications from the nineteenth and twentieth centuries?

The classification I find most disturbing are the attempts to quantify the amount of African blood for an individual. I infer that the sole purpose was to identify people to whom the restrictive and discriminatory Jim Crow laws would apply.

Debate It! Should ethnicities be encouraged to pursue national independence? p. 253 1.

What should be the criteria for an ethnicity to organize a state? Must it meet a threshold of a majority of people with the same race, religion or language as well?

If an ethnic group were to form its own state, it should have the economic resources to support its independence and a government based on equitable treatment for all ethnicities and religious groups within its borders. In today’s world it would be difficult to have an ethnically “pure” country with one ethnicity comprising the majority of its population. If such criteria were set, I think it would encourage people seeking independence to drive out the outsiders. Having mutually intelligible languages would be a definite, but essential plus.

2.

Should historic mistreatment of an ethnic group be taken into consideration when they argue for their own state? Why or why not?

Providing territory to ameliorate wrongs that an ethnic group has suffered is problematic. Take the case of Israel. The horrors of the Holocaust were influential in the establishment of a Jewish state. Palestine was partitioned by the British into a Palestinian and Jewish state. Territorial disputes and wars ensued based on the partition. The voluntary offer of territory to the “injured” ethnic group should come from the people who inhabit the area.

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Sustainability & Our Environment: Geographic Evidence of Ethnic Cleansing, p. 259 Aerial photographs such as these not only “proved” that ethnic cleansing was occurring but also provided critical evidence to prosecute Serb leaders for war crimes.

1.

In addition to air photos, what other geographic tools might be useful in documenting examples of ethnic cleansing?

A useful geographic tool would be maps detailing the distribution of ethnicities in the village or town at various points in time. Population shifts can be observed through the changes in the maps. Census data would also be valuable. However, governments have the power to manipulate and withhold census data. Reports and data collected by aid agencies and UN observers could also document change over time.

2.

How might geographic tools be used in the future to help stop ethnic cleansing before it starts?

The ability of remote sensing and GIS to document population and landscape change could be used to prevent ethnic cleansing. Public exposure of a situation and ongoing monitoring might be a deterrent to governmentsanctioned ethnic cleansing. However, governments can ignore the reports as may be the case in Myanmar.

GeoVideo Questions Nationalism and Its Role in the Balkan War Recent ethnic conflict in the Balkans has its roots in the nineteenth century.

1.

Why did European powers seek to end Ottoman Empire rule in the Balkans?

Russians wanted to extend their territory and urged Christians to resist Ottoman rule. Ottoman retaliation for those who resisted their rule was brutal and the press publicized the events depicting the Muslims as barbarians attacking defenseless Christians. Europeans the supported bringing an end to the Ottoman rule in the Balkans.

2.

How did the Ottoman Empire’s approach to ethnic diversity in the Balkans differ from the current situation?

The Ottomans were more multicultural and tolerant of other religions. Their system of rule did not depend on sovereignty of a national group. Recently, the forces of nationalism tore Yugoslavia apart and subjected the Bosnians to persecution and ethnic cleansing based on their religion.

Explore Legacy of Apartheid in South Africa Use Google Earth to explore a township where only blacks lived during South Africa’s apartheid period.

Search for 500 Barracuda Road, Lawley, Gauteng, South Africa.

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Continue east along Barracuda Road until you reach the end. What nonresidential activities did you see along the road?

Barracuda road connects two larger highways. Within the neighborhood there is the Legamo Healing and Traditional Consultant, and a taxi stand. Near the intersection with Angler street, there is an agricultural patch of land and the Lawley Fire Station.

2.

Describe the condition of the houses. Large or small? Modern or old? In good shape or poor?

There is range of house sizes along houses along Barracuda Road. Some are small, some were large, and all seemed to be relatively modern and in good condition. From the aerial view, the neighborhood is set up like a typical suburban area and includes some cul de sacs. All the roofs appear in good condition without patches.

3.

Describe the landscaping around the houses, especially when you get to the end of the road.

There is little landscaping on the lots of individual houses. The ground varies between bare earth and in some cases a slightly elevated area of lawn. At each end of the street and in the middle section, there are relatively large areas of open ground. There are few trees in the neighborhood.

4.

Why is it important for people to erect fences or walls around their houses?

Each house appears to have a stone fence separating it from the street. Fences or walls around a house both denote ownership and serve to provide a degree of privacy in a densely settled area.

Geospatial Data Analysis Ethnic Diversity and Conflict in Sub-Saharan Africa Sub-Saharan Africa has the world’s most ethnically diverse countries.

From the Cultural theme, Select Ethnic Diversity. From the Geopolitical theme select Countries at War or with Serious Insurrections since 1995 and then select Split map window.

1.

Zoom to sub-Saharan Africa. What has been the experience with respect to conflict of the sub-Saharan countries that are “Most ethnically diverse?”

All of the countries in the category of “most ethnically diverse” have experienced war or serious insurrections since 1995. However, correlation does not equal causation and other countries within sub-Saharan Africa have experienced insurrections even though they are not in the highest category for ethnic diversity. Most of these countries are identified as “more ethnically diverse.”

2.

Can you find an exception to this pattern? Name the exception and give one reason it might have escaped the fate of other highly diverse countries in the region?

Madagascar is the exception. The country has a high level of ethnic diversity, but no identified wars or insurrections since 1995.

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Writing Geographically Figure 7CR-8, shows the U.S. counties that contain at least 25 percent of a particular ethnicity.

1.

Name the ethnicities labeled “A” and “B” on the map.

Group A is Hispanic, and Group B is African American.

2.

Explain the migration factors that have led to the current distributions of the two ethnicities.

Factors that contributed to the distribution of Hispanics in the southwestern region of the United States include former colonies of Spain, and immigration from nearby Mexico. The concentration of African Americans in the southeastern United States is a result of forced migration of African slaves to the area during colonial times.

Resources Japanese Internment The internment of American citizens of Japanese American ethnicity during World War II is an excellent example of when ethnicity and nationality were contested. Discussions may also include racism and racist constructions of the Japanese during the war. Some resources can be found at the National Park Service website: Manzanar National Historic Site (National Park Service): www.nps.gov/manz/index.html.

African Americans in the United States The Library of Congress hosts an excellent collection of primary documents online with descriptions and context at: http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/aaohtml/exhibit/.

Kosovo The United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo maintains a website at www.unmikonline.org/. This site features news reports as well as updates on Kosovo’s legal status and future.

Human Rights Watch This website monitors the abuse of human rights around the world and frequently identifies ethnic conflicts: www.hrw.org/.

Darfur The U.N. News Centre maintains current information regarding Sudan and South Sudan: www.un.org/apps/ news/infocusRel.asp?infocusID=88 See also on: www.unmis.unmissions.org/, the homepage of the United Nations Mission in Sudan.

Fields of Fire: An Atlas of Ethnic Conflict The atlas and website provide details and updates of ethnic conflicts throughout the world. The conflicts are categorized into three types: civil rights conflicts, ethnic rebellions, and inter-communal violence. The news page provides links to articles under the categories of wars of religion, racial distribution, language and conflict, and secessionism. The online atlas is available for purchase at a nominal cost. www.notholt.co.uk/fields_of_fire/about_ethnic_conflicts.html.

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Chapter 7: Ethnicities Free downloads of sample case studies are available for Central Asia and intercommunal violence in Kyrgyzstan and Casamance, a region of Senegal.

Central Intelligence Agency The CIA provides a wealth of data in its country profiles. www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-worldfactbook/geos/am.html.

Of interest to the unit would be the category of transnational issues which provides details about territorial disputes, many based on ethnicity. The category on stateless people provides insight into government policies for citizenship and perhaps purposeful exclusion of an ethnic group.

GeoInquiries™ GeoInquiries™ by Environmental Science Research Institute (ESRI) consist of scripted map-based online GIS activities designed to be completed within a 15-minute time frame. These Internet-based mapping activities run best in the Google Chrome browser and do not require the installation of any software. Access them at www.esri.com/en-us/industries/education/schools/geoinquiries-collections.

Africa’s bounty and borders from the World History collection contains a map of ethnic groups within Africa and Europeans possessing colonies in 1914.

Mastering Geography Media & Assessment Resources Mastering Geography™ provides additional assignable homework activities and ready-made resources designed to extend and reinforce student skills and mastery of key content, concepts, and vocabulary. These resources are invaluable to implementation of the flipped classroom. Use the Instructor Course Home areas to build assignments for your students. Highlights include: •

MapMaster 2.0™ provides students with the opportunity to reinforce their understanding of spatial relationships, e.g., variation, distribution, interaction, and association. Students get hands on with map building, exploration, and spatial data analysis by layering a wide range of maps. Multiplechoice assessments in the Mastering Geography item library provide directions for building maps aligned with chapter content, and focus on the development of spatial thinking and analysis skills.

•

GeoVideos and Google Earth Explorations linked to chapter content provide an opportunity for students to “visit” other places and build an appreciation for other cultures. Use as an out-of-class assignment and have students explain how the video or Google Earth Explorations illustrate concepts learned in class and make comparisons between cultures.

•

Interactive Data Visualizations powered by Social Explorer provide interactive data explorations for each chapter's Key Issue, and include map stories, predictive graphing, interactive maps, interactive population pyramids, interactive charts, and more. These media are integrated into the Pearson eText and Study Area, and are also available for assignment with quizzes.

•

GeoTutors are highly visual and data-rich assignable activities that help students master the most challenging concepts in geography.

•

Dynamic Study Modules (DSMs) provide two sets of 25 multiple-choice questions per chapter topic.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography assessment or content preview. The modules are interactive as students are prompted to select, “I am unsure” or “I am sure” as they submit their answers. The questions could also be used as self-check for students at the end of the chapter. An infographic gauge represents their accuracy visually.

Teachers can assign the DSMs for credit and or students can access these on their own for self study.

•

Learning Catalytics is an interactive student response tool paired with Mastering Geography that encourages team-based learning by using students’ smartphones, tablets, or laptops to engage them in interactive tasks and thinking. As a teacher, you can pose a variety of open-ended questions that help your students develop critical thinking skills, while monitoring responses with real-time analytics to find out where they’re struggling. With this information, you can adjust your instructional strategy in real time and try additional ways of engaging your students during class. Learning Catalytics also lets you manage student interactions by automatically grouping students for discussion, team-based learning, and peer-to-peer learning.

The Mastering Geography student Study Area includes a variety of tools that students can access on their own, including: • • •

The eText provides a fully digital online version of the textbook, with search and bookmarking functionality. Available for offline reading.

Chapter Quizzes include 15 multiple choice questions based on the chapter’s content.

Key Terms Flashcards to help students master the key vocabulary.

Downloadable Outline Maps containing political and physical features provide students the opportunity to label key countries and physical features. Consider assigning these maps throughout the course so that students can refer to them as they interpret the many thematic maps in the textbook.

MapMaster 2.0™ The following map layers are included in the MapMaster 2.0™ resource. They may be used to illustrate distributions of major ethnic groups throughout the world. In addition, multiple choice map-based quizzes are also included.

• • • • • • • • • • •

African American Population, North America American Indian Population, North America Asian Population, North America Hispanic American Population, North America Largest Racial Group (U.S.), North America Second Largest Racial Group (U.S.), North America Ethnic Diversity Ethnic Boundaries, Sub-Saharan Africa Ethnic Groups (Iraq and Iran), Southwest Asia and North Africa Selected Ethnic and Cultural Regions and Settlements, North America Scattered Indigenous Communities

Additional resources in support of students with disabilities include the screen reader enabled e-text and more. Further details about these resources are available at www.pearson.com/us/accessibility.html.

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Chapter 7: Ethnicities

Connections between Chapters Back to Chapter 6 Ethnicity and religion are cited as two of the most common reasons for conflict, so differentiating between the two can be difficult. Students may be asked to decide whether religion or ethnic identity is a stronger component of culture, or if the comparison can even be made.

Forward to Chapter 8 The groundwork for students’ understanding of political geography is laid in Chapter 7’s discussion of nationality, nation-states, and multinational versus multiethnic states.

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Political Geography

8

Learning Outcomes After reading, studying, and discussing the chapter, students should be able to: Learning Outcome 8.1.1:

Explain the difference between a state of the world and a state within the United States.

Learning Outcome 8.1.2:

Explain why it is difficult to determine whether some of Earth’s land areas are sovereign states.

Learning Outcome 8.2.1:

Summarize how states developed historically.

Learning Outcome 8.2.2:

Describe the modern development of nation-states.

Learning Outcome 8.2.3:

Describe challenges in creating nation-states in the former Soviet Union.

Learning Outcome 8.2.4:

Explain Russia’s status as a multinational state.

Learning Outcome 8.2.5:

Explain the concept of colonies and describe their current distribution.

Learning Outcome 8.3.1:

Describe the functions of the United Nations.

Learning Outcome 8.3.2:

Explain differences among three regime types.

Learning Outcome 8.3.3:

Describe the distribution of nuclear weapons.

Learning Outcome 8.3.4:

Describe the principal alliances in Europe.

Learning Outcome 8.3.5:

Explain the concept of terrorism and cite U.S. examples.

Learning Outcome 8.3.6:

Identify the major terrorist organizations.

Learning Outcome 8.4.1:

Describe the types of cultural boundaries between states.

Learning Outcome 8.4.2:

Describe the types of physical boundaries between states.

Learning Outcome 8.4.3:

Describe the types of geometric boundaries between states.

Learning Outcome 8.4.4:

Describe the five shapes of states.

Learning Outcome 8.4.5:

Explain the practice of gerrymandering and ways in which it is done.

Learning Outcome 8.4.6:

Describe approaches to reducing gerrymandering.

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Chapter 8: Political Geography

Chapter 8 Outline I

Key Issue 8.1: Where are States Distributed?

A Politics & Geography 1 state—an area organized into a political unit and ruled by an established government that has control over its internal and foreign affairs 2 microstate—a state with a very small land area a smallest microstate is the Vatican (0.17 square miles) B Challenges in Defining States 1 Korea: One State or Two? a divided after WWII, conflict between pro-Communist forces of the North and pro-U.S. forces in the South ended in a stalemate 2 Sahrawi Republic/Western Sahara: Who is Sovereign? a former colony of Spain, claimed by Morocco b independent republic declared by Polisario Front, recognized by many African countries B China & Taiwan: One State or Two? C Senkaku/Diaoyu Islands: Conflicting Claims

II Key Issue 8.2: Why Are States Challenging to Create?

A Evolution of States 1 Ancient States a Fertile Crescent b city-state 2 Roman Empire to Medieval States B Nation-States 1 Terms a nation—large group of people who are united by common cultural characteristics such as language and ethnicity, or shared heritage. b nation-state—a state whose territory corresponds to that occupied by a particular nation. c self-determination—nations govern themselves without interference 2 Nation-States in Europe 3 Reorganizing Europe’s Nation-States 4 Ethnic Diversity Within States C Nation-States in the Former Soviet Union 1 Soviet Republics to states a Caucasus states—Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia b Baltic states—Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania c European states—Belarus, Moldova, Ukraine d Central Asian states—Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan e Russia 2 Armenia & Azerbaijan a Armenia—ethnically homogeneous, 98% Armenian i long Christian tradition ii genocide at the hands of the Turks

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography b

Azerbaijan i fragmented state—Nakhichevan separated from rest of the country by Armenia ii Nagorno-Karabakh—Armenian exclave within Azerbaijan iii war with Armenia, ceasefire 1994 iv renamed as Artsakh in 2017, still part of Azerbaijan, functions as independent entity 3 Estonia, Latvia, & Lithuania a independent between 1918 and 1940, awarded to Soviet Union during WWII b Lithuania—Roman Catholic, Baltic language group c Latvians—Lutheran, Baltic language group d Estonians—Protestant, Uralic language group 4 Belarus & Moldova a Belarus—distinct Slavic ethnicity b Moldova—major ethnicity Romanian i Transnistria (a) land awarded from Ukraine after WWII (b) inhabitants ethnic Ukrainians and Russians (c) oppose reunification with Romania 5 Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, & Uzbekistan a Turkmenistan & Uzbekistan, relatively stable nation-states b Tajikistan—civil war—former Communists vs. Muslim fundamentalists and intellectuals D Multinational States in the Former Soviet Union 1 multinational state—contains more than one nation 2 Russia: The Largest Multinational State 3 Ukraine 4 Georgia 5 Kazakhstan & Kyrgyzstan E Colonies 1 Definition—a territory that is legally tied to a sovereign state rather than being completely independent 2 Current Colonies a Puerto Rico b Greenland c Hong Kong and Macao 3 Colonialism a Definition—effort of one country to establish settlements in a territory and to impose its political, economic, and cultural principles on that territory b Reasons for colonialism i promote Christianity ii extract resources and serve as markets iii establish power due to the number of colonies held

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Chapter 8: Political Geography III Key Issue 3: Why Do States Face Threats?

A Global Cooperation and Competition 1 The Cold War 2 Cuban Missile Crisis 3 The United Nations B Governing States 1 National Scale: Regime Types a democracy—citizens elect leaders and can run for office b autocracy—run according to the interests of the ruler c anocracy—country not fully democratic or fully autocratic, a mix 2 Local Scale: Unitary and Federal a unitary state—power held by central government b federal state —power allocated to the units of local government 3 State Fragility C Weapons of Mass Destruction 1 Definition—a nuclear, biological, chemical, or other weapon that can kill and bring significant harm to a large number of humans or cause great damage to human-made structures, natural structures, or the biosphere 2 Nuclear weapons 3 Suspect states a Libya b Iraq c Iran d Syria D Europe’s Fragile Cooperation 1 Europe’s Economic Alliances a European Union (EU) b Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON) 2 The European Union in the Twenty-first Century—28 members 3 The Eurozone—euro, 25 countries, 19 EU members 4 Europe’s Military Alliances a North Atlantic Treaty Alliance (NATO) b Warsaw Pact E Terrorism 1 Definition—the threat or actual use of illegal force and violence by a non-state actor to attain a political, economic, religious, or social goal through fear, coercion, or intimidation 2 September 11, 2001, Attacks 3 Other Terrorist Attacks Against Americans a Lockerbie, Scotland, 1988 b Oklahoma City, 1995 c Kenya and Tanzania, 1998 d Orlando, 2016

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography F

Terrorist Organizations 1 Al-Qaeda 2 Boko Haram 3 Taliban 4 Islamic State (ISIS/ISIL) 5 Distribution of World Terrorism

IV Key Issue 4: Why Do States Have Distinctive Geographic Structure?

A Cultural Boundaries 1 Three Types of Boundaries a cultural—distribution of cultural features, e.g., language, religion b geometric—straight lines and parallels of latitude c physical—coincide with features of the natural landscape 2 Cultural Boundary: Religion in Ireland 3 Ethnic Boundary: Cyprus B Physical Boundaries 1 Desert Boundaries 2 Mountain Boundaries 3 Water Boundaries 4 The Law of the Sea a territorial waters b contiguous zone c exclusive economic zone C Geometric Boundaries 1 Geometric Boundaries: North America 2 Geometric Boundaries: North Africa 3 Geometric Boundary: South Pole D Shapes of States 1 Compact States: Efficient a distance from center does not vary significantly 2 Prorupted States: Access or Disruption a contains a large extension projecting into another state 3 Perforated State: South Africa a state that completely surrounds another state 4 Elongated States: Potential Isolation a long and narrow shape 5 Fragmented States: Problematic a state with several discontinuous pieces 6 Landlocked States a state without direct access to the sea E Electoral Geography 1 Gerrymandering—redrawing of legislative boundaries to benefit the party in power a cracking—spread like-minded voters across several districts to dilute their influence b packing—contain like-minded voters in one district to limit their influence F Redrawing Boundaries by state legislatures or independent commissions 240 .

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Chapter 8: Political Geography

Chapter Content Outline Key Issue 1: Where Are States Distributed?

Political geography is concerned with the study of the way governments organize and administer space on Earth’s surface, and especially the geographic dimensions of conflict. One of Earth’s most fundamental cultural characteristic is the division of our planet’s surface into a collection of spaces occupied by individual countries.

Politics & Geography A state is an area organized into a political unit and ruled by an established government that has control over its internal and foreign affairs. It occupies a defined territory on Earth’s surface and contains a permanent population. Country is synonymous with state. Nearly all inhabitable land is organized into states. The land area occupied by states around the world widely varies. The largest state, Russia, comprises 6.6 million square miles, or 11 percent of the Earth’s entire land area. On the other end of the spectrum are about two dozen microstates, which are states with very small land area. The Vatican is the world’s smallest microstate, with 0.17 square miles. Many microstates are islands, explaining both their small size and sovereignty.

Challenges in Defining States A state has sovereignty, which means independence from control of its internal affairs by other states. A sovereign state is a good example of a formal or uniform region, as the entire area of a state is managed by its national government, laws, army, and leaders. Disagreement over the number of sovereign states in the world is present in the global community. Places that challenge the definition of sovereignty are Korea, China, and Western Sahara.

Korea: One State or Two? Not all states are universally recognized or well defined. After the defeat of Japan in World War II Korea was divided in half into two occupation zones. The Soviet Union supported a pro-communist government in the North and the United States supported a democratic government in the South. North Korea invaded South Korea in 1950 in an attempt to reunite the country. The Korean War ended in 1953 ending in a stalemate. In 1992, North Korea and South Korea were admitted to the United Nations as separate countries. Progress toward reuniting Korea was halted by North Korea’s decision to build nuclear weapons.

Sahrawi Republic/Western Sahara: Who Is Sovereign? Most African countries consider the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic a sovereign state. Spain controlled the territory until withdrawing from the area in 1976. An independent Sahrawi Republic was declared. Morocco and Mauritania annexed the territory, but Mauritania decided to withdraw three years later. Morocco now claims most of the territory. No other state has recognized Morocco’s claim.

China and Taiwan: One State or Two? Most countries consider China (officially the People’s Republic of China) and Taiwan (officially the Republic of China) as separate and sovereign states. China does not consider Taiwan to be a separate state but part of China. The United States supported the Chinese Nationalists (Taiwan) in a civil war that ended in 1949. The United States recognized Taiwan as the legitimate government of China until 1971. The United Nations voted that year to transfer China’s seat in the U.N. from the Nationalists in Taiwan to the Communist government in China.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Senkaku/Diaoyu Islands: Conflicting Claims The People’s Republic of China, Taiwan, and Japan all claim sovereignty over several small uninhabited islands in the East China Sea. These islands are known as Diaoyu in China, Diaoyutai in Taiwan, and Senkaku in Japan. Japan has controlled the islands since 1895, except between 1945 and 1972, when the United States administered them after the Japanese defeat in World War II. China and Taiwan claim that the islands historically belonged to China until the Japanese government illegally seized them in 1895.

Key Issue 2: Why Are States Challenging to Create?

Evolution of States The first states developed in Southwest Asia and North Africa. Until modern times, much of the Earth’s land area remained unorganized territory.

Ancient States The first states developed in the Fertile Crescent. The first states to develop were city states.

A city-state is a sovereign state comprised of a town and the surrounding countryside. Walls clearly delineated the boundaries of the city. The city controlled the agricultural land surrounding the city that produced food for the urban residents. The countryside also provided the city with an outer line of defense against attack by other city-states. One city may gain military dominance over the others and form an empire. The region was organized into a succession of empires.

Roman Empire to Medieval States Then Roman Empire controlled most of Europe, North Africa, and Southwest Asia. At its largest extent, the empire comprised 38 provinces, each using the same set of laws that had been created in Rome. The Roman Empire eventually collapsed in the fifth century. The European portion of the empire was fragmented into many estates owned by competing kings, dukes, barons, and other nobles.

Around 1100, a handful of powerful kings emerged as rulers over many of these European estates. The consolidation of neighboring estates under the unified control of a king formed the basis for the development of modern European states.

Nation-States A state is an area organized into a political union. A nation is a large group of people who are united by common cultural characteristics, such as language and ethnicity or by shared history. A nationstate is a state whose territory corresponds to that occupied by a particular ethnicity. Self-determination is the right of a people to govern themselves.

Nation-States in Europe The concept of nation states first developed in Europe. After World War I the Allied leaders sought to create nation-states by using language as the main criterion for identification of ethnic groups. New states were created and borders of existing states adjusted to conform to territory occupied by the various linguistic groups.

During the 1930s Nazis claimed that all German-speaking parts of Europe constituted one nationality and should be unified into one state under their control. After the Nazis invaded Poland (clearly not a German-speaking country) France and the United Kingdom declared war. After Germany was defeated in World War II, Germany was divided into two states, existing from 1949 until 1990.

The borders of present-day state of Germany bear little resemblance to the territory occupied by the Germanspeaking people.

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Chapter 8: Political Geography Reorganizing Europe’s Nation-States In the twenty-first century ethnic identity has regained its importance in Europe. The multinational states of Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, and the Soviet Union broke into their constituent parts. Czechoslovakia peacefully became two-nation states—Czechia and Slovakia in 1993. In contrast, the break-up of Yugoslavia involved ethnic cleansing and armed military conflict in this attempt to create nation-states.

Ethnic Diversity Within States There is no perfect nation-state because the territory occupied by an ethnicity never corresponds to the boundaries of the country. However, some states, such as Japan, are excellent examples of a nation-state. The ethnic make-up of Japan is 98.5 percent Japanese, 0.5 percent Korean, 0.4 percent Chinese, and 0.6 percent other. Many states with low ethnic diversity are in Europe, while the most ethnically diverse states are located in Africa.

Nation-States in the Former Soviet Union The Soviet Union consisted of 15 republics, based on its 15 largest ethnicities. Estimates of ethnic groups within the Soviet Union before its breakup include Russians (51 percent), Ukrainians (15 percent), Uzbeks (6 percent), with the remaining 28 percent divided among 100 ethnicities that had been recognized by the Soviet Union. In 1991, the 15 former Soviet republics became independent countries. The states are categorized as follows: Baltic States (Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania), European states (Belarus, Moldova, and Ukraine), Central Asian states (Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan), Caucasian states (Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia), and Russia.

Armenia & Azerbaijan When the Soviets controlled the three countries in the Caucasus Mountains, Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan, they were able to quell disputes among ethnicities. Even though Azerbaijan and Armenia are both statistically good examples of nation-states, they have fought over the boundaries between them.

Armenia Armenia, a Christian state since 303 C.E., was once ruled by Turkish Muslims. A century ago, an estimated one million ethnic Armenians were killed in what most observers now classify a genocide.

Following World War I, the Allies created the independent state of Armenia, although it was soon divided between Turkey and the Soviet Union in 1921. Today 98 percent of the Armenian population is comprised of ethnic Armenians, making it the most ethnically homogenous country in the area. Armenia is bordered by Azerbaijan on both its eastern and western sides.

Azerbaijan Azerbaijanis trace their roots to the Turkish invaders who migrated from Central Asia in the eighth and ninth centuries and merged with the existing Persian population. Azerbaijan is divided into an eastern and western part (Nakhichevan), separated by Armenia. Armenians and Azerbaijanis have contested the boundaries between their countries, fighting specifically over an Azerbaijani enclave called Nagorno- Karabakh inhabited primarily by Armenians and located within eastern Azerbaijan. While Nagorno-Karabakh is still technically a part of Azerbaijan as a result of a 1994 cease-fire agreement, it acts as an independent republic (known as Artsakh).

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Estonia, Latvia, & Lithuania Located on the Baltic Sea, the countries of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania were independent between 1918 and 1940. They were annexed by the Soviet Union in 1940 under an agreement with Nazi Germany. All three have distinct cultural differences and historical traditions. Most Lithuanians are Roman Catholic, whereas Estonians and Latvians are predominantly Lutheran. Lithuanians and Latvians speak a language in the Baltic group of the Indo-European family, while Estonian is an Uralic language.

Belarus and Moldova Belarus, Moldova, and Ukraine are bordered by Russia to the east and European democracies to the west. Belarus has made a peaceful transition from a Soviet republic to an independent country. Belarusians, Ukrainians, and Russians all speak similar East Slavic languages although through time they developed into distinct ethnicities.

Moldovans are ethnically indistinguishable from Romanians and speak a language belonging to the Romance language group. After independence from the Soviet Union, one group in Moldova sought to reunify with Romania, However, when Moldova was a Soviet republic, it was ceded lands from Ukraine on the Dniester River, containing ethnic Ukrainians and Russians. Opposition from these groups have prevented Moldova’s reunification with Romania.

Tajikistan, Turkmenistan & Uzbekistan Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan are relatively stable nation-states.

However, Tajikistan has experienced a civil war between former communist Tajiks and an alliance of Muslim fundamentalists and Western-oriented intellectuals.

Multinational States in the Former Soviet Union A multinational state is a state that contains more than one nation. In some multinational states as the United States, ethnicities all contribute cultural features to the formation of a single nationality. The new states in the former Soviet Union are a mixed collection of nationstates and multinational states.

Russia the Largest Multinational State Russia is the world’s largest multinational state. The predominant ethnic group is Russian (81 percent) with another 185 ethnicities comprising the rest.

Non-Russian ethnic groups are clustered in three main areas: central Russia between the Volga River and Ural Mountains (Tatar, Bashkir, Chuvash); the southwest, along the border with Georgia and Azerbaijan (a mix of Caucasian, Turkic, and Indo-European ethnic groups); and along the southern border with Kazakhstan and Mongolia (Kazakh, Tuvan, and Buryat). Some of the numerous ethnicities have been granted autonomy over local affairs and permitted to designate their ethnic language as official.

Ukraine Following the collapse of the Soviet Union, prospects for a stable nation-state were favorable in independent Ukraine because it possessed economic assets, such as coal deposits, a steel industry, and proximity to the wealthy countries of Western Europe. In 2014 Russia invaded Crimea, an autonomous republic in independent Ukraine, claiming support of the Russians living in eastern Ukraine. Nearly every other country in the world continues to recognize Ukraine’s sovereignty over Crimea.

Georgia Georgia is more ethnically diverse than Armenia and Azerbaijan. Ethnicities in Georgia include: Georgians (71 percent), Armenians (8 percent), Azeri and Russian (6 percent each), Ossetian (3 percent), and Abkhazians and Greeks (2 percent each) and other ethnicities. Ossetians (2008) and Abkhazians (1990s) declared their independence from Georgia. These republics, South Ossetia and Abkhazia, are only recognized by a handful of states.

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Chapter 8: Political Geography Kazakhstan & Kyrgyzstan Kazakhstan is a relatively peaceful multinational state in which Muslim, Turkic language speaking Kazakhs comprise only 67 percent of the population. Similarly, the Kyrgyz comprise only 69 percent of the population, Kyrgyzstan has experienced ethnic conflict between the Kyrgyz and Uzbeks including accusations of ethnic cleansing against the Uzbeks in 2010.

Colonies A colony is a territory that is legally tied to a sovereign state rather than being completely independent. In some instances, a sovereign state manages the colony’s military and foreign affairs. In others, it also manages the colony’s internal affairs.

Current Colonies The United Nations has classified 17 places in the world as “non-self-governing territories.” Western Sahara, French Polynesia, and New Caledonia are all examples of this type of territory.

The U.N. does not include territories that are uninhabited or those that they consider having considerable autonomy in self-government such as Puerto Rico, Greenland, Hong Kong, and Macao.

Colonialism is an attempt by one country to establish settlements and impose its political, economic, and cultural principles in another territory. European states established colonies for three basic reasons: to promote Christianity, to obtain resources and secure markets, and to establish world power through the number of colonies claimed. European states started establishing colonies in the Western Hemisphere in the 1400s. The European colonial era ended in the Western Hemisphere by 1824. European states then started to establish colonies in Africa and Asia. In 1884 at the Berlin Conference European states divided Africa among themselves. The United Kingdom had the largest colonial empire, and France the second largest. Japan was the principal colonial power in Asia at the beginning of the twentieth century. Most African and Asian colonies gained their independence after World War II.

Key Issue 3: Why Do States Face Threats?

Global Cooperation & Competition The most important global forum for cooperation among states is the United Nations, created at the end of World War II by the victorious Allies. The early years of the U.N. were marked by competition and tension between the United States and the Soviet Union and their respective allies.

The Cold War During the Cold War era, the United States and Soviet Union were the world’s two superpowers. To maintain strength in regions that were not contiguous to their own territory, the United States and Soviet Union established military bases in other countries. Both superpowers repeatedly demonstrated they would use military force if necessary to prevent an ally from becoming too independent. Before the Cold War, there were approximately eight great powers of equal strength and opposing alliances operating in a balance of power system. Because the power of the United States and Soviet Union was so much greater than the power of all other states, the world was divided into two camps, each under the influence of one of the superpowers.

Cuban Missile Crisis A major confrontation during the Cold War between the United States and Soviet Union came in 1962, when the Soviet Union covertly began to construct missile-launching sites in Cuba, less than 90 miles from U.S. territory. President John F. Kennedy appeared on television to demand that the missiles be removed, and he ordered a naval blockade to prevent additional Soviet material from reaching Cuba. At the U.N., immediately after the Soviet Ambassador denied these installations existed, U.S. Ambassador Adlai Stevenson dramatically revealed aerial photographs taken by the U.S. Department of Defense, showing that the missiles did in fact exist. Following this revelation, the missiles were removed.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography The United Nations The United Nations was organized in 1945 with 51 original members (49 sovereign states, plus Byelorussia and Ukraine). The number of U.N. members Byelorussia and Ukraine). The number of U.N. members reached 193 in 2011, The United Nations has provided a forum for the discussion of international problems. On occasion, the U.N. has intervened in conflicts between or within member states, authorizing military and peacekeeping actions. The U.N. seeks to promote international cooperation to address global economic problems, promote human rights, and provide humanitarian relief. The U.N. members can vote to establish a peacekeeping force and request states to contribute military forces. Any of the five permanent members of the U.N. Security Council, China, the United States, Russia, the United Kingdom, and France, can veto a peacekeeping operation.

Governing States A state has two levels of government: a national government and local governments. At the national scale, a government can be more or less democratic. At the local scale, the national government can determine how much power to allocate to local governments.

National Scale: Regime Types A democracy is a country in which citizens elect leaders and can run for office. An autocracy is a country that is run according to the interests of the ruler rather than the people. An anocracy is country that is not fully democratic or fully autocratic, but rather displays a mix of the two types.

Democracies and autocracies differ in three essential elements: selection of leaders, citizen participation, and checks and balances.

Local Scale: Unitary & Federal The internal governments of states are organized as either unitary or federal.

The size of the territory of a state is not always a predictor of its form of government.

Unitary State A unitary state places most power in the hands of central government officials. Theoretically, the unitary government system works best in nation-states characterized by few internal cultural differences and a strong sense of national unity. Smaller states are also more likely to adopt a unitary government system.

Unitary states are common in Europe, with France serving as an example.

Federal State A federal state allocates strong power to units of local government within the country. The federal system is more suitable for large states because the national capital may be too remote to provide effective control over isolated regions. Most of the world’s large states are federal, including Russia, Canada, the United States, Brazil, and India. In recent years, there has been a strong global trend toward federal governments facing the increasing demands of ethnicities seeking autonomy.

State Fragility The Fragile States Index measures the relative stability of every country in the world using the factors of the fairness of the legal system, youth unemployment, level of violence, and freedom to express diverse political views. The most fragile states are clustered in sub-Saharan Africa.

Weapons of Mass Destruction A weapon of mass destruction is a nuclear, biological, chemical or other weapon that can kill and bring significant harm to a large number of humans or cause great damage to humanmade structures, natural structures, or the biosphere. Even though originally applied to nuclear weapons, the category now includes biological and chemical attacks.

Nuclear Weapons During World War II, the United States in collaboration with Canada and the United Kingdom, developed nuclear weapons. Countries that have successfully detonated nuclear weapons include: the United States (1945), Soviet Union (1949), the United Kingdom (1952), France (1960), China (1964), 246 .

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Chapter 8: Political Geography India (1974), Pakistan (1998), and North Korea (2006). Israel is suspected to possess nuclear weapons.

Countries not signing the treaty include India, Israel, Pakistan, and South Sudan. North Korea withdrew from the agreement in 2003 and is the world’s only country that continues to test nuclear weapons.

Suspect States include several states that have signed the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty but are suspected of pursuing the development of weapons of mass destruction. Most of these countries are clustered in Southwest Asia & North Africa.

Libya Muammar al- Gaddafi (1942–2011, ruler 1969–2011) created a nuclear weapons program which was abandoned in 2003.

Iraq Iraqi president Saddam Hussein (1937–2006, ruler 1979–2003) used chemical weapons against the Kurds and Iranians in the 1980s. Operation Desert Storm drove Iraq out of Kuwait and the U.N. located and destroyed Iraq’s stockpile of chemical weapons. In 2003 the U.S. led a second attack against Iraq and deposed Saddam Hussein. Iraq has been engaged in a long-running civil war that includes clashes between Shiites and Sunnis, the Kurds and the terrorist organization, the Islamic States.

Iran In 1979 the U.S. backed Shah of Iran abdicated during a revolution that brought a Shiite Muslim leader to power who then proclaimed Iran an Islamic republic. Fifty-two Americans were held hostage from 1979– 1981. Iran has aggressively pursued a nuclear program in recent years, causing tension between the country and much of the rest of the world. Iran maintains that the nuclear program is for civilian purposes, such as energy production, while other countries have evidence that it is meant to contribute to weapon development.

Syria Under the leadership of President Bashar al-Assad the government of Syria has employed chemical weapons during its civil war. Other nations have been unsuccessful in getting Syria to eliminate its stockpile of weapons.

Europe’s Fragile Cooperation During the Cold War that followed World War II, two military alliances and two economic alliances formed in Europe. In the twenty-first century, one of the military alliances and one of the economic alliances continues, whereas the other two have been disbanded.

Europe’s Economic Alliances

Two economic alliances formed in Europe during the Cold War:

•

European Union (EU). The EU (formerly known as the European Economic Community, the Common Market, and the European Community) formed in 1958 with six members. The EU was designed to catalyze cooperation in Europe in the wake of World War II.

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Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON). COMECON formed in 1949 with six members. COMECON was designed to enhance trade and sharing of natural resources in Communist Eastern Europe. Like the Warsaw Pact, COMECON dissolved in 1991.

The European Union in the Twenty-first Century Economic cooperation has become increasingly important. The European Union expanded from 6 original countries to 28 today. The main task of the European Union is to promote development within the member states through economic and political cooperation. Goods move across borders without stopping and a citizen of an EU member state is permitted to work in other states.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography The Eurozone A single bank, the European Central Bank, was given responsibility for setting interest rates and minimizing inflation in the eurozone. Most importantly, a common currency, the euro, was created for electronic transactions beginning in 1999 and in notes and coins beginning in 2002. Today 25 countries use the euro, including 19 EU members. European leaders bet that every country in the region would be stronger economically if it replaced its national currency with the euro. For the first few years that was the case, but the future of the euro has been called into question by the severe global recession that began in 2008. Economically strong countries, especially Germany, have been forced to subsidize the weaker states.

Many European countries do not feel connected to the EU and many citizens in the United Kingdom voted to withdraw from the EU in 2019.

Europe’s Military Alliances After World War II, most European states joined one of two military alliances designed to maintain a bipolar balance of power in Europe The North Atlantic Treaty Alliance (NATO) or the Warsaw Pact.

NATO was a military alliance among 16 democratic states, including the United States and Canada plus 14 European states. For NATO allies, the principal objective was to prevent the Soviet Union from overrunning West Germany and other smaller countries. The Warsaw Pact was a military agreement among communist countries in Eastern Europe. The Warsaw Pact provided the Soviet Union with a buffer of allied states between it and Germany to discourage a third German invasion of the Soviet Union in the twentieth century. Today NATO includes 28 states and the Warsaw Pact has been disbanded.

Terrorist Attacks Against the United States The systematic use of violence by a non-state actor to attain a political, economic, religious, or social goal through fear, coercion, or intimidation is considered terrorism.

In order to be considered terrorism an incident must meet certain criteria: the incident must be intentional, the result of planning and must entail some element of violence or threat of violence, including property damage as well as violence against people. Acts of terrorism by one state against another state are not included.

Terrorist attacks differ from other forms of political violence, such as assassination, in that ordinary people are targeted in attacks rather than political leaders or military groups.

September 11, 2001, Attacks The most dramatic attack against the United States occurred on September 11, 2001. The twin towers of the World Trade Center in New York City, the two tallest buildings in the United States, were destroyed and the Pentagon was damaged. The attacks resulted in 2,977 civilian fatalities including those on the airplanes, in buildings, and on the ground.

Other Terrorist Attacks Against Americans 1988. Among the most destructive:

The United States has suffered several terrorist attacks since

•

Lockerbie, Scotland, 1988. A terrorist bomb destroyed Pan Am Flight 103 en route from London to New York, killing all 259 aboard, plus 11 on the ground. Libyan leader Muammar al-Gaddafi accepted responsibility for the bombing.

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Oklahoma City, 1995. A car bomb killed 168 people in the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City. Timothy McVeigh and Terry J. Nichols were convicted of the terrorist act.

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Kenya and Tanzania, 1998. Truck bombs killed 133 in the U.S. embassy in Nairobi, Kenya and another 11 in the U.S., embassy in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. The bombings were ordered and carried out by al-Qaeda.

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Orlando, 2016. A gunman killed 49 and injured 58 others in an attack in Pulse, a nightclub in Orlando, Florida. The suspect, a U.S. citizen born in the United States was killed at the nightclub.

Other attacks on sites in the United States are detailed in Figure 8-47, Terrorist Attacks in the United States.

Terrorist Organizations Some terrorist attacks are the work of one or two individuals who are not formally associated with terrorist organizations. However, most recent attacks have been carried out by members belonging to terrorist organizations. Al-Qaeda, the Islamic State, and Boko Haram are three prominent terrorist organizations from recent years.

Al-Qaeda Al-Qaeda is not a single unified organization and the number of people involved is unknown.

The organization was founded by Osama bin Laden in 1988 to unite several groups of fighters in Afghanistan and other areas in Southwest Asia. In 1996, bin Laden issued a declaration of war, known as a fatwa, against the United States because of U.S. support for Saudi Arabia and Israel. The al-Qaeda network subsequently planned and coordinated the 9/11 attacks in 2001 on the World Trade Center. The deadliest attacks perpetrated by al-Qaeda since the 9/11 occurred in 2007 and 2011, both in Baghdad. Al-Qaeda’s most active affiliate has been in Yemen in recent years. In 2015, the Yemeni affiliate undertook the Charlie Hebdo attack in Paris.

Today al-Qaeda is a decentralized organization with shared ideological goals, but without financial ties.

Examine Figure 8-48, Terrorist Attacks with at Least 100 Fatalities, 2000–2017.

Boko Haram Boko Haram (Arabic for “Western education is forbidden”) was founded in 2002 in northeastern Nigeria. The organization seeks to impose their interpretation of Islamic law in Nigeria and opposes cultural practices of the West. Boko Haram has resorted to terrorist tactics in recent years.

Taliban The Taliban which means “religious students” gained power in Afghanistan in 1996. Once in control of the government the Taliban imposed very strict laws based on Islamic values as they interpreted them. The U.S.-led coalition overthrew the Taliban in 2001 and replaced it with a democratically elected government. But the Taliban has regained control of parts of Afghanistan and Pakistan.

Islamic State (ISIS/ISIL) The Islamic State, also known as the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS) and the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL), originated in 1999 and became an affiliate of al-Qaeda in 2004. In 2014, ISIS split from al-Qaeda due to a lack of agreement on how to coordinate and consult with each other. Members of the Islamic State are Sunni Muslims who seek to impose strict religious laws throughout Southwest Asia. They have gained control of territory in northern Iraq and eastern Syria through human rights violations, such as beheadings, massacres, and torture. ISIS has found remarkable success in recruiting members on the Internet and social media, showing beheadings and destruction of sites of historical importance, such as Shiite Muslim shrines. ISIS has also launched attacks in Europe in 2015. Its control of Iraq has decreased from 40 percent in 2014 to 2 percent in 2018.

Distribution of World Terrorism The number of deaths from terrorism has increased from 5,000 in 2000 to 32,000 in 2014 before declining to 25,000 in 2016. Most of the terrorist incidents and fatalities have occurred in five countries: Iraq. Afghanistan, Pakistan, Nigeria, and Syria. The use of religion to justify attacks has posed challenges to Muslims and non-Muslims as they seek to distinguish between the principles and practices of Islam and the abuse of Islam by terrorist groups.

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Key Issue 4: Why Do States Have Distinctive Geographic Structure?

A boundary is an invisible line that marks the extent of a state’s territory. Boundaries completely surround an individual state to mark the outer limits of its territorial control and to give it a distinctive shape.

Historically, frontiers rather than boundaries separated states.

Cultural Boundaries A frontier is a zone where no state exercises complete political control. Frontiers between states have been replaced by boundaries.

Three Types of Boundaries Boundaries may be classified into three categories. Cultural boundaries follow the distribution of cultural features. Geometric boundaries are based on human constructs, such as straight lines and lines of latitude. Physical boundaries coincide with significant features of the natural landscape.

Boundary locations may be the source of conflict, both within a country and with its neighbors.

Cultural Boundary: Religion in Ireland Boundaries have been established when possible to separate speakers of different languages, followers of different religions, or members of different ethnicities. Religious differences often coincide with boundaries between states, but in only a few instances have they been used as the basis of forming boundaries. India was partitioned into two states based on religion with Pakistan allocated to the Muslims and India to the Hindus.

Ireland is divided by a boundary based on the separation between two major religions: Roman Catholicism in the Republic of Ireland, and Protestantism in Northern Ireland. Language may also play a role in drawing boundaries, as is evident in the formation of Italy and Germany over common languages in the nineteenth century.

Ethnic Boundary: Cyprus Two ethnicities inhabit the island of Cyprus: Greek and Turkish. Despite its proximity to Turkey, only 24 percent of the island’s occupants are of Turkish descent, while 63 percent are Greek. Following independence from Britain in 1960, the Turkish minority was guaranteed a substantial share of elected offices and control over its own education, religion, and culture. Cyprus has yet to peacefully integrate both ethnicities. The northern part of the island is occupied by ethnic Turks, and the southern area inhabited by Greeks. In 1983 the northern part of the island declared itself the Independent Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus. The only country recognizing its independence is Turkey. A wall and buffer zone separate the two parts of the island and the two ethnicities, sometimes under force, migrated to their respective part of the island. The European Union admitted the entire island of Cyprus in 2004.

Physical Boundaries Physical features of the landscape can serve as boundaries because they are easily seen, both on a map and on the ground. Deserts, mountains, and water are the three types of physical elements serve as physical boundaries.

Desert Boundaries A desert can act as an effective boundary, as desert terrain is generally hard to traverse and sparsely populated. Desert boundaries are common in North Africa and Asia. The Sahara acts as both a physical and geometric boundary, separating Algeria, Libya, and Egypt on the north from Mauritania, Mali, Niger, Chad, and the Sudan on the south.

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Chapter 8: Political Geography Mountain Boundaries Mountains can similarly be effective boundaries, especially if they are hard to cross.

Mountain boundaries are also frequently sparsely inhabited. Contact between nationalities living on opposite sides may be limited or totally impossible especially during the winter when mountain passes may be closed.

Mountain boundaries can sometime be hard to define as the precise location of a mountain crest dividing two countries may be difficult to define as is the case between Argentina and Chile.

Water Boundaries Rivers, lakes, and oceans are the most common water features used as physical boundaries. Water boundaries are particularly common in East Africa. For instance, the boundary separating Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda runs through Lake Victoria. While water boundaries may seem to be permanent, the precise position of water may change over time. Rivers can slowly change their course, as can be seen in the Rio Grande boundary separating the United States and Mexico.

The Law of the Sea The Law of the Sea signed by 164 states (not including the United States) identifies three types of water boundaries: •

Territorial waters. Up to 12 nautical miles from shore, a state may set laws regulating passage by ships registered in other states.

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Contiguous zone. Between 12 and 24 nautical miles from shore, a state may enforce laws concerning pollution, taxation, customs, and immigration.

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Exclusive economic zone. Between 24 and 200 nautical miles, a state has the sole right to the fish and other marine life.

Disputes that may arise as a result of the Law of the Sea may be settled at the International Court of Justice.

Geometric Boundaries North America and North Africa are two regions where geometric boundaries are prominent parts of the political landscape.

Geometric Boundaries: North America Part of the northern U.S. boundary with Canada is a 1,300-mile straight line along 49° north latitude. A geometric boundary between the United States and Canada is also present along Québec’s boundary with New York and Vermont, and between Alaska and the Yukon Territory.

Geometric Boundary: North Africa Boundaries between Algeria, Libya, and Egypt on the north and Mali, Niger, Chad, and Sudan on the south are generally geometric. These boundaries can largely be attributed to the colonial legacy of Africa.

Geometric Boundary: South Pole The South Pole contains the only large landmass on Earth’s surface that is not part of a state. Seven states claim portions of the South Pole: Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, New Zealand, Norway, and the United Kingdom. Chile and the United Kingdom have conflicting and overlapping claims. The United States, Russia, and other countries do not recognize the claims of any countries in Antarctica. States may establish research stations there for scientific investigations, but no military activities are permitted.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Shape of States States may take on one of five basic shapes: compact, elongated, prorupted, fragmented, or perforated. Each shape has distinctive characteristics and challenges. The shape of a state can be a centripetal force as it is part of the state’s identity. The shape of a state can be a centrifugal force as a state’s boundaries can affect conflict with its neighbors. A state’s shape can also lead to administrative difficulties and increase conflict among people living in different regions of the country.

Compact States: Efficient In a compact state, the distance from the center to any boundary does not vary significantly. The ideal theoretical compact state would be shaped like a circle, with the capital at the center and with the shortest possible boundary to defend. A compact state has efficient communication and transportation.

Prorupted States: Access or Disruption An otherwise compact state with a large projecting extension is a prorupted state. Proruptions can provide a state with access to a resource, such as water. Proruptions can also serve as a buffer zone that separate two states that would otherwise share a boundary.

Perforated States: South Africa A state that completely surrounds another one is a perforated state. In this situation, the state that is surrounded may face problems of dependence on, or interference from, the surrounding state. South Africa completely surrounds the state of Lesotho posing difficulties for the import and export of goods.

Elongated States: Potential Isolation An elongated state has a long and narrow shape. Elongated states may suffer from poor internal communications. A region located at an extreme end of the elongation might be isolated from the capital, which is usually placed near the center.

Fragmented States: Problematic A fragmented state includes several discontinuous pieces of territory.

Fragmented states separated by water can face problems and costs associated with communications and maintaining national unity. Fragmented states separated by an intervening state sometimes have problems dealing with the states in between the fragments.

Landlocked States Landlocked states have difficulty engaging in international trade because they lack direct access to the ocean. A landlocked state is completely surrounded by other countries. Landlocked states are most common in Africa, where 15 of the continent’s 55 states have no direct access to the ocean. The prevalence of landlocked states in Africa is a remnant of the colonial era. Landlocked states must cooperate with neighboring states that have seaports to ship their goods overseas.

Electoral Geography The boundaries separating the 435 legislative districts within the United States are redrawn periodically to ensure that each district has approximately the same population. Boundaries must be redrawn because migration inevitably results in some districts gaining population and others losing population.

Gerrymandering The process of redrawing legislative boundaries for the purpose of benefiting the party in power is called gerrymandering. Gerrymandering takes two forms: cracking and packing. In cracking likeminded voters are spread across several districts to prevent them from reaching a majority in any of the districts. In packing like-minded voters are stacked in one district to prevent them from to prevent them affected elections in other districts. Packing has been used to concentrate voters of a specific ethnicity in one district. See Figure 8-73, Most Gerrymandered States and Districts, 2018 for examples.

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Chapter 8: Political Geography Redrawing Boundaries In Europe the job of redrawing boundaries is left to an independent commission.

In contrast, in the United States only 6 of the 43 states with more than one district use nonpartisan commissions to draw the electoral boundaries. In most states the job of redrawing boundaries falls to the state legislature.

The political party holding the majority in the state legislature draws favors boundaries to favor the success of their candidates. GIS has been used as a tool for creating gerrymandered districts.

Introducing the Chapter Students frequently associate the topic of this chapter with “real geography,” and many students report taking an introductory geography class to learn more about different countries.

This chapter allows those students to quench some of their curiosity in this regard, as well as the larger issues of political geography: the formation of states, including the origin of the state concept, the legacy of colonialism, and political cooperation and conflict, including the new global dimensions of terrorism.

Terrorism is as useful a context as any to begin the chapter; the text does this with the dramatic before- andafter shots of the World Trade Center. The text’s later discussion of terrorist attacks on the United States prior to September 11, 2001, is also an interesting starting point for student discussion.

Student Engagement Classroom Activities Use these suggestions to spark student interest in the topics addressed in this chapter.

Mental Maps Mental mapping is a great way to demonstrate how we perceive the world. It’s particularly useful for understanding how little we know about some places. This exercise can be used for a variety of lessons, political geography among them.

First, instruct students to start with a fresh sheet of paper in their notebooks. You may wish to hand out blank sheets of copy paper for this exercise.

Instruct the students, “Draw a map of your childhood. You may choose to draw whatever location and time period you wish, at whatever scale you wish. Include whatever details and memories you see fit. You have five minutes.”

Students will produce detailed, sometimes intricately so, maps of their childhood memories and places, especially if given longer than five minutes. Ask for volunteers to share their maps. This might be made easier by sharing your own map first.

Next, say “Turn your papers over and put a dot in the center. Label it with the name of our town. Now fill in as much information as you can on the rest of the map. You have five minutes.”

Students will be able to draw more or less complete maps of the region. It’s interesting to note the scale at which they draw, that is, whether neighboring regions are included or only nearby towns. Many students are fairly challenged by this task.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Finally, have the students take out a new sheet of paper. Say “I want you to draw Africa (or substitute another world region). Again, fill in as much information as you can. You have five minutes.”

Depending on the world region chosen, most students will have a difficult to nearly impossible time with this task. Emphasize that the point of this exercise is not to make the students feel stupid, but to understand how we think about and perceive the world. Ask the following questions: • •

What was put into the map of Africa? The Nile River and Egypt sometimes are the only named features.

Ask what other states were named and make a list of the most frequently named countries.

•

Why are these states on our mental maps and not others? Are our mental maps complete?

Name that Country At this point in an introductory geography course, students should have some basic familiarity with the countries of the world. Have students each take out a sheet of paper and list as many countries as they can during three to five minutes.

1. Have pairs of students compare the countries they have listed.

2. Have students join with another pair of students and compare their lists. In this group of four have students identify the continent on which the country is located.

3. Discuss which continent was the most “popular” and reasons for the frequency of its inclusion.

Chances are students may list countries near their home country, rather than those far away.

4. Conclude by asking students how many of the countries were listed due to recent news coverage?

Challenges to Comprehension State vs. Country The geographic use of the term “state” confuses students who are familiar only with the “United States” use of the term. Be sure to define the term “state” as it is used in the book and contrast this with the use of the term in the sense of the United States.

Africa is not a Country Students perceive Africa as an unknown land. People from small towns frequently name a large city instead of their hometown even though it may be hundreds of miles away. A similar phenomenon occurs with countries in Africa, instead of naming a specific country such as Burkina Faso or Kenya, students will frequently just answer Africa. Have students suggest reasons why this may be the case.

Terrorists or Freedom Fighters?

A real challenge lies in the separation of the political spin and media hyperbole from what may actually be occurring in any particular conflict. Students may fall into any number of camps, but feelings can be quite strong about “right” and “wrong” sides in any particular conflict.

For perspective, try this question: If you are a parent with an injured child, does it matter to you if the people who hurt your child were “liberators” or “terrorists”?

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Additional Classroom Activities & Assignments Review/Reflection Questions These questions can be used in addition to the “thinking geographically” questions at the end of each chapter.

Students can be assigned these questions as homework, they can be given as essay questions on exams, or they can serve as focus questions for in-class discussions.

The italicized section that follows the question sets the criteria and parameters for student answers. Use these suggestions to provide guidance in the assessment of student answers. In addition, a sample answer has been provided. Know that student answers will vary based on the examples and explanations you provided in class.

•

When referring to European nations occupying areas around the world, taking over governments and often brutally suppressing any resistance, why do you think the word “colonialism” is used instead of “invasion?” Explain and elaborate.

Student answers should demonstrate an understanding of the concept of colonialism and the perception of the views of the colonized areas. Students responses should note the economic inequality between the colonies and the colonial powers. A few students may mention that the colonizers wrote the historical narrative and would not want to portray themselves in negative terms.

Sample answer European nations established colonies outside of their home country. The goal of colonization was the acquisition of resources and markets that would benefit the economy of the colonial power. The colonies also provided relief for surplus population and in some cases, religious dissenters and criminals were transported to new lands.

With little regard for indigenous belief systems, the colonizers sought to spread the message of Christianity to new areas. In some instances, colonialism was based on the belief that indigenous people were “uncivilized” and culturally inferior. Use of the term invasion would imply a relationship among equals and acknowledge the right of the colonized to exist independently of the colonial power. As the colonial powers wrote accounts of their adventures, the narrative included descriptions of the colonial environments and people as well as the benefits afforded to the colonies.

•

Use a world map to identify two examples not referenced in the text for each of the following types of states: compact, elongated, landlocked, and fragmented.

Student answers should include countries associated with each of the given shapes. A list of states appearing in the student text follows. These countries should not be included in student answers: Compact (Burundi, Kenya, Rwanda, and Uganda); Elongated (Gambia, Malawi); Landlocked, (Mali, Burkina Faso, Niger, Chad, Central African Republic, South Sudan, Ethiopia, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, Zambia, Malawi, Zimbabwe, Eswatini, and Lesotho); Fragmented (Democratic Republic of the Congo and Tanzania). A country could be listed as landlocked and one of the shapes.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Sample answer Examples of a compact states include Macedonia and Uruguay.

Examples of elongated states include Chile and Mozambique.

Examples of landlocked states include Switzerland and Bolivia.

Examples of fragmented states include Indonesia and the United States.

•

What are the implications of gerrymandering? Is there any way that voting districts could be divided up that would not result in one group complaining of inappropriate representation?

Student answers should demonstrate a knowledge of the definition of gerrymandering and its use to extend and maintain political control of a legislature.

Sample answer Every 10 years seats in the House of Representatives are reapportioned according to population increase or decrease. Gerrymandering is the purposeful drawing of electoral boundaries to benefit the political party in power. In most cases, the task of creating the boundaries for the new congressional districts, at the state or national level, falls to the state legislature. Political parties seek to enhance the likelihood that their party will remain in power by adjusting the boundaries to concentrate like-minded voters or dilute the concentration of voters for the other party. Both sides accuse each other of inequitable representation.

One solution would be to establish a nonpartisan election commission to design the voting districts based on compact and contiguous geographies. Each area would have an equal population without regard to political affiliation or ethnicity.

•

Reexamine the text’s definition of terrorism. Modify it or create your own if you wish. Examine the following cases. As you read through each case, consider to what extent does the action described meets your definition of terrorism. Be prepared to discuss your answers with the class.

Case 1: Over a nine-month period in 1941–1942, the German Luftwaffe (air force) bombed London, destroying more than 1 million houses and killing approximately 43,000 people. Does this act meet your definition of terrorism?

Case 2: Over a period of two nights (February 13–15) in 1944, the U.S. and British air forces dropped approximately 3,900 tons of highly explosive and incendiary (fire-causing) bombs on Dresden, Germany.

Their objective was to destroy Dresden’s rail yard, but they dropped so many bombs all around the city that the resulting firestorm killed about 30,000 people, most of whom were burned alive. Does this act meet your definition of terrorism?

Case 3: After World War II, the British exercised control over Palestine. On July 22, 1946 the King David Hotel was bombed by an organization to target the British administrative headquarters located in the hotel.

Ninety- one people were killed and 46 were injured. Bomb warnings were called into the hotel, but the hotel staff may have chosen to ignore them. Does this act meet your definition of terrorism?

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Chapter 8: Political Geography Case 4: The British passenger ship the Lusitania was torpedoed by a German U-boat off the coast of Ireland on May 7, 1915. Over 1,195 people died when the ship sank. Before the ship set sail from New York on its journey to Liverpool, the Germans ran an ad in newspapers stating, “vessels flying the flag of Great Britain, or any of her allies, are liable to destruction.” Does this act meet your definition of terrorism?

Case 5: In 1766 William Smith, an informer known for alerting the British to American smuggling operations, was captured and then tarred and feathered in Norfolk in the Virginia colony. The victim was then paraded through the streets and then thrown into the sea. He was rescued by a passing boat. Does this act meet your definition of terrorism?

Pose the following question to the students.

Should we draw a distinction between “terrorism” and “war” as separate concepts? Explain your reasoning.

Student answers should accurately identify the text’s definition of terrorism and relate its application to the specific cases. Student responses should acknowledge the use of violence and intent in all of the cases.

They should also distinguish whether the act was carried out by a government during a time of war.

Sample answer The textbook defines terrorism as “the threatened or actual use of illegal force and violence by a nonstate actor to attain a political, economic, religious, or social goal through fear, coercion, or intimidation.

I agree with the text’s definition of terrorism.

All of the cases show intentional violence carried out against an individual or a civilian population. The intent in all cases was intimidation whether it was to prevent a certain action or win a war. The text further explains that terrorism conducted by one state against another state would not be included, but the people are still dead.

War and terrorism are indeed different. Adages such as “all is fair in love and war” communicate this message. Wars are often fought for the greater good, but the interpretation of the greater good differs from side to side Another adage comes to mind, “one man’s terrorist, is another man’s freedom fighter.”

Interpreting Maps Europe is the world’s second smallest continent. Yet, it has six of the world’s microstates and almost 50 countries within its territorial extent. Have students examine the following maps included int the text and describe the division of space in Europe through time.

• • • • •

Figure 8-12, Europe in 1300, p. 275 Figure 8-13, Europe in 1800, p. 275 Figure 8-14, Europe, 1924, p. 276 Figure 8-15, Europe, 1980, p. 276 Figure 8-1, States of the World, p. 271

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Student answers should provide evidence of differences in the number of countries and their territorial extents.

Sample answer In 1300 Europe was fragmented with many small areas controlled by individuals. This distribution was most evident in the center of Europe. By 1800, the divisions were much larger in area and consolidated into empires. In 1924, after World War I, the empires were broken up into many smaller states. The map of Europe in 1980s is similar to that of 1924 in that the country names are the same, but the borders have shifted. The most notable shift is the division of Germany into two parts. In the current map, Europe shows the reunion of Germany and the breakup of Yugoslavia into six countries as well as the break-up of Czechoslovakia. Countries in the European part of the Soviet Union are now independent—Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Belarus, Ukraine, and Moldova.

Making Associations Each chapter opens with a graphic showing the relative frequency of key vocabulary and concepts addressed in the chapter. After students have completed their study of the chapter, have them revisit the graphic at the chapter’s beginning.

• • •

Ask students which words appear the largest in the chapter and whether they think those words are the most important to building an understanding of political geography.

Have students identify words that should be grouped together by their relationship to a common concept such as the shapes of states, or characteristics of a state.

Ask students to suggest other terms which could/should have been included in the graphic.

Mastering Geography™ provides additional assignable learning activities and ready-made resources designed to extend and reinforce student skills and mastery of key content, concepts, and vocabulary. The resources include MapMaster 2.0™ interactive maps, videos, GeoTutor coaching activities, Google Earth Explorations, outline maps, chapter quizzes, Dynamic Study Modules, and more. Further details about these resources and recommendations for use are provided in the Resources section of this document. You can assign these media-rich activities as pre or post lecture homework.

Thinking Geographically Questions Key Issue 8.1: The Senkaku/Diaoyu Islands are disputed among China, Japan, and Taiwan. Figure 8-6 shows the conflicting area of air defenses that China and Japan claim.

1. How might the Law of the Sea help to sort out or conversely add to the complexity of the dispute over the islands?

Key Issue 8.2: In 2014, Russia invaded Crimea and annexed it, claiming that the majority of the Crimean people, who are ethnic Russians, supported the action. Nearly every other country in the world continues to recognize Ukraine’s sovereignty over Crimea.

2.

Should Crimea appear on maps as part of Ukraine, or as part of Russia?

Due to the lack of recognition of the incorporation of the Crimea as part of Russia by the world community, it should be shown as part of Ukraine with a notation.

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Chapter 8: Political Geography An online National Geographic map states, “in a referendum that was disputed as illegal and under occupation, a vast majority of Crimean residents who voted reported chose to secede from Ukraine and join Russia . . . In late March 2014 the General Assembly of the United States approved a resolution declaring this referendum and Russia’s annexation as invalid and affirming Ukraine’s territorial jurisdiction of Crimea.”

Key Issue 8.3 3.

In what ways might cybersecurity measures such as cell phone encryption or privacy of social media accounts aid terrorists on the one hand and counterterrorism on the other hand?

Cell phone encryption and privacy protections of social media would provide terrorists with the ability to plan attacks and keep them secret. This may lead to an increase in attacks as law enforcement would be relegated to a reactive rather than proactive position. Counterterrorism efforts could benefit from social media platforms sharing suspicious activity and the ability to surveil cell phones of known or suspected terrorists.

Key Issue 8.4: The Arctic Ocean sea ice has receded in recent decades as a result of climate change.

4.

How might the reduction in sea ice affect claims by states to the Arctic region?

The reduction in sea ice in the Arctic Ocean would create economic opportunities for countries bordering the Arctic Ocean: Russia and to a lesser extent Finland, Norway, Canada, and the United States, to exploit resources in the seabed. As the sea ice recedes, new shipping lanes connecting the northern Atlantic and Pacific will no longer be icebound through much of the year. Global patterns of trade may change.

5.

How might states benefit or be harmed by the loss of the ice?

Russia will be the major beneficiary of the new shipping lanes and has already staked claims to resources in their territorial waters along their extensive northern coastline. The claims of Russia may be challenged by countries on the other side of the Arctic Ocean such as Canada.

Pause and Reflect Questions 8.1.1 With virtually all of Earth’s land now allocated to states, how might the number of states increase in the future?

The number of states might increase in the future if current states split into multiple separate states or if current autonomous regions declare and achieve their independence.

8.1.2 Other than military action, how might the sovereignty of these disputed territories be settled?

Diplomatic efforts might be undertaken to resolve the sovereignty of disputed territories. Sometimes, a third party acting as a mediator might help efforts to settle disputes such as a hearing with the International Court of Justice.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography 8.2.1 What is the importance of the Fertile Crescent in the development of religions, as discussed in Chapter 6? How might the development of ancient states and religions in the region be related?

Organized religion was born in the Fertile Crescent, with the Babylonian civilization forming the first organized religion. Ancient states, in the form of Empires, adopted religions and diffused these beliefs in their realms of influence, creating national identities thousands of years ago.

8.2.2 In the twenty-first century, what has been the general trend in Europe with regard to multinational states, nation-states, and ethnicities?

In the twenty-first century the general trend in Europe has been to create more nation states rather than multinational states. Although there is no pure nation state, the former republics of Yugoslavia and the Soviet Union have emerged primarily based on ethnicity.

8.2.3 If Artsakh is recognized as a sovereign state, how would it compare in size to the microstates described earlier in this chapter?

Artsakh located inside of Azerbaijan (Nagorno-Karabakh) is larger than the current microstates.

8.2.4 How ethnically diverse do the former Soviet Republics appear, compared with states elsewhere in the world? Refer to Figure 8-19.

Most of the former Soviet Republics are classified as average in ethnic diversity as compared to the rest of the world. Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan in Central Asia and Estonia and Latvia in the Baltics are rated in the most diverse category. Azerbaijan is classified as least diverse.

8.2.5 Do you agree that Puerto Rico should not be classified as a colony? What are two ways in which Puerto Rico’s government could change to resolve the ambiguity of its status?

Puerto Rico is currently is classified as an unincorporated territory of the United States. Puerto Rico would need to either become the 51st state of the United States or become a completely independent country.

8.3.1 Why have only a small handful of states joined the U.N. since 2000?

Only a small handful of states have joined the U.N. since 2000 due to two reasons. First, few widely-recognized new states have been formed in the twenty-first century. Second, newly-sovereign states may only be recognized by a few fellow states, making it difficult for admittance to the U.N. to occur.

8.3.2 What region of the world appears to have the greatest concentration of autocratic regimes?

West, Central, and East Asia appear to have high concentrations of autocratic regimes.

8.3.3 For what purpose is a nuclear power plant typically used? Why must the nuclear power plants of some countries that signed the nonproliferation treaty be monitored by international inspectors?

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Chapter 8: Political Geography type of nuclear reactor need to be monitored in order to ensure that the plutonium is used for the generation of power, not weapons of mass destruction.

8.3.4 What might be the benefits and disadvantages for the European Union to let in new members—from the point of view of both the EU and of the prospective members?

States would benefit by joining the E.U. and become better positioned to have stronger economies. Integration into the eurozone provides many economic advantages, such as the safety net of being bailed out if an economic crisis occurs. Disadvantages for states may include giving up independence in making political and economic decisions that directly impact their populations. The E.U. would benefit by admitting new members by further bolstering their unified, stable economy. The E.U. may face disadvantages by being compelled to assist member states that experience economic downturns. For instance, Germany has singlehandedly loaned out large sums of money to help maintain the solvency of the Greek economy.

8.3.5 How has travel in the United States been affected by the 9/11 attacks?

Traveling across the United States/Canada border and the United States/Mexico border has become much more difficult. The waiting time to get across the border has increased substantially. Airline tickets have gone up because of the increased TSA fees added to ticket prices. Air travel has become much more of a hassle because of all the security screening that takes place at the airports.

8.3.6 Translate “je suis Charlie.” Why might people in Paris carry signs saying this after the Charlie Hebdo terrorist attacks?

“Je suis Charlie” is French for “I am Charlie.” People might carry signs saying this in Paris and across the world to show solidarity with those affected by the 2015 Charlie Hebdo terrorist attack.

8.4.1 Referring to Chapters 5 and 6, what other cultural boundaries run through the middle of other states in Europe?

A cultural linguistic boundary divides Belgium into two parts. Both speak languages in the Indo-European language group—Dutch (Germanic branch) in the north and French (Romance branch) in the southern. In the border areas between Spain and France, the provinces of Catalonia, Álava, Biscay, and Gipuzkoa display distinct linguistic difference from the rest of the country. Independence efforts have been underway in the region for years, and momentum is particularly gaining in Catalonia.

8.4.2 What examples have you seen thus far in this chapter of physical features that have not served as peaceful boundaries?

Physical boundaries are problematic because rivers change course and it is difficult to define the crest of a mountain chain. Should the crest be defined by the divide for watersheds or by elevation?

Historically, the boundary between Argentina and Chile in the Andes Mountains was contested between the two countries until a mediated agreement settled the dispute. Both countries nearly went to war over the issue before it was settled.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography 8.4.3 Where is the U.S.-Canada boundary not based on geometry?

The maritime border between Canada and the United States in the Great Lakes region is not based on geometry.

8.4.4 Name a landlocked state not in Africa.

Andorra, a microstate located between France and Spain, is landlocked. Other landlocked states in Europe include Austria, Switzerland, Czechia, Slovakia, Luxembourg, Macedonia, and Moldova.

8.4.5 What challenges do voters and elected officials face when a district is not compact?

When districts are not compact or contiguous voters may face challenges ascertaining the district in which they should vote. Neighborhoods may be split into different congressional districts which would make it difficult for both the legislator and the constituent to have their needs identified and represented.

8.4.6

Does Pennsylvania’s redrawn map divide more or fewer counties among multiple districts? Why might this benefit citizens and elected officials?

Pennsylvania’s redrawn map shows fewer counties and county segments than the gerrymandered map. The congressional districts are more compact and contiguous which will provide the elected officials with the ability to focus on local issues.

Caption Questions Figure 8-3, North and South Korea, p. 272 1. What explains the striking contrast between North Korea and South Korea in the satellite image?

The map clearly shows the lack of electricity to power lights in North Korea. The pro-communist and subsequent governments have invested little in consumer goods and have instead invested heavily in the development and testing of nuclear weapons.

Figure 8-23, Ethnicities in Russia, p. 280 Compare Figure 8-23 with the maps of world climate (Figure 1–70) and population concentrations (Figure 2-4).

1. Based on your comparison, why is Russia so sparsely settled?

Figure 1–70, shows the predominant climate zones as humid continental, cool summer, and subarctic. The arctic climate zone extends across the northern coast of Russia. Large settlements do not cluster in areas that are too cold.

2. Which climate zone in Russia has the most ethnic diversity?

The southern parts of Russia have the most ethnic diversity. These areas are located in the humid continental, cool summer climate zone.

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Chapter 8: Political Geography Figure 8-48, Terrorist Attacks with at Least 100 Fatalities, 2007–2017, p. 294 1. Based on the map, how would you compare the nature and scope of the terrorist threat in the United States with the threat across Europe, Africa, and Asia?

Only three terrorist attacks with over 100 fatalities are shown in the United States, all perpetrated by Al Qaeda.

Europe also has a small number of attacks at this level of loss of life. Most of the attacks shown are clustered in Southwest Asia and were carried out by the Islamic State and its affiliates. Africa has more attacks with loss of life than the United States and a mix of terrorist perpetrators. South and Southeast Asia show attacks perpetrated by al-Qaeda.

Figure 8-53, Ethnic Boundary: Cyprus, p. 297 1. What purposes are served by the U.N. buffer zone and the two British bases in the Greek area?

The U.N. buffer zone was established to separate the Greek and Turkish areas of Cyprus. A buffer zone is a neutral area between two hostile nations. Cyprus’s former colonial power, the United Kingdom, maintains two sovereign military bases in the Greek area, in part to balance the Turkish forces in Northern Cyprus.

Others claim that the British bases are a legacy of the Cold War and Cyprus is in a strategic position to protect access to the Suez Canal and monitor Russia.

2. State one reason why the two sides in Cyprus maintain the division of the island and one reason why they have restored some mingling of the Greek and Turkish populations across the buffer zone The island was divided after a 1974 coup in which the Greeks attempted to take over the government following an invasion of Turkish forces. The buffer zone divides the two conflicting sides and bears witness to the unsuccessful attempts to reunify the island. Economic cooperation is a motivating force for interaction between the two groups.

Debate It! Does the European Union benefit Europeans? p. 291 1. Use your browser to access the Eurostat Statistical Atlas. Scroll down to Economy and finance. Select GDP per inhabitant. Which parts of Europe have the highest and the lowest incomes?

The lowest GPDs per inhabitant are in the eastern and southern portions of Europe. The highest are in the center of Europe from Germany to northern Italy. The Scandinavian countries, minus Finland have relatively high values. The southern portion of Ireland and the urban areas of London and Paris also show high values.

2. Select Change of GDP per inhabitant. What similarities and differences appear between the map of GDP and the map of GDP change?

This map shows variation from the mean. The areas in Germany, eastern Europe, and southern Ireland show some of the greatest gains. For the most part the areas in western Europe show a loss in purchasing power between 2016 and 2007. These data show purchasing power which is a statistic used to adjust for the relative difference in goods and services among countries. A country with a lesser developed economy will likely have a higher purchasing power because goods and services are less expensive to purchase in that country.

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Sustainability & Our Environment, North Polar Region, p. 301 1. Why do the countries adjacent to the Arctic Ocean want to claim parts of the seafloor, such as the Lomonosov Ridge?

Countries bordering the Arctic Ocean want to stake claims to the sea floor to secure mineral rights and other resources that may be located there. Part of the issue is demarcating the extent of the continental shelf.

2. Referring to a globe or world map, explain how the melting of the Arctic Ocean’s sea ice due to climate change could affect global shipping routes.

The melting of the Arctic Ocean’s sea ice due to climate change would open the once sought-after Northwest passage—an all water route connecting the North Pacific and the North Atlantic. If this were to occur shipping times may be greatly reduced. Russia with its extensive coastline on the Arctic Ocean could become a naval power and reduce its reliance on its few warm-water ports.

Doing Geography, Geography Reduces Gerrymandering, p. 306 Ohio’s state legislature set some parameters on the design of legislative boundaries with the option for an independent commission to make the final decision.

What’s Your POLITICAL Geography?

Check out the shape of your state’s legislative districts.

1. In your search engine, enter “[your state] congressional district map.” If you live in a state with only one state-wide at large Representative (Alaska, Delaware, Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, Vermont, and Wyoming), enter another state.

2. Are the districts compact and geometrically shaped, or are they irregularly shaped? If irregularly shaped, can you see a geographical reason for the shape, perhaps a natural feature such as a body of water? Or do you know of a cultural reason, such as a boundary between ethnicities?

Virginia’s congressional districts are irregularly shaped. They underwent court-ordered revision in 2016 due to their shapes and an attempt to create a majority district for African Americans. The resultant district was long, skinny, and ran from the North Carolina border to Richmond, selectively crossing the Chesapeake Bay and the James River in a random fashion. The district was definitely not compact and contiguous. The redrawn districts are much more compact and not as divided One district ran from the North Carolina border all the way to northern Virginia. Many of the districts split counties and cities.

3. An overall gerrymandering ranking has been calculated by governing.com for each state (refer to Figure 8-73). Detailed rankings are at http://www.governing.com/gov-data/politics/gerrymanderedcongressionaldistricts-compactness-by-state.html. Where does your state rank? Did you expect your state to be heavily gerrymandered or less so? Why? The map in Figure 8-73 shows Virginia in the “most gerrymandered category. Virginia’s rank within the top 10 of 3 of the 4 measures for the presence of gerrymandering confirms my visual assessment of the presence 264 .

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Chapter 8: Political Geography of gerrymandering. I expected the state to be gerrymandered because of the odd shapes and twists and turns not based on physical features.

Explore Europe’s international boundaries Use Google Earth to view the international boundary formed by the Rhine River. Search for Le Jardin-desDeux-Rives (Two Shores Garden).

1. In what country is the garden? What country is on the other side of the Rhine River?

The garden is split between Germany and France each having a part of the park. Google Earth takes us to the French portion of the garden. Germany is located on the other side of the Rhine River.

2. Drop to Street View at the red pin marking the garden. Move the photo across the bridge. How do the border controls across the Rhine compare with those illustrated in Chapter 3 between the United States and Mexico?

The bridge appears to be a pedestrian bridge. There does not appear to be a border control on either of the two sides.

3. Why do you think the border crossing at the Rhine differs from border crossings between the United States and Mexico?

The border crossing is between two countries in the European Union in which visas are not required. The crossing at Deux Rives is an example of a border-free crossing and symbolizes cooperation and unity within the European Union.

GeoVideo Questions Iraq-Saudi Arabia Boundary 1. Before World War I, there were no linear boundaries in the Middle East. Explain why.

Before World War I, there were no linear boundaries in Arabia because animal nomadism was the predominant way of life—people transmigrated across the territory so that their livelihoods, dependent on environmental and climatic conditions, could be supported.

2. After World War I, what were the two proposals for creating borders for the new state of Iraq? Describe each.

Ibn Saud and Percy Cox met at a conference in 1922 to decide the boundaries of the new state of Iraq. Ibn Saud wanted to preserve the nomadic lifestyle of his people, and proposed that the boundaries remain fluid.

Percy Cox, on the other hand, believed that rigid borders were the only solution. Cox believed that this notion of fluid boundaries was an affront to the British colonial paradigm, and thusly decided to unilaterally determine the borders.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography 3. The video implies that some of the problems facing Iraq today can be traced back to the decisions about its borders made in 1922. Do you agree? Why or why not?

I agree with the assessment that the problems facing Iraq today can be traced back to the decisions about its borders made in the early twentieth century. The determination of rigid borders precluded the animal nomadic economic structure of Arabic life, which had cascading effects on intertribal cooperation and trust. Tribes were divided by an arbitrary line, creating tensions that can still be felt today.

Writing Geographically The shape of a state (and whether it is landlocked or coastal) can affect a country’s economic competitiveness, relations with other states, and even its internal stability.

1. Classify the shape of Chile and describe the shape of Chile and the type of boundaries it has with its neighbors Argentina and Peru.

Chile has an elongated shape. The Andes mountains serve as a physical barrier with Bolivia and for the most part Argentina. There is a geometric boundary in between southern Argentina and Chile.

2. What benefits and challenges would Chile experience as a result of its distinctive shape and boundaries?

Chile’s location provides it with access to the Pacific Ocean. Its long and thin shape make it difficult to unite both extremes of the country. The southern part of the country near Tierra del Fuego is isolated by its geography and distance from the capital, Santiago.

3. In the north, Chile shares a border with landlocked Bolivia, cut off from the Pacific Ocean by Chilean territory; in the far south, notice how the border with Argentina is mostly geometric rather than physical.

What do these circumstances tell you about the probable past relations between Chile and its two neighbors? Explain your answer.

At one time Bolivia may have had a claim to the coast. The northern territory of Chile includes the Atacama Desert, an area remote and distant from the capital. This would be an ideal place for Bolivia to seek access to the sea. Based on the boundary today, Bolivia’s claim was rejected by Chile.

The Andes comprise a large part of the border with Argentina. Dispute over the location of the crest of the mountains, the division between the two countries, almost led to a war.

Resources Country Name Quiz For those who consider place name geography important the “Test your Geography Knowledge” game is a great tool for helping the memorization of state locations.

It’s online at http://lizardpoint.com/geography/world-countries-magnifier-quiz.php?qid=1806

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Good Kurds, Bad Kurds Though a bit dated, this 2001 documentary by Kevin McKiernan provides an excellent example of the relativism of U.S. foreign policy. In this case, the film investigates human rights abuses of Kurds in Turkey, a valuable U.S. ally, at the same time (late 1990s) that the United States was objecting to the oppression of Kurds in Iraq. This resource is available from YouTube, www.youtube.com/watch?v=YbAGK7WHs2o.

Fragile State Index This site accessed at, fundforpeace.org/fsi/ and, produced by the Fund for Peace, provides rankings for the stability of the world’s countries ranked on economic, political, social and cohesion indicators. A dashboard for individual countries provides data from 2006 through 2018 as well as graphics to show trends over time.

This site supports the development of the topic, State Fragility in section 8.3.2.

Freedom in the World Freedomhouse.org provides maps and data that rank countries for freedom in the world and freedom on the Net. These data could be useful in teaching section 8.3.2, Governing States.

GeoInquiries™ GeoInquiries™ by Environmental Science Research Institute (ESRI) consist of scripted map-based online GIS activities designed to be completed within a 15-minute time frame. These Internet-based mapping activities run best in the Google Chrome browser and do not require the installation of any software. Access them at www.esri.com/en-us/industries/education/schools/geoinquiries-collections.

The World History collection includes the following GeoInquiries™ aligned with this chapter’s content and concepts.

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Latin American Independence explores the distribution of European colonies in Latin America.

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Post World War I & the League of Nations includes layers to illustrate the borders changes in 1916 and after 1920. The borders of the European mandates in Southwest Asia and Kurdistan are also depicted.

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Cooperation since 1945 identifies members of international organizations to include the United Nations, European Union, OPEC, and trading blocs.

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Africa’s Bounty and Borders shows the division of Africa’s territory by the competing European colonial powers. A layer showing the distribution of minerals throughout Africa illustrates the economic motives for colonialism.

The Human Geography collection includes the You name it! You Claim it! Highlighting the influence of colonization on place names in North America.

The Government collection includes the Governments Around the World supporting the examination of the distribution of types of government throughout the world as addressed in 8.3.2, National Scale: Regime Types.

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Mastering Geography Media & Assessment Resources Mastering Geography™ provides additional assignable homework activities and ready-made resources designed to extend and reinforce student skills and mastery of key content, concepts, and vocabulary. These resources are invaluable to implementation of the flipped classroom. Use the Instructor Course Home areas to build assignments for your students. Highlights include: •

MapMaster 2.0™ provides students with the opportunity to reinforce their understanding of spatial relationships, e.g., variation, distribution, interaction, and association. Students get hands on with map building, exploration, and spatial data analysis by layering a wide range of maps. Multiplechoice assessments in the Mastering Geography item library provide directions for building maps aligned with chapter content, and focus on the development of spatial thinking and analysis skills.

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GeoVideos and Google Earth Explorations linked to chapter content provide an opportunity for students to “visit” other places and build an appreciation for other cultures. Use as an out-of-class assignment and have students explain how the video or Google Earth Explorations illustrate concepts learned in class and make comparisons between cultures.

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Interactive Data Visualizations powered by Social Explorer provide interactive data explorations for each chapter's Key Issue, and include map stories, predictive graphing, interactive maps, interactive population pyramids, interactive charts, and more. These media are integrated into the Pearson eText and Study Area, and are also available for assignment with quizzes.

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GeoTutors are highly visual and data-rich assignable activities that help students master the most challenging concepts in geography.

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Dynamic Study Modules (DSMs) provide two sets of 25 multiple-choice questions per chapter topic. Because this resource includes a “I don’t know yet” answer choice,” it can be assigned as a preassessment or content preview. The modules are interactive as students are prompted to select, “I am unsure” or “I am sure” as they submit their answers. The questions could also be used as self-check for students at the end of the chapter. An infographic gauge represents their accuracy visually. Teachers can assign the DSMs for credit and or students can access these on their own for self study.

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Learning Catalytics is an interactive student response tool paired with Mastering Geography that encourages team-based learning by using students’ smartphones, tablets, or laptops to engage them in interactive tasks and thinking. As a teacher, you can pose a variety of open-ended questions that help your students develop critical thinking skills, while monitoring responses with real-time analytics to find out where they’re struggling. With this information, you can adjust your instructional strategy in real time and try additional ways of engaging your students during class. Learning Catalytics also lets you manage student interactions by automatically grouping students for discussion, team-based learning, and peer-to-peer learning.

The Mastering Geography student Study Area includes a variety of tools that students can access on their own, including: • • •

The eText provides a fully digital online version of the textbook, with search and bookmarking functionality. Available for offline reading.

Chapter Quizzes include 15 multiple choice questions based on the chapter’s content.

Key Terms Flashcards to help students master the key vocabulary.

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Chapter 8: Political Geography Downloadable Outline Maps containing political and physical features provide students the opportunity to label key countries and physical features. Consider assigning these maps throughout the course so that students can refer to them as they interpret the many thematic maps in the text.

The following selection from the GeoVideos is useful in supporting student understanding of the complexity of borders.

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Iraq and Saudi Arabia: Defining the Border, 5:21 minutes

MapMaster 2.0™ The following map layers are included in the MapMaster 2.0 resource. In addition, multiple choice map-based quizzes are also included.

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

African (AU) Members British Empires, Early 1920s British Conquest of India (South Asia) Colonial Possessions, 1914 Countries at War or with Serious Insurrections since 1995 European Union European Monetary Union (“Euroland”) Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) Former Soviet Republics Former Warsaw Pact Members Geographic Areas Under Dispute Global Terrorist Attacks Human Rights Abuses Human Trafficking Major Foreign Enclaves and Exclaves

• • • • • • • • • •

Maritime Territorial Claims National Capitals NATO Members United National Peacekeeping Missions since 1995 United Nations Security Council: Permanent Members United Nations States and Years of Admittance U.S. Presidential Electoral Votes, 2000–2016 U.S. Presidential Popular Votes, 2000–2016 World, 1914 World, 1950

Additional resources in support of students with disabilities include the screen reader enabled e-text and more. Further details about these resources are available at www.pearson.com/us/accessibility.html.

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Connections between Chapters Back to Chapter 7 As ethnicity and nationality are often intertwined, so are ethnicity and political geography. Remind your class that states can represent the physical embodiment of nationalities, and therefore it should not surprise us when conflicts arise between states.

Forward to Chapter 9 The transition between these two chapters represents a natural break of sorts, as the next chapter concentrates predominately on the study of economic geography.

However, point out that development is often measured at the country level (despite the obvious concerns this raises with respect to uneven development) and that government structures are often looked to for explanation of development status.

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Food & Agriculture

9

Learning Outcomes After reading, studying, and discussing the chapter, students should be able to: Learning Outcome 9.1.1:

Explain differences between developed and developing countries in food consumption.

Learning Outcome 9.1.2:

Describe the distribution of undernourishment.

Learning Outcome 9.1.3:

Explain differences between developed and developing countries in source of nutrients.

Learning Outcome 9.2.1:

Summarize the origin of agriculture.

Learning Outcome 9.2.2:

Describe the principal differences between subsistence and commercial agriculture.

Learning Outcome 9.3.1:

Describe agricultural regions and their relationships to climate regions.

Learning Outcome 9.3.2:

Explain the principal forms of agriculture in higher-density developing regions.

Learning Outcome 9.3.3:

Explain the principal forms of subsistence agriculture in lower-density tropical regions.

Learning Outcome 9.3.4:

Explain the principal forms of subsistence agriculture in lower-density dry regions.

Learning Outcome 9.3.5:

Describe the contribution of fishing to the world food supply.

Learning Outcome 9.3.6:

Describe the basic principles of several forms of crop-based commercial agriculture.

Learning Outcome 9.3.7:

Describe dairy and ranching commercial agriculture.

Learning Outcome 9.3.8:

Describe the basic principles of several forms of mixed crop and livestock agriculture.

Learning Outcome 9.4.1:

Explain the contribution of expanding exports to world food supply.

Learning Outcome 9.4.2:

Explain reasons for loss of farmland.

Learning Outcome 9.4.3:

Describe how farmers and scientists have achieved productivity increases.

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Learning Outcome 9.4.4:

Discuss the debate over the planting of GMO seeds.

Learning Outcome 9.4.5a:

Identify principles of organic farming.

Learning Outcome 9.4.5b:

Identify principles of sustainable land management.

Learning Outcome 9.4.6:

Analyze the importance of water in agriculture.

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Chapter 9: Food & Agriculture

Chapter 9 Outline I

Key Issue 1: Why Do People Consume Different Foods?

A Food, Agriculture, & Geography 1 Reasons for differences a level of development b physical conditions—climate, topography c cultural preferences—religion, customs 2 Total Consumption of Food 3 Global Scale: Supply & Demand B Global Agriculture & Undernourishment 1 Definitions a food security—physical, social, and economic access to safe and nutritious food sufficient to meet dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life b undernourishment—dietary energy consumption, below that needed for a healthy life 2 Food Prices C Source of Nutrients 1 Definitions a cereal grain—grass that yields grain for food b grain—seed of a cereal grass, e.g., corn, wheat 2 Protein

II Key Issue 2: Where Did Agriculture Originate?

A Invention of Agriculture 1 Hunters & Gatherers 2 Agricultural Revolution a environmental factors—climate change and redistribution of plants and animals b cultural factors—preference for living in a fixed place 3 Agricultural Hearths a Southwest Asia—barley, wheat, lentil, animals b East Asia—rice c Central and South Asia—chickens, domesticated horses d Sub-Saharan Africa—sorghum, yams, millet, rice independently developed e Latin America—beans, cotton, potato B Subsistence & Commercial Agriculture 1 Terms a subsistence agriculture—food primarily produced for one’s family b commercial agriculture—food primarily produced for the market c cash crop—grown for sale 2 Farmers: Fewer Grow More 3 Technology: Agriculture’s Game Changer 4 Farm Size: Is Bigger Better?

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography III Key Issue 3: Where is Agriculture Distributed?

A Agricultural Regions 1 Agriculture Regions in Developing Countries a intensive subsistence, wet rice dominant—East Asia and South Asia b intensive subsistence, wet rice not dominant—East Asia and South Asia where difficult to grow rice c pastoral nomadism—drylands of Southwest Asia & North Africa, Central Asia, and East Asia d shifting cultivation—tropical regions of Latin America, sub-Saharan Africa, and Southeast Asia e plantation—Latin America, sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia, and Southeast Asia 2 Agriculture Regions in Developed Countries a mixed crop and livestock—U.S. Midwest and central Europe b dairy—northeastern United States, southeastern Canada, and northwestern Europe c grain—north-central United States, south-central Canada, and Eastern Europe d livestock ranching—drylands of western North America, southeastern Latin America, Central Asia, sub-Saharan Africa, and the South Pacific e Mediterranean—lands surrounding the Mediterranean Sea, western United States, southern tip of Africa, and Chile f commercial gardening—southeastern United States and southeastern Australia B Subsistence Agriculture in Population Concentrations 1 Intensive Subsistence Farming a double cropping—obtaining two harvests in one year 2 Wet-Rice Not Dominant a crop rotation—practice of rotating use of different fields from crop to crop each year to avoid exhausting the soil 3 Wet-Rice Dominant a wet rice—fields flooded to promote growth b sawah—flooded field in Indonesia c paddy—Malay word for flooded field C Shifting Cultivation 1 Features of Shifting Cultivation a slash and burn b frequent relocation 2 Crops of Shifting Cultivation a vary by local custom and taste b Southeast Asia—upland rice c South America—maize (corn), manioc (cassava) d Africa—millet, sorghum 3 Ownership & Use of Land in Shifting Cultivation 4 Future of Shifting Cultivation D Pastoral Nomadism & Plantations 1 Pastoral Nomadism 2 Plantation Farming—cash crops, cotton, coffee, rubber, tobacco, sugarcane, tea, palm oil etc.

3 Agricultural Regions & Climate

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Chapter 9: Food & Agriculture E

Fishing 1 Terms a fishing—capture of wild fish and other seafood b aquaculture—cultivation of seafood under controlled conditions 2 Fish Consumption and Production 3 Overfishing—capturing fish faster than they can reproduce F Commercial Agriculture: Crop-based 1 agribusiness-farming integrated into a large food-production industry in developed countries 2 Grain Farming 3 Mediterranean Agriculture 4 Commercial Gardening G Commercial Agriculture: Animal-based 1 Livestock Ranching 2 Dairy a milkshed b labor-intensive c winter feed H Commercial Agriculture: Mixed Crop & Livestock 1 Features of Mixed Crop & Livestock 2 Importance of Access to Market 3 Von Thünen Model a first ring—perishable goods b second ring—timber c third ring—rotated crops d fourth ring—animal grazing IV Key Issue 4: Why Do Farmers Face Sustainability Challenges?

A Global Food Trade 1 Trade Challenges for Developing Countries 2 Drug Trade—cocaine (Colombia, Peru, Bolivia); opium (Afghanistan) B Losing Agricultural Land 1 Loss of Land to Urbanization 2 Desertification—spread of the desert through human actions C Improving Agricultural Productivity 1 Increased Productivity: Commercial Farmers 2 Intensification by Subsistence Farmers a forest fallow—fields fallow long enough for the forest to regrow (20 years) b bush fallow—fields fallow long enough for bush to regrow (10 years) c short fallow—field fallow for wild grasses to regrow (2 years) d annual cropping—field used every year rotating crops between legumes and roots e multi-cropping—field never left fallow, used several times a year 3 Green Revolution—introduction of higher-yield seeds and expanded use of fertilizers

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography D Applying Biotechnology to Agriculture 1 Genetically Modified Organisms—living organism with a novel combination of genetic material obtained through the use of biotechnology a health problems—could reduce effectiveness of antibiotics and upset the local ecological balance b export problems—countries in Africa and Europe have bans c increased dependence on the United States—transnational corporations sell the seeds 2 GMO Labeling E Sustainable Farming 1 Organic Farming—uses only naturally occurring substances and prohibits herbicides, pesticides, and growth hormones 2 Sustainable Land Management a conservation tillage—some of previous crop left on the field b no tillage—all of the soil is undisturbed c ridge tillage—crops planted on ridge tops of the rows F Conserving Agricultural Resources 1 Agriculture & Water in California—pressure on water resources by agriculture 2 Government Policies a discourage crops in excess supply b support commodity prices c buy and redistribute surplus production

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Chapter 9: Food & Agriculture

Chapter Content Outline Key Issue 1: Why Do People Consume Different Foods?

Food, Agriculture, & Geography The consumption of food differs throughout the world in both total amount and source of nutrients. The differences result from a combination of three factors: level of development, physical conditions, and cultural preferences. The modern American or Canadian farm is mechanized and highly productive, especially when compared to subsistence farms found in much of the rest of the world. This difference represents one of the most basic contrasts between the more developed and less developed countries of the world.

Total Consumption of Food The amount of food an individual consumes is dietary energy consumption, measured in calories. Dietary energy consumption varies throughout the world with some areas of the world below 2,800 calories, the recommended minimum.

Global Scale: Supply & Demand Diets can be deficient in both developed and developing countries. In the United States and other parts of the world people consume more calories than the recommended minimum leading to obesity. In contrast, people in other parts of the world do not get enough to eat. In other places population growth challenges the ability of farmers to grow enough food to sustain a growing population.

The threat of famine is especially severe in the Horn of Africa and the Sahel.

Global Agriculture and Undernourishment The United Nations defines food security is as physical, social, and economic access at all times to safe and nutritious food sufficient to meet dietary needs and food preferences for an activity and healthy life. Ten percent of the world population is classified as not having food security.

Undernourishment Undernourishment is dietary energy consumption that is continuously below that needed for healthy life and carrying out light physical activity. As a percentage of a country’s population, undernourishment is an issue in sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia. According to the U.N., an estimated 803 million people in the world are undernourished, one-half of them in South Asia and East Asia (especially in India and China). India is home to one-quarter of the world’s undernourished population. Despite these statistics, progress has been made in reducing undernourishment—between 2000 and 2017, the number of undernourished people declined from 924 million to 803 million, and the global percentage decreased from 15 percent to 11 in the same period.

Food Prices The price of food, rather than food supply, has emerged as the greatest challenge to world food supply in the twenty-first century. For instance, food prices have more than doubled between 2006 and 2008, remained at record high levels through 2014, and declined sharply in 2015, and again increased in 2017. Competition among supermarkets helps to keep prices lower in developed countries.

The U.N. credits the high food prices to four factors: • • • •

Poor weather, in major crop-growing regions of the South Pacific and North America.

Higher demand, especially in China and India.

Smaller growth in productivity, especially without major new “miracle” breakthroughs.

Use of crops as biofuels instead of food, especially in Latin America.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Record high food prices have resulted in record-high increases in the price of prime agricultural land. The price of an acre of farmland in Iowa increased 400 percent from $2,500 an acre in 2000 to $10,000 in 2018.

Source of Nutrients Most humans obtain most of their calories through consumption of a cereal grain, a grass that yields grain for food. Grain is the seed from a cereal grass. The three leading cereal grains are wheat, rice, and corn (maize). These three grains together account for 90 percent of all grain production and more than 40 percent of all dietary energy consumed worldwide.

Protein Protein is a nutrient needed for growth and maintenance of the human body. Many food sources provide protein of varying quantity and quality. One of the most fundamental differences between developed and developing regions is the primary source of protein. In developed countries, the leading source of protein is meat products, including beef, pork, and poultry. In most developing countries, cereal grains provide the largest share of protein.

Key Issue 2: Where Did Agriculture Originate?

Agriculture is deliberate modification of Earth’s surface through cultivation of plants and rearing of animals to obtain sustenance or economic gain. Agriculture emerged when humans domesticated plants and animals for their use. Cultivate means “to care for,” and a crop is any plant cultivated by people.

Invention of Agriculture Agricultural activity began before recorded history, making determinations of its origins difficult. Scholars have established a logical series of events based on fragments of information about ancient agricultural practices and environmental conditions of the past.

Hunters and Gatherers Prior to agriculture, all humans probably obtained food through hunting for animals, fishing, or gathering plants. Groups of hunters and gatherers generally kept their numbers below 50, as a larger number would quickly exhaust the available resources within walking distance. Groups regularly traveled, with the direction and frequency of migration determined by the movement of game and the seasonal growth of plants at different locations. Men hunted game or fished, while women gathered berries, nuts, and roots. This division of labor is evidenced by archaeological and anthropological findings.

Only an estimated quarter-million people of the world’s population still survive by hunting and gathering.

Agricultural Revolution The process of humans domesticating plants and animals and no longer relying on hunting and gathering is known as the agricultural revolution. Researchers believe that the agricultural revolution began circa 8000 B.C.E., when the pace of population growth increased rapidly. The domestication of plants and animals provided humans larger and more stable sources of food, allowing more people to survive. Environmental and cultural factors likely contributed to the agricultural revolution.

Environmental factors, such as climate change and the ending of the last ice age, resulted in a wider spatial distribution of humans, animals, and plants. Cultural factors, such as the accidental and deliberate experimentation with the production of plants, likely reflected a preference for living in a fixed place rather than as nomads.

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Chapter 9: Food & Agriculture Agricultural Hearths The planting of crops and domestication of animals originated in multiple hearths around the world during different eras. Hearths include Southwest Asia, East Asia, Central and South Asia, sub-Saharan Africa, and Latin America.

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Southwest Asia Around 10,000 years ago, barley, wheat, lentil, and olives were cultivated in Southwest Asia. Between 8,000 and 9,000 years ago, animals such as cattle, goats, pigs, and sheep were domesticated in this hearth. From this hearth, cultivation diffused west to Europe and east to Central Asia.

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East Asia Rice is thought to have been domesticated more than 10,000 years ago, along the Yangtze River in eastern China.

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Central Asia and South Asia Chickens are theorized to have diffused from South Asia round 4,000 years ago. The horse is speculated to have been domesticated in Central Asia, and may be associated with the diffusion of the Indo-European language.

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Sub-Saharan Africa Sorghum was domesticated in central Africa approximately 8,000 years ago, and yams may have been domesticated in this hearth even earlier. Millet and rice may have been domesticated here independently of East Asia.

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Latin America Mexico is considered to be the hearth for the diffusion of beans and cotton, and Peru for the potato. Maize (corn) is hypothesized to have emerged from the two hearths independently, diffusing north and south.

The transfer of plants and animals between the Western Hemisphere and Europe, as a result of European colonization and trade is known as the Columbian Exchange.

Subsistence & Commercial Agriculture The key differences in agricultural practices are between those in developing countries and those in developed countries. In developing countries most people work in subsistence agriculture, which is the production of food primarily for consumption by the farmer’s family.

Commercial agriculture, the production of food primarily for sales off the farm is found in developed countries. A cash crop is a crop grown for sale rather than the farmer’s own use. Commercial agriculture differs from subsistence agriculture in three ways: the percentage of farmers in the labor force, the use of machinery, and farm size.

Farmers: Fewer Grow More In developed countries, roughly 3 percent of the workforce is engaged directly in farming, in contrast to the 35 percent of workers engaged in farming in developing countries. Both push and pull factors have contributed to the decline in the number of farmers in the United States. People were pushed away from farms by lack of opportunity to earn a decent income and at the same time they were pulled to higher-paying jobs in urban areas.

Technology: Agriculture’s Game Changer In developed countries commercial farmers rely on machinery whereas subsistence farms use hand-tools and animal power. From the invention of the iron plow in 1770, inventions made farming less dependent on human and animal power. Research conducted in university laboratories and elsewhere generates new fertilizers, herbicides, hybrid plants, animal breeds, and farming practices engineered to increase crop yields and produce healthier animals. GPS devices have allowed farmers to assist in the precise planting of seeds and for spreading different types and amounts of fertilizers. On ranches, GPS can be used to monitor the locations of cattle and tractors. Satellite imagery is a valuable resource for measuring crop progress, as well.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Farm Size: Is Bigger Better? The average farm is relatively large in commercial agriculture. Combines, pickers, and other machinery perform most efficiently at very large scales and their considerable expense cannot be justified on a small farm. Farmers spend hundreds of thousands of dollars to buy or rent land and machinery before beginning operations. Commercial farmers frequently expand their holdings by renting nearby fields. Most commercial farms in the United States today are family owned and operated. The amount of land devoted to agriculture has increased in the United States primarily due to irrigation and reclamation.

The expansion of urban areas into formerly rural areas is a challenge faced today.

Key Issue 3: Where Is Agriculture Distributed?

Whittlesey conceptualized 11 distinct agricultural regions, along with areas where agriculture was not present. Five of these regions are important forms of agriculture in developing countries, while 6 are forms of commercial agriculture important in developed countries. The five agriculture regions primarily associated with developing countries are intensive subsistence, wet-rice dominant; intensive subsistence, crops other than rice dominant; pastoral nomadism; shifting cultivation; and plantation. The six agricultural regions primarily associated with developed countries include mixed crop and livestock; dairying; grain; ranching; Mediterranean; and commercial gardening.

Subsistence Agriculture in Population Concentrations Three-quarters of the world’s population live in developing countries, and most are fed by intensive subsistence agriculture. The term intensive suggests that farmers are required to work intensively to subsist on a parcel of land.

Intensive Subsistence Farming In developing countries, farmers produce food for their own consumption, subsistence farming. Agricultural practices in these regions developed over thousands of years, informed by local environmental and cultural patterns. Agricultural density (the ratio of farmers to arable land) is extremely high in parts of East and South Asia, challenging families to produce enough food for their survival from a very small area of land. Most of this work is done by hand or animals rather than the machines, in part due to abundant labor, but largely from lack of funds to buy equipment. Rice is the most important crop in this agricultural region.

Land is maximized for planting crops; paths are left as narrow as possible, corners of fields and irregularly shaped pieces of land are used rather than left idle, livestock are rarely permitted to graze on land that could be used for growing crops, and grain is grown to feed animals. Land is used even more intensively in parts of Asia by obtaining two harvests per year from one field, a process known as double cropping.

Wet Rice Not Dominant In portions of Asia, climate is not suitable for growing wet rice in the interior of India and northeastern China. Wheat is the most important crop, followed by barley. In addition, some crops are grown in order to be sold for cash, such as cotton, flax, hemp, and tobacco. Land is used intensively and worked primarily by human power, with the assistance of some hand implements and animals. In milder parts of the region where wet rice does not dominate, more than one harvest can be obtained some years through skilled use of crop rotation, which is the practice of rotating use of different fields from crop to crop each year to avoid exhausting the soil.

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Chapter 9: Food & Agriculture Wet-Rice Dominant The term wet rice refers to rice planted on dryland in a nursery and then moved as seedlings to a flooded field to promote growth. Intensive wet-rice farming is the dominant type of agriculture in southeastern China, East India, and much of Southeast Asia. There are four steps to rice production. First, a field is generally prepared by animal power, leveling the area for flooding. Then, the field is then flooded with water. This flooded field is called a sawah in Indonesia and is increasingly referred to as a paddy, which is the Malay word for rice. Third, month-old, rice seedlings that were grown in a nursery are then transplanted in the flooded field. Rice plants are then harvested with knives, and then threshed by beating the husks on the ground. All steps are intensive, and the consumers of the rice perform the work.

Shifting Cultivation is practiced in much of the world’s tropical, or A, climate regions, which have relatively high temperatures, and abundant rainfall. This type of agricultural activity is practiced by approximately 250 million people across 36 million square miles.

Features of Shifting Cultivation • •

Two key features are characteristic of shifting cultivation:

Farmers clear land for planting by slashing vegetation and burning the debris; shifting cultivation is sometimes called slash-and-burn agriculture.

Frequent relocation Farmers grow crops on a cleared field for only a few years, until soil nutrients are depleted. Farmers then leave it fallow (with nothing planted) for many years so the soil can recover.

People who practice shifting cultivation generally live in small villages in the tropics and grow food on the surrounding land. Before planting, they must remove the vegetation that typically covers tropical land. On a windless day the vegetation is burned. The rains wash the fresh ashes into the soil, providing needed nutrients. The cleared area, known as swidden, is prepared by hand, perhaps with the help of a simple implement such as a hoe. The cleared land can support crops only briefly, usually three years or less as soil nutrients are rapidly depleted. The swidden is then abandoned and left to regrow from 6 to 20 years. When the swidden is no longer fertile, villagers identify a new site and begin clearing it.

Crops of Shifting Cultivation Each village grows crops according to their local custom and taste. The primary crops include upland rice in Southeast Asia, maize (corn) and manioc (cassava) in South America, and millet and sorghum in Africa. Yams, sugarcane, plantain, and vegetables are also grown in some regions. Most families grow only for their own needs, so one swidden may contain a large variety of intermingled crops, which are harvested individually at the best time. A “farm field” appears much more chaotic than do fields in developed countries where a single crop is grown over an extensive area.

Ownership & Use of Land in Shifting Cultivation Traditionally, land was owned by the village as a whole rather than separate plots owned by each resident. The chief or ruling council allocated a patch of land to each family and allowed them to retain the output. Today, private individuals now own the land in some communities, especially in Latin America. Land used for shifting cultivation covers roughly one-fourth of the world’s land area, a higher percentage than any other type of agriculture, although less than 5 percent of the world’s people are involved in shifting cultivation.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Future of Shifting Cultivation According to the United Nations, land used for shifting cultivation is decreasing in the tropics at the annual rate of roughly 30,000 square miles, or 0.2 percent. Less than half of the land area originally occupied by tropical rain forest remains today, as World Bank loans for development in these regions formerly supported deforestation. Today, shifting cultivation is being replaced by logging, cattle ranching, and the cultivation of cash crops. Shifting cultivation can only support a small number of people in an area without causing environmental damage.

Critics of shifting cultivation claim other agricultural techniques that produce higher yields should be used instead. Proponents of shifting agriculture consider it to be the most environmentally sound approach for agriculture in the tropics. Practices used in other forms of agriculture, such as applying fertilizers and pesticides and permanently clearing fields, may damage the soil, cause severe erosion, and upset balanced ecosystems. In addition, local cultural diversity would be affected if shifting cultivation were to be abandoned.

Pastoral Nomadism & Plantations A form of subsistence agriculture based on the herding of domesticated animals is known as pastoral nomadism. Pastoral nomads live primarily in the large belt of arid and semiarid land that includes Central and Southwest Asia & North Africa. The animals provide milk, and their skins and hair are used for clothing and tents. Pastoral nomads consume mostly grain and not meat because their animals are usually not slaughtered. Pastoral nomads mostly obtain grain from farmers in exchange for animal products but have been known to plant crops in some circumstances. The camel is the most highly desired animal in North Africa & Southwest Asia, along with sheep and goats.

Pastoral nomads do not wander randomly across the landscape but have a strong sense of territoriality. The goal of each nomad is to control a territory large enough to contain the forage and water needed for survival.

The precise migration patterns evolve from intimate knowledge of the area’s physical and cultural characteristics.

Pastoral nomadism is now generally recognized as an offshoot of sedentary agriculture, not a primitive precursor of it. It is simply a practical way of surviving on land that receives too little rain for the cultivation of crops. Some pastoral nomads practice transhumance, which is seasonal migration of livestock between mountain and lowland pasture areas.

Pastoral nomadism is a declining form of agriculture. Today, national governments can limit the movement of nomadic people and force them to leave their traditional territories. Areas that can be irrigated for permanent agriculture or exploited for the extraction of natural resources will limit the territory available for nomads.

Plantation Farming A plantation is a large commercial farm in a developing country that specializes in one or two crops. Most plantations are located in the tropics and subtropics, particularly in Latin America, Africa, and Asia. Despite being located in developing countries, many plantations are owned or operated by Europeans or North Americans, and they produce crops intended for markets in developed countries. Among the primary crops grown on plantations are cotton, sugarcane, coffee, rubber, and tobacco.

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Chapter 9: Food & Agriculture Agricultural Regions & Climate The correspondence between agricultural and climate maps is readily apparent. For example, pastoral nomadism is the predominant type of agriculture in Southwest Asia & North Africa, corresponding to a dry climate, while shifting cultivation is the primary type of agriculture in subSaharan Africa. Agricultural differences vary between places with similar climates in both developing and developed countries.

Fishing The capture of wild fish and other seafood living in Earth’s waters is known as fishing.

Aquaculture, or aquafarming, is the cultivation of seafood under controlled conditions. The world’s oceans are divided into 16 major fishing regions, including six each in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, two in the Indian Ocean, and one in the Mediterranean. Fishing is also undertaken in lakes and rivers. The Pacific Northwest and Asia’s inland waterways are the areas with the largest yields.

Fish Consumption & Production Human consumption of fish and seafood has grown from 27 million metric tons in 1960 to 141 million metric tons in 2016. During the past 50 years, global fish production has grown from roughly 36 to 202 million metric tons. The increase can be attributed to the expansion of aquaculture. The capture of wild fish has stagnated since the 1990s, despite population growth and increased demand to consume fish. Despite accounting for only 1 percent of all calories consumed by humans, per capita consumption of fish has nearly doubled in developed and developing countries over the past 50 years. Humans consume only 85 percent of the fish produced. The rest is converted to fish meal and fed to poultry and hogs.

Overfishing The populations of some fish species in Earth’s waters have decreased due to overfishing.

Overfishing is the capturing of fish faster than they can reproduce. The U.N. estimates that one-fourth of fish stocks have been overfished and one-half have been fully exploited, leaving one-fourth underfished.

Commercial Agriculture: Crop-based The system of commercial farming found in developed countries has been called agribusiness because farming is not an isolated activity but is integrated into a large foodproduction industry. Even though most farms are owned by individual families, large corporations control agribusiness. Agricultural products are not sold directly to consumers, but to food processing companies.

Around 20 percent of U.S. laborers work in food production and services related to agribusiness-food processing, packaging, storing, distributing, and retailing. Agribusiness encompasses such diverse enterprises as tractor manufacturing, fertilizer production, and seed distribution. Commercial agriculture is divided into six main types each discussed in the entries that follow.

Grain Farming A grain is a seed from various grasses, such as wheat, corn, oats, barley, rice, millet, and others. Commercial grain agriculture is distinguished from mixed crop and livestock farming because crops on a grain farm are grown primarily for consumption by humans rather than livestock. Large-scale grain farming is mechanized and many practice monoculture, that is the practice of growing the same crop year after year. Commercial grain farmers sell their output to manufacturers of food products, such as breakfast cereals and breads. Wheat is the most important grain because it is used to make bread flour. Wheat can be stored relatively easily without spoiling. Because wheat has a relatively high value per unit weight, it can be shipped profitably from remote farms to market.

The share of wheat production world-wide is increasing in developing countries and their use of large-scale commercial agriculture. Commercial grain farms are located in regions too dry for mixed crop and livestock production. Wheat is the world’s leading export crop.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Mediterranean Agriculture Most crops in the Mediterranean lands are grown for human consumption rather than animal feed. Mediterranean agriculture predominates in lands that border the Mediterranean Sea in Southern Europe, North Africa, and western Asia. Farmers in California, central Chile, the southwestern part of South Africa, and southwestern Australia also practice Mediterranean agriculture. These areas share similar environmental characteristics—moderate winter temperatures and hot and dry summers.

Horticulture Horticulture, the growing of fruits, vegetables, and tree crops, forms the commercial base of Mediterranean farming. Typically, the two most important cash crops grown in Mediterranean agriculture are grapes and olives. A large portion of California farmland is devoted to fruit and vegetable horticulture, which supplies a large portion of the citrus fruits, tree nuts, and deciduous fruits consumed in the United States.

Commercial Gardening Commercial gardening and fruit farming is the predominant type of agriculture in the southeastern United States with its long growing season and humid climate. Relative proximity to the heavily populated northeastern United States provides access to a large market of consumers.

This type of agriculture is called truck farming.

Truck farms grow many of the fruits and vegetables that consumers in developed countries demand. Some of these fruits and vegetables are sold fresh to consumers, but most are sold to large processors for canning or freezing. Truck farms are usually large-scale operations that take full advantage of machines at every stage of the growing process. Farms tend to specialize in a few crops, and a handful of farms may dominate national output of some fruits and vegetables. Specialty farming, a form of truck farming, has spread to New England.

Farmers grow crops such as asparagus, strawberries, and nursery plants, for a limited market of affluent customers.

Commercial Agriculture: Animal-based Dairy farming is the most significant agriculture undertaken near large urban areas in developed countries. Ranching is adapted to semiarid or arid land and is practiced in developed countries where the vegetation is too sparse and soil too poor to sustain crops.

Livestock Ranching Ranching is the commercial grazing of livestock over an extensive area. Commercial ranching is conducted in several developed countries besides the United States, and increasingly in developing countries. As with other forms of commercial agriculture, the growth of ranching has been in developing countries. China is the leading producer of meat, ahead of the United States, and Brazil is third.

Developed countries were responsible for only one-third of world meat production in 2017, compared to two-thirds in 1980.

Through the diffusion of irrigation techniques and hardier crops, ranch land in the United States has been converted to crop production. In addition, cattle raised on ranches are sent to feed lots for fattening rather than sold directly to meat processors.

Dairy A dairy farm specializes in the production of milk and other dairy products. As milk is highly perishable, dairy farms must be located closer to the market than other products. The ring surrounding a city from which milk can be supplied without spoiling is called the milkshed. Dairy farmers, like other commercial farmers, usually do not sell their products directly to the consumers. Instead they generally sell their milk to wholesalers, who distribute it in turn to retailers. In general, the farther the farm is from large urban concentrations, the smaller is the percentage of output devoted to fresh milk. Farms located farther 284 .

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Chapter 9: Food & Agriculture from consumers are more likely to sell their output to processors to make butter, cheese, or dried, evaporated, and condensed milk. The reason is that these products keep fresh longer than milk does and therefore can be safely shipped from remote farms.

The issues other commercial farmers face, rising costs and declining revenues, are also encountered by commercial dairy farmers. By its very nature, dairy farming poses two additional challenges—its laborintensive nature because cows must be milked twice a day throughout the year. Dairy farmers incur additional expenses in purchasing grain or hay to feed the cows through the winter.

Commercial Agriculture: Mixed Crop & Livestock Mixed crop and livestock farming is the most common form of commercial agriculture in the United States west of the Appalachians and east of 98° west longitude and in much of Europe, from France to Russia.

Features of Mixed Crop & Livestock Most of the crops grown in mixed crop and livestock farming agriculture are fed to animals rather than consumed directly by humans. In turn, livestock supply manure to improve soil fertility to grow more crops. A typical mixed crop and livestock farm devotes nearly all land area to growing crops but derives more than three-fourths of its income from the sale of animal products, such as beef, milk, and eggs. Mixed crops and livestock farms permit farmers to distribute the workload more evenly through the year. In the United States, corn is the most frequently planted crop because it generates higher yields per area than other crops. Soybeans are the second most important crop in the United States.

Corn and soybeans are commonly fed to livestock and soybean oil is used as an ingredient in many processed U.S. foods.

Importance of Access to Market In developed countries, the use of land is primarily determined by the market forces of supply and demand. The value of the land impacts the form of commercial agriculture practiced. The distance from the farm to the market affects the farmer’s choice of which crop to plant.

Geographers employ the von Thünen model to illustrate the importance of proximity to market in the choice of crops on commercial farms. In choosing a location, the farmer considers two costs: the cost of the land and the cost of transporting products to market. In the early nineteenth century, von Thünen observed that specific crops were grown at different distances from the city. His model is based on a series of concentric rings.

• • • •

First ring Market-oriented gardens and milk producers were located near the city. These products must reach the market quickly because they are perishable and costly to deliver.

Second ring The next ring out from the cities contained forests, where timber was cut for construction and fuel uses. Proximity to market is key for this commodity because of its weight.

Third ring The next ring was used for various crops and for pasture. Crops grown were rotated from one year to the next.

Fourth ring The outermost ring was devoted exclusively to animal grazing, which requires a great deal of space.

This model assumes that all land in a study area has similar site characteristics and was of uniform quality, although von Thünen recognized that the model could vary according to topography and other distinct physical features (e.g., a river or body of water extending into a ring). Farms located close to the market produce crops with the highest transportation costs, whereas those located far from the market choose to produce crops that have lower transportation costs.

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Key Issue 4: Why Do Farmers Face Sustainability Challenges?

Global Food Trade Total agricultural exports from all countries have increased rapidly from $448 billion 2000 to $769 billion in 2016. Exporting countries benefit from increased revenues, and importing countries meet the food needs of their people. Prior to World War II, Europe was the only major food importing region, as they historically used their colonies as suppliers of food. East Asia and the former Soviet Union became net food importers in the 1950s, Southwest Asia & North Africa during the 1970s, South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa during the 1980s, and Central Asia in 2008. Japan is the clear leader in the import of food, followed by the United Kingdom, China, and Russia. On a global scale food exports are moving from the Western Hemisphere to the Eastern Hemisphere. Agricultural exports from developing regions, Latin America and Southeast Asia have increased.

Trade Challenges for Developing Countries To expand production, subsistence farmers need higher yield seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, and machinery. For many African and Asian countries, the main way to obtain agricultural supplies is to import them from other countries. Most developing countries raise funds through the sale of crops in developed countries. Consumers in developed countries are willing to pay high prices for fruits and vegetables that would otherwise be out of season or for crops such as coffee and tea that cannot be grown in developed countries because of climate. The more land that is devoted to growing export crops, the less that is available to grow crops for domestic consumption.

Drug Trade The export crops chosen in some developing countries, particularly in Latin America and Asia, are those that can be converted to drugs. Cocaine is derived from coca leaf most of which is grown in Colombia and its neighboring countries in South America. Heroin is derived from the opium poppy plant, with Afghanistan the world’s major producer. Marijuana is cultivated throughout the world.

Losing Agricultural Land In the past, world food production increased primarily by expanding the amount of land designated for agriculture. As population increased during the Industrial Revolution, people simply staked a claim of unsettled land in uninhabited territory to produce more agricultural land (as seen in the American West during the nineteenth century). Despite only 11 percent of the world’s land area being cultivated, population has increased faster than agricultural land.

Loss of Land to Urbanization Expanding urban areas have caused a significant loss of farmland, especially in the eastern United States. In the United States, 200,000 hectares of the most productive farmland, known as prime agricultural land, is subject to suburban sprawl. In Maryland geographic information systems (GIS) have been used to identify prime agricultural land for preservation as urban areas continue to grow and expand.

Desertification In a process called desertification, human actions are causing land to deteriorate to a desert-like condition. This process is more precisely referred to as semiarid land degradation. Excessive crop cultivation, animal grazing, and tree felling exhaust the soil’s nutrients and hinder agriculture. The Earth Policy Institute estimates that 2 billion hectares of land have suffered desertification. The leading causes of land degradation are: overgrazing (34 percent of the total), deforestation (30 percent), and agricultural use (28 percent). The U.N. estimates that desertification removes 27 million hectares of land from agricultural production every year.

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Chapter 9: Food & Agriculture Excessive water also threatens agriculture in dry lands. Human-built irrigation systems may damage the land through inadequate drainage, or the buildup of salts that can severely damage or kill plants.

Improving Agricultural Productivity During the second half of the twentieth century, population increased at the fastest rate in human history. Massive global famine is projected by many experts, as increases in agricultural land cannot keep up with population growth. Increased agricultural productivity has prevented many famines, and has resulted in an expansion of food supply. Today, the same amount of land can produce greater yields due to new agricultural practices.

Increased Productivity: Commercial Farmers In the seventeenth century the second agricultural revolution increased productivity through crop rotation and livestock breeding. Recently, productivity has also increased among commercial farmers. New seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, mechanical equipment, and management practices have allowed commercial farmers to obtain greatly increased yields per area of land.

Intensification by Subsistence Farmers For hundreds if not thousands of years, subsistence farming in developing countries yielded enough food for people living in rural villages to survive, assuming that no drought, flood, or other natural disasters occurred. Suddenly in the late twentieth century, developing countries needed to provide enough food for a rapidly increasing population as well as for urban residents, who cannot grow their own food. Subsistence farmers increased the supply of food by adopting new farming methods and leaving farm land fallow for shorter periods of time.

The Green Revolution The invention and rapid diffusion of more productive agricultural techniques during the 1970s and 1980s is called the green revolution. The green revolution involves two main practices: the introduction of new higher-yield seeds and the expanded use of fertilizers. The new miracle seeds diffused rapidly around the world. To take full advantage of the new miracle seeds, farmers must use more fertilizer and machinery. Farmers need tractors and irrigation pumps to make the most effective use of the new miracle seeds. In developing countries, farmers cannot afford such equipment, fertilizers, or even the fuel for the tractors. To offset these costs, governments in developing countries must allocate scarce funds to subsidize the cost of seed, fertilizers, and machinery.

Applying Biotechnology to Agriculture In the late twentieth century, developments in genetic modification allow the alteration of genetic composition of plants and animals to ensure the dominance of the most favorable traits.

Sustainable Farming Low population growth and market saturation for most products has maintained a constant demand for food in developed countries. The most rapid increase in demand has been for organic food, including non-GMO food.

Organic Farming In organic agriculture crops are grown without the application of herbicides, pesticides, growth hormones, and only naturally occurring substances are used to promote growth. Worldwide, the Research Institute of Organic Agriculture, classified 58 million hectares or 1 percent of the world’s farmland as organic in 2016. The leading countries with organic farmland include: Australia (47 percent of the world total), Argentina (5 percent), China (4 percent), and the United States (3 percent). According to USDA economists, organic food sales grew from $3 billion in 1997 to an estimated $50 billion in 2016. In organic farming GMO seeds are not used and animals consume crops grown on the farm and are not confined to small pens. The confinement of animals to small pens leads to surface water and groundwater pollution, 287 .

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography while if they are allowed to roam, manure can contribute to soil fertility. Antibiotics are not used to promote weight gain, and are only used for therapeutic purposes.

Sustainable Land Management Soil erosion is an issue in the U.S. Midwest, where nutrient-rich top soil is washed away by excessive rainfall, or loosened by tillage making them susceptible to being washed away or blown away by wind. Conservation tillage is a method of soil cultivation that reduces soil erosion and runoff.

Under conservation tillage, some of the previous harvest is left on the fields through the winter. No tillage leaves all of the soil undisturbed, and the entire residue of the previous year’s harvest is left untouched on the fields. Ridge tillage is a system of planting crops on ridge tops.

Conserving Agricultural Resources Plants and animals require water to survive and thrive. Lack of water is putting stress on agriculture in many regions, whereas an overabundance of water can cause soil erosion.

Agriculture and Water in California California’s limited water supply comes from two main sources: surface water, which is water that travels or gathers on the ground, like rivers, streams, and lakes; and groundwater, which is water that is pumped out from the ground. Recent persistent drought has severely reduced the amount of surface water captured. In years with normal rainfall, 70 percent of California’s water is supplied by surface water. Today, only 40 percent is supplied by surface water as a result of prolonged drought conditions. The distribution of water in California does not mirror the distribution of demand—most water supplies are located in the north, while Central and Southern California is where demand is primarily situated.

Government Policies In many countries, government policies affect food supply and prices. Some governments keep prices low, and in doing so reduce the incentive for farmers to increase production and sell their commodities for a profit. In the United States three agricultural policies aim to enhance the financial position of farmers.

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Farmers are encouraged to avoid producing crops that are in excess supply. To abate soil erosion the government encourages planting of clover and forage crops.

The government sets a target price for a crop and pays the farmers the difference between market and target price.

The government buys surplus production and sells or donates it to foreign countries.

The United States has averaged about $20 billion annually on farm subsidies in recent years. European farms are subsidized at an even higher rate compared to their American counterparts.

Introducing the Chapter The chapter reveals the isolation of North Americans from agriculture, as most are not employed in agricultural jobs.

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Chapter 9: Food & Agriculture

Student Engagement Classroom Activities The Meatrix (themeatrix.com) This online Flash animation is an entertaining, accessible criticism of industrial meat production. The first presentation reveals the changes to farming practices in the late twentieth century.

Students should be advised that the presentation is biased against agribusiness practices. Recommend that students write down the four major points of the presentation and invite their comments after showing the segment or segments.

Challenges to Comprehension City Slickers Depending on the location of your school, students may nearly be devoid of any knowledge of agriculture.

This is different from previous chapters in that every previous chapter had an element in which students could understand in personal terms: not so with this topic for urban and suburban residents. Use this lack of awareness as a point of teaching for how far removed from the land our society has become.

Additional Classroom Activities & Assignments Review/Reflection Questions These questions can be used in addition to the “thinking geographically” questions at the end of each chapter.

Students can be assigned these questions as homework, they can be given as essay questions on exams, or they can serve as focus questions for in-class discussions.

The italicized section that follows the question sets the criteria and parameters for student answers. Use these suggestions to provide guidance in the assessment of student answers. In addition, a sample answer has been provided. Know that student answers will vary based on the examples and explanations you provided in class.

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Which of Whittlesey’s regions is the “odd duck” in that it doesn’t fit perfectly into commercial or subsistence categories?

Student answers should focus on the inclusion of livestock ranching in both the developed and developing world.

Sample answer The most obvious would be the little or no agriculture. Livestock ranching occurs in both the developed and developing world. The listing in the discussion of Whittlesey’s map includes areas in both the developed and developing world in the examples.

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When you shop for food, do you think about where it came from? Does this bother you now that you think about it? Why or why not?

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Student responses should reflect personal opinions and reflection on the issue. They should also mention the country of origin labels that are features in supermarkets today.

Sample answer When I shop for food, I seldom think about the origin of the food or the farmer that produced it. The labels on fresh fruits and vegetables as well as seafood and meat are a reminder of the global interconnectedness of food.

I am not bothered about knowing the origin of my food, but concentrate more on how it will be cooked.

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Pick one of the following common household foods (hamburger, banana, coffee, or apple) and trace its production, movement, and processing until you purchase it.

Student answers should clearly identify the food. The stages should clearly indicate where it was produced, its transport from origin to “market,” and steps involved in its processing Sample answer I selected coffee. Coffee is usually grown on plantations in Central and South America, Africa, and Asia.

The ripe the coffee cherry is harvested by hand at the peak of its growth or all beans on the plant could be harvested mechanically.

Once picked, the skins of the coffee cherry are removed.

The beans are then removed from the coffee cherry.

The beans are further processed to remove the husk that surrounds them.

They are then graded and sorted.

The “raw” green-colored beans are then bagged for export and shipped to their destination.

The beans are then roasted to bring out their flavor.

The coffee beans are then ground and brewed.

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Why do you think Europeans generally avoid genetically modified food while Americans generally do not?

Student responses should include a brief definition of GMO and reasons why Europeans may be opposed.

They should also discuss the integration of GMO produce into the American food supply.

Sample answer Europeans avoid GMO food because suspected risks to health and biodiversity. Unlike the United States, Europe has direct experience with mad cow disease and the destruction of herds of animals and bans on imports from the countries where the disease was rampant. This could lead to a distrust of bioengineering. In addition, the media may have presented GMOs in an unfavorable light. Wonder if attitudes would differ if a European-based company was the leader in the field of bioengineering?

Interesting to note is the recent merger of German-based company Bayer with Monsanto.

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Chapter 9: Food & Agriculture American companies such as Monsanto have led the development of GMOs and hold the patents on the seeds. Farmers using the seeds have increased yields and improved the appearance of their crops. Many American consumers have purchased and consumed GMO crops without knowing it, as labeling is not required.

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A major criticism of rich countries regarding international trade and development is that the richest countries in the world also offer the greatest agricultural subsidies to their farmers. How would ending rich-country agricultural subsidies help the less developed world?

Student responses should include a working definition of subsidy and reasons why governments support farmers. They should also address the possible effects of ending the subsidies on the less developed world.

Sample answer Governments have a vested interest in maintaining a stable supply of food for their citizens. To keep farmers producing differing forms of price supports are used. A subsidy is a payment to farmers to ensure that they receive a fair price for their commodities despite the interplay of the forces of supply and demand. Rich-countries seek to preserve their agricultural sectors using these payments.

Farmers in lesser developed countries often struggle to produce adequate supplies of food. Ending subsidies in developed countries would do little to improve their production. The farmers from the lesser developed countries face more difficulty competing in the global market because prices for farm commodities may be depressed due to subsidies to growers in other countries.

Recipe Analysis Assignment Have the students follow the directions below.

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Select a recipe that is associated with a particular culture, ethnic group, nation, or other type of region. The best candidate is one of your favorite family recipes that has been passed down through the generations.

Write the individual ingredients for the recipe in detail (as if from scratch). If you don’t have a copy of the recipe you will need to interview a person that does by phone or e-mail.

Use the Internet to research where the ingredients were originally domesticated. If there are certain ingredients that have not been domesticated, find their natural habitat (shrimp, cranberries, etc.).

Research the domestication of animals (cows, chickens, etc.).

Create a map showing the diffusion of the ingredients into your recipe region. Print a blank world map from the Internet.

Write a 1–2 page analysis of your research, including how your region’s food has been influenced by diffusion/migration (the Old Silk Road or Columbian Exchange). Discuss the climate and land use of the region where your ethnic dish originated.

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Help the World Food Programme FreeRice (freerice.com) provides students with the opportunity to extend and enrich their vocabularies through online quizzes. Included in the variety of game topics are questions on World Hunger. The quizzes on the site are available in several languages. Correct answers are rewarded with a donation contribution of 10 grains and rice to the World Food Programme.

What is the Current Sales Price?

Farming is a business subject to supply and demand. Have students visit a cash grain bid site such as agriculture.com/markets/commodity-prices, dtnpf.com/agriculture/web/ag/markets/local-grain-bids, or agweb.com/mobile/markets/cash-grain/bids/ to determine the daily price offered for a bushel of grain in their locality. Students enter a zip code and find the nearest grain elevators and investigate the prices.

Ask students to describe their findings and suggest reasons why grain prices fluctuate.

Mastering Geography™ provides additional assignable learning activities and ready-made resources designed to extend and reinforce student skills and mastery of key content, concepts, and vocabulary. The resources include MapMaster 2.0™ interactive maps, videos, GeoTutor coaching activities, Google Earth Explorations, outline maps, chapter quizzes, Dynamic Study Modules, and more. Further details about these resources and recommendations for use are provided in the Resources section of this document. You can assign these media-rich activities as pre or post lecture homework.

Thinking Geographically Questions Key Issue 9.1 1. People in developed countries consume a lot more meat than do people in developing countries. What might be some of the environmental and health challenges of relying on meat for a large share of protein?

The production of meat consumes more resources than the cultivation of crops. Crops are grown and then fed to the animals. In terms of health challenges meats provide more calories, less dietary fiber, more fat and cholesterol that contribute to obesity and may hasten the development of other diseases.

Key Issue 9.2 2. How does the diffusion of agriculture compare with the diffusion of the Indo-European language family (refer to Figures 5-16, 5-17, and 9-18)? What might account for similarities and differences in the two distributions?

Indo-European languages diffused from hearths in Anatolia (modern-day Turkey) and the Kurgan area (north of Southwest Asia). Languages diffused to the east and west. The patterns of diffusion for agriculture are similar to those for language. The distributions are similar because an agricultural hearth would be a center of population and language and would be more likely to develop in a densely rather than sparsely populated place. In terms of differences languages diffused a greater distance in all directions whereas agriculture would diffuse to areas with favorable conditions for crop growth.

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Chapter 9: Food & Agriculture Key Issue 9.3: Review the concept of overpopulation (the number of people in an area exceeding the capacity of the environment to support life at a decent standard of living).

3. What agricultural regions have relatively limited capacities to support intensive food production? Which of these regions face rapid population growth? (Refer to Figures 2-17 to see where population is increasing the most.)

Agricultural regions that are too dry have limited capacity for intensive food production. These areas would include Southwest Asia and many parts of sub-Saharan Africa in which shifting cultivation occurs. Both of these regions have populations growing at relatively fast rates.

Key Issue 9.4 4. What are examples of fruits and vegetables that are supplied in the United States primarily through imports rather than through domestic production?

Avocados, bananas, pineapples, papayas, and onions from Peru and other vegetables are supplied through imports. In addition, out-of-season crops are imported from regions in the Southern Hemisphere such as grapes from Chile, and in the winter time.

5. What would you expect to be the impact on consumption in the United States if the price of an imported fruit or vegetable increased or decreased sharply?

If the price of an imported food would increase dramatically, then consumers would not continue to buy it and choose another substitute or perhaps resort to a frozen rather than fresh alternative.

If the price would decrease the fruit or vegetable may become more widespread.

Pause and Reflect Questions 9.1.1

Summarize reasons why people in certain regions don’t get enough to eat.

Overall in regions where people do not get enough to eat, the population is greater than food production.

Human causes such as rapid population growth, overplanting, grazing more animals than the area is able to support can all contribute to this imbalance. In addition, natural causes such as prolonged drought, flooding, wild fires, or landslides can adversely affect food production.

The crops that appear to have entered the United States first are squash, pepper, cassava, cotton, lima bean, maize, potato, and sweet potato.

9.1.2

Compare undernourishment in sub-Saharan Africa and Asia. In which region is poor food security a more urgent problem? Explain your answer.

Food security is the more urgent problem in sub-Saharan Africa. In Asia, only North Korea is classified in the 35 percent undernourished category whereas three sub-Saharan African countries are in that category.

Sub-Saharan Africa also has almost a dozen countries in the second tier of 25-34 percent undernourished that far exceeds the four in Southwest Asia.

9.1.3 Do an Internet search for information about the protein content of cereal grains. How do wheat, 293 .

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography rice, and maize compare with other grains or with an equivalent serving of meat? Have you tried any of the less well-known cereal grains?

The values of protein vary by the product and manufacturer. Animal sources contain all 9 essential amino acids and are considered complete proteins. Of the major grains corn has the most protein, but is lower than that of meat.

Data were obtained from the United States Department of Agriculture, National Nutrient Data base. Research revealed the protein content per 1 cup: wheat berries (14.58 g), wheat flour (11.8 g), corn grain (15.56 g), white rice (6.78 g), and brown rice (7.14 g). The gluten free grains/seeds such as oats (12.5 g) and amaranth (13.3 g) had relatively high protein values. Most plant proteins do not contain all nine essential amino acids except for buckwheat, quinoa, and soy.

In contrast 4 oz of ground chicken contained (19.7 g), ground turkey (16.9 g), ground beef (16.8 g), and ground lamb (19.9 g). Overall the animal products contained more protein.

I have tried quinoa which is really a seed, amaranth, farro, and barley. I purchased buckwheat groats but have yet to try them.

9.2.1

Did crops diffuse primarily in an east-west pattern, or a south-to-north pattern? Why?

Crops diffused in an east-west pattern in Asia, Europe, and Africa. The primary factor would be the existence of climates that supported crop growth in the low and middle latitudes. Crops diffused from the Central American hearth, both to the north and to the south, with the geographic extent confined to the mid-latitude climate zones.

9.2.2

What combination of factors explains the relatively small number of farmers in developed countries?

The small number of farmers in developed countries, 1 percent in the United States, is due to the use of machinery, applications of new technologies such as remote sensing and GPS enabled tractors, and large farm size. In addition, scientific research has discovered practices and bred plant and animal varieties that increase yields.

9.3.1

What accounts for the absence of any designated agricultural region in northern Canada and Europe? Refer ahead to Figure 9-36.

The temperatures and climate in northern Canada and Europe are not conducive to agriculture because it is too cold. The map classifies these areas as cold and polar.

9.3.2

What challenges might farmers in East and South Asia face if they wish to adopt farming practices that are less labor intensive than growing wet rice?

Limited areas of arable land may preclude farmers from adopting these alternative farming practices. Wet rice is particularly adapted to intensive agriculture, other crops might not produce as high a yield.

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Chapter 9: Food & Agriculture 9.3.3

How would rapid population growth make it difficult to practice shifting cultivation?

Rapid population growth would put pressure on people to reuse fields left abandoned (fallow) before they have regained their fertility which may take as long as 20 years. The practice of moving from one field to another every few years requires more land per person than do other types of agriculture.

9.3.4

How might the limitations on movement affect nomads’ ability to find food and forage for their animals?

A dry environment has a limited carrying capacity and concentrating too many animals on too little land would adversely affect food and forage for the animals. Overgrazing would remove the limited amount of vegetation and no other area for animal relocation would be accessible for the nomads and their flocks.

9.3.5

The average resident in a developed country consumes around 6 ounces (170 grams) of fish per week. Why might your consumption be higher or lower than the average?

My consumption is probably higher than average because I live in an area near the Atlantic coast with locally fished fresh seafood.

9.3.6

Why might wheat be easier to export than produce from truck farming?

Wheat may be easier to export than fresh produce from truck farming because wheat is not as perishable as fresh produce.

9.3.7

What are the two most important ranched animals, according to Figure 9-45?

Cattle and sheep are the two most important ranched animals.

9.3.8

If the price of wheat dropped to $200 per ton, what would be the maximum distance that the wheat could be profitably shipped?

If wheat dropped to $200 per ton it should only be shipped 7,000 kilometers from farm to market in order to make a profit of $100. If the market were closer, the wheat could be shipped 6,000 kilometers with a profit of $200.

9.4.1

Why does most consumption of cocaine and heroin occur in developed countries?

Developed countries have more affluence. Many people in affluent countries have disposable income to spend on things that are not necessities. People in developed countries provide a major market for cocaine and heroin because they seek to escape the pressures of modern-day life through the use of drugs.

9.4.2

Have you seen loss of farmland near where you live? For what new purpose is the land used?

My neighborhood has seen a large decline in acres of farmland. Less than three miles away, a power company built a service center and equipment depot on a former cantaloupe farm. Hundreds of townhouses, a medical center, and a multi-storied shopping center occupy a large former family farm. My neighborhood is part of a subdivision carved out of the woodlands adjacent to the farm.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography 9.4.3

What would be the impact on the green revolution of a decline in energy prices?

A drop in energy prices would allow for the increased operation of farming equipment, as fuel prices would decrease. Many of today’s synthetic fertilizers are derived from petroleum. A lower price for petroleum would decrease the cost of these fertilizers making them more affordable for subsistence farmers.

9.4.4 Does your family avoid foods made with GMO seeds? Why or why not?

I do not avoid foods made with GMO seeds. I believe they serve a valuable place in the global agricultural system, and do not believe they pose health risks.

9.4.5

Does your family go out of its way to get local or organic food? Why or why not?

I do not go out of my way to buy organic food, as it is much more expensive than the commercially grown products and sometimes less attractive as insects have marred its appearance.

9.4.6

According to Figure 9-23, what is the predominant form of agriculture in California? What are the advantages and disadvantages of California’s climate for agriculture?

Mediterranean is the predominant form of agriculture in California. A Mediterranean climate has warm temperatures year-round with a dry season in the summer. Temperatures are ideal for crop growth. However, because of the lack of rain during the growing season, extensive irrigation is required in an area with already scarce water resources.

Caption Questions Figure 9-7, Income Spent on Food, p. 315 1. Describe the relationship between percent undernourished and percent of income spent on food in sub-Saharan Africa.

Countries in sub-Saharan Africa have the highest percentages of people undernourished and also spend a high percentage of their incomes on food. Many countries in sub-Saharan Africa show over 40 percent of incomes are spent on food as compared to below 20 percent in the developed world.

2. What African country stands out as an exception to the pattern? Which group of countries does the exception most resemble?

South Africa is the notable exception to the correlation between high percentages of undernourishment with a high percentage of income spent on food. The categorization of South Africa on both maps most closely mirrors the pattern of developed countries throughout the world.

Figure 9-19, Agriculture Hearths and Dispersal Routes, p. 319 1. Make a list of five foods that you eat, the hearth where each originated, and when it was domesticated. bread, wheat from the Southwest Asia hearth, domesticated 7,000 to 9000 years ago cattle, from the Southwest Asia hearth, domesticated 9,000 or more years ago barley, from the Southwest Asia hearth, domesticated 9,000 or more years ago lentil, from the Southwest Asia hearth, domesticated 9,000 or more years ago potato, from the Latin American Asia hearth, domesticated 3,000–7,000 years ago 296 .

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Chapter 9: Food & Agriculture 2. Based on your list, in what hearth and historical period would you be most at home, from a dietary perspective?

Based on the list of foods, I would be most at home living 9,000 years ago in Southwest Asia.

Figure 9-36, Climate and Agriculture Regions, p. 329 1. Which type of agriculture is most widespread in areas where climates are warm year round with abundant rainfall?

Shifting cultivation occurs in tropical areas that are warm year round and have abundant rainfall.

2. Why is this type of climate essential for this type of agriculture?

In shifting cultivation fields are prepared and then used for a period of years before allowing the native vegetation to reclaim the land. The tropical climate provides adequate rainfall and temperatures for crops to thrive year round.

Figure 9-53, Trade in Agriculture, p. 338 1. What factors might explain why the United Kingdom and Japan are net importers of food worth $10 billion and above?

Both the United Kingdom and Japan are island countries with relatively small land areas, and mountainous or hilly terrains. A limited amount of arable land, 11 percent for Japan and 25 percent for the U.K., may explain their imports of food. Both are developed countries and can afford to import specialty foods that may have higher costs.

2. Why is China a large net importer of food even though it is a leader in fish, wheat, meat, and maize production?

China is a net importer of food because of its large population. Land devoted to wheat and maize production cannot be used for other crops such as soybeans. Soybeans comprise a large percentage of China’s food imports.

Doing Geography, The Dirty Dozen, p. 313 The U.S. Department of Agriculture tests fruits and vegetables for pesticide residue.

What’s Your FOOD & AGRICULTURE Geography?

The Environmental Working Group publishes the Dirty Dozen and Clean Fifteen annually. To see the complete list, go to ewg.org or use your web browser to search for Environmental Working Group Dirty Dozen.

1. What are the six most pesticide-contaminated fruits and vegetables?

The top six in the “2018 Shopper’s Guide to Pesticides in Produce” are: strawberries, spinach, nectarines, apples, grapes, and peaches.

2. Scroll to the bottom of the list. Which are the six cleanest?

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The cleanest are listed in rank order from cleanest to less clean: avocado, sweet corn, pineapple, cabbage, onion, and frozen sweet peas.

3. What characteristics differentiate the produce with the most contamination from those with the least?

The produce with least contamination, except for cabbage, have an outer shell or skin that can be removed before consumption. The pesticides on the outer layers would be discarded instead of eaten.

4. The Environmental Working Group urges consumers to consider organic versions of the dirty dozen. Do you follow this advice? Why or why not?

Even though organic versions may be cleaner they are much more expensive than the nonorganic produce.

If the price difference was smaller, I would consider buying them. To compensate, I make sure to wash produce thoroughly before use.

Debate It! Should you consume local or global food? p. 347 1. Select a vegetable and learn where in the United States most of it is grown. Search for USDA Vegetable Summary to find the distribution of your chosen vegetable. Where is most of it grown? Relate its distribution to the distribution of the major types of U.S. agriculture.

I was unable to locate data to answer the question at the recommended site. I used the USDA Census of Agriculture Web Maps available at nass.usda.gov/Publications/AgCensus/2012/Online_Resources/ Ag_Census_Web_Maps/Overview/ I was able to enter a search for and generate a map for the chosen vegetable.

I chose asparagus as the vegetable. It is not widely grown across the states. A few counties show 50 percent of acres harvested in VA, OH, MO, MI, MN, SD, and IL. The distribution is rather random, rather than concentrated in one area of the country as corn, or wheat would be.

2. Is the United States a world leader in growing your vegetable? Search for [your vegetable] production by country.

Asparagus is not a top crop of the United States. Countries producing over 100,000 metric tons include: China, Peru, and Mexico. China is the leading producer with over 7 million metric tons.

Sustainability & Our Environment, California Agriculture & Water, p. 348 1. What can you do to conserve water other than through diet?

Water can be conserved by taking shorter showers, running the dishwasher and washing machine only with full loads.

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Chapter 9: Food & Agriculture 2. The average American indirectly uses 1,300 gallons of water per day through food consumption. How might that number be lowered?

The amount of water used through food consumption could be lowered by having other states with reliable rainfall produce the crops that are grown under irrigation in California. For example, citrus fruits are grown in both California and Florida. Florida has a more reliable rainfall and specializes in the production of oranges. California could concentrate on less water demanding crops. Imports from other countries in the Southern Hemisphere could provide crops such as strawberries and other fruits during the winter season.

GeoVideo Questions Agribusiness in Brazil Brazil is the world’s second-leading exporter of soybeans.

1. What challenges did Brazil face in growing crops in the semi-arid Savannah region of Mato Grosso?

The major challenge was poor soil quality.

Note: Soil fertility was improved through no tillage agriculture, intercropping, and integrated crop livestock system. Source: Laroca, J.V., et al. Soil quality and soybean productivity in crop-livestock integrated system in no-tillage, www.dx.doi.org/10.1590/s0100-204x2018001100007 2. Why is growing and exporting soybeans important for Brazil and other countries?

Soybeans are a common ingredient in over 60 percent of the world’s processed foods, and are also used for animal feed.

Writing Geographically Figure 9-36 shows the distribution of B climates in the world, and Figure 9-23 shows the agricultural regions.

1. Describe the principal types of agriculture that take place in the B climate regions.

The B climates are dry climates. The map in Figure 9-36 indicates they are primarily used for pastoral nomadism and livestock ranching.

2. Compare and contrast agricultural practices between developed countries and developing countries within the B climate.

In the developing world, pastoral nomads move from area to area to provide food and water for their flocks of sheep and goats. In pastoral nomadism the animals provide milk and fiber for their owner, and are seldom eaten. In the developed world livestock ranching concentrates on raising beef for the market.

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Explore Growing Cotton in China Use Google Earth to explore agriculture in one of Earth’s driest regions.

Fly to Bayituohaixiang, Xinjiang, China The Taklamakan Desert in China’s Tarim Basin is dry because it is surrounded by mountains and is farther from the oceans than any other spot on Earth. Yet it is also where much of China’s cotton is grown.

Zoom out to around 50 km.

1. What does the pattern of light-colored desert sand and darker, gray green areas suggest makes agriculture possible in the Tarim Basin?

The areas resemble agricultural fields and the gray green areas crops in cultivation. This suggests this area may be irrigated or some method is used to capture water from the surrounding mountains. The mountain basin seems to be well watered with a braided river to the east of the settlement.

2. Select Street View and select the blue circle that appears south of Bayituohaixiang. Describe the landscape that appears. Does this land look hospitable for growing crops? Explain your answer.

The area does not look hospitable for agriculture with barren dirt and rocky pebbles. However, surrounding the areas are trees that show that vegetation is possible. The further south one goes from the settlement the closer to the foothills of the mountains.

3. How might global warming affect agriculture in the Tarim Basin? Explain your answer.

Global warming would raise temperatures and increase evaporation thus making agriculture more difficult in this area of the world.

Geospatial Data Analysis Changing Agriculture Acreage Agriculture is increasing in some U.S counties and decreasing in others. Select the data layer Change in Acreage of Farmland (U.S.) and zoom to North America.

1. Zoom in until you can see the county where you live or attend school. Is your county gaining or losing agricultural acreage? Why might this change be occurring?

My county and its neighbors have lost farm acreage. The loss of farmland is due to increases in population in the region and conversion of land to suburban housing.

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Chapter 9: Food & Agriculture 2. Add Data Layer Soil Erosion. Split Map Window. Is your county at risk for soil erosion? In general, is agricultural acreage increasing in areas of soil erosion or decreasing? Why might that be the case?

Soil and water erosion are not major risks in my region.

Resources Aquaculture Covered in the text on page 330, aquaculture is a growing and sometimes controversial source of the world’s protein. NOAA’s Fisheries Service hosts an informative site on aquaculture in the United States. The site is at www.nmfs.noaa.gov/mediacenter/index.html.

United States Department of Agriculture The USDA has extensive resources online, from environmental issues to rural development. Their main portal is at www.usda.gov/.

Farm Subsidy Database The Environmental Working Group’s Farm Subsidy Database, online at https://farm.ewg.org/, provides resources and references to farm subsidies in every U.S. state as well as summary statistics. It provides a revealing look at how much U.S. taxpayers pay indirectly for their food to be inexpensive in the supermarket.

Office of the United States Trade Representative The Office of the U.S. Trade Representative serves as a bulldog for American trade policy. The website promotes U.S. trade policy, defending everything from the North American Free Trade Agreement to the Trans-Pacific Partnership at www.ustr.gov/. This site is also relevant to Chapters 10-12.

Global Spatial Database of Agricultural Land-use Statistics Agro-MAPS The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations provides online access to a global spatial database of agricultural land-use statistics at kids.fao.org/agromaps/. The map-based interface supports searches for particular crops for area harvested, yield, and production. The site requires Flash Player to run.

Where does your Thanksgiving Dinner come from? Story Map A Story Map by ESRI maps the Thanksgiving harvest is available at storymaps.esri.com/stories/2017/ thanksgiving-dinner/. The story map includes images of major Thanksgiving foods and maps that show their distribution, origin, and relative quantities.

GeoInquiries™ GeoInquiries™ by the Environmental Science Research Institute (ESRI) consist of scripted map-based online GIS activities designed to be completed within a 15-minute time frame. These Internet-based mapping activities run best in the Google Chrome browser and do not require the installation of any software. Access them at www.esri.com/en-us/industries/education/schools/geoinquiries-collections.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography The Human Geography collection includes the following GeoInquiries™ aligned with this chapter’s content and concepts.

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Farming and the rural landscape focuses on the different types of use found in rural lands. The map provides layers to examine the percentage of land devoted to agriculture throughout the world, USA landcover, and the percent rural for the United States at the county level.

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Agricultural Patterns provides the opportunity to explore climatic datasets to analyze the factors that constrain and enable agricultural options.

Mastering Geography Media & Assessment Resources Mastering Geography™ provides additional assignable homework activities and ready-made resources designed to extend and reinforce student skills and mastery of key content, concepts, and vocabulary. These resources are invaluable to implementation of the flipped classroom. Use the Instructor Course Home areas to build assignments for your students. Highlights include: •

MapMaster 2.0™ provides students with the opportunity to reinforce their understanding of spatial relationships, e.g., variation, distribution, interaction, and association. Students get hands on with map building, exploration, and spatial data analysis by layering a wide range of maps.

Multiple-choice assessments in the Mastering Geography item library provide directions for building maps aligned with chapter content, and focus on the development of spatial thinking and analysis skills.

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GeoVideos and Google Earth Explorations linked to chapter content provide an opportunity for students to “visit” other places and build an appreciation for other cultures. Use as an out-of-class assignment and have students explain how the video or Google Earth Explorations illustrate concepts learned in class and make comparisons between cultures.

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Interactive Data Visualizations powered by Social Explorer provide interactive data explorations for each chapter’s Key Issue, and include map stories, predictive graphing, interactive maps, interactive population pyramids, interactive charts, and more. These media are integrated into the Pearson eText and Study Area, and are also available for assignment with quizzes.

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GeoTutors are highly visual and data-rich assignable activities that help students master the most challenging concepts in geography.

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Dynamic Study Modules (DSMs) provide two sets of 25 multiple-choice questions per chapter topic.

Because this resource includes a “I don’t know yet” answer choice, it can be assigned as a preassessment or content preview. The modules are interactive as students are prompted to select, “I am unsure” or “I am sure” as they submit their answers. The questions could also be used as self-check for students at the end of the chapter. An infographic gauge represents their accuracy visually.

Teachers can assign the DSMs for credit or students can access these on their own for self study.

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Learning Catalytics is an interactive student response tool paired with Mastering Geography that encourages team-based learning by using students’ smartphones, tablets, or laptops to engage them in interactive tasks and thinking. As a teacher, you can pose a variety of open-ended questions that help your students develop critical thinking skills, while monitoring responses with real-time analytics to find out where they’re struggling. With this information, you can adjust your instructional strategy in real time and try additional ways of engaging your students during class.

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Chapter 9: Food & Agriculture Learning Catalytics also lets you manage student interactions by automatically grouping students for discussion, team-based learning, and peer-to-peer learning.

The Mastering Geography student Study Area includes a variety of tools that students can access on their own, including: •

The eText provides a fully digital online version of the textbook, with search and bookmarking functionality. Available for offline reading.

Chapter Quizzes include 15 multiple choice questions based on the chapter’s content.

Key Terms Flashcards to help students master the key vocabulary.

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Downloadable Outline Maps containing political and physical features provide students the opportunity to label key countries and physical features. Consider assigning these maps throughout the course so that students can refer to them as they interpret the many thematic maps in the text.

The following Google Earth Virtual Tours provide insight into topics associated with agriculture.

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Everyday Globalization: The Hamburger Connection, 1:28 minutes Everyday Globalization: Good Morning Coffee, 2:22 minutes

MapMaster 2.0™ The following map layers are included in the MapMaster 2.0™ resource. In addition, multiple choice mapbased quizzes are also included.

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Average Annual Precipitation Barren or Sparsely Vegetated Areas Biomes Climate Zones Deserts and Desertification Risk Drought Risk Forested Areas Land Cover Rice Production Tropical Forest Agricultural Density Agricultural Land Agricultural Regions, North America Arable Land Beef Cows (North America) Cattle and Calves (North America) Change in Acreage of Farmland (U.S.)

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Corn Production (North America) Cotton Production (U.S.) Family Farms (U.S.) Farm Workers Working Fewer than 150 Days (U.S.) Farms with Any Poultry (U.S.) Irrigated Crop Intensity Meat Production Milk Cows (North America) Net Value of Grain Imports and Exports Permanent Cropland Rice Production (U.S.) Soybeans Production (U.S.) Tobacco Production (U.S.) Vegetable Production (U.S.) Wheat Production Wheat Production (U.S.)

Additional resources in support of students with disabilities include the screen reader enabled e-text and more. Further details about these resources are available at www.pearson.com/us/accessibility.html.

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Connections between Chapters Back to Chapter 4 A number of food items that are consumed in popular culture (Chapter 4) are produced in plantations. This is grounds for a discussion on the role of popular fads, development, and the agricultural sector in relation to international trade. For example, consider coffee, bananas, shrimp, or out-of-season asparagus, and apples— all are imported to North America.

Chapter 9 introduces the concept of measuring development by measuring the percentage of people working in each sector of the economy. Review this concept after finishing Chapter 10.

Forward to Chapters 10 and 11 Chapter 10 introduces the concept of measuring development by measuring the percentage of people working in each sector of the economy. Review this concept after finishing Chapter 10.

The connections between Chapters 9–12 are more obvious as they involve the three sectors of the economy.

Agribusiness represents clear connections between agriculture, industry, and services. The fact that subsistence farmers are not connected with the rest of the economy, is a critical component of development for LDCs.

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10

Development Learning Outcomes After reading, studying, and discussing the chapter, students should be able to: Learning Outcome 10.1.1a:

Explain the concept of development.

Learning Outcome 10.1.1b:

Explain the concept of developed and developing countries.

Learning Outcome 10.1.1c:

Explain the concept of the Human Development Index.

Learning Outcome 10.1.2:

Explain the HDI standard of living factor.

Learning Outcome 10.1.3:

Explain the HDI education factors.

Learning Outcome 10.1.4:

Identify HDI health factors.

Learning Outcome 10.2.1:

Describe the U.N.’s measures of inequality.

Learning Outcome 10.2.2:

Describe patterns of regional inequality within developing and developed countries.

Learning Outcome 10.2.3:

Describe the U.N.’s measures of gender inequality.

Learning Outcome 10.2.4:

Describe the empowerment-related components of gender inequality.

Learning Outcome 10.2.5:

Describe reproductive health elements of the GII.

Learning Outcome 10.3.1:

Summarize the two paths to development.

Learning Outcome 10.3.2:

Analyze reasons for the triumph of the international trade approach to development.

Learning Outcome 10.3.3:

Identify the main sources of financing development.

Learning Outcome 10.3.4:

Explain alternate strategies for coping with economic downturns.

Learning Outcome 10.4.1a:

Describe ways in which differences in development have narrowed.

Learning Outcome 10.4.1b:

Describe ways in which differences in development have increased.

Learning Outcome 10.4.2:

Explain principles of fair trade.

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Chapter 10 Outline I

Key Issue 10.1: Why Does Development Vary Among Countries?

A Development & Geography 1 Terms a development—process of improving the conditions of people through diffusion of knowledge and technology b developed country—more developed country (MDC) has progressed further along the development continuum, very high developed country c developing country—less developed country (LDC) has made progress toward development; further divided into high, medium, and low developing 2 Human Development Index a created by U.N., measures three factors: decent standard of living, a long and healthy life, and access to knowledge b overall score a combination of all three factors c highest HDI is 1.0 3 Development Regions a developed regions—North America, Europe b high developing—Latin America, China c medium developing—Southwest Asia & North Africa, South Asia, Southeast Asia, Central Asia d low developing—sub-Saharan Africa e distinctive areas i Japan and South Korea, level of development higher than neighbors ii South Pacific—Australia and New Zealand developed, others in region developing iii Russia—in some years classified as developed and in other high developed B A Decent Standard of Living 1 Income a gross national income (GNI)—value of the output of goods and services produced in a country in a year, including money that leaves and enters the country b purchasing power parity (PPP)—an adjustment made to GNI to account for difference among countries in the cost of goods c gross domestic product (GDP)—value of the output of goods and services produced in a country for a year, does not account for money that leaves and enters the country d measures average wealth, but not its distribution 2 Economic Structure a primary sector—extracts resources from the Earth, agriculture, mining, fishing, forestry b secondary secondary—processes, transforms, and assembles raw materials into products and finished consumer goods c tertiary sector—provides goods and services to people in exchange for payment, banking, retailing, education 3 Productivity—value of a product compared to the amount of labor needed to produce it a developed county workers produce more goods with less efforts because of mechanization b developing country workers rely on human and animal power

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Chapter 10: Development C Access to Knowledge 1 HDI Education Measures a years of schooling for today’s adults—average years of schooling aged 25 or older b expected years of schooling for today’s youth—U.N. forecast of years of schooling for an average 5-year old 2 Other Education Indicators a pupil/teacher ratio b literacy rate D Health and Welfare 1 A Long & Healthy Life a life expectancy—average number of years a newborn infant can expect to live at current mortality rates b developed countries have higher left expectancy, higher percentage of retired citizens c developing countries have lower life expectancy, higher percentage of young people d infant mortality higher in developing countries 2 Consumer goods—motor vehicles, telephones, computers II Key Issue 10.2: Where Are Inequalities in Development Found?

A Unequal & Uneven Development 1 Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index (IHDI)—modifies the HDI to account for inequality within a country 2 Core & Periphery a Wallerstein—world-systems theory—developed countries at the core, developing countries in the peripheral region b global investment—hierarchical diffusion from transnational corporations to developing countries B Inequality Within Countries 1 Comparisons a HDI and IHDI—regional differences b GDP per capita among states and provinces in the country c neighborhoods of largest cities in developing countries 2 Regional Inequality Within Developed Countries 3 Widening Inequality Within Developed Countries C Gender Inequality 1 Gender Inequality Index (GII) a indicators—reproductive health, empowerment, labor market b the higher the GII, the greater the inequality 2 Gender Development Index—1.0 represents perfect equality 3 GII Over Time—inequality declining in most countries D Gender Empowerment & Employment 1 Empowerment: National Legislature 2 Employment 3 Empowerment: Secondary School

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography E

Reproductive Health 1 Adolescent Fertility Rate—number of births per 1,000 women ages 15 to 19 2 Maternal Mortality Rate—number of women who die giving birth per 100,000 women

III Key Issue 10.3: Why Do Countries Face Challenges to Development?

A Two Paths to Development 1 Self-Sufficiency Path a import limits b insulation—protected against competition c equal investment 2 International Trade Path a Rostow’s International Trade Model i traditional society—high percentage in agriculture ii preconditions for takeoff—investment in technology and infrastructure iii takeoff—rapid growth in a few economic activities iv drive to maturity—technology diffuses to other industries v age of mass consumption—shift from heavy industry to consumer goods 3 World Trade Organization a reduce restrictions b enforcement 4 International Trade Examples a the Four Dragons—South Korea, Singapore, Taiwan, and Hong Kong b petroleum-rich Arabian Peninsula states B World Trade 1 International Trade Triumphs a success of other countries b sales of resources c international competitiveness 2 Shortcomings of Self-Sufficiency a inefficient industries b lack of competitiveness c corruption d black market 3 India under Self-Sufficiency a Control on imports i licenses ii import limits iii taxes iv nonconvertible currency b control of Indian companies i permits ii subsidies iii government ownership c India under International Trade

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Chapter 10: Development C Financing Development 1 Foreign Direct Investment—investment made by a foreign company in the economy of another country 2 International Monetary Fund 3 World Bank 4 Microfinance for Development—small loans to individuals who are unable to get loans from a bank D Structural Adjustment 1 Loan Debt and Repayment a reasons for project failure i faulty engineering ii recipients spend monies on armaments, graft and corruption iii new infrastructure does not attract additional investment b imbalance between income and debt 2 Stimulus or Austerity? a stimulus—government should spend more than taxes to stimulate the economy b austerity strategy—government reduces taxes and cuts spending 3 Structural Adjustment Programs a reforms i spending what can be afforded ii benefits to the poor iii divert military expenditures to health and education spending iv encourage private sector v reform the government, increasing accountability b Results i cuts in services for the poor ii higher unemployment iii loss of civil service jobs iv less support for the needy IV Key Issue 10.4: Why Are Countries Able to Make Progress in Development?

A Measuring Progress 1 Indicators of Progress a GNI per capita b education c life expectancy d HDI 2 Sustainable Development Goals a purpose—reduce disparities between developed and developing countries B Fair Trade 1 Fair Trade Producer Standards 2 Fair Trade Worker Standards 3 Fair Trade & Consumers

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Chapter Content Outline Key Issue 1: Why Does Development Vary Among Countries?

Countries can be categorized according to their level of development, which is the process of improving the conditions of people through diffusion of knowledge and technology. The development process is continuous, involving never-ending actions to perpetually improve the health and prosperity of the people.

Development & Geography development: • •

Countries may be divided into two groups according to their level of

A developed country, also known as a more developed country (MDC) and referred to by the U.N. as a very high developed country, has progressed further along the development continuum.

A developing country, also frequently called a less developed country (LDC), has made some progress toward development, though less than the developed countries.

The U.N. further classifies developing countries into high, medium, and low developing categories.

Human Development Index The United Nations compares levels of development on an index called the Human Development Index (HDI). The U.N. has computed HDIs for countries annually since 1980. The highest HDI possible is 1.0, or 100 percent. The HDI considers development to be a function of three factors: a decent standard of living, a long and healthy life, and access to knowledge. Each country is scored on these three factors, which are then combined into an overall HDI. Development Regions The world is divided by geographers into two developed regions and seven developing regions. Each region has an overall HDI score. The two developed regions include North America and Europe. The two regions with the lowest HDI scores are sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia. In addition, three other distinctive areas are identified—Japan and South Korea are classified separately rather than included with the rest of East Asia, as their level of development is much higher than that of their neighbors.

In the South Pacific, Australia and New Zealand are developed, while the area’s other countries are developing. Because Russia’s development is on the boundary between high developed and very high developed, its classification may change from year to year.

A Decent Standard of Living Accumulating enough wealth for a decent standard of living is essential to development. Geographers have identified ways in which people generate and spend their wealth differently in developed countries and developing countries.

Income The U.N. measures the standard of living in countries through an index called annual gross national income per capita at purchasing power parity. The gross national income (GNI) is the value of the output of goods and services produced in a country in a year, including money that leaves and enters the country. The purchasing power parity (PPP) is an adjustment made to the GNI to account for differences among countries in the cost of goods. By dividing the GNI by the total population, it is possible to measure the contribution made by the average individual towards generating a country’s wealth in a year. Per capita GNI measures the average (mean) wealth, not the distribution of wealth. Other indicators include gross domestic product (GDP), which is also the value of the output of goods and services produced within a country in a year. The GDP does not account for money that leaves or enters the country. Per capita GNI (or 310 .

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Chapter 10: Development any other single indicator) cannot measure perfectly the level of a country’s development. In general, the higher the per capita GNI, the greater the possibility that all citizens can have a comfortable life.

Economic Structure Jobs fall into three categories. Primary sector jobs include activities extracting materials from the Earth through agriculture, mining, fishing, and forestry. Secondary sector jobs process, transform, and assemble raw materials into manufactured products. Tertiary sector jobs involve the provision of goods and services to people in exchange for payment. The share of GNI accounted for by the primary and secondary sector has decreased dramatically in the last century in most developed countries.

The tertiary sector accounts for the greatest share of the GNI in developed countries.

Productivity Workers in developed countries are more productive than those in developing countries. The term productivity means the value of a product compared to the amount of labor needed to make it. The value added in manufacturing is the gross value of the product minus the raw materials and energy.

Productivity can be measured by the value added per capita. Workers in developed countries produce more with less effort because they have access to more machines, tools, and equipment to perform much of the work. Workers in developing countries rely more on human and animal power to produce goods.

Access to Knowledge The U.N. considers years of schooling to be the most critical measure of the ability of an individual to gain access to knowledge needed for development. The assumption is that no matter how poor the school, the longer the pupils attend, the more likely they are to learn something.

HDI Education Measures The U.N. uses two measures of years of schooling to compute the access to knowledge portion of the HDI. Years of schooling for today’s adults measures the number of years the average person aged 25 or older has spent in school. The average person aged 25 or older in a developed country has attended school an average of 12.2 years, compared to 7.3 years in developing countries.

Expected years of schooling for today’s youth measures the number of years the U.N. forecasts an average 5-year-old will spend in school. In developed countries, the U.N. expects that the average 5-year-old will spend an average of 16.4 years in school. The expected average years of schooling is 10.1 years in sub-Saharan Africa.

Other Education Indicators Other indicators measure regional variations in access to knowledge. The pupil/teacher ratio is the number of enrolled students divided by the number of teachers. The fewer pupils a teacher has, the more likely that each student will receive effective instruction. The literacy rate is the percentage of a country’s people who can read and write. Students in developing countries face an additional challenge because most of the textbooks are not published in their native language. Improved education is a major goal of many developing countries, but funds are scarce.

Health & Welfare Good health is as important a measure of development as wealth and knowledge, according to the U.N. A goal of development is to provide the nutrition and medical services needed for people to lead long and healthy lives.

A Long & Healthy Life The health indicator contributing to the HDI is life expectancy. The life expectancy is 80 years in developed countries, while life expectancy is 61 years in sub-Saharan Africa.

People are healthier in developed countries than developing ones. When a person in a developed country gets sick, the country possesses the resources to care for him or her. Longer life spans have led to a higher percentage of older people who have retired and receive public support and a lower percentage of children 311 .

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography under age 15 who are too young to work and must also be supported by employed adults. Better health and welfare also allow babies to survive infancy in developed countries.

Consumer Goods Part of the wealth generated in developed countries is used to purchase goods and services. Especially important are goods related to transportation and communication, including motor vehicles, telephones, and computers. These products are accessible to virtually all residents in developed countries and are vital to the economy’s functioning and growth. In contrast, in developing countries, these products do not play a central role in daily life for many people. Most people in developing countries are familiar with vehicles and computers but cannot afford them. Cell phone ownership is expanding in developing countries, as these devices do not require the large expenditures associated with connecting wires to each individual building.

Key Issue 2: Where Are Inequalities in Development Distributed?

Unequal and Uneven Development core and periphery.

Development is uneven, inequality exists between countries in the

Inequality-Adjusted HDI The Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index (IHDI) was created by the U.N. to measure the extent of inequality in the world. HDI is modified to account for inequality within a country, producing the IHDI. HDI and IHDI are the same when a country achieves perfect equality. If the IHDI is lower than the HDI, the country has some inequality; the greater the difference between the two measures, the greater the inequality. The highest levels of inequality are in sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia.

Core and Periphery The relationship between developed and developing countries is often described as a north-south split because most of the developed counties are north of the equator, while many developing countries are south. Wallerstein identified the relationship between developed and developing countries as one of “core” and “periphery.” Developed countries constitute an inner core area, while developing countries occupy the outer peripheral locations. Developing countries in the periphery have less access to the world centers of consumption, communications, wealth, and power, which are concentrated in the core areas.

Inequality within Developing Countries Brazil and Turkey are among the world’s largest and most populous countries. At the national scale, the two countries fall somewhere near the middle in terms of HDI. The two countries have similar HDI scores. The gap between HDI and IHDI is greater in Brazil than in Turkey, revealing more inequality in Brazil. Inequality is also evident in the differences in GNI per capita among states or provinces within the countries, and in the contrasts among neighborhoods within largest cities.

Regional Inequality within Developed Countries Regional differences can be seen within developed countries by examining variations in GNI per capita. These differences are less extreme than in developing countries. For instance, in the United States, the GNI per capita is 122 percent of the national average in the wealthiest region (New England), and 90 percent of the national average in the poorest region (Southeast).

The gap between regions has decreased since 1950 when the Southeast had only 60 percent of the national average.

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Chapter 10: Development Widening Inequality Within Developed Countries Even though regional inequality has been reduced, since 1980, overall inequality between the rich and poor has grown in developed countries, including the United States and the United Kingdom.

Gender Inequality A country’s overall level of development can mask inequalities in the status of men and women. The U.N. uses two indices to measure gender inequality: the Gender Inequality Index (GII) and the Gender Development Index (GDI). Women have achieved near-equality with men in some countries, but in other countries the level of development for women lags far behind the level for men. It is the belief of the U.N. that inequality between men and women is a major factor that prevents a country from achieving a higher level of development.

Gender Inequality Index The U.N. created the Gender Inequality Index (GII) to measure the extent of each country’s gender inequality. The GII combines multiple measures: reproductive health, empowerment, and the labor market. A score of 0 would indicate that men and women fare equally, and a score of 1.0 would indicate that women fare as poorly as possible in all measures. The higher the GII, the greater the inequality between men and women. In general, countries with high HDIs have low GIIs. Gender Development Index The Gender Development Index (GDI) measures the gender gap in the level of achievement for the three dimensions of the Human Development Index: income, education, and life expectancy. If females and males had the same HDI scores, the GDI would be 1.000. The lowest scores are in South Asia, sub-Saharan Africa, Southwest Asia & North Africa. The United States is ranked 36th in GII, while it also ranks 12th in HDI. The United States has a relatively high birth rate among teenage women, a higher mortality rate among women during childbirth, and a low percentage of women in the national legislature relative to other countries with high HDI account for the lower GII ranking.

GII Over Time According to the U.N. gender inequality has declined since the 1990s in all but 4 of 138 countries for which time-series data are available. The greatest improvement has been in Southwest Asia & North Africa. The improvement in gender inequality has been relatively modest in the United States.

Gender Empowerment & Employment The GII combines three sets of measures to come up with a composite score for gender inequality: empowerment, employment, and reproductive health.

Empowerment: National Legislature In the context of gender inequality, empowerment refers to the ability of women to achieve economic and political power. The empowerment dimension of GII is measured by two indicators: the percentage of seats held by women in the national legislature and the percentage of women who have completed some secondary education (high school).

No specific gender-related skills are required to be elected as a representative and to serve effectively.

Despite this, fewer women than men hold positions of political power in both developing and developed countries. Bolivia. Cuba, and Rwanda have a national parliament with a majority of women. The highest percentages are in Europe, with women constituting roughly one-quarter of the members of national parliaments. The lowest rates are in Southwest Asia & North Africa. In 2019, the number of women elected to the U.S. House of Representatives increased from 19 percent to 24 percent.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Employment The female labor force participation rate is the percentage of women holding full-time jobs outside the home. Globally, 49 percent of women work outside the home, compared to 75 percent of men. Generally, women in developed countries are more likely than women in developing countries to hold full-time jobs outside the home. South Asia, Southwest Asia & North Africa have substantial gaps between male and female labor participation, whereas East Asia and sub-Saharan Africa have smaller gaps.

Empowerment: Secondary School Worldwide, 62 percent of women have completed some secondary school, compared to 71 percent of men. In North America, girls are more likely than boys to complete some high school, and (slightly) more boys than girls are expected to complete some high school in Europe. Boys are much more likely than girls to be high school graduates in developing countries, where for every 10 boys who attend high school, only 6 girls attend. In South Asia, this gap is particularly high.

Reproductive Health Poor reproductive health is a major contributor to gender inequality around the world. The reproductive health factor of the GII is based on two indicators: adolescent fertility rate and the maternity mortality rate.

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The adolescent fertility rate is the number of births per 1,000 women ages 15 to 19. The rate in developed countries is 16 births per 1,000 women ages 15 to 19, while the rate is 48 in developing countries. The lowest teenage pregnancy rate is in Europe where it is below 10 per 1,000. In subSaharan Africa the teenage pregnancy rate is 110 per 1,000. The adolescent fertility rate in the United States is 21, twice what it is in Europe.

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The maternal mortality rate is the number of women who die giving birth per 100,000 births.

The ratio is 16 deaths of mothers per 100,000 live births in developed countries and 171 in developing countries. Worldwide the maternal mortality rate has declined over the past three decades. The United States is among the 13 countries where the rate has increased since 1990.

Key Issue 3: Why Do Countries Face Development Challenges?

The gap between rich and poor countries is substantial. In order to increase their rate of growth, developing countries need to increase per capita GDI and spend funds to improve social and economic conditions for their people.

Two Paths to Development Developing countries are confronted with two fundamental obstacles in attempting to stimulate more rapid development: • •

Adopting policies that successfully promote development.

Finding funds to pay for development.

Developing countries can choose one of two models to promote development: self-sufficiency or international trade.

Self-Sufficiency Path In the self-sufficiency model, countries encourage domestic production of goods, discourage foreign ownership of business and resources, and protect their businesses from international competition. Key elements of the self-sufficiency path to development include the following: •

Import limits—the use of barriers such as tariffs, quotas, and licenses, to limit the import of goods from other places, 314 .

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Insulation—fledgling businesses are supported by isolating them from competition with large international corporations, Equal investment—spreading investment as uniformly as possible across all sectors of a country’s economy and in all regions, and Equal income—policies to encourage incomes in the countryside keep pace with those in the city.

International Trade Path In the international trade model countries open themselves to foreign investment and international markets. International trade became more popular beginning in the late twentieth century. Countries identify their unique economic assets, raw materials, food, or manufactured products, that are then are sold on the world market to provide funds to finance development.

Rostow Model This approach is idealized in W.W. Rostow’s five-stage model, where countries fit into one of the five following stages: 1. Traditional society—high percentage of people engaged in agriculture, funds allocated to military and religion, 2. Preconditions for takeoff—investment in infrastructure such as transportation systems, 3. Takeoff—rapid growth in a limited number of industries such as textiles, 4. Drive to maturity—technology diffused to a wide variety of industries, workers become more skilled and specialized, and 5. Age of mass consumption—economy shifts from heavy industry to consumer goods.

World Trade Organization The World Trade Organization (WTO) works to reduce barriers to international trade in two principal ways—the reduction of restrictions and the enforcement of trade agreements. Progressive critics of the WTO maintain that the decisions made behind closed doors increase the bottom lines of large corporations at the expense of those suffering from poverty. Conservative critics charge that the WTO undermines the power and sovereignty of individual countries because it can order changes in taxes and laws that it deems support unfair trading practices.

International Trade Examples Two groups of countries have followed the international trade approach: the four Asian dragons (South Korea, Singapore, Taiwan, and Hong Kong) and the petroleum-rich Arabian Peninsula states (Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Bahrain, Oman, and the United Arab Emirates). The “four dragons” leverage low labor costs to produce clothing and electronics for sale in developed countries. The petroleum-rich Arab Peninsula states use monies from the sale of their petroleum resources to finance public projects and to provide access to a variety of consumer goods.

World Trade During the late twentieth century and early twenty-first century the preferred approach to development has been the international trade model.

International Trade Triumphs Trade grew more rapidly than wealth (as measured by GDP) during the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries, reflecting the prominence of the international trade model in developing countries. The shift from the self-sufficiency to international trade approach is based on three observations: success of other countries, sales of resources to finance development, and international competitiveness.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Shortcomings of Self-Sufficiency The international trade approach was adopted because of the following short-comings of self-sufficiency: inefficient industries, lack of competitiveness, corruption, and the black market.

India under Self-Sufficiency For several decades after its independence from Britain in 1947, India was a leading example of the self-sufficiency model. India controlled imports by requiring difficult-to-obtain licenses, import limits, heavy taxes on imported goods, and a nonconvertible currency. India also set restrictions on its own companies including requirements for government permission to run a business, subsidies to unprofitable businesses, and government ownership of companies.

India under International Trade India dismantled its formidable collection of barriers to international trade with a relaxed permit policy for foreign businesses, reduction of elimination of taxes and quotas, and elimination of monopolies in some industries. Under self-sufficiency India’s GDP per capita increased from $80 in 1960 to $300 in 1990. After converting to international trade GDP per capita increased to $1,900 in 2017. Worldwide, GDP per capita increased more than 4 percent annually in countries strongly oriented towards international trade compared with less than 1 percent in countries strongly oriented toward selfsufficiency.

Financing Development Developing countries do not have access to the funds necessary to fund development, so they obtain financial support from developed countries. Finance comes from two main sources: direct investment by transnational corporations and loans from banks and international organizations.

Foreign Direct Investment An investment made by a foreign company in the economy of another country is known as foreign direct investment (FDI). Foreign direct investment grew rapidly from $172 billion in 2002 to $646 billion in 2016. Development funds were not equally distributed. Nearly one-third all FDI went to developing countries and two-thirds to developed countries. Of the aid to developing countries one-third went to China and another one-third went to Singapore, Brazil, Russia, and Mexico. The major sources of FDI are transnational corporations that invest and operate in countries other than the one in which the company headquarters are located.

International Monetary Fund The two specialized agencies of the U.N. providing loans to developing countries include the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank. The IMF provides loans to countries experiencing balance-of-payments problems that could affect expansion of international trade. The IMF does not lend monies for individual projects.

World Bank The World Bank includes the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) and the International Development Association (IDA). Loans support reform in public administration and legal institutions, develop and strengthen financial institutions, and implement transportation and social service projects.

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Chapter 10: Development Microfinance for Development An alternative source of loans for would-be business owners in developing countries is microfinance. Microfinance is the provision of a small loan to individuals and small businesses that are unable to get a loan from commercial banks. The Grameen Bank, established in Bangladesh in 1977, is a prominent example of microfinance. The Grameen Bank specializes in making loans to women, who make up three-quarters of the borrowers. These women are often mothers and the sole wage earners in the home.

Structural Adjustment Some countries face difficulties in development and are unable to repay their loans.

Loan Debt and Repayment Developing countries often borrow monies for new infrastructure projects to support domestic and foreign businesses. Underlying this practice is the belief that investment in infrastructure will generate business investment and provide the country with funds to repay the loans.

Projects in some countries fail because of faulty engineering, squandering of aid on armaments, graft and corruption, and the inability of the new infrastructure to attract other investment. Some countries have been unable to repay even the interest on the debt and in others, debt exceeds the country’s annual income. Banks in developed countries, the lenders of the funds, are adversely affected when countries do not repay the loans.

Stimulus or Austerity? Stimulus and austerity strategies as a solution for fighting economic downturns have deeply divided political leaders and independent analysts. Advocates of the stimulus strategy contend that during a downturn, governments should spend more money than they collect in taxes. Governments should stimulate the economy by putting people to work building bridges and other needed infrastructure.

Advocates of the austerity strategy contend that government should sharply reduce taxes so that people and businesses can revive the economy by spending their tax savings. Governments should also sharply reduce spending on public programs in order to keep the debt from growing and hampering the economy in the future.

If a country has taken out loans and is unable to pay them off, the IMF, World Bank, and economically healthy developed countries will often compel these countries to adopt austerity programs in exchange for debt forgiveness.

Structural Adjustment Programs Austerity is imposed through a policy framework paper (PFP) that outlines a structural adjustment program. A structural adjustment program contains economic “reforms” or “adjustments,” such as economic goals, strategies for achieving the objectives, and external financing requirements. These strategies may include spending only what a government can afford, or directing benefits to the poor, or reforming the government, among others. Critics of structural adjustment programs claim that poverty worsens under these programs. By placing priority on reducing government spending and inflation changes could result in cuts in health, education, and social services that help the poor or higher unemployment rates.

Key Issue 4: Why Are Countries Able to Make Progress in Development?

Measuring Progress Since the U.N. began measuring HDI in 1980, both developed and developing regions have made progress in the HDI, as well as the individual variables contributing to the HDI.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Indicators of Progress The gap in HDI between developed and developing countries has narrowed since 1980, although progress among the various indicators of the HDI has varied. GNI per capita has increased much more rapidly in developed countries than in developing countries since 1980. Since 1980, mean years of education has increased by around the same number in developed and developing countries. Life expectancy has increased by approximately the same number of years in developed and developing countries during the same time period. The gap in HDI between developed countries and developing countries has narrowed since 1980. The HDI has increased more rapidly in developing regions than in developed ones.

Sustainable Development Goals To reduce disparities between developed and developing countries, the 193 members of the U.N. adopted 17 Sustainable Development Goals in 2015. All U.N. members agreed to achieve these goals by 2030. The Sustainable Development Goals replaced the eight Millennium Development Goals adopted in 2002 Fair Trade Fair trade has been proposed as an alternative to the international trade model of development and as a way to promote sustainability. Fair trade is international trade that provides greater equity to workers, small businesses, and consumers. Fair trade products are made and traded according to standards that protect workers, businesses, and consumers.

The fair trade movement concentrates primarily on exports from developing countries to developed countries. Sustainability is promoted by offering better trading and working conditions for producers and workers in developing countries. Fair trade organizations, supported by consumers, raise awareness of deficiencies in conventional international production and trade and the role of fair trade in improving economic, social, and environmental conditions for producers and workers. Three sets of standards distinguish fair trade. One set applies to producers, a second set to workers on farms and in factories, and a third set to consumers.

Fair Trade Producer Standards Critics of international trade claim that only a small percentage of the price a consumer pays for a good reaches the individual in the developing country who produces it. In contrast, fair trade returns about one-third of the price to the producer in the developing country. Fair trade is a set of business practices designed to promote economic, social, and environmental goals. These include: • • • •

Raising the incomes of small-scale farmers and artisans by eliminating some of the intermediaries.

Distributing the profits and risks associated with production and sale of goods more fairly among producers, distributors, retailers, and financiers.

Increasing the entrepreneurial and management skills of the producers.

Promoting safe and sustainable farming methods as well as working conditions, such as by prohibiting the use of dangerous pesticides and herbicides, and by promoting the production of certified organic crops.

Fair trade organizations implement these principles and monitor and certify that practices comply with the standards. Many small-scale farmers and artisans join cooperatives to qualify for credit, purchase materials at lower cost, and reinvest profits in communities.

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Chapter 10: Development Fair Trade for Worker Standards The international trade development approach does not make protection of workers’ rights a high priority. In contrast, fair trade regarding workers’ rights requires that workers be: • • •

paid fair wages—at least enough to cover food, shelter, education, health care, and other basic needs, permitted to organize a union and to have the right to collective bargaining, and protected by high environmental and safety standards.

Fair Trade & Customers Most fair trade products are food such as chocolate, sugar, bananas, and honey.

In North America fair trade products include craft products such as jewelry, textiles, and ceramics. Fair trade organizations work directly with producers, cut costs, and so return a greater percentage of the retail price to the producers.

Introducing the Chapter Development captures the imagination of many students in a way that some other topics in economic geography do not. The great puzzle of why so many states continue to be poor despite many honest efforts to improve the lives of their people remains to be solved.

The chapter starts with a discussion of where less developed and more developed countries are distributed and the indicators of development. Some students may protest that many of the indicators relate to wealth, and that people may be poor and uneducated but still happy. Ask whether happiness can be measured between cultures and countries. Someone may volunteer Bhutan, which references the “gross national happiness” of its citizens.

Throughout the chapter have students consider the significance of each of the various indicators and whether they contribute to the assessment of standard of living or quality of life.

Student Engagement Activity Ideas Vacation Plans Start a discussion with the class about “where would you like to go on vacation.” Decide on a popular lessdeveloped destination and discuss what it is that makes it an attractive destination. Create a list of those amenities, which are likely to include an agreeable climate, scenery, and low prices for food and lodging.

Now ask the class to consider the following questions: • • • •

Are the people who live in this place year-round fortunate to live at such a desirable destination?

What do the local people depend on for income? Does tourism play a role?

What do the people in this country, who do not live in a tourist area, do for work?

Can any of these people, who wish to, come to our country on a vacation? Why not? Is that fair?

First World Problem Video Spark student interest by having the class view First World Problems, available at www.youtube.com/ watch?v=fxyhfiCO_XQj. As a class, discuss the problems faced by the individuals in the video.

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Challenges to Comprehension Students may ask whether there are any countries that are “medium developed” instead of simply “less” and “more.” Instead of answering this question directly, consider asking your students to look at the HDI and make up their own minds. Note that some development agencies do reference low, medium, and high levels of development. Also, suggest that if there were three categories, they might be named something else, such as “more developed”, “less developed”, and “more less developed.” Of course, the status of Russia raises the question of whether a country can become less developed (Russia’s HDI is the same as that of Latin American countries.)

Former Soviet Countries The Human Development Index (HDI) for Russia and Latin America are equal. Thus, students want to know, how can one be considered less developed and the other more developed?

The best answer is probably that Russia has seen its level of development drop from a higher level, whereas Latin America’s HDI has been increasing.

The main statistic of distinction between these regions is that Russia is in the late stage 4 of the demographic transition, with declining populations, while Latin America as a region is in stage 3, with population growth still creating issues for urban areas, job growth, the economy, and the environment.

Additional Class Activities and Assignments Review/Reflection Questions These questions can be used in addition to the “thinking geographically” questions at the end of each chapter.

Students can be assigned these questions as homework, they can be given as essay questions on exams, or they can serve as focus questions for in-class discussions.

The italicized section that follows the question sets the criteria and parameters for student answers. Use these suggestions to provide guidance in the assessment of student answers. In addition, a sample answer has been provided. Know that student answers will vary based on the examples and explanations you provided in class.

•

If you were to create an index of development, what indicators would you use, and why? How would you weigh each indicator? Could your index be used around the world, or would it be mostly relevant to our society?

Student answers could include demographic and economic indicators.

Sample answer In creating a new index of development, I would include the percent of the labor force in each economic sector (primary, secondary, and tertiary), literacy rate for females, and infant mortality. A decrease of the labor force in the primary sector may indicate an increased use of technology and a shift to higherpaying jobs in other sectors. Education is linked to economic development and the female literacy rate would highlight progress in that area. Infant mortality is an indicator that measures not only health care, but access to clean water. These three indicators would give a basic snapshot of life in the country and progress toward development.

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Chapter 10: Development •

The HDI is used to measure development at a whole-country level. Is it adequate to measure development within a country? Why or why not? (Another way of thinking about this: Are there minority groups that may be “glossed over” by the HDI?)

Student answers should address issues of geographic scale in terms of the inability of aggregate data at the country level to compare life in different regions within the country. They should also question the groups a country uses to collect the data.

Sample answer The HDI measures life within the country as a whole. In order to support the analysis data would need to be available at the regional level so that comparison among different areas of the country could be made. The data most likely to be available would be GNI per capita PPP. It is unlikely that data at the subregional level would be collected by gender or ethnicity which would prelude further comparisons.

Note: an extension activity for MapMaster 2.0 included after the answers to the Geospatial Analysis questions provides students the opportunity to compare variations in data at the country and regional scales.

•

The GDI is used as a way of ranking development scores to compare the development of women compared to men in society. However, looking at the Gender Development Index rankings might imply that those countries at the top of the list have gender equality. Discuss whether this is the case or not.

Student answers should include a reference to the text’s claim that no country is the world has reached gender equality, “The U.N. has not found a single country in the world where women are treated as well as men.” The lower the GII, the more gender equality. Their answers should also include an indicator that may prevent equality.

Sample answer Even though a country may be at the top of the gender inequality index with a lower score, the score is still greater than 0.0. Maternal mortality and the adolescent birth rate are factors that prevent some countries from achieving the lowest score. It is interesting to note that female labor participation rates may be higher in developing countries.

•

Discuss whether our economy requires other countries to remain underdeveloped. That is, could we maintain our standard of living if the rest of the world had the same level of development, and thus presumably the same wages and costs of living? What does this mean for the future?

Student responses should discuss the link between natural resources, labor costs, and prices in the world marketplace. Answers will vary in terms of predictions for the future. The answer should include an acknowledgement of the effects of higher wages on an overall increase in prices.

Sample answer Profits in the world economy are currently based on low-cost labor and the many natural resources concentrated in developing countries. If the rest of the world had the same wages and standard of living as a developed country, overall prices of goods would increase. This situation would improve the lives of those in developing countries, but worldwide prices would also rise.

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Assignments: Two Dollars per Day An estimated 2.8 billion of the world’s population subsists on less than U.S. $2 per day.

Research and write a four-to-five-page descriptive essay (approximately 1200 words) describing in detail what your life on this income ($700 per year) would be like.

Make sure to include: • • • •

What do you do for work? Describe your daily routine.

What happens when you become sick or injured?

What are your most pressing concerns?

What are the hopes for the future for yourself and your family?

Mastering Geography™ provides additional assignable learning activities and ready-made resources designed to extend and reinforce student skills and mastery of key content, concepts, and vocabulary. The resources include MapMaster 2.0 interactive maps, videos, GeoTutor coaching activities, Google Earth Explorations, outline maps, chapter quizzes, Dynamic Study Modules, and more. Further details about these resources and recommendations for use are provided in the Resources section of this document. You can assign these media-rich activities as pre or post lecture homework.

Thinking Geographically Questions Key Issue 10.1 1. What economic, demographic, and literacy measures presented in this chapter or in earlier chapters do you feel would be better measures of a country’s level of development? Why? I think that purchasing power parity would be an indicator that adjusts for differing costs of a goods. Another indicator would be female literacy rates. Both these indicators help to adjust statistics to better reflect life within a country.

Key Issue 10.2 Figure 10CR-2 shows female income as a percentage of male income by world region.

2. What factors discussed in earlier chapters might be contributing to the high level of gender inequality in Southwest Asia and South Asia? Why? Limited opportunities for education as evidenced by lower literacy rates for females in these regions may also contribute to disparity between male and female wages. Cultural norms and traditions of folk culture influence the opportunities available to women. In Southwest Asia religious traditions and customs prescribe clothing for women and govern their interactions with men.

In South Asia, the bride’s family is expected to provide a dowry to the man’s family. Even though this custom has been outlawed, it persists. The sex ratio in India where males predominate is another reflection of the society’s preference for males.

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Chapter 10: Development Key Issue 10.3 3. Although the international trade development path has proved more successful at promoting development, why have developed countries like the United States and the United Kingdom taken steps to reduce their commitment to international trade?

The America First movement as pictured in the text is based on the belief that inexpensive imported goods are depriving American workers of jobs. Jobs do still exist but in different sectors than traditional manufacturing.

The international trade development path is challenged by the imposition of tariffs on imported goods.

Established supply chains have been disrupted and often costs are passed on to the American consumer.

Key Issue 10.4 4. Do you make purchase decisions on whether the producer or the shop promotes Fair Trade? Why or why not?

Rather than an individual store promoting free trade, I purchase goods such as free-trade coffee and sustainable seafood and in my regular or specialty grocery store.

Pause and Reflect Questions 10.1.1 Which developing regions appear to have relatively high diversity in the HDIs of individual countries?

Latin America and East Asia appear to have the most diversity in the HDIs of individual countries.

10.1.2

Figure 9-20 shows the percentage of workers engaged in agriculture. Does a country with a high percentage of agricultural workers, as shown in Figure 9-20, typically have a high HDI or low HDI?

Countries with a high percentage of agricultural workers typically have a low HDI. 10.1.3

The United States has a lower pupil/teacher ratio than Mexico. Does that mean that the pupil/teacher ratio in the United States is more favorable or less favorable than in Mexico?

The pupil/teacher ratio in the United States is more favorable than in Mexico, where it is higher.

10.1.4

In addition to cell phones, what other electronic devices might diffuse rapidly to developing countries because of low cost of equipment and lack of need for costly infrastructure?

Radios are likely to diffuse rapid to developing countries, if they haven’t already. Radios may play a valuable role in relaying information to isolated areas (especially shortwave radios). The Internet is rapidly diffusing in developing countries. People can access the Internet via a smart phone or go to an Internet café rather than having a personal computer in their home. Low-cost personal computers are also extending the reach of technology to many.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography 10.1.5

Based on their IHDI scores, how would you expect Mexico and Bolivia to differ from the United States?

Mexico’s IHDI in the .0.50–0.69 (0.609) range whereas Bolivia’s score is near the lowest category of below 0.50 (0.514). Both are considerably lower than the score for the United States, 0.797.

Based on relative economic development, I would expect that life expectancy, income, and education values to be lowest in Bolivia. Mexico’s scores and those indicators would likewise be lower than those of the United States, but not as low as landlocked Bolivia.

10.2.1. Even though regional inequality in the U.S. has diminished, what probably explains why inequality overall has increased considerably?

The factor most accountable for the increase in inequality for the United States is the distribution of income.

A greater proportion of wealth is being concentrated in the hands of a relatively few very rich billionaires.

The share of income controlled by the top 20 percent of the U.S. population has steadily increased through time.

10.2.2. The GII is .189 in the United States and .092 in Canada. Which country has greater gender inequality? What factors might be contributing to that greater inequality?

The United States has greater gender inequality. The major factor is the lower number of women in the country’s legislatures.

10.2.3. Does the lower than expected percent of women in the legislature of the United States correlate with gender differences in schooling or labor force participation? If not, what do you think explains this particular example of gender inequality?

No, I think there is little correlation between schooling and labor force participation for women in the United States. There seems to be a belief that men are better at handling the affairs of state. The latest congressional election is still dispelling that myth, but we are nowhere near parity.

10.2.4. In summary, how close is the relationship between development and gender inequality?

There is an inverse relationship between development and gender inequality, as can be seen in Figure 10-28.

10.3.1 Top WTO officials meet every two years in a so-called ministerial conference. Where was the most recent conference held? Use the Internet to search for “WTO ministerial conference” to see if there were protests at the conference.

The most recent WTO ministerial conference was in Buenos Aires, Argentina in 2017 and anti-WTO protests occurred.

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Chapter 10: Development 10.3.2 Many countries that have adopted the international trade model are relatively small states (see Chapter 8). Why might a nation’s size be a factor in the early adoption of the international trade path?

A small nation might not have access to the diversity of natural resources a large nation would, meaning that they would be compelled to trade with other countries to meet local demand for goods.

10.3.3 Why might Apple, Microsoft, and Alphabet rank as three of the world’s largest transnational corporations?

These companies might rank as three of the world’s largest transnational corporations because they have among the highest revenues of any corporation, and operate in many nations across the world.

10.3.4 Do the terms of a structural adjustment program seem harsh for a country or fair? Why? They seem harsh to me. To expect a developing country to progress towards greater development under the onerous terms usually associated with structural adjustment programs is quite ridiculous. These programs often hurt the most vulnerable in a population the most. Loan forgiveness, with no stipulations, should be implemented for countries that are financially disadvantaged. That said, the government’s spending should be monitored to ensure funds are not wasted or fall into the hands of the unscrupulous.

10.4.1 Which Sustainable Development Goals appear to be making the most limited progress? Why might that be the case?

Number 13, urging action to be taken against climate change, seems to have made the least progress. A worldwide consensus laying out concrete, legally-binding assurances for every nation to cut carbon emissions must be achieved for any true progress to be made on the issue.

10.4.2 As a consumer in a developed country, what information do you need about a product to be confident it meets fair trade standards?

Knowing the origin of the product and the working conditions for those that produce it would provide information about its production aligned with free trade standards.

Caption Questions Figure 10-14, Consumer Goods: Motor Vehicles, p. 361 1. Compare access to consumer goods with mean years of schooling (Figure 10-8) and productivity (Figure 10-7). How are these distributions similar?

The higher the mean years of schooling, the higher the productivity. The distribution is similar, with productivity lagging a bit behind the schooling.

2. Do any countries stand out as exceptions to the general pattern? Explain.

Venezuela has a higher mean years of schooling than that is reflected in its productivity. Saudi Arabia is high in productivity but lags in mean years of schooling. This could be due to limits on education for women.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Figure 10-31, Trend in Gender Inequality, p. 367 1. Describe how gender inequality has been changing in Latin America.

In most of Latin America there has been a decrease in the Gender Inequality Index.

2. What explains the relatively small decreases in inequality in North America, Western Europe, and Australia?

There has been little change in North America, Western Europe, and Australia because the numbers were already in the lowest category. Therefore, a low rate of change is to be expected.

Figure 10-52, Developing Country Debt as a Percentage of GNI, p. 378 Referring to Figure 10-2, give an example of a high developing country that also has debt of more than 35 percent of GNI. What could this country do to improve its financial prospects?

Mongolia has over 35 percent of GNI as debt. Mongolia is classified as a developing country. Mongolia also has a relatively high number of females with higher educations. That push to equity in education for women is one step in improving the financial prosperity of the country.

Figure 10-58 HDI Change by Region, p. 380 1. Which developing region appears to have gained the most? The least?

East Asia the most, least Sub-Saharan Africa.

2. Overall, which has gained more in terms of HDI: developed or developing countries? Explain.

All regions increased in HDI with the largest change in the developing regions. The size of the circles for developing regions are only a small portion of the circle for 2015, The developed regions only show a small sliver of gain between 1980 and 2015. The developed regions started out at a higher level with relatively limited opportunities for large gains.

Doing Geography, Measuring GII for the 50 U.S. States, p. 371 What’s Your DEVELOPMENT Geography?

The U.N. lets you change the numbers used to calculate the HDI and IHDI to see the impact on a country’s level of development. Go to www.hdr.undp.org or search for Human Development Index. Select Calculating the Indices, then select Calculating the Indices a second time. Select Download the Tool, then Open. Select the HDI worksheet.

1. Country A is an example of a high developing country. The U.N.’s cut-off to be a highly developed country is 0.80. Change one or more of the four data columns until you get an HDI above 0.80. Which of the four columns needs to change the most in order for Country A to be reclassified from high developing to developed?

The quickest way to raise the HDI value was an increase in GNI per capita. Changing that number to $22,000 from $7,770 alone changed the HDI. That size of an increase in GNI per capita is rather unrealistic. What 326 .

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Chapter 10: Development worked best was a combination of factors, raising the life expectancy to 72, increasing mean years of schooling to 16, and a more modest increase in GNI per capita to 10,000.

2. Which of the four columns made relatively little impact on Country A’s HDI? Why might that be the case?

Life expectancy showed little gain until there was a difference of 12 years. Life expectancy is more of a reflection of health and access to medical care and really isn’t a major factor in the production of wealth as the education indicators are.

Debate It! Should countries move away from international trade? p. 379 1. How might world trade help to improve India’s cars?

Competition in the world market will provide the impetus for improvement in the quality of Indian-produced cars. In order to be competitive a quality product must be developed. Improvements in car manufacturing due to participation in international trade could spread to other industries in India.

2. What challenges might India’s companies face in order to make cars that meet world standards?

If India were to manufacture cars aligned with world car manufacturing standards, costs of production, and then in turn, costs of the car may increase. In order to meet world standards, modifications to the production process may be needed or up-to-standard parts would need to be imported. The new cars may reduce the number of buyers but increase sales in the world market. Transportation costs to foreign markets would be an additional cost.

Sustainability & Our Environment, Fair Trade for Location Workers, p. 383 1. What exactly did Dior steal from the women of Bihor, Romania?

Dior created a copy of a Bihor-designed coat motif.

2. How can fair trade standards help to protect local knowledge, skills, and traditions in similar situations worldwide?

Fair trade standards should be used to ensure that the producers of the unique design benefit from their work.

Explore Flower Power in Kenya Growing cut flowers for export to Europe is big business around Lake Naivasha, Kenya. Fly to flower farms near Naivasha, Kenya.

1. Select show historical imagery. About how long has the flower industry operated in this area?

Even though a few greenhouses were present in 2001, the current distribution of greenhouses and pivot irrigation agriculture became evident in 2013.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography 2. Why are the flowers grown in huge greenhouses rather than the circular fields with center-pivot irrigation? What is probably the source of the water?

Flowers are grown in greenhouses, a controlled environment, to ensure their survival through various weather events. In addition, pivot irrigation may support the spread of plant diseases if the leaves do not dry out sufficiently. Source of water is likely Lake Naivasha.

3. Naivasha is about an hour’s drive from the capital, Nairobi. Why is this location important to the cutflower business?

Cut flowers are perishable and should be located near the market in order to ensure freshness on arrival.

People living in the country’s largest city are likely to have disposable incomes to purchase flowers. The capital is likely to have an airport for shipment of flowers to the international market.

4. Flower-growing is a labor-intensive industry. Where do the workers live? (Hint: zoom in and explore the areas around the greenhouses.)

Workers live in settlements outside of the greenhouse areas.

5. Which development model does this industry represent? Is growing flowers a good development strategy for Kenya? Why or why not?

The international trade model is used by Kenya. A major market for Kenyan flowers is the EU that imports 35 percent. The nearness of the growers to the capital and its airport provide a means for shipping.

Growing flowers precludes growing of food on the same land which may be problematic for a country in need of food for its citizens. However, floriculture only contributes 1.1 percent to Kenya’s national GDP which indicates a downturn would not totally destroy Kenya’s economy.

Writing Geographically East Asia, Latin America, and Southwest Asia & North Africa have virtually identical HDIs. 1. Describe similarities and differences in terms of the three components of the HDI between two of these regions, and among countries within one of the regions.

The indicators of GNI per capita and life expectancy are similar in Latin America and East Asia, but slightly lower in Southwest Asia & North Africa. For the HDI education component, Latin America and Southwest Asia & North Africa are similar, but China is lower.

Within the regions, China in East Asia lags behind Japan and South Korea in all of the indicators.

2. What cultural and political features discussed in earlier chapters might help to explain differences in the HDI between and within these regions?

Latin America and East Asia have higher GNI per capita than Southwest Asia & North Africa. As a general rule, the higher the per capita GDI the higher the life expectancy. Countries with higher life expectancies usually have more access to medical care, better sanitation, and more reliable access to food, all supported by 328 .

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Chapter 10: Development the higher GNIs. The mean years of schooling in China may be lower than that of other countries because of the vast number of people in need of an education.

Geospatial Data Analysis GDI and Income Many regions of the world have both high GDI and income or they have both low GDI and income. But not all regions. From the Economic theme, select Gross National Income at Purchasing Power Parity and join with Gender Development Index.

1. Describe the distribution of the countries that have both high GNI at PPP and high GDI. Countries with both high GDI and GNI per Capita at PPP are located primarily in the Northern Hemisphere, including. Canada and the United States, Russia, most of western Europe, and Kazakhstan. In the Southern Hemisphere countries include Chile, Uruguay, and Australia.

2. Describe the distribution of the countries that have both low GNI at PPP and low GDI. Countries with low GNI at PPP and low GDI are located in sub-Saharan Africa, as well as the countries of India, Pakistan, Afghanistan and Yemen.

3. Describe the relationship between GNI at PPP and GDI in Latin America. How does Latin America compare in this respect with other world regions?

The lowest score on the GDI in Latin America is 93 in Bolivia with most of the countries classified in the highest category. Latin America countries, for the most part, are classified in the middle income range of GNI PPP. Next to the developed regions, Latin America has a concentration of high GDI and medium GNI PPP scores. In the rest of the world the distribution of countries with a similar pattern is more dispersed.

Extension for MapMaster 2.0, Comparing regional development Reset the map. Select Per Capita Gross Domestic Product (Asia); Per Capita Gross Domestic Product (Mexico & Brazil), and Per Capita Gross Domestic Product (North America). Select Per Capita Gross Domestic Product and split map window.

Examine the maps and answer the questions that follow.

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Zoom to Latin America. How does the per capita gross domestic product for Brazil differ from that of Brazil’s regions? (At the country level, value is $8,757. At the regional level, the Federal District is the highest at $69,271. There is great variation among the areas of the country.)

Where are the places with the highest GDPs per capita located in Brazil? (For the most part, regions located along the Atlantic coast in the southern part of the country have the highest GDPs per capita.)

Zoom to North America. How does the per capita gross domestic product for Mexico differ from that of Mexico’s regions? (At the country level, value is $9,143. At the regional level, the Campeche region is the highest at $57,765. There is great variation among the areas of the country, with Chiapas at $4,210.)

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Zoom to East Asia. How does the per capita gross domestic product for China differ from that of China’s regions? (At the country level, value is $8,069. At the regional level, the Beijing region is the highest at $17,099. There is great variation among the areas of the country.)

Where are the places with the highest GDPs per capita located in China? (Coastal areas in China tend to have higher incomes.)

What could account for the differences in the regions within the countries? (The type of economic activity in each region and the population of the region would influence the income. Agriculturallybased regions would produce goods with lower dollar values.)

China is one of the world’s major industrial producers selling many goods on the world market.

Why are the per capita GDPs in China relatively lower? (When production is divided by the large populations in China, the values decrease.)

How many states in the U.S. have GDPs higher than the national average? The national average is $56,207. Nine states (New York, Massachusetts, Connecticut, New Jersey, Delaware, North Dakota, Wyoming, California, and Alaska) exceed that average.

How does the scale at which data are represented influence its interpretation? (Data show the differences among the various regions of the country.)

GeoVideo Questions China: Economic Growth and Communism 1. What role are cities like Guangzhou playing in China’s development?

Government investment in the port of Guangzhou made it a good site for investment and the establishment of factories. The creation and expansion of manufacturing from small shops set up by individual entrepreneurs fueled the city’s economic growth.

2. What are China’s most important assets in promoting economic development?

Division of labor, technology, investment, organization, and capital in search of profit characterized the growth of industry in China. An important asset is the readily available labor force from rural areas.

3. What does the video consider China’s most significant challenge in promoting development?

The video showed many of the affluent young in the cities engaging in a modern, western lifestyle as they dance an urban night-club. In contrast is China’s large rural population with many of their young seeking to migrate to the cities in search of a better life. China, still a communist country politically exercising control over the lives of its citizens, is challenged by the more liberal economic policies. The government seeks to balance development with traditional values and maintaining social order while accommodating individual rights.

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Chapter 10: Development

Resources United Nations Development Program Online at www.undp.org/, the U.N. Development Program’s site contains reams of information about development, including the annually themed Human Development Report.

Transparency International Some critiques of development charge that corruption in government plays a role in hindering development.

Students can explore this through the reporting of Transparency International (www.transparency.org), a corruption monitoring and reporting organization operating around the world.

Life and Debt The 2001 film by Stephanie Black presents the case against the IMF’s structural adjustment policies in Jamaica. The theme of the film echoes the introductory paragraphs of the chapter, contrasting the tourist experience with the lives of everyday Jamaicans in poverty.

Extremely popular with students, it features interviews with then deputy director of the IMF and the former prime minister of Jamaica. The film serves as an excellent connection to Chapter 9 because it raises the issue of farm subsidies in the developed world.

Bhutan: The Last Place There is a 2002 Frontline World documentary on the arrival of satellite TV to Bhutan, a mountain kingdom which did not have a television until 1999.

Orville Schell comments of the Bhutanese conception of “gross national happiness” and the effects of TV in his essay at www.pbs.org/frontlineworld/stories/bhutan/.

United States Agency for International Development (USAID) This is a clearinghouse of information on U.S. international development, including current projects, reports, and the agency’s policy priorities and standards. It is online at www.usaid.gov/.

Shopping at the Global Resource Bank An activity from Adventures on Earth produced by the Population Reference Bureau, now only available from the U.S. Department of Education, www.files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED461540.pdf, provides insight into how people make decisions to meet their basic needs.

Scroll to Lesson 3, pp. 16–22. Each student is assigned a certain number of credits (2–25) to spend on food water, energy, transportation, and luxury goods. Students select the options they can afford. For example, transportation options include walking, public transportation, motorcycle, and car. Students spend their credits and acquire information on options for basic goods in other areas of the world.

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GeoInquiries™ GeoInquiries™ by the Environmental Science Research Institute (ESRI) consist of scripted map-based online GIS activities designed to be completed within a 15-minute time frame. These Internet-based mapping activities run best in the Google Chrome browser and do not require the installation of any software. Access them at www.esri.com/en-us/industries/education/schools/geoinquiries-collections.

The following GeoInquiries™ support the development of the concepts and content of this chapter.

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Resource consumption and wealth, from the Advanced Environmental science collection, contains a variety of variations that can be used to analyze development—GNI per capita PPP, energy use, life expectancy, and HDI over time.

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The Human Development Index, from the Human Geography collection, is designed to have students explore the various measures of development. Data for the following the factors are included: crime, birth rate, and gender inequality, HDI, GNI per capita PPP.

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Comparing country development, from the Human Geography collection, identifies countries with high, medium, and low U.N. development rankings. Students are guided to explore the patterns of uneven development through the exploration of the map’s data layers.

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Foreign Aid, from the Government collection, identifies the types of assistance the United States provides to countries throughout the world. A comparison of aid distribution provides insights into the relative level of development of the world’s countries.

Mastering Geography Media & Assessment Resources Mastering Geography™ provides additional assignable homework activities and ready-made resources designed to extend and reinforce student skills and mastery of key content, concepts, and vocabulary. These resources are invaluable to implementation of the flipped classroom. Use the Instructor Course Home areas to build assignments for your students. Highlights include: •

MapMaster 2.0™ provides students with the opportunity to reinforce their understanding of spatial relationships, e.g., variation, distribution, interaction, and association. Students get hands on with map building, exploration, and spatial data analysis by layering a wide range of maps. Multiple-choice assessments in the Mastering Geography item library provide directions for building maps aligned with chapter content, and focus on the development of spatial thinking and analysis skills.

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GeoVideos and Google Earth Explorations linked to chapter content provide an opportunity for students to “visit” other places and build an appreciation for other cultures. Use as an out-of-class assignment and have students explain how the video or Google Earth Explorations illustrate concepts learned in class and make comparisons between cultures.

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Interactive Data Visualizations powered by Social Explorer provide interactive data explorations for each chapter’s Key Issue, and include map stories, predictive graphing, interactive maps, interactive population pyramids, interactive charts, and more. These media are integrated into the Pearson eText and Study Area, and are also available for assignment with quizzes.

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GeoTutors are highly visual and data-rich assignable activities that help students master the most challenging concepts in geography.

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Dynamic Study Modules (DSMs) provide two sets of 25 multiple-choice questions per chapter topic.

Because this resource includes a “I don’t know yet” answer choice, it can be assigned as a preassessment or content preview. The modules are interactive as students are prompted to select, “I am unsure” or “I am sure” as they submit their answers. The questions could also be used as self-check for students at the end of the chapter. An infographic gauge represents their accuracy visually.

Teachers can assign the DSMs for credit and or students can access these on their own for self study.

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Learning Catalytics is an interactive student response tool paired with Mastering Geography that encourages team-based learning by using students’ smartphones, tablets, or laptops to engage them in interactive tasks and thinking. As a teacher, you can pose a variety of open-ended questions that help your students develop critical thinking skills, while monitoring responses with real-time analytics to find out where they’re struggling. With this information, you can adjust your instructional strategy in real time and try additional ways of engaging your students during class. Learning Catalytics also lets you manage student interactions by automatically grouping students for discussion, team-based learning, and peer-to-peer learning.

The Mastering Geography student Study Area includes a variety of tools that students can access on their own, including: • • •

The eText provides a fully digital online version of the textbook, with search and bookmarking functionality. Available for offline reading.

Chapter Quizzes include 15 multiple choice questions based on the chapter’s content.

Key Terms Flashcards to help students master the key vocabulary.

Downloadable Outline Maps containing political and physical features provide students the opportunity to label key countries and physical features. Consider assigning these maps throughout the course so that students can refer to them as they interpret the many thematic maps.

The following selections from the GeoVideos are particularly useful in supporting student understanding of key chapter concepts.

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Qatar, 13:01 minutes The Coffee Go Round, 25:42 minutes Indonesia: Profile of a Jakarta Street Vendor, 2:04 minutes Taiwan Demonstrators Protest Trade Pact With China, 2:41 minutes The Trade Trap, 27:09 minutes

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MapMaster 2.0™ The following map layers are included in the MapMaster 2.0 resource. In addition, multiple choice mapbased quizzes are also included.

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Adult Female Literacy Rate Adult Females with only up to an Upper Secondary Education Adult Females with College Education (Bachelor’s) Adult Females with College Education (Master’s) Adult Females with only a Primary Education Aid Dependency Net ODA received as a percentage of GNI Aid Dependence: Net Official Development Assistance Received per Capita Foreign Direct Investment Gender Development Index Gross National Income per Capita at Purchasing Power Parity Human Development Index (HDI)

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Military Expenditures Per Capita Gross Domestic Product Per Capita Gross Domestic Product (North America) Students per Teacher in Primary School Total Debt Service (Percentage of Gross National Income) Trade Balance World Trade Organization Higher Education Enrollment Maternal Mortality Rate Mean Years of Schooling Mean Female Age at First Marriage Per Capita Gross Domestic Product (Mexico and Brazil) Per Capita Gross Domestic Product (China) Per Capita Gross Domestic Product (North America)

Additional resources in support of students with disabilities include the screen reader enabled e-text and more. Further details about these resources are available at www.pearson.com/us/ accessibility.html.

Connections between Chapters Back to Chapters 2 and 9 Instead of relying on the tenuous connection to Chapter 8, refer to Chapter 2. While many will have forgotten by now, ask what connection there is between countries in stage 2 of the demographic transition and their level of development . . . some lights should go on! A natural transition from Chapter 9 is suggested by the discussion in Key Issue 1 of measuring the division of labor by economic sector. This idea that the percentage of a country’s labor force in each sector of the economy can serve as an indicator of development, prepares students to learn about each sector. The tremendous difference between the least developed countries and developed countries in agriculture is particularly relevant.

Forward to Chapter 11 Development and the possession of key resources are closely linked. Have students recall the key indicators of the HDI as they investigate site and situation factors associated with industrial location.

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11

Industry & Energy Learning Outcomes After reading, studying, and discussing the chapter, students should be able to: Learning Outcome 11.1.1:

Summarize the causes of the Industrial Revolution.

Learning Outcome 11.1.2:

Describe the locations of the three principal industrial regions.

Learning Outcome 11.1.3:

Analyze the three types of site factors.

Learning Outcome 11.1.4:

Explain why some industries locate near their inputs.

Learning Outcome 11.1.5:

Explain why some industries locate near markets.

Learning Outcome 11.1.6:

Explain why industries use different modes of transportation.

Learning Outcome 11.2.1:

Identify the principal sources of energy supply and demand.

Learning Outcome 11.2.2:

Describe the distribution of fossil fuel production and reserves.

Learning Outcome 11.2.3:

Analyze changing patterns of oil trade and demand.

Learning Outcome 11.2.4:

Evaluate possible future options for fossil fuels.

Learning Outcome 11.2.5:

Describe the distribution of nuclear energy and challenges in using it.

Learning Outcome 11.2.6:

Identify alternative sources of energy and challenges to using them.

Learning Outcome 11.2.7:

Compare passive and active solar energy.

Learning Outcome 11.3.1:

Describe causes and effects of air pollution at local, regional, and global scales.

Learning Outcome 11.3.2:

Compare and contrast point and nonpoint sources of water pollution.

Learning Outcome 11.3.3:

Describe principal strategies for reducing solid waste pollution.

Learning Outcome 11.3.4a:

Explain the concept of recycling.

Learning Outcome 11.3.4b:

Explain the concepts of remanufacturing.

Learning Outcome 11.4.1:

Explain reasons for the emergence of new concentration of industries.

Learning Outcome 11.4.2:

Explain the distribution of clothing production.

Learning Outcome 11.4.3:

Summarize changes in the distribution of steel production.

Learning Outcome 11.4.4:

Explain industrial location changes within developed regions.

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Chapter 11 Outline I

Key Issue 11.1: Where Is Industry Distributed?

A Industry, Energy, & Geography 1 The Industrial Revolution—series of improvements in industrial technology that transformed the process of manufacturing goods a cottage industry—home manufacturing b diffusion occurred over decades c industries—iron, textiles, chemicals food processing 2 Transportation—canals and railroads to transport raw materials and finished goods 3 Industrial Clusters—Europe, North America, and East Asia B Industrial Regions 1 Europe: Industrial Birthplace 2 North America: Industrial Leader 3 East Asia: The New Industrial Leader C Site Factors in Industry 1 Labor a labor-intensive industry—wages and compensation paid to employees constitute a high percentage of expenses b Fordist production—each worker performs one task repeatedly c post-Fordist production—workers organized into teams that provide a variety of tasks 2 Capital—funds to establish new factories or modernize existing ones 3 Land—land for building, and energy and other natural resources D Situation Factors: Inputs 1 Bulk-reducing Industry—locates near source of inputs in order to reduce transportation costs a steps in copper production i mining—bulky ore extracted from mines ii concentration—removal of ore from rock iii smelting—removal of impurities in mills located near mines iv refining—converted at refineries to 99.9 percent pure copper v manufacturing—transformed into other goods at foundries 2 Mineral Resources a nonmetallic minerals—building stones, gemstones, diamonds, elements used to make fertilizer b metallic minerals i ferrous alloys—contain iron, used in alloys ii nonferrous alloys—used to manufacture products, aluminum, gold, silver E Situation Factors: Proximity to Markets 1 Bulk-Gaining Industries—creates something that gains volume or weight during production 2 Single-Market Manufacturers—specialized manufacturer with only one or two customers 3 Perishable-Products Companies—located near customers, fresh milk and bread 4 Motor Vehicle Production & Sales—most assembled near market where they will be sold F Truck, Train, Ship, or Plane?

1 Long-distance transportation—the farther the something is transported the lower the cost per mile a trucks: short distances—easily loaded and unloaded, best for one-day long trips b train: cross-county shipment—destinations longer than one day c airplanes: small & valuable packages—most expensive, small-bulk, high-value package d boats: crossing oceans—shipment between continents 2 Break-of-Bulk Points—location where transfer between different modes of transportation is possible 336 .

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Chapter 11: Industry & Energy 3

Just-In Time Delivery—shipment of parts and materials to arrive at factor moments before they are needed a natural hazards—poor weather can affect deliveries b traffic—can delay deliveries c labor unrest—a strike at one supplier can shut down the entire production line

II Key Issue 11.2: Why Do Industries Face Energy Challenges?

A Energy Supply & Demand 1 Relationships a energy consumers are in developed countries, energy producers in developing countries b supplies of energy resources range from abundant to little 2 Energy Supply a animate power—power supplied by animals or by people b fossil fuels i coal—from residue of plants and animals, replaced wood as energy resource in 1800s ii petroleum—first pumped in 1859, use increased with diffusion of motor vehicles iii natural gas—primarily used to heat homes and produce electricity iv nonrenewable energy resources—finite supply can be exhausted, e.g., fossil fuels 3 Energy Demand a industry—natural gas and petroleum burned directly by industry, coal generates electricity b transportation—most run on petroleum c homes—natural gas used for home heating and air conditioning, coal burned for electricity d commercial—uses similar to that of homes B Energy Production 1 Distribution of Coal—reserves in mid-latitude countries, China produces half of world’s coal 2 Distribution of Petroleum—Russia and Saudi Arabia together produce one-fourth world’s petroleum 3 Distribution of Natural Gas—one third produced by Russia and Southwest Asia 4 Proven & Potential Reserves—proven reserves can be measured C Petroleum Challenges 1 World Oil Trade—developed countries import fossil fuels from developing countries, OPEC 2 U.S. Oil Supply & Demand—around 1950s view that importing petroleum would be less expensive than production, U.S. became a net importer 3 Potential Reserves of Petroleum—undiscovered but thought to exist, includes fields yet to be developed or yet to be discovered D Fossil Fuel Futures 1 Reducing Demand a conservation—reduce demand, e.g., energy efficient cars b price—as prices increase, people buy less 2 Unconventional Fossil Fuel Resources a oil sands—sand saturated with thick petroleum, Alberta oil sands b hydraulic fracturing—pumping water at high pressure to break apart rocks to release natural gas E Nuclear Energy 1 Distribution of Nuclear Power—two-thirds generated in developed countries 2 Potential Accidents a radioactive waste—fission produces nuclear waste which is highly radioactive and lethal b bomb material—may fall into the hands of terrorists c limited reserves—nonrenewable resources, uneven distribution d high cost—plants cost billions of dollars to produce

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography F

Energy Alternatives 1 Biomass—derived from burning wood, plant material, or animal waste or converting them to other materials 2 Hydroelectric Power—generating electricity from the movement of water 3 Wind Power—use of wind to generate electricity, expensive, concern about environment 4 Geothermal Energy—generating electricity from hot water or steam G Solar Energy 1 Passive Solar Energy—collects energy without the use of mechanical devices 2 Active Solar Energy—collects solar radiation through the use of mechanical devices and converts it to heat energy or electricity 3 Solar-Powered Electricity—can be produced at a central station and distributed by an electric company III Key Issue 11.3: Why Do Industries Face Pollution Challenges?

A Air Pollution 1 Local-Scale Air Pollution a carbon monoxide—breathing it reduces oxygen in blood b hydrocarbons—form photochemical smog c particulates—combination of dust and smoke particles 2 Regional-Scale Air Pollution a acid deposition—accumulation of sulfuric and/or nitric acid on Earth’s surface b acid precipitation—acids dissolved in water falling back to Earth as precipitation 3 Global-Scale Air Pollution: Climate Change—greenhouse effect, increase in Earth’s temperature caused by carbon dioxide trapping some of the radiation emitted by the surface 4 Global-Scale Air Pollution: Ozone Damage a chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)—coolants leak CFCs that threaten the protective ozone layer B Water Pollution 1 Demand for Water a nonconsumptive water usage—wastewater returned to lakes and streams as a liquid b consumptive water usage—water that evaporates rather than returned to nature as a liquid 2 Impact on Aquatic Life a Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)—amount of oxygen required by aquatic bacteria to decompose a given load of organic waste 3 Point-Source Pollution—enters a body of water at a specific location 4 Nonpoint-Source Pollution—comes from a large diffuse area, hard to trace C Solid Waste Pollution 1 Sanitary Landfill Solid Waste Disposal a sanitary landfill—trucked to landfills and buried under soil 2 Hazardous Waste—contains heavy metals, oils, and more D Recycling & Remanufacturing 1 Recycling—separation, collecting, processing, marketing, and reuse of unwanted material 2 Remanufacturing—rebuilding a product using a combination of reused, repaired, and new parts a paper b plastic c glass d aluminum

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Chapter 11: Industry & Energy IV Key Issue: 11.4: Why are Industries Changing Locations?

A Emerging Industrial Regions 1 New International Division of Labor—select transfer of some jobs to developing countries 2 Outsourcing—transnational corporations allocate production to low-wage countries a vertical integration—traditional mass production in which a company controls all phases of the production process b Mexico & Trade with Neighbors—trade agreements to eliminate barriers to moving goods between Mexico and the United States c Maquiladoras—plants in Mexico near the U.S. borders 3 BRICS Countries—Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa B Changing Site Factors: Clothing 1 Spinning—labor-intensive industry, low-wage countries, China and India major producers 2 Weaving—mechanized weaving, clustered in low-wage countries, China and India major fabric producers 3 Assembly—textiles cut and sewn into garments, carpets, home products, and industrial items, most consumers of assembled products in developed countries C Changing Situation Factors: Steel 1 Changing Distribution of World Steel Production—China a major steel producer, production in developed countries declining 2 Changing Distribution of U.S. Steel Production—steel minimills use scrap metal, located near markets D Industrial Change in Developed Regions 1 Intraregional Shifts in North America—shift from Northeast toward the South and West a Right-to-work law—requires a factory to have an open shop, so limits unions 2 Intraregional Shifts in Europe—from northwestern Europe to Southern and Eastern Europe

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Chapter Content Outline Key Issue 1: Where Is Industry Distributed?

Industry, Energy, & Geography The hearth of modern industry—meaning the manufacturing of goods in a factory—was in northern England and southern England during the second half of the eighteenth century.

From these two locations, industry diffused to Europe and to North America in the nineteenth century and to other regions in the twentieth century.

The Industrial Revolution The Industrial Revolution was a series of improvements in industrial technology that transformed the process of manufacturing goods. Prior to the Industrial Revolution, people made household tools and agricultural equipment in their own homes or obtained them in the local village.

Home-based manufacturing was known as the cottage industry system.

Several inventions transformed the way in which goods were manufactured, beginning with the steam engine.

The revolution in industrial technology created an unprecedented expansion in productivity, resulting in substantially higher standards of living. The Industrial Revolution resulted in new social, economic, and political inventions, not just traditional ones. The changes involved a gradual diffusion of new ideas and techniques over decades rather than an instantaneous revolution. Among the first industries impacted by the Industrial Revolution were iron, textiles, chemicals, and food processing.

Transportation Improvements in transportation were a critical factor in the diffusion of the Industrial Revolution. Canals and railroads supported the shipment of raw materials to the factories and finished goods to consumers.

Industrial Clusters and East Asia.

Industry is concentrated in three of the nine world regions—Europe, North America,

Europe: Industrial Birthplace Europe was the first region to industrialize. Depending on their geographic assets subareas specialized in different types of industry. Europe’s major industrial areas include: United Kingdom, Rhine-Ruhr Valley, St. Petersburg, Urals, Kuznetsk, Volga, Moscow, Donetsk, Silesia, Po Basin, Northeastern Spain, and Mid-Rhine. Each area developed based on the available energy and iron ore resources and supply of labor.

North America: Industrial Leader Traditional industrial areas in North America were highly concentrated in the northeastern United States and southeastern Canada along the Great Lakes. Recently manufacturing has relocated to the South because of lower wages and restrictions on labor unions. North America’s major industrial areas include: Northern California, Southeastern Ontario, Mohawk Valley, New England, Middle Atlantic, Pittsburgh-Lake Erie, Western Great Lakes, and Southern California.

East Asia: The New Industrial Leader In the second half of the twentieth century East Asia became an important industrial region. China is the world’s leading manufacturing country. East Asia’s manufacturing regions include: China, South Korea, and Japan.

Site Factors in Industry Industrial location factors related to the cost of factors of production inside a plant are known as site factors. These site factors include labor, capital, and land.

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Chapter 11: Industry & Energy Labor Minimizing labor costs is important for some industries and the variation of labor costs around the world is large. A labor-intensive industry is an industry in which wages and other compensation paid to employees constitutes a high percentage of expenses. The reverse case, an industry with a much lower-thanaverage percentage of expenditures on labor, is considered capital intensive.

A labor-intensive industry is not the same as a high-wage industry. Labor-intensive is measured as a percentage, whereas high-wage is measured in dollars. Motor vehicle workers are paid much higher hourly wages than textile workers, yet the textile industry is labor intensive and the auto industry is not.

Traditionally factories assigned each work a specific task to perform repeatedly. Geographers call this approach Fordist production, because of the use of the assembly line by the Ford Motor Company. Workers organized in teams perform a variety of production tasks in a more flexible production approach termed postFordist production that relies on teams, problem solving, leveling, and productivity.

Capital The availability of capital is key to the location of an industry. The U.S. motor-vehicle industry concentrated in Michigan early in the twentieth century largely because that region’s financial institutions were more willing than eastern banks to lend money to the industry’s pioneers. High-tech industries have been risky propositions—roughly two-thirds of them fail— but Silicon Valley financial institutions have continued to lend money to engineers who have good ideas so that they can buy the software, communications, and networks they need to get started. The ability to borrow money has become a critical factor in the distribution of industry in developing countries.

Land The actual location of a factory as well as energy and other natural resources are components of the land site factor. Early factories were located inside cities. Contemporary factories operate most efficiently when laid out in one-story buildings. Raw materials are typically delivered at one end and moved through the factory in conveyors or forklift trucks. The land needed to build one-story factories is now more likely to be available in suburban and rural locations. With trucks now responsible for transporting most inputs and products, proximity to major highways is important for factories. Especially attractive is the proximity to the junction of a long-distance route and the beltway, or ring road that encircles most cities.

Situation Factors Location factors associated with the transportation of materials into and from a factory are known as situation factors in which a firm seeks a location that minimizes the cost of transporting inputs to the factory and finished goods to consumers. The farther something is transported, the higher the cost.

Depending on the goods produced, manufacturers either locate near the inputs or near the market.

Situation Factors: Inputs An industry in which the inputs weigh more than the final products is a bulk-reducing industry. To minimize transportation costs, a bulk-reducing industry locates near the sources of inputs.

Bulk-reducing Industry: Copper Copper production involves several steps. Mining copper ore is a bulkreducing industry because the heavy, bulky ore that is extracted from the mines is mostly waste. The second step in copper production is the concentration mills that grind the ore into fine particles that are then mixed with water and filtered and dried. Copper smelters then remove more impurities. The purified copper produced by smelters is then treated at refineries to produce copper cathodes, about 99.99 percent pure copper. Most refineries are located near smelters. Copper that is ready for use in other products is produced in foundries. As a bulk reducing industry, copper concentration mills and smelters are built near the mines to minimize transportation costs. Because so much waste has already been disposed of, proximity to the mines is a less 341 .

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography critical factor in determining the location of the foundries.

Mineral Resources Minerals are particularly important inputs for many industries. Minerals are either nonmetallic or metallic. In weight, more than 90 percent of minerals that humans use are nonmetallic. Building stones, gemstones, and fertilizers are examples of nonmetallic minerals that humans commonly use. Metallic minerals have properties that are especially valuable for fashioning machinery, vehicles, and other essential elements of contemporary society.

Many metals are capable of combining with other metals to form alloys with distinctive properties important for industry. A ferrous alloy contains iron and a nonferrous one does not. Iron is extracted from iron ore, by far the world’s most widely used ore. Important metals used to make ferrous alloys include chromium, manganese, molybdenum, nickel, tin, titanium, and tungsten. Important metals used to manufacture products that do not contain iron and steel include aluminum, copper, lead, lithium, magnesium, zinc, precious metals, and rare earth metals. Mineral resources are not distributed evenly. Few important minerals are found in Europe, Central Asia, and Southwest Asia & North Africa.

Situation Factors: Proximity to Markets For many firms, the optimal location is close to customers.

Proximity to markets is a critical locational factor for three types of industries: bulk-gaining industries, singlemarket manufacturers, and perishable-products companies.

Bulk-Gaining Industries A bulk-gaining industry makes something that gains volume or weight during production. To minimize transport costs, a bulk-gaining industry needs to locate near where the product is sold. A prominent example of a bulk-gaining industry is the fabrication of parts and machinery from steel and other metals. For example, steelmakers have traditionally located near raw materials; steel fabricators have traditionally located near the markets. Beverage bottlers also locate near large markets to cut down on the cost of shipping.

Single-Market Manufacturers A single-market manufacturer is a specialized manufacturer with only one or two customers. The optimal location for these factories is often in close proximity to the customers. An example of a single-market manufacturer is a producer of buttons, zippers, clips, pins, or other specialized components attached to clothing. The makers of parts for motor vehicles are another example of specialized manufacturers with only one or two customers.

Perishable-Products Companies To deliver their products to consumers as rapidly as possible, perishableproduct industries must be located near their markets. Because few people want stale bread or sour milk, food producers such as bakers and milk bottlers must locate near their customers to assure rapid delivery. The daily newspaper is an example of a product other than food that is highly perishable because it contains dated information. Newspaper publishers must locate near the markets to minimize transportation costs. People demand their newspaper as soon as it is printed.

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Chapter 11: Industry & Energy Motor Vehicle Production & Sales The motor vehicle is a noted example of a fabricated metal product that is likely to be built near its market. Around 90 million new vehicles are sold every year worldwide. China accounts for 30 percent of those sales, other Asian countries 25 percent, Europe 23 percent, and North America (including Mexico, 21 percent. Most of the vehicles that are produced in these regions are sold in their respective markets.

Truck, Train, Ship, or Plane? Inputs and products are transported in one of four ways: truck, train, boat or airplane. In all four modes the farther a product is transported, the lower the cost per unit distance. Longerdistance transportation is cheaper per unit distance in part because firms must pay workers to load goods on and off vehicles, whether the material travels 10 kilometers or 10,000. The cost per kilometer decreases at variable rates for each of the four modes because the loading and unloading expenses differ for each mode.

Trucks: Short Distances Trucks are primarily used for short-distance delivery because they can be loaded and unloaded quickly and at low costs.

Trains: Cross-Country Shipment Trains are often used to ship to destinations that take longer than one day to reach, such as between the East and West coasts of the United States. Loading trains takes longer than loading trucks, but once under way, trains are not required to make daily rest stops like trucks.

Airplanes: Small & Valuable Packages Airplanes are most expensive for all distances and are usually reserved for expedited delivery of small-bulk, high-value packages.

Boats: Crossing Oceans Ships are attractive for transport over very long distances because the cost per kilometer is very low. Ships are slower than land-based transportation, but unlike trains or trucks, they can cross oceans.

Break-of-Bulk Points Mixed modes of transportation are often used. Industries which use a number of different shipping modes tend to locate at break-of-bulk points, which is a location where transfer among transportation modes is possible. Important break-of-bulk points include seaports and airports. Containerization has facilitated transfer of packages between modes. Containers may be set on rail cars, transferred quickly to a container ship to cross the ocean and unloaded on to trucks at the other end. Large ships have been specially built to accommodate large numbers of rectangular box-like containers. Regardless of transportation mode, costs increase each time inputs or products are transferred from one mode to another. For example, workers must unload goods from a truck and then reload them onto a plane.

Just-in-Time Delivery Proximity to market has become more relevant in recent years due to the emergence of just-in-time delivery. Just-in-time delivery is the shipment of parts and materials to a factory moments before they are needed in the production process. Just-in-time delivery is especially important for delivery of inputs, such as parts and raw materials, to manufacturers of fabricated products, such as cars and computers.

Under a just-in-time system, parts and materials arrive at a factory frequently, in many cases daily or even hourly. Just-in-time delivery minimizes the costs a manufacturer incurs in wasteful inventory, and in storage space. However, natural disasters, traffic, and labor unrest can disrupt just-in-time delivery systems.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography

Key Issue 2: Why Do Industries Face Energy Challenges?

Energy Supply & Demand Industry depends on abundant low-cost energy. Large quantities of energy are required to operate factories as well as to transport inputs into factories and products from factories to consumers. Energy is also required to produce food, keep homes comfortable, and transport people.

Demand The heaviest consumers of energy are in developed countries, whereas most of the energy sources are currently found in developing countries. As resources are not distributed evenly, the supply and demand of energy resources is an issue dividing developed and developing countries.

Energy Supply Earth’s energy resources are not distributed evenly. Historically people depended on animate power, which is power supplied by animals or the people themselves. Today, five-sixths of the world’s energy is supplied by three fossil fuels—coal, petroleum, and natural gas. A fossil fuel is an energy source formed from the residue of plants and animals buried millions of years ago. Pressure and chemical reactions converted them to the energy sources we use today.

Coal replaced wood as the leading energy source in North America and Europe during industrialization. Even though petroleum was first pumped in 1859, it did not become an important energy resource until the diffusion of motor vehicles in the twentieth century. Natural gas, once thought to be a waste product, is now used to heat homes and produce electricity. These three fossil fuels are nonrenewable resources that have finite supplies and can be exhausted. The United States is highly dependent on all three fossil fuels.

Energy Demand The demand for energy is evenly divided between developed and developing countries.

The consumption of fossil fuels has been increasing at a faster rate in developing countries. China uses more energy that the United States. The highest per capita consumption of energy is still in North America, where one-twentieth of the world’s people consume one-fourth of the world’s energy. Demand for energy comes from four primary types of consumption in the United States: • • • •

Industries Factories use approximately 40 percent natural gas and 30 percent each coal and petroleum. Coal is used to generate electricity.

Transportation Almost all transportation systems run on petroleum products.

Homes Natural gas and coal provide approximately equal shares of home needs.

Commercial Stores and offices have uses and sources similar to those for homes.

Energy Production Fossil fuels are not distributed evenly. The uneven distribution of fossil fuels reflects how they were formed.

Distribution of Coal Coal formed in lush, tropical swampy tropical areas rich in plants. Thanks to the slow movement of Earth’s drifting continents, the tropical swamps of 250 million years ago have relocated to the mid-latitudes. China produces nearly one-half of the world’s coal, other developing countries one-fourth, and the United the remaining one-fourth.

Distribution of Petroleum Petroleum formed millions of years ago from residue deposited on the seafloor.

Some still lies beneath such seas as the Persian Gulf and North Sea, but other reserves are located beneath land that was under water millions of years ago. Russia and Saudi Arabia together supply one-fourth of the world’s petroleum, other developing countries (primarily Southwest Asia & North Africa and Central Asia), one-half, and developed countries (primarily the United States), the remaining one-fourth.

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Chapter 11: Industry & Energy Distribution of Natural Gas Similar to petroleum natural gas formed millions of years ago from sediment deposited on the seafloor. One-third of the world’s natural gas production is supplied by Russia and Southwest Asia, one-third by other developing regions, and one-third by developed countries (primarily the United States).

Proven & Potential Reserves The supply of energy remaining in deposits that have been discovered is called a proven reserve.

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Coal World reserves are approximately 1 quadrillion metric tons. At current demand, proven coal reserves would last 110 years. The United States, Russia, China, and Australia have 70 percent of the world’s proven coal reserves.

Natural Gas. World reserves are approximately 7,000 trillion cubic meters. At current demand, proven natural gas reserves would last 54 years. Iran, Russia, and Qatar together have one-half of the world’s proven reserves.

Petroleum. World reserves are approximately 1.7 trillion barrels. At current demand, proven petroleum reserves would last 43 years, Venezuela and Saudi Arabia are the two leading locations of petroleum reserves.

Petroleum Challenges Most of the world’s petroleum is supplied by countries in Southwest Asia & North Africa and Central Asia, regions where religious, ethnic, and political conflicts are common.

World Oil Trade Even though developed countries have large supplies of fossil fuels, energy demand exceeds production, so they must import fossil fuels. The largest flows of oil are from Russia to Europe and from Canada to the United States.

In 1960 several developing countries primarily in Southwest Asia & North Africa possessing substantial petroleum reserves created the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC). OPEC was originally formed to enable oil-rich countries to gain more control over their resources. U.S. and European transnational companies, which had originally explored and exploited the oil fields, were selling the petroleum at low prices to consumers in developed countries and keeping most of the profits. Countries possessing the oil reserves nationalized or more tightly controlled the fields, and prices were set by governments rather than by petroleum companies.

U.S. Oil Supply & Demand During the first half of the twentieth century the United States produced more petroleum than it consumed. The United States became a net importer of petroleum, when in the 1950s transnational petroleum companies determined it was cheaper to import petroleum Southwest and Central Asia than to extract it from U.S. sources. Since 1973, the major source of petroleum for the United States has been Canada delivered via pipelines.

Potential Reserves of Petroleum The supply of undiscovered fossil fuel deposits thought to exist is a potential reserve. When a potential reserve is actually discovered, it is reclassified as a proven reserve.

Potential reserves can be converted to proven reserves from fields that have yet to be developed, or from fields yet to be discovered. Extraction costs may be expensive. As energy prices increase, high extraction costs may be justified.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Fossil Fuel Futures Even though petroleum will not run out during the twenty-first century, extraction of petroleum will prove to be too expensive and environmentally damaging.

Reducing Demand Developed countries seek to lower the demand for petroleum in two ways— conservation and price. Demand for petroleum has been dampened in developed countries through conservation. Factories have reduced their demand for petroleum, principally by consuming more natural gas.

Higher gas mileage standards have been enacted by regulatory bodies in many countries to help ease demand for petroleum. While the world will not totally deplete petroleum reserves in the twenty-first century, at some point extracting the remaining reserves will be so expensive and environmentally damaging that use of alternative energy sources will accelerate, and dependence on petroleum will diminish. In the future, all countries will need to pursue sustainable development strategies based on increased reliance on renewable energy sources Unconventional Fossil Fuel Resources Resources are considered unconventional if we lack economically feasible or environmentally sound technology with which to extract them. As demand increases for a resource and prices rise, exploiting an unconventional source can be profitable. Oil sands and hydraulic fracturing (commonly known as fracking) are two current examples.

Nuclear Energy Even though nuclear power is not renewable, some view it as an alternative to fossil fuels.

The large amount of energy released from a small amount of material makes it an attractive alternative. One kilogram of enriched nuclear fuel contains more than 2 million time the energy in 1 kilogram of coal.

Challenges are presented by nuclear power, though.

Distribution of Nuclear Power Nuclear power supplies 14 percent of the world’s electricity. Two-thirds of the world’s nuclear power is generated in developed countries, with Europe and North America responsible for generating one-third each. Only 30 of the world’s nearly 200 countries employ nuclear power in some capacity, including 19 developed countries and only 11 developing countries.

Potential Accidents A nuclear power plant produces electricity from energy released by splitting uranium atoms in a controlled environment in a process known as fission. One product of all nuclear reactions is radioactive waste, certain types of which are lethal to people exposed to it. While nuclear power plants cannot explode, it is possible to have a runaway reaction, which overheats the reactor, causing a meltdown, possible steam explosions, and scattering of radioactive material into the atmosphere. The nuclear incidents in Chernobyl and Japan’s Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plants are prominent examples of nuclear-related disasters.

Radioactive Waste The waste from nuclear fission is highly radioactive and lethal, and it remains so for many years. Plutonium for making nuclear weapons can be harvested from this waste. Pipes, concrete, and water near the fissioning fuel also become “hot” with radioactivity. No one has yet devised permanent storage for radioactive waste.

Bomb Material The world has eight acknowledged nuclear powers. The diffusion of nuclear programs to countries supportive of terrorists is a major threat today.

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Chapter 11: Industry & Energy Limited Reserves Like fossil fuels, uranium is a nonrenewable resource. Proven uranium reserves will last about 124 years at current rates of use. Uranium reserves are not distributed evenly around the world: Australia has 29 percent of the world’s proven uranium reserves, Kazakhstan 13 percent, and Canada and Russia 9 percent each.

High Cost Nuclear power plants cost several billion dollars to build, primarily because of the elaborate safety measures required. Without double and triple backup systems at nuclear power plants, nuclear energy would be too dangerous to use. Uranium is mined in one place, refined in another, and used in still another.

Mining uranium can pollute land and water and damage miners’ health. The complexities of secure transportation add to the cost. Consequently, generating electricity from nuclear plants is much more expensive than from coal-burning plants. Some nuclear power issues might be addressed through nuclear fusion, which is the fusing of hydrogen atoms to form helium. Fusion can occur only at very high temperatures (millions of degrees) that cannot be generated on a sustained basis in a power-plant reactor with current technology.

Energy Alternatives Renewable energy resources have an essentially unlimited supply and are not depleted when used by people.

Biomass Before the widespread use of fossil fuels, biomass was a principal energy source. Biomass fuel is derived from burning wood, plant material, and animal waste directly or converting them to charcoal, alcohol, or methane gas. When carefully harvested in forests, wood is a renewable resource that can be used to generate electricity and heat. The waste from processing wood, such as for building construction and demolition, is also available. And crops such as sugarcane, corn, and soybeans can be processed into motor-vehicle fuels.

The prospects for increasing the use of biomass for fuel is limited, for several reasons: •

Burning biomass may be inefficient, as the energy required to produce the crops may be as much as the energy supplied by the crops.

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Biomass already serves essential purposes other than energy, such as providing much of Earth’s food, clothing, and shelter.

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When wood is burned for fuel instead of being left in the forest, the fertility of the forest may be compromised.

Hydroelectric Power Generating electricity from the movement of water is called hydroelectric power.

Hydroelectric is now the world’s second-most-popular source of electricity, after coal. Two-thirds of the world’s hydroelectric power is generated in developing countries and one-third in developed countries. A number of developing countries rely on hydroelectric power for most of their electricity.

Wind Power Wind power has greater potential for increased use because only a fraction of the resource, wind, has been harnessed. Despite its perceived and actual benefits, wind power has been harnessed in only a few places. Ninety percent of total world wind energy production is concentrated in China, North America, and Europe. A significant hurdle for developing countries in pursuing wind power is the high cost of wind turbine construction. Some critics oppose construction of wind turbines because they can be noisy, lethal for birds and bats, and may obscure the natural beauty of a landscape.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Geothermal Energy Energy from hot water or steam is called geothermal energy. Natural nuclear reactions make Earth’s interior hot. Toward the surface, in volcanic areas, this heat is especially pronounced.

The hot rocks can encounter groundwater and produce heated water or steam that can be tapped by wells.

Harnessing geothermal energy is most feasible at sites along Earth’s surface where crustal plates meet, which are also the sites of many earthquakes and volcanoes. The United States, the Philippines, and Indonesia are the leading producers of geothermal power.

Solar Energy The ultimate renewable resource for sustainable development is solar energy supplied by the Sun. Solar energy provides the possibility for countries at low levels of development to promote sustainable development. Solar energy may serve as a way for developing countries to obtain electricity needed to operate businesses, schools, and hospitals. Solar sources currently supply only 1 percent of the electricity generated in the United States, although the potential for growth is limitless.

Passive Solar Energy Solar energy is harnessed through either passive or active methods. Passive solar energy systems capture energy without using special devices. These systems use south-facing windows and dark surfaces to heat and light building on sunny days. The Sun’s rays penetrate the windows and are converted to heat. Greenhouses are a prime example of the applications of passive solar energy.

Active Solar Energy Active solar energy systems collect solar energy through the use of mechanical devices and convert it either to heat energy or to electricity. The conversion can be accomplished either directly or indirectly. In direct electric conversion, solar radiation is captured with photovoltaic cells, which convert light energy to electrical energy. The photovoltaic cell was invented by Bell Laboratories in 1954. In indirect electric conversion, solar radiation is first converted to heat and then to electricity.

Solar Powered Electricity Solar power can be produced at a central station and distributed by an electric company, as coal-and nuclear-generated electricity are now supplied. There is little incentive for public and private utility companies to pursue solar technology, as coal remains cheap and significant investments in nuclear power have already been made. In developing countries, the largest and fastest-growing market for photovoltaic cells includes the 2 billion people who lack electricity, especially residents of remote villages. In order for countries to justify the expense of adopting solar powered electricity technologies, the cost of cells must drop, and their efficiency

Key Issue 3: Why Do Industries Face Pollution Challenges?

Air Pollution Pollution occurs when more waste is added than air, water, and land resources can handle.

At ground level, Earth’s average atmosphere is made up of about 78 percent nitrogen, 21 percent oxygen, and less than 1 percent argon. The remaining 0.04 percent includes several trace gases. Air pollution is a concentration of trace substances at a greater level than occurs in average air. These high concentrations of trace gases in the air can damage property and negatively affect the health of people, other animals, and vegetation. Most air pollution is caused by factories and power plants, in addition to motor vehicles. Factories and power plants produce sulfur dioxides and solid particulates, principally from burning coal. Carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, and nitrogen oxides are released into the atmosphere when motor vehicles burn petroleum.

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Chapter 11: Industry & Energy Local-Scale Air Pollution At the local scale, air pollution is especially severe in places where emission sources are concentrated, such as urban areas. Urban air pollution has three basic elements: • • •

Carbon monoxide Breathing carbon monoxide reduces the oxygen level in blood, impairs vision and alertness, and threatens those with breathing problems.

Hydrocarbons Hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides in the presence of sunlight form photochemical smog, which causes respiratory problems, stinging in the eyes, and an ugly haze over cities.

Particulates These pollutants include dust and smoke particles. The dark plume of smoke from a factory stack and the exhaust of a diesel truck are examples of particulate emission.

Regional-Scale Air Pollution Air pollution may damage a region’s vegetation and water supply through acid deposition. Acid deposition is the accumulation of acids on Earth’s surface. Sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides enter Earth’s atmosphere through the burning of fossil fuels, combine with oxygen and water to form sulfuric acid and nitric acid, and are deposited on Earth’s surface. Acid precipitation is the conversion of sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides to acids that return to Earth as rain, snow, or fog. Acid precipitation damages lakes, killing fish and plants. On land, concentrations of acid in the soil can injure plants by depriving them of nutrients and can harm worms and insects. Buildings and monuments made of marble and limestone have suffered corrosion from acid rain. Geographers are particularly interested in the effects of acid precipitation because the worst damage is not experienced at the same location as the emission of the pollutants.

Global-Scale Air Pollution: Climate Change Between 1880 and 2014, the average temperature of Earth’s surface increased by 0.89°C (1.6°F). An international team of U.N. scientists has concluded that this temperature increase is directly linked to human actions, particularly the burning of fossil fuels in factories and vehicles. Carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere when fossil fuels are burned. According to U.N. scientists, the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has increased by more than one-fourth during the past 200 years. A concentration of trace gasses in the atmosphere can block or delay the return of some of the heat leaving the surface heading for space, thereby raising Earth’s temperature. When fossil fuels are burned, one of the trace gases, carbon dioxide, is discharged into the atmosphere. The anticipated increase in Earth’s temperature, caused by carbon dioxide trapping some of the radiation emitted by the surface, is called the greenhouse effect. As a country’s per capita income increases, its per capita carbon dioxide emissions generally increase.

Global-Scale Air Pollution: Ozone Damage Geographers can examine air pollution at three scales: global, regional, and local. Climate change and ozone damage are both global-scale issues.

Ozone Damage The stratosphere contains a concentration of ozone gas. The ozone layer absorbs dangerous ultraviolet rays from the Sun. Were it not for the ozone in the stratosphere, ultraviolet rays would damage plants, cause skin cancer, and disrupt food chains. Earth’s protective ozone layer is threatened by pollutants called chlorofluorocarbons.

Water Pollution Water pollution is a widespread problem because it is easy to dump waste into a river and let the water carry it downstream, where it becomes someone else’s problem. Water can decompose some waste without negatively affecting other activities, but the volume of waste often exceeds the capacity that many rivers and lakes can accommodate.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Demand for Water Humans use approximately 3.6 trillion cubic meters (950 billion gallons) of water per year, or around 500 cubic meters (132,000) per capita. The most demand is for electricity, followed by agriculture and municipal sewage systems. Water usage is either nonconsumptive or consumptive.

Nonconsumptive water usage is use of water that is returned to nature as a liquid. Most industrial and municipal uses of water are nonconsumptive because the wastewater is primarily discharged into lakes and streams. Consumptive water usage is use of water that evaporates rather than being returned to nature as a liquid. Most agricultural uses are consumptive because the water is used primarily to supply plants that transpire it and therefore it cannot be treated and reused.

Impact on Aquatic Life Polluted water can harm aquatic life. A commonly used measure of water pollution is biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), which is the amount of oxygen required by aquatic bacteria to decompose a given amount of organic waste. Aquatic plants and animals consume oxygen and so does the decomposing organic waste that humans dump in the water. If too much waste is discharged into water, the water becomes oxygen starved and the fish die. Many factories and power plants use water for cooling and then discharge the warm water back into the river or lake. Fish adapted to cold water, such as salmon or trout, might not be able to survive the warmer water.

Point Source Pollution The sources of pollution can be divided into point sources and nonpoint sources.

Point source pollution enters a body of water at a specific location. Nonpoint source pollution comes from a large, diffuse area. Point source pollutants are usually smaller in quantity and much easier to control than nonpoint source pollutants. Water-using manufacturers and municipal sewage are the two main point sources of water pollution.

Nonpoint Source Pollution Nonpoint sources usually pollute in greater quantities and are much harder to control than point sources of pollution. The principal nonpoint source is agriculture. Fertilizers and pesticides spread on fields to increase agricultural productivity are carried into rivers and lakes by irrigation systems or natural runoff.

Solid Waste Pollution The average American generates about 2 kilograms (4 pounds) of solid waste per day.

Residences generate around 60 percent of the solid waste, while businesses account for the remaining 40 percent.

Paper products account for the largest share of solid waste in the United States, especially among residences and retailers. Manufacturers throw away large quantities of metals as well as paper.

Sanitary Landfill Solid Waste Disposal Using a sanitary landfill is by far the most common strategy for disposal of solid waste in the United States. Thousands of small-town “dumps” have been closed and replaced by a small number of large regional ones. Given the shortage of landfills, alternatives have been sought to dispose of solid waste. A rapidly growing alternative is incineration. Burning releases some toxins into the air and some toxins also remain in ash. Thus, solving one pollution problem may increase another.

Hazardous Waste Disposing of hazardous waste is especially difficult. Hazardous waste includes heavy metals (including mercury, cadmium, and zinc), PCB oils from electrical equipment, cyanides, strong solvents, acids, and caustics. These may be unwanted by-products generated in manufacturing or waste to be discarded after usage. If poisonous industrial residuals are not carefully placed in protective containers, the chemicals may leach into the soil and contaminate groundwater or escape into the atmosphere.

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Chapter 11: Industry & Energy Recycling and Remanufacturing Recycling is the separation, collection, processing, marketing, and reuse of unwanted material. Remanufacturing is the rebuilding of a product to specifications of the original manufactured product using a combination of reused, repaired, and new parts.

Recycling Recycling has increased in the United States from 7 percent of all solid waste in 1970 to 34 percent in 2013. As a result of recycling, about 87 million of the 254 million tons of solid waste generated in the United States in 2013 did not have to go to landfills and incinerators, compared to 34 million of the 200 million tons generated in 1990. The percentage of materials recovered by recycling varies widely by product: 50 percent of paper products and 24 percent of yard trimmings are recycled, compared to less than 10 percent for other sources of solid waste.

Remanufacturing Recycled materials can be remanufactured into new products. Four major manufacturing sectors accounted for more than half of the recycling activity: paper mills, steel mills, plastic converters, and iron and steel foundries. Common household items that contain remanufactured materials include newspapers and paper towels; aluminum, plastic, and glass soft-drink containers; steel cans; and plastic laundry detergent bottles.

Key Issue 4: Why Are Industries Changing Locations?

Emerging Industrial Regions In 1970, nearly one-half of world industry was in Europe and nearly onethird was in North America. Currently, these two regions constitute only one-quarter each of world industry.

Industry’s share of total economic output has steadily declined in developed countries since the 1970s. The share of world industry in other regions has increased—from one-sixth in 1970 to one-half in 2010.

Outsourcing Transnational corporations have been particularly aggressive in using low-cost labor in developing countries. To remain competitive in the global economy, they identify steps in their production processes that can be performed by low-paid, low-skilled workers in developing countries. The new international division of labor is the selective transfer of some jobs to developing countries. Transnational corporations allocate production to low-wage countries through outsourcing, which is turning over much of the responsibility for production to independent suppliers. Outsourcing has led to intense scrutiny in the determination of optimal locations in the production process. Outsourcing contrasts with the approach typical of traditional mass production, called vertical integration, in which a company controls all phases of a highly complex production process.

Mexico & Trade with Neighbors and NAFTA Because it is the nearest low-wage country to the United States, Mexico attracts labor-intensive industries that also need proximity to the U.S. market. Plants in Mexico near the U.S. border are known as maquiladoras, from the Spanish verb maqullar, which means “to receive payment for grinding or processing corn.” Under U.S. and Mexican laws, companies receive tax breaks if they ship materials from the United States, assemble the components at a maquiladora plant in Mexico, and export the finished product back to the United States.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography BRICS Countries Much of the world’s future growth in manufacturing is expected to locate outside the principal industrial regions described earlier. The financial analysis firm Goldman Sachs coined the acronym BRICS to indicate the countries it expects to dominate global manufacturing during the twenty-first century: Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa. The five BRICS countries together currently control 26 percent of the world’s land area and contains 24 percent of the world’s inhabitants. Their economies rank second (China), seventh (India), ninth (Brazil), eleventh (Russia), and thirty-fourth (South Africa).

Changing Site Factors: Clothing Production of textiles (woven fabrics) and apparel (clothing) is a prominent example of an industry that generally requires less-skilled, low-cost workers. Textile and apparel production involve three principal steps: spinning of fibers to make yarn; weaving or knitting of yarn into fabric; and assembly of fabric into products. Spinning, weaving, and sewing are all labor intensive compared to other industries, but the importance of labor varies somewhat among them.

Spinning Fibers can be spun from natural or synthetic elements. The primary natural fiber is cotton, and synthetics now account for three-quarters of world thread production. Because it is a labor-intensive industry, spinning is done primarily in low-wage countries. China produces one-quarter and India one-fifth of the world’s cotton thread.

Weaving For thousands of years, fabric has been woven or laced together by hand on a loom, which is a frame on which two sets of threads are place at right angles to each other. One set of threads, called the warp, is strung lengthwise. A second set of threads, called the weft, is carried in a shuttle that is inserted over and under the warp. For mechanized weaving, labor makes up a high percentage of the total production cost. As a result, weaving is primarily found on low-wage countries.

Assembly Sewing by hand is a human activity with a past that dates back tens of thousands of years. Textiles are cut and sewn to be assembled into four main types of products: garments, carpets, home products such as bed linens and curtains, and industrial items such as headliners for motor vehicles. Developed countries play a larger role in assembly than in spinning and weaving because most of the consumers of assembled products are located in developed countries.

Changing Distribution of World Steel Production As manufacturing has shifted to new industrial regions so has steel production. In 1980, 81 percent of world steel was produced in developed counties. A shift occurred between 1980 and 2016 with developed countries producing only 35 percent of the world’s steel.

Developing countries produce 65 percent of the world’s steel. The amount of steel produced has also increased.

In 2017, China produced over 50 per cent of the world’s steel.

Changing Distribution of U.S. Steel Production Because of the need for large quantities of bulky, heavy iron ore and coal, steelmaking traditionally clustered near sources of the two key raw materials. Within the United States, the distribution of steel production has changed several times because of changing inputs. As sources and importance of these inputs changed, so did the optimal location for steel production within the United States. The increasing importance of proximity to markets is demonstrated by the recent growth of steel minimills. Rather than iron ore and coal, the main input into minimill production is scrap metal. Minimills are less expensive to operate than traditional steel mills and they can locate near their markets because their main input—scrap metal—is widely available.

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Chapter 11: Industry & Energy Industrial Change in Developed Regions In developed countries, industry is shifting away from the traditional industrial areas of northwestern Europe and the northeastern United States.

Intraregional Shifts in North America In the United States, industry has shifted from the Northeast toward the South and West. The principal lure for many manufacturers to locate in the South has been right-to-work laws. A right-to-work law requires a factory to maintain a so-called “open shop” and prohibits a “closed shop”.

In a “closed shop” a company and union agree that everyone must join a union to work in the factory. In states with right-to-work laws it is much more difficult for unions to organize factory workers, collect dues, and bargain with employers from a position of strength.

Intraregional Shifts in Europe Manufacturing has diffused from traditional industrial centers in northwestern Europe towards Southern and Eastern Europe. Government policies have encouraged relocation of industries to economically distressed peripheral areas. Since the fall of communism in the early 1990s, investment in Central Europe has increased, especially in Czechia, Hungary, Poland, and Slovakia. Central Europe offers manufacturers two important site and situation factors: labor and market proximity.

Introducing the Chapter The chapter enters on a dark note: the loss of manufacturing jobs in the United States at the dawn of the twenty-first century. It’s a fine place to start for many of our students, and a great way to make what might otherwise be perceived as a boring subject matter very relevant. A similar approach to the outsourcing of service jobs can be used to introduce Chapter 12.

Student Engagement Activity Ideas What’s made here?

Manufacturing establishments are not equally distributed. Each place on Earth possesses a unique combination of natural, human, and capital resources. Have the class compile a list of natural, human, and capital resources contained within the community. Does the list of resources include many that could be used to support an industrial enterprise? Do students consider the community industrial? Discuss the reasons underlying their answers.

Rivers and Cities This exercise can also be used for Chapter 13, Urban Patterns.

Using an online mapping service, challenge the students: Can you name a major North American city that is not located on a river or with access to the ocean?

Las Vegas will invariably come up. Use the opportunity to discuss why Las Vegas is located where it is. Most other examples are on the ocean, on a river, or both. Enter the city name into the search tool to demonstrate this.

Next ask the following:

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Can you think of any other cities in the world?

Again, students will be hard pressed to find a city of significant size that is not served by a river, the ocean, or both.

The availability of efficient transport (not to mention water supply) is fundamental to a city with industrial output at any appreciable scale.

Two basic materials are needed for industrialization. Fresh water for drinking and resources (mineral and energy). Ask students to predict the average educational level of workers in the community near the university, major mineral deposits, source of drinking water, and energy resources.

Challenges to Comprehension Other “Industries” Similar to the confusion over the meaning of “state”, students may have heard “industry” used in more general terms than the text’s strict definition. For clarity, simply explain that industry applies only to manufactured goods of some sort, and does not include the following “industries.”

• • • •

The recreation industry The restaurant industry The hospitality industry The travel industry

Site vs. Situation Students usually grasp the reasons for an industry locating close to inputs vs. close to markets—but then they forget these reasons for industrial location as soon as they learn about site factors, or confuse the two.

The review questions below may help students distinguish between these issues: Sometimes site factors are so overwhelming that situation factors are ignored, and vice versa. In other cases, a combination of site and situation factors may be at play.

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Additional Classroom Activities and Assignments Review/Reflection Questions These questions can be used in addition to the “thinking geographically” questions at the end of each chapter.

Students can be assigned these questions as homework, they can be given as essay questions on exams, or they can serve as focus questions for in-class discussions.

The italicized section that follows the question sets the criteria and parameters for student answers. Use these suggestions to provide guidance in the assessment of student answers. In addition, a sample answer has been provided. Know that student answers will vary based on the examples and explanations you provided in class.

•

Name some industries local to your community. Identify and explain the situation and site factors involved in each industry’s location.

Student answers should clearly identify an industry as well as provide specifics for the situation and site factors. Responses should clearly make a distinction between a site factors (related to the costs of production, e.g., land, labor, or capital) and situation factors (relating to the transportation of materials to and from the factory, connections).

Sample answer New craft breweries have been opening throughout the region. Most are located in former industrial areas in repurposed warehouses.

•

Now pick an industry and describe how its closing would affect the community’s economy. Would the jobs lost in the closing be the only effects? Explain.

Student answers should identify an industry and explain the effects in the area’s economy. Student answers should identify other effects of the closure.

Sample answer My region has many shipyards and military installations. Closing of a military installation would greatly affect the regional economy. With a decrease in workers at the military installation, many civilian businesses would be affected, from grocery stores, to banks, fast food restaurants, and more. In addition to the loss of jobs, school enrollments would decline and with a reduced number of taxpayers, tax rates might increase in order to continue to provide city services.

•

Give an example, not from the text, of an industry that is likely to locate closer to inputs and explain.

Students should provide an example of an industry that is likely to locate close to inputs. The example of copper smelting would not be a valid answer as it is presented in the text. The explanation should reference the reason why the industry locates near the inputs rather than near the market. Use of the term bulk-reducing is not required if the answer alludes to the concept.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Sample answer Mining of any ore would be an example of a bulk-reducing industry. Ores could include bauxite or iron ore. The excess rock is left behind at the near the mining site as the ore alone is transported to the factory by the cheapest method of transport.

•

Give an example, not from the text, of an industry that is likely to locate closer to markets and explain.

Students should provide an example of an industry that is likely to locate close to the market. The examples of metal fabrication, beverage bottling, bakers, milk bottlers, and fresh food processors would not be valid answers as they are included in the text. The explanation should reference reasons why the industry locates near the inputs rather than near the market. Use of the term bulk-gaining is a plus.

Sample answer Bulk-gaining industries locate close to the market. An example might be a craft beer brewery located within a city with the potential of many customers. The ingredients of the craft beer are transported to the “factory” and then combined with water for the beer creation process.

•

If industrial location is chosen according to situation factors in order to minimize transportation costs, explain why many industries are locating in Southeast Asia and shipping goods to markets in North America.

Student’s answers should mention the relative costs of transportation and state that situation factors are not the only concern in the location of a factory. The most notable site factor would be labor.

Sample answer Transportation, a situation factor, is an important consideration when locating a factory. Depending on what is produced labor-intensive industries are likely to consider the site factor of labor to be more important than transportation costs. Depending on the items produced the reduced labor cost could outweigh the expense of transportation.

•

Given current trends in the movement and growth of industry, is industry likely to remain important as a source of employment in our country? Why or why not?

Student responses should identify current trends in the number and type of manufacturing jobs. Students should also refer to the effects of mechanization on jobs in the manufacturing sector, the impact of outsourcing, and labor-intensive industries.

Sample answer The number of manufacturing jobs in the United States is likely to decrease. Labor-intensive industries will continue to be outsourced to low-wage countries. The industries that optimally locate close to markets such as car assembly, will likely relocate to right-to-work states because of lower wages there.

The number of workers may decline through greater use of robotics and mechanization that reduces the number of workers needed to operate the plant.

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Industry Assignment Americans are the number one consumers of goods on the face of the planet. We accumulate so much “stuff” that we fill up our garages, attics, and even rent storage units to house our excess.

The purpose of this activity is to illustrate how the items in your house reflect the globalization of economic production. Based on the idea of spatially-fixed and spatially-varied costs, corporations will search for the lowest production costs in order to increase profits. Increasingly, the cost of labor is the driving force in the migration of production centers to less developed countries. Low production costs allow producers to sell goods at affordable prices to consumers in more developed countries and still realize a profit.

Instructions 1. Select 30 items in your home (electronics, appliances, clothing, furniture, etc.) and list the item, a general category (electronics, clothing, etc.), and where each was produced. A sample data retrieval chart follows.

Item Television (Samsung) Dyson vacuum Cell phone (LG) Front load washer (LG) Futon “couch” (IKEA) Bose speakers Adidas running shoes

Category electronics small appliance electronics appliance furniture electronics clothing

Produced in South Korea United Kingdom South Korea South Korea China Mexico Indonesia

2. Analyze the data you have collected. Where was most of your “stuff” produced? Is there a correlation between the types of items and the location of their production? Are there any results you did not expect?

Is there a relationship between the costs of goods and the production location? How much of your “stuff” was made in the United States? Does quality influence the location of production? Does the type of item influence the location of production?

3. Write an explanation of how the items in your home reflect the globalization of economic production.

Look at the countries that come up in your chart and refer to Chapters 9 and 11 in your textbook to find helpful information (for example, maquiladoras, Wal-Mart, and so forth).

4. Fill in the map illustrating the flow of goods into your home. Add up the number of times that products in your household were manufactured in a particular country. Write the number on or next to that country.

If a country did not produce any goods in your household, leave it blank.

TURN IN THE FOLLOWING: 1. Minimum 2-page written analysis of your items related to topics covered in text and class.

2. The completed map.

3. Data retrieval table of the 30 items including the item, category, and country in which it was manufactured.

This table can be handwritten (please be neat).

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Exploring Industry via YouTube In areas where industry is not a major part of the local economy, students may have never seen a factory.

• • • •

Inside a Steel Foundry, 1:07 minutes, https://youtu.be/mMunhXCyPoY How do they make silicon Wafers and Computer Chips? 8:53 minutes, https://youtu.be/ aWVywhzuHnQ Textile Manufacturing Process, 2:00 minutes, https://youtu.be/c8g0wImRS64 Seamless Pipe Manufacturing Process, 6:33 minutes, https://youtu.be/lueB6RvqMSo

After viewing the short movie, have students identify the site and situation factors involved in the production of the finished good. Discuss how their perceptions of a factory, perhaps “Dickensesque,” compares to the factories depicted in the film.

Decisions, Decisions Industrial location depends on the site factors of land, labor, and capital. Present the following scenarios to the students and have them generate a list of information they would need to gather in order to decide whether it would be a “good idea” to establish an industry in a certain location. In crafting their answers students should consider the resources needed, transportation networks, access to power, and the type of labor needed.

Would it be a good idea to: • • • • • • • • • • • • •

build an international shipping terminal on Lake Erie? build a brewery in Butte, Montana? grow cotton in the Amazon rainforest? construct an aluminum production plant on the Mississippi River? mine copper in Bolivia? mine coal in China? smelt nickel in Norilsk, Russia? establish a Coca Cola bottling plant in Accomack, Virginia? build a jet-engine manufacturing plant in Seattle? create a mega lettuce growing operation in Moab, Utah? locate a major computer design firm near the Massachusetts Institute of Technology establish a polar bear sanctuary in Kissimmee, Florida? mine uranium in South Africa?

Mastering Geography™ provides additional assignable learning activities and ready-made resources designed to extend and reinforce student skills and mastery of key content, concepts, and vocabulary. The resources include MapMaster 2.0™ interactive maps, videos, GeoTutor coaching activities, Google Earth Explorations, outline maps, chapter quizzes, Dynamic Study Modules, and more. Further details about these resources and recommendations for use are provided in the Resources section of this document. You can assign these media-rich activities as pre or post lecture homework.

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Thinking Geographically Questions Key Issue 11.1: FedEx and UPS are the two leading providers of air freight delivery in the United States.

The companies fly planes into a hub airport, transfer goods to other planes, and fly out again to many destinations.

1. What geographic factors influence the placement of their hub airports in Memphis, Tennessee (FedEx) and Louisville, Kentucky (UPS)?

Both are located in right-to-work states which usually have lower labor costs. Both sites are located near, but not within, the most populated areas of the United States. Both sites have the technology to sort a large volume of packages per hour which are then redistributed to planes for delivery to their final destination. Both sites are located near airports and in the “south” where places usually have good weather that may reduce travel delays.

Key Issue 11.2 2. What initiatives have your community or state taken to promote alternative sources of energy?

The state of Virginia provides incentives for residential customers, small businesses, and government agencies. The programs include incentives for energy efficiency and renewable energy. There are also, rebates and tax credits, and tax deductions for users of alternative fuels.

The local power company provides an annual payment for the installation and use of a smart switch that will turn off the air conditioner during peak demand times in the summer, and weatherization programs.

3. What have been some of the accomplishments and challenges in using alternative energy?

The implementation of solar power and wind turbines has increased in recent years. Their use has reduced reliance on fossil fuels to generate electricity. Tax credits and government subsidies have supported these efforts. The challenge of using alternative energy is the high investment in the equipment.

Key Issue 11.3 4. What initiatives have your school or community taken to recycle?

Cans for paper recycling are located in each classroom. Receptacles for glass and plastic recycling are located in each building.

5. What additional strategies might be effective in your community? Why? My community has curbside recycling program with pick-ups every two weeks. An additional strategy would be increased publicity and clarification of items that can and cannot be recycled in the program.

Key Issue 11.4 6. Check your clothing labels. Do you have any clothing made in the United States or Western Europe?

Most of my clothing is produced in countries outside of the United States—Mexico, Guatemala, Thailand, and 359 .

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7. What might account for that clothing being made in a developed country rather than in Asia or Latin America?

Designer clothes are produced in developed countries such as Italy, home to Gucci and Prada. Consumers of name-brand fashion expect their clothing to be made by the designer. Interesting to note that some of the producers have factories in Italy that are run by Chinese entrepreneurs and staffed by imported low-cost labor.

Pause and Reflect Questions 11.1.1 How would each of the four major industries involved in the Industrial Revolution have affected the everyday lives of ordinary people?

Four major industries in the Industrial Revolution were iron, textiles, chemicals, and food processing. Iron, the precursor of the steel, provided the raw material for fabricated metals that became the basis for many goods. Textiles provided access to relatively inexpensive clothing and underwear. The ability to own more than one set of clothes and wash them improved sanitation and life spans. Chemicals were used for dying clothes to provide a greater variety of items. Since the time of the Industrial Revolution other products were made from coal tar such as shampoo and cosmetics. Food processing and canning provided access to vegetables and fruits throughout the year, improving the health of ordinary people by expanding dietary options.

11.1.2

Compare the world’s principal industrial areas with population distribution (Figure 2-4). Are industrial areas generally in regions of high population density or low? Why?

Industries are generally located in regions of high population density, as easy access to labor is a site factor that encourages industrial activity in these regions.

11.1.3 Labor accounts for around 5 percent of the cost of manufacturing a car. Does this mean that motor vehicle manufacturing is a labor-intensive industry?

Car manufacturing is not a labor-intensive industry. A labor-intensive industry is an industry in which wages and other compensation paid to employees constitutes a high percentage of expenses. Other costs of automobile production include parts, research and development.

11.1.4 What is an example of a product purchased by consumers that is made of copper?

Copper wiring is used in homes and other buildings for transmission of electricity, as it is an excellent conductor of electricity. Similarly, copper is used in integrated circuits due to its conductivity. Some cookware incorporates copper in its design.

11.1.5

How do transportation costs help to determine the optimal location for each industry discussed on this page? Explain your answer.

Bulk gaining industries, single-market manufacturers, and perishable-product companies are located near their markets. By reducing the distance products are shipped manufacturers are likely to use just-in-time delivery 360 .

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Chapter 11: Industry & Energy for auto components. Most transportation would be point-to-point from the producer directly to the factory or the distributor. For this type of transport, trucking would be the most likely option.

11.1.6

How might weather conditions influence the choice of a factory site between the North and South in the United States?

The South experiences relatively mild temperatures year-round, giving them a climatic edge on the North. Air conditioning has allowed people to deal with the hot summers, and in the South snow and other inclement weather may not hinder shipping and other business-related activities during the winter.

11.2.1

The use of one of the three fossil fuels is increasing in the United States in the twenty-first century.

Which one is it? Why might that be the case?

According to the Figure, 11-27 petroleum and natural gas have increased over time. The increase in petroleum use is due to the increase in the number of gasoline-fueled vehicles. The use of natural gas is increasing as coal-fired power plants are converted to the use of natural gas for the production of electricity.

11.2.2

How does the distribution of proven reserves differ from the distribution of current production?

In the case of coal, the distribution of proven reserves mirrors current production. The largest producers of coal are China and the United States and the largest proven coal reserves are also in China and the United States. For the other two fossil fuels production and proven reserve leaders differ. Leaders in petroleum production include Russia, Saudi Arabia, and the United States. Leading countries with petroleum reserves include Saudi Arabia, Venezuela, Canada, and Iran. Leaders in natural gas production are United States and Russia. Countries with the highest percentages of proven natural gas reserves include Russia, Qatar, and Iran.

11.2.3

Based on Figure 11-35, why are government policies in China and Europe strongly encouraging the use of electric cars?

Figure 11-35 shows that Europe and China are importers of petroleum. The use of electric cars would decrease the demand for petroleum to fuel those cars as well as decrease the release of pollutants.

11.2.4

Do you consider fuel efficiency when you or your family buy a new vehicle? Why or why not?

Yes, I consider fuel efficiency when buying a new vehicle. I want to reduce my fuel consumption, so I don’t have to pay as much at the pump, and so that my car doesn’t emit as much carbon dioxide when burning fuel.

11.2.5

Should dependency on nuclear energy be increased or decreased? Why?

It should be decreased, as there is no safe, sustainable way of disposing of radioactive waste.

11.2.6

Does your local power company offer options for using alternative energy? Check the company’s website.

My local power company offers incentives for installing solar panels.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography 11.2.7

Why are people warned not to leave a dog or child unattended in a parked car during the summer?

Passive solar energy that enters a car when it is parked warms the car considerably and could cause adverse health effects, or even death.

11.3.1

What gas is now most commonly used as a coolant instead of CFC? Use a search engine to find the answer.

Hydrochlorofluorocarbons are replacing CFCs. 11.3.2

How might a change in the sources of energy used in factories help improve water quality?

The burning of fossil fuels emits sulfuric and nitric acid that combine with water vapor in the atmosphere which then returns to Earth as acid rain. This acid rain pollutes the water and damages fish and plants. The switch to a renewable source of energy would eliminate this form of water pollution and help to improve water quality.

In addition, if factories and power plants did not use water for cooling (and subsequently discharging the warm water back into the river or lake), it could prevent warm water from entering these bodies of water and causing environmental problems, such as fish kills.

11.3.3

Go online to research how sanitary landfills enlarge the nation’s carbon footprint, contributing to climate change. An example is thepaperlifecycle.org.

The web site, the paperlifecyle.org is no longer available. An alternate source of information for the topic is https://ensia.com/features/methane-landfills/. In addition to polluting ground water from chemicals leaching into the soil from solid waste, methane gas is produced by decomposing food and solid waste. Methane gas is 28 times more potent that carbon dioxide, a major contributor to greenhouse gases associated with global warming. However, methane gas has a shorter life span than carbon dioxide. Many large sanitary landfills are capturing and selling methane gas for electricity production.

11.3.4

When you have takeout or fast food are the containers for food and beverages recyclable? Do you or your friends recycle them? If not, how could the rate of recycling be improved?

Most fast food beverage containers and straws are made of plastic and are not recyclable. Many fast food items are now served in wrappers or cardboard containers. These have the potential for recycling. Unfortunately, there are no recycling options within the fast food store itself. The distribution of recycling containers for these materials within the restaurant could improve the recycling rate.

11.4.1

Take a close look at an iPhone (yours or a friend’s or relation’s). Can you find any evidence that it was made at Foxconn in China?

From a cursory inspection, I cannot find evidence that it was made at Foxconn. I believe if you opened the phone up and looked at individual components, you would see their logo stamped on some of them.

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Chapter 11: Industry & Energy 11.4.2

Check the labels on the shirt you are wearing at this moment. Where was it made?

My shirt was made in Indonesia.

11.4.3

Why do you think proximity to markets has become increasingly important in the steel industry?

What characteristics of minimills have facilitated this trend?

The major “ingredient” is readily available scrap metal. Minimills are less expensive to build and have the main goal of steel production. The steel output, bar, wire, or sheets, is adapted to the local market, so reducing transportation costs of the finished products.

11.4.4

Which site factor do right-to-work laws influence and how have they affected U.S. industrial location?

Right-to-work laws are associated with the site factor of labor. These laws make it more difficult for workers to organize unions. In order to decrease labor costs, many industries have relocated to states with right-towork laws, located primarily in the South.

Caption Questions Figure 11-11, Historic Multistory Factory, p. 393 1. When Ford built this factory, why were the exterior walls made almost entirely of glass?

The exterior walls contained many operable windows. The factory was built around 1913 before air conditioning, so the windows were used for air circulation. In addition, the windows also provided a way to ventilate the factory.

2. What were the advantages and disadvantages of assembling cars in a multistory factory?

The advantage of a multistory factory is the amount of land it occupied. Different steps of the production process can be allocated to different floors. The major disadvantage is moving the car from floor to floor during the assembly process. In this case, the car bodies were transported down a ramp to the area where it was joined to the chassis. This process has the potential to damage the newly assembled car body. There may also be issues in transporting the components to the second floor.

3. What technological advances led to the replacement of multistory factories with one-story factories?

The development of fork lifts and conveyor belts provided a way to transport pieces of a car through the assembly process. A one-story factory would facilitate these technologies.

There are two caption questions for section 2.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Figure 11-33, Natural Gas Production, p. 403 1. Referring to Figures 11-31, 11-32, and 11-33, which group of developed countries produces the lowest amounts of fossil fuels?

Japan is shown with no production for coal and very low values for petroleum and natural gas production.

Except for a few countries, most of Europe is in the lowest categories for production of coal, petroleum, and natural gas.

2. Figure 11-33 shows that Russia and the United States are currently the major producers of natural gas.

Referring to Figure 11-34b, which country or countries are likely to be major producers of natural gas in the future?

Iran and Qatar and Turkmenistan have proven reserves of natural gas that will likely make them major producers of natural gas in the future.

Figure 11-35, Petroleum Trade, p. 404 1. What are the major markets for Russia’s petroleum?

Based on the flow lines, Europe is the major destination for Russian petroleum. A much smaller proportion is exported to China.

2. What are the major sources of petroleum for each of the following: the United States, China, and Japan?

Major sources of petroleum for the United States are Canada and Venezuela, Smaller amounts from Saudi Arabia and Mexico. The major source of petroleum for China is Russia and to a lesser extent are Iraq and Iran.

Japan’s major source of petroleum is Saudi Arabia and to a lesser extent the United Arab Emirates.

Figure 11-58, Air Pollution by Country, p. 414 1.

Where are the countries with the worst air pollution clustered?

The countries with the highest air pollution are in East, South, and the Arabian Peninsula, and northern Africa.

2.

Where are the countries with the lowest air pollution found?

Countries with the lowest air pollution are in northern North America, Australia, and parts of Europe.

3.

Compare this figure with the map of industrial output in Figure 11-4. Does there appear to be a relationship between industrial output and air pollution? Why or why not?

Countries with high industrial output include United States, China, Germany, Russia, and Australia. Not all of these countries have high levels of air pollution. Therefore, a correlation between industrial output and air pollution is not supported. Developed countries have invested in pollution control measures.

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Chapter 11: Industry & Energy Figure 11-92, Changing Distribution of European Auto Assembly Plants, p. 429 1.

How did Europe’s distribution pattern of auto assembly plants change?

The most recent auto assembly plants seem to be moving eastward to Central Europe and Spain.

2.

How are the factors that influenced industrial locations of Europe’s auto industry similar to those that influenced U.S. industry? How are they different?

Similar to the United States, the labor costs are lower in the eastern and southern parts of Europe. A major difference is the number of plants open in 1990 and 2017 that were not closed.

Sustainability & Our Environment, The Shrinking Aral Sea, p. 417 1. Search for NASA World of Change: Shrinking Aral Sea. Or go to the home page of earthobservatory.nasa.gov and search for Shrinking Aral Sea. 2. According to NASA, what was the cause of the shrinking of the Aral Sea beginning in the 1960s?

Diversion of the river water feeding the Aral Sea for the growing of cotton caused it to shrink.

3. What was the reason that the government made changes to the Aral Sea? Main reason was to sell cotton on the international market.

4. What has happened to the Aral Sea as a result of the changes?

Effects included the desiccation of the Aral Sea, salinization, chemicals from the dry sea bed polluted the land.

Without the influence of a moderation of a large body of water, winters are becoming colder and summers, warmer.

5. What is the government trying to do the counteract the changes?

The government built dams to separate the northern and southern portions of the Aral Sea. The northern area of the Aral Sea is improving, but the southern area remains dry.

6. In Figure 11-65, why has the color of much of the land near the lake changed from brown to white?

The brown areas indicate dry land. The white areas may be deposits of salts and other chemicals from evaporation.

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Doing Geography, Plastic in the Great Lakes, p. 419 Approximately 22 million pounds of plastic end up the Great Lakes each year. The largest concentration of plastic pollution is in Lake Michigan.

What is your INDUSTRIAL Geography?

A major source of plastic waste is water bottles. People get their water either from a faucet or a bottle. What’s your source of water?

1. The average American consumes around 100 plastic water bottles per year (2 per week). Do you consume more or less than the average number of plastic water bottles? Why do you use so few or so many bottles?

I consume lower than the average 2 plastic bottles per week. I use a reusable bottle and filtered water from the refrigerator.

2. It takes around 2.5 gallons of petroleum to produce the 100 plastic bottles consumed by a typical American. That translates into around 65 miles of driving the typical American car. The average American drives around 25 miles per day. Do you (or a friend or family member) drive more or less than the average? What accounts for driving more or less than the average?

I live in a suburban community with limited access to public transportation. Therefore I drive more than the daily average.

3. The average American recycles only one out of six water bottles. The rest are “thrown away” into landfills or into rivers, lakes, and oceans, where they take hundreds of years to disintegrate. What percentage of plastic bottles do you recycle? Why is your percentage higher or lower than the average?

I recycle 100 percent of the plastic bottles I use even though I may have to transport a bottle home if no recycling bin is available where I used the bottle.

Debate It! Should corporations receive government subsidies to build a new industry? p. 428 1. Government subsidies typically take the form of training the factory workers, building roads and other infrastructure, and lowering taxes. Do you consider these subsidies equally worthwhile? Why or why not?

The subsidies should be viewed in terms of benefits to the entire community or to an individual company. The investments in road building and infrastructure will benefit the residents as well as the companies. Subsidizing worker training is also a good idea. However, providing lower taxes to a company for relocation may have negative effects for the community. The costs of the improvements are funded by the taxpayers, without the benefits of increased revenues from taxing the industry.

2. What environmental benefits and costs might result from opening a large new factory?

Opening of a large new factory has some environmental benefits as the latest energy-efficiency techniques, and pollution controls will be used in its construction. Depending on the type of factory, pressure on the locality’s water resources will be increased. There is always the potential for pollution of land and water resources and issues associated with waste disposal.

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Geospatial Data Analysis Railroads and Industries U.S. manufacturers make heavy use of railroads.

Add the Major Manufacturing Regions (North America) layer. Select the Settings icon from the Legend, select Change Map Projection and select Albers, and select Show City Labels. Zoom to North America.

1. What major cities in the United States appear to be within major manufacturing regions?

Cities located in manufacturing regions include Cleveland, Detroit, Chicago, New York, Philadelphia, Atlanta, Houston, New Orleans, Los Angeles, and San Francisco.

2. Add the World Railroads layer. In which city do the largest number of railroads appear to converge?

What industry discussed in this chapter is highly clustered near this city? What might account for this clustering?

Chicago is a major city with the convergence of railroads from all four directions. The map on page 391 indicates that Chicago and the surrounding area is the center of U.S, steel production. The railroads facilitate efficient transport of materials and the finished products.

GeoVideo Questions Fossil Fuel Production Industry and other human activities depend on oil.

1. What challenges do oil companies in Houston face in supplying more oil?

Even though there are vast reserves of oil and gas, challenges include harder to locate deposits farther away and the high costs of offshore exploitation.

2. The video offers two arguments for protecting the environment. Which do you find more compelling?

Why? The film provides two reasons for the protection of the environment 1) a sense of moral obligation to protect Earth’s variety of species and 2) self interest in that the-more we damage the environment, the more we put ourselves at risk.

Writing Geographically Figures 11-18 and 11-19, show sales and production of motor vehicles.

1. What are the major site and situation factors influencing location of motor vehicle production?

The major site factors would be labor costs, land costs, and securing capital from banks willing to lend money or expansion. The major situation factor is transportation.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography 2. How do the distributions of vehicle sales and production relate to each other?

Most vehicles are sold near where they are produced.

Explore Auto Assembly Plants Auto assembly plants take up a lot of land. Let’s compare one of the oldest and newest in the United States.

1. In Google Earth, search for 7777 Kia Parkway, West Point, Georgia. This is a Kia assembly plant opened in 2009. Describe the use of land surrounding the factory.

The factory is surrounded by open or forested land. The factory is located close to an exit for Interstate 85 and connecting roads are located nearby. The land surrounding the factory shows many cars. Housing developments are not located close to the plant.

2. Search for 12600 S. Torrence Ave., Chicago. This is a Ford assembly plant opened in 1924. Zoom out to around 2 km. Describe the uses of land that surround the factory. How do the surroundings differ from those around the Kia plant?

The factory is located along the Calumet river and is connected to major highways nearby. Land on one side of the factory has many homes, another side is bounded by parks, and across the river there is another industrial area including storage tanks, warehouses, and a railroad siding.

Resources Roger and Me This 1989 film chronicles the effects of GM plant closures in Flint, Michigan, as the job losses ripple throughout the city, resulting in economic depression. Students might be assigned the film as an out-of-class paper project or shown part of the film in class.

The Urban Game The Urban Game, developed by Larry Treadwell of Ft. Lauderdale (Florida) High School, provides students with a hands-on simulation of the development and industrialization of urban areas in the first 100 years of the industrial revolution. A full round of the game will take students about 1½ to two hours, but stages may be combined to speed the process.

Consider modifying the game into an assignment or breaking the class into small groups to accomplish the activity. Access the activity online at www.thecaveonline.com/APEH/TheUrbanGame.htm.

Office of the United States Trade Representative The Office of the U.S. Trade Representative serves as a source of information about American trade policy.

This website, www.ustr.gov/, promotes U.S. trade policy, and provides access to free trade agreements.

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U.S. Department of Labor Bureau of Labor Statistics This website provides enough statistics on labor and industry to last a lifetime, including detailed statistics on labor, job markets, inflation, productivity, unemployment, and much more. Access the site at www.bls.gov/.

American Factfinder Selected economic statistics from the Census Bureau’s American Factfinder, factfinder.census.gov/, provides data for employment status and various occupations. Data are available at a variety of geographies and the site includes the option to create a map of the variables selected.

Planet Money Makes a T-Shirt The production of a t-shirt from the harvesting of cotton, spinning of thread, making of cloth, sewing the garment, and shipping to market are detailed in a series of short videos by Planet Money. Access the website of the series at apps.npr.org/tshirt/. Students would record the various places mentioned in the video on a map.

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INTRODUCING: Planet Money Makes A T-Shirt, 0:47 minutes, https://youtu.be/r2Zod7Sd3rQ COTTON: Planet Money Makes a T-Shirt (Part I), 2.32 minutes, https://youtu.be/QYa4zneKbeY MACHINES: Planet Money Makes a T-Shirt (Part II), 2:32 minutes, https://youtu.be/QYa4zneKbeY PEOPLE: Planet Money Makes a T-Shirt (Part III), 1:33minutes, https://youtu.be/-6T1MvHyUic BOXES: Planet Money makes a T-Shirt (Part IV), 6:21 minutes, https://youtu.be/O4aZzxEnIh

FedEx Hubs Short video explaining why FedEX express uses a spoke and hub network and video of their package sorting system at www.about.van.fedex.com/blog/why-memphis/

A Matter of Accountability, Case Study 2 A 1997 activity produced by the Population Reference Bureau, Adventures on Earth, now only available from the U.S. Department of Education, https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED461540.pdf, provides materials to conduct a mock trial dealing with climate change and greenhouse gas emissions.

Scroll to Case Study 2, pp. 44-55. In the scenario, the people of Bangladesh are suing the world’s industrialized nations for damages to the environment the industrialized nations caused by their CO2 emissions. Students assume the roles of climatologist, geographer, agricultural expert, and demographer as they present arguments from their perspective to the court. To prepare for the simulation, students are provided with background information. It would be interesting to contrast the information provided in 1997 to what is available today.

GeoInquiries™ GeoInquiries™ by the Environmental Science Research Institute (ESRI) consist of scripted map-based online GIS activities designed to be completed within a 15-minute time frame. These Internet-based mapping activities run best in the Google Chrome browser and do not require the installation of any software. Access them at www.esri.com/en-us/industries/education/schools/geoinquiries-collections.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography The following GeoInquiries™ support the development of the concepts and content of this chapter.

• • •

Spinning up wind power from the Advanced Environmental Science collection examines the potential use of wind power for the generation of electricity.

Resource consumption and wealth from the Advanced Environmental Science collection environmental science collection connects energy use with other indicators of development.

Understanding globalization from the Human Geography Collection provides data to examine transportation links among countries.

Mastering Geography Media & Assessment Resources Mastering Geography™ provides additional assignable homework activities and ready-made resources designed to extend and reinforce student skills and mastery of key content, concepts, and vocabulary. These resources are invaluable to implementation of the flipped classroom. Use the Instructor Course Home areas to build assignments for your students. Highlights include: •

MapMaster 2.0™ provides students with the opportunity to reinforce their understanding of spatial relationships, e.g., variation, distribution, interaction, and association. Students get hands on with map building, exploration, and spatial data analysis by layering a wide range of maps. Multiple-choice assessments in the Mastering Geography item library provide directions for building maps aligned with chapter content, and focus on the development of spatial thinking and analysis skills.

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GeoVideos and Google Earth Explorations linked to chapter content provide an opportunity for students to “visit” other places and build an appreciation for other cultures. Use as an out-of-class assignment and have students explain how the video or Google Earth Explorations illustrate concepts learned in class and make comparisons between cultures.

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Interactive Data Visualizations powered by Social Explorer provide interactive data explorations for each chapter’s Key Issue, and include map stories, predictive graphing, interactive maps, interactive population pyramids, interactive charts, and more. These media are integrated into the Pearson eText and Study Area, and are also available for assignment with quizzes.

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GeoTutors are highly visual and data-rich assignable activities that help students master the most challenging concepts in geography.

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Dynamic Study Modules (DSMs) provide two sets of 25 multiple-choice questions per chapter topic.

Because this resource includes a “I don’t know yet” answer choice,” it can be assigned as a preassessment or content preview. The modules are interactive as students are prompted to select, “I am unsure” or “I am sure” as they submit their answers. The questions could also be used as self-check for students at the end of the chapter. An infographic gauge represents their accuracy visually.

Teachers can assign the DSMs for credit and or students can access these on their own for self study.

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Learning Catalytics is an interactive student response tool paired with Mastering Geography that encourages team-based learning by using students’ smartphones, tablets, or laptops to engage them in interactive tasks and thinking. As a teacher, you can pose a variety of open-ended questions that help your students develop critical thinking skills, while monitoring responses with real-time analytics to find out where they’re struggling. With this information, you can adjust your instructional strategy in real time and try additional ways of engaging your students during class. Learning Catalytics also lets

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Chapter 11: Industry & Energy you manage student interactions by automatically grouping students for discussion, team-based learning, and peer-to-peer learning.

The Mastering Geography student Study Area includes a variety of tools that students can access on their own, including: • • •

The eText provides a fully digital online version of the textbook, with search and bookmarking functionality. Available for offline reading.

Chapter Quizzes include 15 multiple choice questions based on the chapter’s content.

Key Terms Flashcards to help students master the key vocabulary.

Downloadable Outline Maps containing political and physical features provide students the opportunity to label key countries and physical features. Consider assigning these maps throughout the course so that students can refer to them as they interpret the many thematic maps.

The following selections from the GeoVideos are particularly useful in supporting student understanding of key chapter concepts.

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China, New Industrial Power, 8:36 minutes Australia: Asbestos Mining Impacts, 5:53 minutes Carbon Dioxide as a Fossil Fuel, 7:06 minutes Human Impacts on Water Resources, 6:18 minutes

MapMaster 2.0 ™ The following map layers are included in the MapMaster 2.0 resource. In addition, multiple-choice map-based quizzes are also included: • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Aluminum Production by Country Aluminum-Bauxite Mines Asbestos Mines Asbestos Production by Country Brown Coal (Lignite) Mines Chromium Mines Chromium Production by Country Coal (Bituminous, Anthracite) Mines Coal Consumption (%) Coal Production (%) Coal Production by Country Copper Mines Copper Production by Country Crude Oil Production by Country Diamond Mines Diamond Production by Country Electricity from Hydroelectric Power Electricity from Nuclear Power

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Electricity from Solar Power Electricity from Wind Power Electricity Generation from Hydroelectric Power Electricity Generation from Nuclear Power Electricity Generation from Solar Power Electricity Generation from Wind Power Energy Consumption Gold Mines Gold Production by Country Iodine Mines Iron Ore Mines Iron Ore Production by Country Lapis Lazuli Mines Lead Mines Lead Production by Country Major Industrial Centers

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Major Iron-Producing Centers (North America) Major Manufacturing Regions (North America) Manganese Mines Manganese Production by Country Municipal Solid Waste per Capita Natural Gas Production (%) Natural Gas Production by Country Nickel Mines Nickel Production by Country Nuclear Site Capacity Oil Consumption (%) Oil Pipelines Oil Production (%) Platinum Mines

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Platinum Production by Country Power Plants Proven Coal Reserves Proven Natural Gas Resources Proven Oil Reserves Silver Mines Silver Production by Country Tin Production by Country Tin Mines Tungsten Mines Tungsten Production by Country Uranium Mines Uranium Production by Country World Railroads Zinc Mine Production by Country Zinc Mines

Additional resources in support of students with disabilities include the screen reader enabled e-text and more. Further details about these resources are available at www.pearson.com/us/accessibility.html.

Connections between Chapters Back to Chapters 9 and 10 Industry and agriculture are not closely related. However, when agricultural workers leave their farms to work in industries, the country’s food supply may be changed as factory workers can no longer grow their own food.

This relates to a country’s attempts to develop, referring back to Chapter 9.

Forward to Chapter 12 As industrial employment declines continue, job losses are usually made up in the service sector. However, some services are now being outsourced to off-shore locations. This issue serves as the case study for Chapter 12.

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Services & Settlements

12

Learning Outcomes After reading, studying, and discussing the chapter, students should be able to: Learning Outcome 12.1.1:

Describe the three types of services.

Learning Outcome 12.2.1a:

Explain the concepts of market area.

Learning Outcome 12.2.1b:

Explain the concept of range area.

Learning Outcome 12.2.1c:

Explain the concept of threshold.

Learning Outcome 12.2.2:

Explain the distribution of different-sized settlements.

Learning Outcome 12.2.3:

Explain how to use threshold and range to find the optimal location for a service.

Learning Outcome 12.2.4:

Give examples of consumer services that do not have a fixed location.

Learning Outcome 12.3.1:

Explain the clustering of business services in global cities.

Learning Outcome 12.3.2:

Describe two types of business services in developing countries.

Learning Outcome 12.3.3:

Explain the concept of economic base.

Learning Outcome 12.4.1:

Compare clustered and dispersed rural settlements.

Learning Outcome 12.4.2:

Identify important prehistoric and ancient urban settlements.

Learning Outcome 12.4.3:

Describe the two dimensions of urbanization.

Learning Outcome 12.4.4:

Identify the location of the largest and fastest-growing urban settlements.

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Chapter 12 Outline I

Key Issue 1: Where Are Services Distributed?

A Services, Settlements, & Geography 1 Service—any activity that fulfills a human want or need and returns money to those who provide it 2 Consumer Services—provided to individual consumers who desire them and can pay for them 3 Business Services—facilitate the activities of other businesses 4 Public Services—provide security and protect for citizens and businesses B Distribution of Services—providing services is principal reason settlements exist 1 Services are clustered in settlements—a permanent collection of buildings where people, reside, work, and obtain services C Changes in Job Sectors—in the U.S. employment in primary- and secondary-sectors activities has declined

II Key Issue 2: Where Are Consumer Services Distributed?

A Central Place Theory 1 Market Area of a Service a Central place—market center for the exchange of goods and services by people attracted from the surrounding area b Market area or hinterland—area surrounding a service from which customers are attracted 2 Range of a Service—maximum distance people are willing to travel to use a service 3 Threshold of a Service—minimum number of people needed to support the service 4 The Geometry of Market Areas a hexagons—used to depict market areas because they do not overlap B Hierarchy of Consumer Services 1 Rank-Size Distribution of Settlements a rank-size rule—the country’s nth-size settlement is 1/nth population of the largest settlement b primate city rule—largest settlement has more than twice as many people as the secondranking settlement c primate city—a country’s largest city 2 Nesting of Services & Settlements a central place theory i levels of market area—hamlet, village, town, city ii businesses compete to serve as markets for goods and services C Market Area Analysis 1 Profitability of a Location a define the market area b estimate the range c estimate the threshold d predict the market share 2 Gravity Model a predicts the optimal location of a service b patterns of consumer behavior 374 .

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Chapter 12: Services & Settlements i

the greater the number of people living in a place, the greater the number of potential customers ii the farther the people are from a service, the less likely they are to use it D Periodic & Sharing Services 1 Periodic Markets a definition—collection of individual vendors who come together to offer goods and services in a location on specified days 2 Sharing Services a examples i Ride sharing ii Airbnb III Key Issue 3: Where Are Business Services Distributed 1 Hierarchy of Business Services—global city is the major center for the provision of goods and services in the global economy 2 Business Services in Global Cities a financial institutions b headquarters of large corporations c professional services—lawyers, accountants 3 Consumer & Public Services in Global Cities 4 Ranking Global Cities a economic factors—multinational corporations etc. influence the global economy b political factors—headquarters of international organizations c cultural factors—renowned institutions d infrastructure factors—major international airport e communications—between workers and customers f transportation—enables industry to decentralize B Business Services in Developing Countries 1 Offshore Financial Services a taxes—tax-free status regardless of the nationality of the owners 2 Privacy—banking secrecy laws a locations i dependencies of the United Kingdom ii dependencies of other countries 3 Business-Process Outsourcing a examples—insurance claims processing, payroll management, transcription work b reasons developing countries attract back office functions i low wages ii ability to speak English 4 Economic Specialization of Settlements a economic base i basic businesses—export primarily to customers outside the settlement ii nonbasic businesses—serve primarily customers living in the same settlement b distribution of talent

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography IV Key Issue 4: Why Do Services Cluster in Settlements?

A Services in Rural Settlements 1 Clustered rural settlements—agricultural-based community in which a number of families live in close proximity to each other a circular clustered rural settlements b linear clustered rural settlements—clustered along a road, river 2 Clustered New England Rural Settlements 3 Dispersed Rural Settlements a enclosure movement—consolidation of strips of land surrounded villages into large farms owned by single individual B Services in Early Urban Settlements 1 Services in the Earliest Settlements a early consumer services—places to bury the dead b early business services—store surplus food and trade c early public services—political leaders, defense 2 Ancient Urban Settlements—eastern Mediterranean 2500 B.C.E., Roman Empire 3 Medieval Urban Settlements—largest settlements served as power centers for lords and church leaders C Urbanization—process by which the population of urban settlements grows 1 Urban-Rural Differences: Large Size—know only a small percentage of people in an urban area than in rural areas 2 Urban-Rural Differences: High Density—higher density of housing and services than rural areas 3 Urban-Rural Differences: Social Heterogeneity—the larger the settlement, the larger the variety of people 4 Percentage in Urban Settlements—approximately 55 percent of the world’s population live in an urban settlement D Megacities 1 Definition-urban settlement with a total population in excess of 10 million people 2 Metacity—more than 20 million people 3 Developed countries have a higher percentage of urban residents 4 Developing countries have more very large urban settlements 5 Rapidly-growing cities a 96 of 100 fastest-growing urban settlements in developing countries (2018)

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Chapter Content Outline Key Issue 1: Where Are Services Distributed?

Services, Settlements, & Geography Most people in developed countries work in such places as shops, offices, restaurants, universities, and hospitals. These are examples of the tertiary, or service, sector of the economy. A service is any activity that fulfills a human want or need and returns money to those who provide it.

Consumer Services The principal purpose of consumer services is to provide services to individual consumers who desire them and can afford to pay for them. Nearly half of all jobs in the United States are in consumer services. Four main types of consumer services are retail, education, health, and leisure.

Business Services The principal purpose of business services is to facilitate the activities of other businesses. One-fourth of all jobs in the United States are in business services. The main types of business services include professional services, financial services, transportation and information services.

Public Services The purpose of public services is to provide security and protection for citizens and businesses. About 8 percent of all U.S. jobs are in the public sector. Excluding educators, one-sixth of publicsector employees work for the federal government, one-fourth for one of the 50 state governments, and threefifths for one of the tens of thousands of local governments.

Distribution of Services Services account for more than two-thirds of GDP in most developed countries, compared to around one-half in most developing countries. Services cluster in developed countries because more people with the ability to buy services live there. Within developed countries, larger cities offer a larger variety of services than do small towns because more customers live there.

Services and settlements are closely linked because settlements exist to provide services. A settlement is a permanent collection of buildings where people reside, work, and obtain services. Settlements occupy a very small percentage of Earth’s surface, well under 1 percent, but most people choose to live in them rather than reside in isolation. Geographers identify proximity to the market as the major factor for location of services.

Often, optimal locations for services are based on proximity to the market.

Changes in Job Sectors All growth in employment in the United States has been in the tertiary or service sector, whereas employment in primary and secondary sector activities has declined. Within business services, jobs expanded most rapidly in professional services and more slowly in finance and transportation where improved efficiency has contributed to slower growth. On the consumer services side, the most rapid increase has been in providing health care, education, entertainment, and recreation.

Key Issue 2: Where Are Consumer Services Distributed?

Consumer services generally follow a regular pattern based on the size of settlements. Larger settlements offer a greater number and variety of consumer services. In contrast, business services cluster in specific settlements, creating specialized patterns.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Central Place Theory The concept of central place theory helps to explain how the most profitable location can be identified. Central place theory, based on patterns observed in southern Germany, was first proposed by German geographer Walter Christaller in the 1930s. August Lösch in Germany and Brian Berry and others in the United States further developed the concept during the 1950s.

Market Area of a Service A central place is a market center for the exchange of goods and services by attracting people from the surrounding area. The term central place is so used because it is centrally located to maximize accessibility. Businesses in central places compete against each other to serve as markets for goods and services for the surrounding region.

The area surrounding a service from which customers are attracted is the market area or hinterland. To establish a market area, a circle is drawn around the node of a service on a map. The territory around the circle is its market area. Because most people prefer to get services from the nearest location, consumers near the center of the circle obtain services from local establishments. The closer to the periphery of the circle, the greater the percentage of consumers who will choose to obtain services from other nodes. People on the circumference of the market-area circle are equally likely to use the service or go elsewhere. To determine the market area of a service, geographers use the concepts of range and threshold.

Range of a Service The range is the maximum distance people are willing to travel to use a service.

People are willing to go only a short distance for everyday consumer services, such as groceries and pharmacies. But they will travel longer distances for other services such as a concert or professional ball game. As a rule, people tend to go to the nearest available service. Therefore, the range of a service must be determined from the radius of a circle that is irregularly shaped rather than perfectly round. The irregularly shaped circle takes in the territory for which the proposed site is closer than competitors’ sites. Today the nearest available service is usually described in terms of driving time rather than linear distance.

Threshold of a Service The threshold of a service is the minimum number of people needed to support the service. Every enterprise has a minimum number of customers required to generate enough sales to be profitable. Once the range has been determined, a service provider must determine whether a location is suitable by counting the potential customers inside the irregularly shaped circle. Determining the number of expected consumers inside the range depends on the product. Convenience stores and fast-food restaurants appeal to nearly everyone, whereas other goods and services appeal primarily to certain consumer groups.

The Geometry of Market Areas In central place theory geographers draw hexagons around settlements to represent market areas. Unlike circles and squares, hexagons eliminate gaps between market areas.

Hierarchy of Consumer Services People want to expend as little time and effort as possible obtaining consumer services and therefore go to the nearest place that fulfills their needs. They will travel greater distances only if the price is much lower or if the item is unavailable locally.

Rank-Size Distribution In many developed countries, geographers observe that ranking settlements from largest to smallest (population) produces a regular pattern. This is called the rank-size rule, in which the country’s nth-largest settlement is 1/n the population of the largest settlement. The second-largest city is one-half the size of the largest, the fourth-largest city is one-fourth the size of the largest, and so on. When plotted on logarithmic paper, the rank-size distribution forms a fairly straight line. In the United States and a handful of other countries, the distribution of settlements closely follows the rank-size rule.

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Chapter 12: Services & Settlements If a country does not follow the rank-size rule, it may follow the primate city rule. A country’s largest city is called the primate city. If a country follows the primate city rule it means that the country’s largest settlement has more than twice as many people as the second-ranking settlement. The absence of rank-size distribution in many developing countries indicates that there is not enough wealth in the society to pay for a full variety of services. The absence of a rank-size distribution constitutes a hardship for people who must travel long distances to reach an urban settlement with shops and services such as hospitals.

Nesting of Services and Settlements According to central place theory, market areas across a developed country would be a series of hexagons of various sizes, unless interrupted by physical features such as mountains and bodies of water.

There are four different levels of a market area: hamlet, village, town, and city. Larger settlements provide consumer services that have larger thresholds, ranges, and market areas. The nesting pattern can be illustrated with overlapping hexagons of different sizes. Hamlets with very small market areas are represented by the smallest contiguous hexagons. Larger hexagons represent the market areas of larger settlements and are overlaid on the smaller hexagons because consumers from smaller settlements shop for some goods and services in larger settlements.

Only consumer services that have small thresholds and short ranges are found in hamlets or villages because too few people live in these areas to support many services. A large department store cannot survive in a hamlet or village because its threshold exceeds the population within range of the settlement. Towns and cities provide consumer services that have larger thresholds and ranges. A city has a much larger variety of services than a hamlet or village.

Market Area Analysis Geographers apply central place theory in market area analysis to assist service providers with opening and planning their facilities.

Profitability of a Location One corner of an intersection can be profitable and another corner of the same intersection unprofitable. Geographers use two components of central place theory—range and threshold to determine the whether or not a location would be profitable. The analysis includes the following steps: (1) define the market area (2) estimate the range (3) estimate the threshold, and (4) predict the market share.

Gravity Model The gravity model predicts that the optimal location of a service is directly related to the number of people in an area and inversely related to the distance people must travel to access it. The best location will be one that minimizes the distance that all potential customers must travel to reach the service.

Generally, the greater number of people living in a place, the greater the number of potential customers.

According to the gravity model, the further away the people are from a particular service, the less likely they are to use that service.

Periodic & Sharing Services

Not all consumer services are provided in fixed locations.

Periodic Markets A periodic market is a collection of individual vendors who come together to offer goods and services in a location on specified days. A periodic market provides goods to residents of developing countries, as well as rural areas in developed countries, where sparse populations and low incomes produce purchasing power too low to support full-time retailing. Many vendors in periodic markets 379 .

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography are mobile, driving their trucks from farm to market, back to the farm to restock, then to another market.

Other vendors operate on a part-time basis, perhaps only a few times a year or produce only small amounts.

The frequency of periodic markets varies by culture.

Sharing Services Independent contractors provide services such as Uber and Lyft ride sharing services and lodging sharing services such as Airbnb. The offering of these services has expanded rapidly in recent years.

Key Issue 3: Where Are Business Services Distributed?

Hierarchy of Business Services Geographers identify a handful of urban settlements known as global cities (also called world cities) that play an especially important role in global business services. A global city is a major center for the provision of services in the global economy. These services are classified as business services or consumer and public services.

Business Services in Global Cities As centers for the flow of information and capital global cities are most closely integrated into the global economic system. Business services (including financial institutions, headquarters of large corporations, and lawyers, accountants, and other professional services) concentrate in disproportionately large numbers in global cities.

Consumer and Public Services in Global Cities Because of their large size, global cities have retail services with extensive market areas. A disproportionately large number of wealthy people live in global cities, so luxury and highly specialized products are more likely to be sold there. Global cities are centers of national and international political power. Most are national capitals, and contain mansions or palaces for the head of state, structures for the national legislature, and offices for government agencies. Also clustered in global cities are offices for groups conducting business with the government, such as representatives of foreign countries, trade associations, labor unions, and professional organizations.

Ranking Global Cities Global cities are divided into three levels: alpha, beta, and gamma. A combination of economic, political, cultural, infrastructure, communications, and transportation factors are used to identify global cities and to distinguish among the various ranks. The factors include: • • • • • •

Economic—headquarters for businesses that serve the global economy Political—national capital or headquarters for international organizations Cultural—variety of cultural institutions such as museums, educational institutions Infrastructure—major international airport, health-care facilities, and advanced communication systems Communications—links between global cities through computer and other technologies that support instantaneous communication (telegraph and telephone links in the nineteenth century) Transportation—modes supporting the quick delivery of people, inputs, and products (primarily rail links in the nineteenth century)

Business Services in Developing Countries In the global economy, developing countries specialize in two distinctive types of business services: offshore financial services and back-office functions. These businesses typically locate in developing countries for a number of reasons, including the presence of supportive laws, weak regulations, and low-wage workers.

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Chapter 12: Services & Settlements Offshore Financial Services Small countries exploit niches in the circulation of global capital by offering offshore financial services. Offshore financial services participate in the circulation of global capital by providing tax havens and privacy laws protecting the identity of their clients. These features can provide havens for tax dodgers and illegal activities. Major offshore financial services are located in dependencies of the United Kingdom and other countries, independent island countries, and independent countries that are not islands such as Liechtenstein, Switzerland, Belize, Uruguay, Bahrain, and Brunei.

Business-Process Outsourcing A second distinctive type of business service found in peripheral regions is back-office functions, also known as business-process outsourcing (BPO). Typical back-office functions include insurance claims processing, payroll management, transcription work, and other routine clerical activities. Traditionally, companies housed their back-office staff in the same office building downtown as their management staff, or at least in nearby buildings. Rising rents downtown have induced many business services to move routine work to lower-rent buildings elsewhere. For many business services, improved telecommunications have eliminated the need for spatial proximity. Selected countries have been able to attract back-office work for two labor-related reasons: low wages and ability to speak English.

Economic Specialization of Settlements Settlements can be classified by the distinctive types of economic activities that take place there. All sectors of the economy—be they the various types of agriculture, the various types of manufacturers, or the various types of services—have distinctive geographic distributions.

Economic Base The economic activities in a settlement can be divided into two types: basic and nonbasic businesses. A settlement’s distinctive economic structure derives from its basic industries, which export primarily to consumers outside the settlement. Nonbasic industries are enterprises whose customers live in the same community. A community’s unique collection of basic industries defines its economic base.

A settlement’s economic base is important because exports by basic industries bring money into the local economy, thus stimulating the provision of more nonbasic consumer services for the settlement. New basic businesses attract new workers, workers bring their families, and in turn, more nonbasic services develop to meet the needs of new workers and their families.

Settlements in the United States can be classified by their type of basic activity. In a postindustrial society, such as the United States, increasingly the basic economic activities are in business, consumer, or public services. The result can be a cluster of businesses that reinforce each other’s growth.

Distribution of Talent Some cities have a higher percentage of talented individuals than others. Talented individuals are attracted to cities with the most job opportunities and financial incentives. Individuals with special talents also gravitate toward cities that offer more cultural diversity. Attracting talented individuals is important for a city because these individuals are responsible for promoting economic innovation. They are likely to start new businesses and infuse the local economy with fresh ideas. Talented individuals are attracted to locations based on cultural rather than economic factors.

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Key Issue 4: Why Do Services Cluster in Settlements?

Services in Rural Settlements Rural settlements are either clustered or dispersed. A clustered rural settlement is an agriculturally-based community in which a number of families live in close proximity to each other, with fields surrounding the collection of houses and farm buildings. A dispersed rural settlement is characterized by farmers living on individual farms isolated from neighbors rather than alongside other farmers in settlements.

Clustered Rural Settlements A clustered rural settlement typically includes homes, barns, tools, sheds, and other farm structures, plus consumer services, such as religious structures, schools, and shops. The arrangement of buildings and services in rural settlements is based on local cultural and physical characteristics. The most common patterns are circular or linear.

Circular Clustered Rural Settlements A central open space surrounded by structures is characteristic of a circular clustered rural settlement. A kraal is a circular settlement constructed by the Masai in subSaharan Africa.

Linear Clustered Rural Settlements Buildings clustered along a road, river, or dike is characteristic of a linear clustered rural settlement. Long-lot farms along the St. Lawrence River in Quebec provide an example of this type of settlement.

Clustered New England Rural Settlements were characteristic of colonial New England. New England colonists built clustered settlements centered on an open area called a common. Remnants of this settlement pattern are still visible today with a central common surrounded by churches, schools, and houses.

Dispersed Rural Settlements A dispersed rural settlement is typical of most of the United States. The Middle Atlantic colonies were settled by more heterogeneous groups than those in New England. As the settlers moved westward they took their preference for individual, isolated farms with them. The availability of plentiful and cheap land supported this practice.

Between 1750 and 1850 the enclosure movement in the United Kingdom transformed the rural landscape by consolidating individually owned strips of land surrounding a village into a single large farm owned by an individual. When necessary, the government forced people to give up their former holdings. The enclosure movement brought greater agriculture efficiency, but it destroyed the self-contained world of village life.

The Industrial Revolution also occurred during this time period, providing employment options for those displaced from the farms.

Services in Early Urban Settlements Before permanent settlements functioned as service centers, people lived as nomads, migrating in small groups across the landscape in search of food and water. At some point, groups decided to build permanent settlements. Several families clustered together in a rural location and obtained food in the surrounding area. Early settlements in Southwest Asia, Egypt, China, and South Asia, may have diffused from Mesopotamia or developed independently.

Services in the Earliest Settlements No one knows the precise sequence of events through which settlements were established to provide services. Based on archaeological research, settlements probably originated to provide consumer and public services. Business services followed later.

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Chapter 12: Services & Settlements Early Consumer Services The earliest permanent settlements may have been established to offer consumer services, specifically places to bury the dead. Having established a permanent resting place for the dead, the group might then install priests at the site to perform the service of saying prayers for the deceased.

This would have encouraged the building of structures—places for ceremonies and dwellings.

Early Business Services Early urban settlements were places where groups could store surplus food and trade with other groups. People brought plants, animals, and minerals, as well as tools, clothing, and containers, to the urban settlements, and exchanged them for items brought by others. To facilitate this trade, officials in the settlement set fair prices, kept records, and created currency.

Early Public Services Early settlements housed political leaders as well as forces to guard the residents of the settlement and defend the surrounding hinterland from conquest by others.

Ancient Urban Settlements Settlements were first established in the eastern Mediterranean about 2500 B.C.E. These settlements were trading centers for the thousands of islands dotting the Aegean Sea and the eastern Mediterranean and provided government, military protection, and other public services for the surrounding hinterlands. These settlements were organized into city-states, self-governing communities that included the settlement and its nearby countryside.

Settlements housed families and permitted unburdened males to travel farther and faster in their search for food. Women kept “home and hearth” producing household objects and educating children. Settlements became manufacturing centers producing weapons, containers, clothing, and shelter. The rise of the Roman Empire encouraged urban settlement. After the fall of the Roman Empire in the fifth century and the contraction of trade, urban settlements began to decline.

Medieval Urban Settlements With the collapse of the Roman Empire, the majority of the world’s largest urban settlements were clustered in China. Urban life began to revive in Europe in the eleventh century, as feudal lords established new urban settlements. The lords gave residents charters of rights with which to establish independent cities in exchange for their military service.

After the end of serfdom, urban dwellers set about expanding trade. Surplus from the countryside was brought into the city for sale or exchange, and markets were expanded through trade with other free cities.

By the fourteenth century, Europe was covered by a dense network of small market towns. In larger European settlements, the most important public services occupied palaces, churches, and other prominent buildings arranged around a central market square. Many medieval settlements were surrounded by walls.

Urbanization The process by which the populations of urban settlements grow is known as urbanization.

Urbanization has two dimensions: an increase in the percentage of people living in urban settlements and an increase in the number of people living urban settlements. These two factors have different global distributions and occur for different reasons.

A century ago, social scientists observed striking differences between urban and rural residents. An urban dweller follows a different way of life than a rural dweller. These urban settlements are differentiated from rural areas by their large size, high population density, and socially heterogeneous people. These characteristics produced differences in the social behavior of urban and rural residents.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Urban-Rural Differences: Large Size If you live in a rural settlement, you know most of the other inhabitants and may even be related to many of them. The people with whom you relax are probably the same ones you see in local shops and at church. In contrast, if you live in an urban settlement, you can know only a small percentage of the other residents.

Urban-Rural Differences: High Density High density also produces social consequences for urban residents. The only way that a large number of people can be supported in a small area is through specialization. Each person in an urban settlement plays a special role or performs a specific task to allow the complex, urban system to function smoothly. By the same token, high density also encourages social groups to compete to occupy the same territory.

Urban-Rural Differences: Social Heterogeneity The larger the settlement, the greater the variety of people. A person has greater freedom in an urban settlement than in rural settlement to pursue an unusual profession, sexual orientation, or cultural interest. In a rural settlement, unusual action might be noticed and scorned, but urban residents are more tolerant of diverse social behavior. Regardless of values and preferences, in a large urban settlement, individuals can find people with similar interests. People in crowded urban areas may feel isolated. In developed countries motor vehicles, electronic devices, and modern communications and transportation systems have reduced the differences between urban and rural lifestyles.

Percentage in Urban Settlements The percentage of the world’s population living in urban settlements has increased rapidly, from 3 percent in 1800 to 6 percent in 1850, 14 percent in 1900, 30 percent in 1950, and 45 percent in 2000. The population of Earth’s urban settlements exceeded that of rural settlements for the first time in human history around 2008. The percentage of people living in urban settlements mirrors a country’s level of development. In developed countries, 79 percent live in urban areas, compared to 50 percent in developing countries. The gap in urbanization between developed and developing countries is closing rapidly. Throughout the world an increase in the percentage living in urban areas results in a decrease in the percentage living in rural areas.

Megacities A megacity is an urban settlement with a total population in excess of 10 million people. A metacity has more than 20 million people. Developed countries have a higher percentage of urban residents, but developing countries have more very large urban settlements. Three of the world’s 11 megacities are located in developed countries—Tokyo, Seoul, and New York. Developed countries only have 9 of the 37 megacities including Osaka, Moscow, Los Angeles, Paris, London, Nagoya, and the three megacities previously listed.

Rapidly-Growing Cities All but 4 of the 100 fastest-growing urban settlements in 2018 were in developing countries. Five of the 13 growing at more than 4 percent per year are in Africa, 3 are in India, 4 are elsewhere in Asia, and 1 is in Latin America. The 4 in developed countries include 3 in the United States—Atlanta, Austin, Las Vegas, and Suwon, South Korea. In developing countries, migration from the countryside contributes half of the increase in population in urban settlements, even though job opportunities may be scarce. Another major factor fueling urban growth in developing countries is natural increase.

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Introducing the Chapter Students will have a familiarity born of direct experience with many jobs in this sector, thus, it does not warrant lengthy introduction. Use the central places student engagement activity to stimulate discussion and approach central place theory in an indirect way.

Student Engagement Activity Ideas Central Places Choose three close together (within 100 miles of each other) towns/cities: the one your school is located in and two others, so that the relative sizes are at least 1:5:25 (each town is at least five times the size of the next). Give students an overview of each town and the population size so they are familiar. Now ask the following: which towns would be likely to have a . . .

• • • • • • • • • • • • •

gas station? fast-food restaurant? general practitioner? shopping center? shopping mall? movie theater? theater for plays or performances? professional piano tuner? lawyer for traffic court? neurosurgeon? thrift store? lawyer for international litigation? luxury fashion shop (e.g., Fendi, Prada, Versace)?

The examples will lead students to the “obvious” answer that the more specialized services tend to be located in the larger city, while more common services will be found in every town. However, students will probably not have considered why this pattern is so predictable. You could go back through the list and ask which services are more or less specialized to reveal this, or simply begin a discussion of threshold and range.

Automobile Sales Automobile dealerships provide data for establishing the hierarchy of central places. Have students generate a list of factory-authorized dealerships for luxury automobiles, such as Jaguar, Mercedes Benz, Rolls Royce, Bentley, Lamborghini, or DeLorean. How close to your school’s location is a dealership featuring those models as new cars? Are Chevrolet, Nissan, Ford, and Honda dealers located closer? Have students suggest reasons for the distribution they observe.

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Challenges to Comprehension Range vs. Threshold Though both are elementary concepts, students do not always grasp the difference between them. Here is a way to explain the distinction by comparing high-range services and high-threshold services.

High-range services are specialized enough that people will travel great distances to use them. Because they are high-range, their range by default includes a large population (all the people within the range are potential customers). However, many services are so specialized that a low percentage of people within their range will use the service. Examples include specialized medicine, some artists, or specialized producer services.

High-threshold activities can have low ranges, but need a large population to support the business. People would not travel very far for the service, so the service locates central to large populations. Examples include superstores, malls, and fast-food restaurants.

False Hierarchies Students may assume that because services are presented as the tertiary sector of the economy, service jobs are intrinsically more valuable than those in the primary and secondary sectors. Disabuse them of this notion by pointing out that service jobs include low-paid, low-skill jobs like housekeeping and restaurant work. On the other hand, some students may feel that workers in the first two sectors are the ones doing “real work,” especially if they work in those sectors. Discussions of this topic can create debates about worker productivity, Marxism, and capitalism.

Additional Classroom Activities and Assignments Review/Reflection Questions These questions can be used in addition to the “thinking geographically” questions at the end of each chapter.

Students can be assigned these questions as homework, they can be given as essay questions on exams, or they can serve as focus questions for in-class discussions.

The italicized section that follows the question sets the criteria and parameters for student answers. Use these suggestions to provide guidance in the assessment of student answers. In addition, a sample answer has been provided. Know that student answers will vary based on the examples and explanations you provided in class.

•

Make a list of the service jobs you’ve had, and identify each by type according to the text.

Student answers should include a list of jobs and the associated type of job as either consumer, business, or public.

Sample answer My service sector jobs have included sales clerk (retail and wholesale) and volunteer candy striper (health and social services).

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Describe the type of job you’re hoping to start after college. Is it a service? What does this, combined with your previous answer, tell you about the range of service jobs?

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Chapter 12: Services & Settlements As many students may be freshmen, they may be unclear as to their long-term career goals. Students should also comment on the differences in available jobs for different skill levels.

Sample answer I am earning a degree in secondary social studies education. This would fall under the education category of consumer services. With a degree and teacher certification, I anticipate earning a higher wage than I did in my first service sector jobs.

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Would it be difficult to do well at the job you’ve described above if you lived in a very small town?

Use the concepts of threshold, range, and central place theory to describe why high-paying jobs are easier to find in large cities.

Student responses should include the terms threshold, range, and central place theory in their discussion of the availability of jobs. They should demonstrate understanding of the general rule, the larger the settlement the greater the variety of jobs.

Sample answer Teaching jobs might be difficult to secure in a very small town. There would be more opportunities to obtain a teaching job in a larger city because an area with a higher population would have more schools, and therefore more teaching jobs. The range of a school district’s boundaries is greater than that of a small town as the city is likely to cover a larger geographic extent. The threshold for teachers would be related to the number of schools in the district.

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Present the reasoning of a person who chooses to live downtown, near the central business district (CBD). Answer as though you’re explaining to a friend why you chose to live there. Reference concepts from the text in your answer.

Student answers should demonstrate an understanding of both positive and negative aspects of living near the central business district.

Sample answer After I got my first job downtown, I decided to rent an apartment near the central business district.

Even though the rents may be higher near the central business district, I will save money on transportation costs as I can walk to work. I enjoy going to the theater, sporting events, and concerts.

All of these venues are available in the city.

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Now present the reasoning of a person who chooses to live in the suburbs while they work in the city. Again, answer as though you’re explaining your decision to a friend and reference concepts from the text.

Student answers should compare differences between the suburbs and cities in terms of cost of housing and amenities. They should also acknowledge the need to travel to work.

Sample answer Even though I work in the city, I choose to commute from the suburbs. The suburb has a lower population density. For the same price as an apartment in the city, I can have a house with a yard and a single car garage. I like to drive and don’t mind the commute.

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Occupations The Bureau of Labor Statistics posts the occupations with the highest percentage of employment at www.bls.gov/ooh/fastest-growing.htm. Have students analyze the list from the Occupational Outlook Handbook and categorize the occupations as a consumer, business, or public service.

Analyzing Job Ads Take an inventory of the kinds of advertisements (in all media, print and electronic) that you encounter over the course of two days. Which of these ads pertain more to consumer services, and which pertain more to business services? How do these various kinds of ads contribute to the consumer culture within which we are immersed? Consider questions of socioeconomic class, gender, and ethnic identity as you formulate your responses to these questions.

Sample answer Most of the ads I collected dealt with the sales of consumer products including appliances, cars, groceries, clothing to name a few. Your Internet browser frequently pops up with suggestions for purchases based on your past searches. It subtly reminds you of the good you once wanted. Our consumer culture is based on advertising and the creation of a need to have.

Mastering Geography™ provides additional assignable learning activities and ready-made resources designed to extend and reinforce student skills and mastery of key content, concepts, and vocabulary. The resources include MapMaster 2.0 interactive maps, videos, GeoTutor coaching activities, Google Earth Explorations, outline maps, chapter quizzes, Dynamic Study Modules, and more. Further details about these resources and recommendations for use are provided in the Resources section of this document. You can assign these media-rich activities as pre or post lecture homework.

Thinking Geographically Questions Key Issue 12.1: The Debate It! feature Chapter 11 examines the practice of providing government subsidies to attract and retain manufacturing jobs.

1. Should the U.S. job trends shown in Figure 12-3 influence decisions to provide subsidies to manufacturers? Why or why not?

The chart shows a decline in jobs in the secondary sector. Jobs in the professional services category of business services have steadily increased. As the economy becomes more globalized and industries more mechanized manufacturing jobs may never return. The government should not provide subsidies to manufacturers because goods can be purchased in the global marketplace for a lower cost.

Key Issue 12.2 2. What consumer services are lacking in your community that you would like to see added?

I would love to see an IKEA and a Wegman’s grocery story added to my community. IKEA provides a wide array of household goods at reasonable prices, and as we are embarking on a vegan diet Wegman’s provides a wider variety of healthy options than other existing stores offer.

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Chapter 12: Services & Settlements 3. How might the concepts of range and threshold help to explain its absence or possible addition to your community?

I live in an area with many bodies of waters and a bridge tunnel that limits travel northward to around 15 miles. The area to the north contains a Wegman’s grocery, but even though the distance is short, the time varies from 30 minutes to sometimes hours depending of the traffic or accidents affecting traffic through the tunnel. Range is the limiting factor of business location in my area.

Key Issue 12.3 4. What basic industries does your community have in abundance?

A basic industry or business exports to customers outside of the settlements. In a tourist-based economy, we have an abundance of hotels, restaurants, and tourist shops that serve people from outside our community who come to spend their vacation dollars.

5. What distinctive features of your community might explain this economic base?

This tourism economic base exists because of miles of beaches along the Atlantic Ocean.

Key Issue 12.4: Professional sports teams are leisure services with large ranges, thresholds, and areas. They tend to cluster in large urban settlements.

6. Go online to find a list of the largest U.S. Metropolitan Statistical Areas. Compare the list with the locations of the 32 National Football League teams. How many of the 32 largest metropolitan areas do not have an NFL team?

Eight of the largest U.S. Metropolitan Statistical Areas do not have a National Football League team. These include Columbus, Ohio; Las Vegas, Nevada; Austin, Texas; San Antonio, Texas, Sacramento, California; Portland, Oregon; Orlando, Florida; and Riverside, California.

7. How many teams are outside the 32 largest metropolitan areas?

There are five teams located outside of the 32 metropolitan areas: Buffalo, New York; Green Bay, Wisconsin, Nashville, Tennessee; New Orleans, Louisiana; and Oakland, California.

8. What factors might account for the discrepancy between the two lists?

There are multiple factors that could account for the discrepancy. For Orlando and Las Vegas, other entertainment opportunities besides sports abound. The rest of the cities may not have a large enough threshold to support the sports team. The cities with NFL teams must derive enough sports fans from surrounding areas to support the teams.

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Pause and Reflect Questions 12.1.1 In which sectors of the economy do you or members of your family work? If in the service sector, in which types of services are these jobs?

My father works in the secondary sector of the economy, treating lumber. I work in the tertiary sector of the economy (service), as an instructor at a university. My job is in the public services sub-sector.

12.2.1 Do you or someone you know live in a megaregion? How far are you from the city at the center of your megaregion?

I live in the Richmond-Tidewater megaregion. I live about 114 miles from Richmond, the state capital, and center of the megaregion.

12.2.2 Does Peru follow the rank-size rule or the primate city rule? Use you search engine to find “most populous cities in Peru.”

Peru is definitely a good example of the primate city rule. Lima is almost 10 times larger than the second most populous city in the country.

12.2.3 In Figure 12-13, why is the number of Target stores in the Dayton area lower than that of the Family Dollar stores?

Family Dollar stores have a low range and a low threshold as they offer convenience and low-cost goods.

There are fewer Target stores with a greater variety of specialized goods. The Target stores have larger ranges and higher thresholds.

12.2.4 What are the advantages and the challenges of buying food at a periodic market?

Food offered in a periodic market is likely to be locally grown and fresher than produce available at the supermarket. The major challenge is its limited availability which is constrained to the days and times the markets are open.

12.3.1 How would you expect an alpha city such as Chicago to differ from a beta city such as Houston or a gamma city such as Phoenix? Refer to Figure 12-24.

A wider variety of services would be offered in an alpha city compared to beta and gamma cities. There are likely to be more political institutions located in alpha cities, although Phoenix is the capital of Arizona and houses the state government, while Chicago is not the capital of Illinois and does not house the state government. There are probably more public transportation options in alpha cities, making urban life much easier compared to cities lacking such infrastructure. For example, the “L” in Chicago, along with its extensive bus network, allows for one to travel the city with ease. A city with more sprawl, like Phoenix, may not be suitable for such a public transportation system.

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Chapter 12: Services & Settlements 12.3.2 If it is 3 P.M. on a Tuesday where you live, what time and day is it at a call center in India? Refer to Figure 1-78.

If it is 3:00 P.M. on a Tuesday in Alabama it would be 1:30 A.M. on Wednesday in New Delhi, India.

12.3.3 Do communities with high growth in tech jobs rank high on “coolness” or low? What might account for that pattern?

Cities with high growth in tech jobs generally mirror cities that rank high on “coolness.” These individuals may work for companies that have associated their branding with “coolness” (e.g., tech companies in San Francisco), or they may be “cool” by virtue of being a large urban settlement that attracts “cool” people that aren’t involved in the tech industry. Talented individuals are more likely to be attracted to a city’s amenities than other workers.

12.4.1 In which sector of the economy would you expect most of the residents of Newfane, Vermont, or Luckington, U.K., to be employed? Why? I would guess that the residents of these two towns to be employed in the primary sector of the economy, as both communities seem to be rural clustered settlements surrounded by farmland or dense forestland.

Luckington, U.K shows much more agricultural land surrounding the settlement.

12.4.2 In prehistoric times, before the invention of settlements, why might caves have played an important role in the lives of early humans?

People may have lived in caves as they provide a natural shelter from the elements and human and animal predators.

12.4.3 What migration factor discussed in Chapter 3 might help to explain why the percentage of people in developed countries living in urban areas may not continue to increase?

Counterurbanization is characterized by people moving out of urban areas to the countryside for a relatively simpler lifestyle. This occurs in developed countries because some jobs in the tertiary sector may be performed at a distance from the place of employment due to the availability of communication technology.

The idyllic countryside is a pull factor for people moving there.

12.4.4 How might differences in natural increase rates between Indonesia and Japan impact growth rates for Jakarta and Tokyo?

Indonesia has a higher natural increase rate than Japan. Therefore, Indonesia’s overall population is likely to increase in the future. As Japan’s natural increase rate is below replacement level, the total population will decline. People will continue to migrate to Jakarta and Tokyo, but for different reasons. Large numbers of people will migrate to Jakarta because of population pressure in rural areas and the pull of perceived employment in the city. People will still migrate to Tokyo in search of amenities and the urban lifestyle.

Jakarta is predicted to become the world’s largest urban settlement.

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Caption Questions Figure 12-2, Percentage of GDP from Services, p. 435 1. In the BRICS countries (Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa), what percent of their GDP comes from services?

Except for China, the BRICS countries have 50 to 69 percent of their GDP derived from services. China has below 50 percent of its service sector.

2. Why might China derive a lower percentage of its GDP from services than do the other BRICS countries?

China is the world’s largest manufacturing country. Therefore, its economy has larger primary and secondary sectors.

Figure 12-5, U.S. Megaregions, p. 436 1. Why does a large part of the western U.S. lack defined megaregions?

The western part of the U.S. lacking megaregions is sparsely populated and mountainous.

2. Why are the megaregions east of the Mississippi generally smaller than those to the west?

The most heavily populated part of the United States is located in the Northeast and east of the Mississippi River. Therefore, there are fewer megaregions west of the Mississippi.

Figure 12-28, Economic Base of Selected U.S. Communities, p. 448 1. Look for differences in the regional distribution of basic industries on the map. Where are recently developed businesses in fields such as electronics, computers, and biotechnology concentrated?

The primary centers for electronics, computers, and biotechnology are located in Boston and California (Silicon Valley). Additional areas include Colorado for computer systems, Seattle for computer software, and Phoenix for electronic testing labs.

2. How are long-established businesses that produce, and process materials or manufacture machinery distributed?

Businesses that manufacture or process resources are located along the Great Lakes.

Figure 12-23, Clustered New England Rural Settlement, p. 451 1. Use a mapping app to fly to Newfane, Vermont, and zoom in on the Newfane Common. What are the functions of the buildings surrounding the Common?

Buildings surrounding the commons include a church, a court, a library, and a historical museum. The services these places offer are in the tertiary and most in the public sector.

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2. Why would these buildings have been sited on the common?

The buildings provide public services and cultural services that are shared by all. They are located in the center of the settlement, accessible to all.

Sustainability & Our Environment Identifying Food Deserts, p. 441 1. Based on the map in Figure 12-16, in which parts of the country are food deserts most prevalent?

Food deserts are the most prevalent in the South, eastern Kentucky, southwestern West Virginia, southeastern Nevada, northeastern Arizona, and southern South Dakota. Counties in these areas have high percentages of people with limited access to cars and supermarkets.

2. What role does public transportation play in determining whether a food desert exists in a particular area?

As many inner-city residents may not own cars, public transportation would provide access to supermarkets that may be located beyond walking distance. Limited public transportation networks would increase the number of people in food deserts.

3. Do you live in a food desert? Zoom in on your community at the USDA Food Access Research Atlas web page.

According USDA atlas, I do not live in a low income and low access area. Because I have a car, I have many more options available for food shopping. However, many parts of the neighboring city of Norfolk are identified as food deserts.

Debate It! Is Airbnb a business service or a consumer service? p. 443 1. How far is the nearest Airbnb from your home or school? If you don’t know, check online. Were you aware of its existence?

The nearest Airbnbs to my home are about 12 miles away. I was unaware of the number of places advertised on the site. Most were for renting a room at prices way below what would be charged by a hotel. There has been controversy over the rental of homes by the week with opposition from people in the neighborhood as the renters tend to be rowdy.

2. Why would cities such as London, New York, and Paris try to ban or severely restrict Airbnb?

World cities such as London, New York, and Paris, major tourist destinations, would move to protect the investment in the hospitality industry.

3. In some communities, including Chicago, Airbnb is permitted if the owner lives in the house, but it is prohibited if the owner lives elsewhere. Why might communities wish to distinguish between owneroccupied houses and other houses?

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography My area has experienced this phenomenon with absent owners of the Airbnbs. With no supervision, the temporary tenants have disturbed people living in the neighborhood with loud parties, trash, and inconsiderate parking. Communities need to serve their permanent residents and may pass ordinances to control rental seasons or terms of rentals.

Doing Geography Defining America’s Coolest Cities, p. 449 What’s Your SERVICES Geography?

Do you live in a “cool” place? If not, do you want to move to a “cool” place? Check out “cool” communities at www.bestplaces.net or search for Sperling’s Best Places.

1. Enter the name or ZIP code of your community. What are the pros and cons of your community? Do you agree? Why or why not?

According to bestplaces.net, the pros on my community include nearby water recreation, an educated population, and a stable economy. The cons include growth and sprawl, rising costs, and lack of air service.

I agree with the characterization except for the lack of an airport. There is an airport 11 miles away with an 18-minute drive time. I would not want to live much closer to the airport because of the noise it generates.

2. Select City Compare. Compare your community with one where you would rather live, or alternatively one where you would rather not live. What are the differences between the two communities? Do you agree? Why or why not?

I compared Virginia Beach to Charlottesville, VA. Virginia Beach has a population almost 10 times that of Charlottesville with a higher median income, higher median age, higher commute time, and slightly higher unemployment rate. The average home price is cheaper in Virginia Beach. I agree with the characterization for both cities as they reflect my experience. If I were to consider relocation I would research other factors such as crime and access to medical care.

3. Select Quiz. Where is your best place to live?

According to the quiz, my best place to live would be Baton Rouge, Louisiana.

GeoVideo Questions Rapid Urbanization in Chongqing Chongqing is one of the world’s largest cities.

1. What accounts for the rapid growth of Chongqing and other China cities?

Location by a major transportation hub is a contributing factor to the city’s growth. Rapid urbanization is due to movement of people from the countryside to the city.

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Chapter 12: Services & Settlements 2. How are consumer services changing in Chongqing to meet the needs of a rapidly growing middle-class population?

Consumer services have expanded to include international luxury brands purchased by the growing middleclass segment of the population.

Writing Geographically Amazon and Walmart are among the world's largest service providers, but their impacts on urban geography are very different.

1. Describe how these two companies fit into the outline of the various sectors of consumer services and of business services.

Both companies sell consumer goods, but differ in the method used to do so. Amazon conducts its business online, shipping goods directly to the consumer. Centralized warehousing of goods and packaging for delivery are tasks completed in an Amazon fulfillment center as shown in the text. Proximity to an airport is a must. Although Walmart has an online presence its stores provide customers the opportunity to shop faceto-face.

2. How do these companies differ in their impact on employment in urban areas around the country?

Walmart stores are widely distributed throughout the United States providing opportunities for employment in many urban areas. Amazon has fewer fulfillment centers than Walmart has stores, therefore Walmart would have more of an impact on employment in an urban area. That said, Amazon’s search for new headquarters will significantly impact employment in those places chosen.

Explore Consumer Services in Dubai Dubai is ranked as an alpha+ city in the hierarchy of global cities. Fly to the Dubai Mall, Financial Center Road, Dubai, United Arab Emirates 1. Explore the interior of the mall by dragging the Street View icon to the middle of the mall complex.

Compare and contrast the interior of the Dubai Mall with malls you have visited in the United States in terms of the services provided and any distinctive cultural features.

The Dubai mall, the second largest in the world, is much larger than the major shopping malls in my town.

The arches and geometric designs are characteristic of Islamic culture. The central court is lavishly appointed. The mall contains an ice rink, many restaurants, and a wide variety of specialty shops. Exhibits such as an aquarium are also present there.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography 2. Outside the Mall, explore one of the 360 views of downtown Dubai. What evidence of its rank as an alpha+ global city do you see?

As an alpha+ city, Dubai has a downtown area containing skyscrapers, international business offices, financial institutions, cultural attractions such as the Dolphinarium. The city has many transportation links— wide avenues, a nearby airport, and port facilities.

3. Based on your view of the city, what mix of business and consumer services would you expect to find in Dubai?

Dubai has a consumer-oriented economy with luxury goods available. Business services include headquarters for companies and financial institutions with the capital to support further development.

Geospatial Data Analysis Urbanization and Population Growth From the Population theme, select Change in Urbanization; from the Political theme, select Major Cities of More than 5 Million. From the legend, select City Labels.

1. Which are likely to grow more rapidly: major cities in China or in India? Explain.

If the trend of annual change were to continue, I would select China as more likely to experience growth in its major cities because its change in urbanization is 3 percent whereas India’s percentage of annual change is 2.3 percent. Both have megacities with populations in excess of 20 million.

2. Which major city in Africa is most likely to grow rapidly in coming decades? What map evidence supports this conclusion?

I would select Lagos, Nigeria as being most likely to grow rapidly in coming decades because Nigeria change is urbanization is 4.6 percent annually, whereas that of the Democratic Republic of the Congo is only 3.9 percent.

3. Select Population (Arithmetic) Density, reduce the opacity of the Change in Urbanization layer to 20 percent, and zoom in on Australia. What explains Australia's relatively low rate of change in urbanization? (Hint: How is most of Australia's population distributed?)

Australia’s urban areas are primarily located along the eastern and southern coasts. Australia’s low rate of change is due to the lack of other urban areas for migration.

Geospatial Data Analysis Extension Activity Explore countries that currently have low percentages of urban populations and a high annual rate of urbanization.

Reset the map. From the Population theme select Change in Urbanization, select Urban Population (Urbanization), and join layer.

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Chapter 12: Services & Settlements 1. Deselect all categories in the Legend except for the highest percentage of annual change and the highest urban population. What pattern do you observe? What conclusion can you draw?

Many of the countries that fit these criteria are in Southwest Asia & Northern Africa. Countries with a relatively high urban population and a high percentage of annual growth are likely to increase their urban population faster than other countries.

2. Select only the categories in the legend to show the lowest category for urban population and the lowest category for change in urbanization. What pattern do you observe? Based on the data, what predictions can you make?

Many of the countries fitting these criteria are located along the eastern coast of Africa and Asia.

Currently they have very low urbanization rates, but high percentages of change. Because of the high percentage of annual change, the urban population will grow, but still remain relatively low on a global scale. The urbanization in Africa is occurring at a much faster pace than that in Asia.

Resources U.S. Department of Labor Bureau of Labor Statistics This website, www.bls.gov, provides enough statistics on labor and industry to last a lifetime. Detailed statistics are available on labor, job markets, inflation, productivity, unemployment, and more.

U.S. Census Bureau Service Annual Survey The website, www.census.gov/services/index.html, contains detailed data (some collected quarterly) on employment in the service sector. This site includes definitions of each service industry (type), detailed data on each type, and the survey forms used to collect the data.

2018 Global Cities Report Compiled by A.T. Kearney the Global Cities Report compares the world’s global cities using metrics from the following categories: business activity, human capital, information exchange, cultural experience, and political engagement. In addition, up and coming cities are ranked in the Outlook category using the following criteria: personal well-being, economics, innovation, and governance. Access the report at www.atkearney.com/2018-global-cities-report.

GeoInquiries™ GeoInquiries™ by Environmental Science Research Institute (ESRI) consist of scripted map-based online GIS activities designed to be completed within a 15-minute time frame. These Internet-based mapping activities run best in the Google Chrome browser and do not require the installation of any software. Access them at www.esri.com/en-us/industries/education/schools/geoinquiries-collections.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography The following GeoInquiries™ support the development of the concepts and content of this chapter.

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What’s the Range? from the Human Geography collection in which students compare market areas for four types of stores: coffee shops, fast-food restaurants, home improvement stores, and major department stores. The concepts of range and threshold are reinforced through this activity.

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Range: Why Hexagons? from the Human Geography collection. In this level 2 activity (sign in required) students use analysis tools to summarize data for coffee shops and fast food stores using hexagons as the area for comparison.

Mastering Geography Media & Assessment Resources Mastering Geography™ provides additional assignable homework activities and ready-made resources designed to extend and reinforce student skills and mastery of key content, concepts, and vocabulary. These resources are invaluable to implementation of the flipped classroom. Use the Instructor Course Home areas to build assignments for your students. Highlights include: •

MapMaster 2.0™ provides students with the opportunity to reinforce their understanding of spatial relationships, e.g., variation, distribution, interaction, and association. Students get hands on with map building, exploration, and spatial data analysis by layering a wide range of maps. Multiplechoice assessments in the Mastering Geography item library provide directions for building maps aligned with chapter content, and focus on the development of spatial thinking and analysis skills.

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GeoVideos and Google Earth Explorations linked to chapter content provide an opportunity for students to “visit” other places and build an appreciation for other cultures. Use as an out-of-class assignment and have students explain how the video or Google Earth Explorations illustrate concepts learned in class and make comparisons between cultures.

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Interactive Data Visualizations powered by Social Explorer provide interactive data explorations for each chapter's Key Issue, and include map stories, predictive graphing, interactive maps, interactive population pyramids, interactive charts, and more. These media are integrated into the Pearson eText and Study Area, and are also available for assignment with quizzes.

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GeoTutors are highly visual and data-rich assignable activities that help students master the most challenging concepts in geography.

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Dynamic Study Modules (DSMs) provide two sets of 25 multiple-choice questions per chapter topic. Because this resource includes a “I don’t know yet” answer choice,” it can be assigned as a pre-assessment or content preview. The modules are interactive as students are prompted to select, “I am unsure” or “I am sure” as they submit their answers. The questions could also be used as self-check for students at the end of the chapter. An infographic gauge represents their accuracy visually. Teachers can assign the DSMs for credit and or students can access these on their own for self study.

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Learning Catalytics is an interactive student response tool paired with Mastering Geography that encourages team-based learning by using students’ smartphones, tablets, or laptops to engage them in interactive tasks and thinking. As a teacher, you can pose a variety of open-ended questions that help your students develop critical thinking skills, while monitoring responses with real-time analytics to find out where they’re struggling. With this information, you can adjust your 398 .

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Chapter 12: Services & Settlements instructional strategy in real time and try additional ways of engaging your students during class.

Learning Catalytics also lets you manage student interactions by automatically grouping students for discussion, team-based learning, and peer-to-peer learning.

The Mastering Geography student Study Area includes a variety of tools that students can access on their own, including: •

The eText provides a fully digital online version of the textbook, with search and bookmarking functionality. Available for offline reading.

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Chapter Quizzes include 15 multiple choice questions based on the chapter’s content.

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Key Terms Flashcards to help students master the key vocabulary.

Downloadable Outline Maps containing political and physical features provide students the opportunity to label key countries and physical features. Consider assigning these maps throughout the course so that students can refer to them as they interpret the many thematic maps.

The following selection from the GeoVideos are particularly useful in supporting student understanding of key concepts of the chapter:

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China—White Horse Village Urbanization, 8:56 minutes (linked in the population chapter)

The following map layers associated with this chapter’s content and concepts are included in the MapMaster 2.0™. In addition, there are a series of quizzes developed using MapMaster 2.0™.

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Automobile Use Change in Urbanization Cities Exports (Value) Foreign Direct Investment Major Cities of More than 5 Million Megacities Major Industrial Centers National Capitals

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Major Manufacturing Regions (North America) Major Rail Routes & Inland Waterways (North America) Population Change 2000-2015 (U.S.) Tourism Revenues Tourism Arrivals World Railroads World Population

Additional resources in support of students with disabilities include the screen reader enabled e-text and more. Further details about these resources are available at www.pearson.com/us/accessibility.html.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography

Connections between Chapters Back to Chapter 11 As industrial jobs are lost to higher productivity or simply “offshored,” service jobs represent the majority of job growth in the developed world. Technology and efficiency have been able to create site and situation factors which allow some jobs to move, but many services are location-specific to where the market is.

However, an excellent example of the rapidity of this change is the increasing number of North Americans (though still very small) who travel to places as far away as India for surgery or other healthcare to save medical costs. Not even doctors’ jobs are completely safe in the global marketplace!

Forward to Chapter 13 The transition is nearly seamless since Chapter 12 already introduces the fact that settlements and services occur together. With earlier discussions of central place theory and the hierarchical organization of settlements, students should be prepared to delve deeper into urban geography.

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Urban Patterns Learning Outcomes After reading, studying, and discussing the chapter, students should be able to: Learning Outcome 13.1.1:

Compare various definitions of urban settlements.

Learning Outcome 13.1.2:

Describe distinctive features of the CBD.

Learning Outcome 13.1.3a:

Describe the use of vertical space in the CBD.

Learning Outcome 13.1.3b:

Describe the exclusion of some land uses in the CBD.

Learning Outcome 13.2.1:

Describe three models of internal structure of urban areas.

Learning Outcome 13.2.2:

Analyze how the three models of the internal structure of urban areas help to explain where people live.

Learning Outcome 13.2.3:

Relate the models of urban structure to European urban areas.

Learning Outcome 13.2.4a:

Describe patterns in precolonial in developing countries.

Learning Outcome 13.2.4b:

Describe patterns in colonial cities in developing countries.

Learning Outcome 13.2.5:

Understand how the three models of urban structure describe patterns in cities in developing countries.

Learning Outcome 13.2.6a:

Describe stages of development.

Learning Outcome 13.2.6b:

Apply urban models to Mexico City.

Learning Outcome 13.3.1:

Explain the process of suburban growth.

Learning Outcome 13.3.2:

Describe suburban sprawl.

Learning Outcome 13.3.3:

Explain ways in which suburbs are segregated.

Learning Outcome 13.3.5:

Describe the benefits and drawbacks of public transport.

Learning Outcome 13.3.4:

Describe the strategies to reduce the impact of motor vehicles in urban areas.

Learning Outcome 13.4.1:

Summarize social challenges faced by many cities.

Learning Outcome 13.4.2:

Describe the process of gentrification.

Learning Outcome 13.4.3:

Consider alternative methods for address traffic congestion.

Learning Outcome 13.4.4:

Describe changes in vehicles and the impact of the changes on cities.

Learning Outcome 13.4.5:

Apply geography’s five basic concepts to cities.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography

Chapter 13 Outline I

Key Issue 1: Why Are Cities Challenging to Define?

A Cities & Geography 1 Central City—urban settlement that has been legally incorporated into an independent, selfgoverning unit known as a municipality 2 Metropolitan Area a metropolitan statistical area (MSA) b micropolitan statistical areas c core-based statistical area (CBSA) d combined statistical areas (CSA) 3 Urban Area a urbanized area b urban cluster 4 Overlapping Metropolitan Areas a megalopolis B The Central Business District 1 Public Services in CBDs 2 Consumer Services in CBDs a retailers with high thresholds b retailers with high ranges c retailers servicing CBD workers 3 Business Services in CBDs C Competing for Space in CBDs 1 Removing Manufacturing from the CBD 2 Residents in the CBD 3 The Vertical CBD: Underground 4 The Vertical CBD: Skyscrapers

II Key Issue 2: Where Are People Distributed in Urban Areas?

A Models of Urban Structure 1 Concentric Zone Model 2 Sector Model 3 Multiple Nuclei & Galactic Models B Applying the Models in North America 1 Social Area Analysis 2 Social Area Analysis: Concentric Zones 3 Social Area Analysis: Sectors 4 Social Area Analysis: Nuclei 5 Limitation of the Models C Structure of European Cities 1 CBDs in Europe a residences b consumer services c public services d business services 2 Concentric Zones in Europe 3 Sectors in Europe 402 .

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Chapter 13: Urban Patterns 4 Multiple Nuclei in Europe D Premodern Cities in Developing Countries 1 Ancient & Medieval City: Beijing a Beijing during the Yuan dynasty b Beijing during the Ming dynasty 2 Colonial Legacy E Applying the Models in Developing Countries 1 Concentric Zones in Developing Countries 2 Sectors in Developing Countries 3 Multiple Nuclei in Developing Countries F Changing Urban Structure in Mexico City 1 Precolonial Mexico City 2 Colonial Mexico City 3 Mexico City Since Independence III Key Issue 3: Why Do Urban Areas Expand?

A Origin & Growth of Suburbs 1 Suburb is a residential or commercial area situated within an urban area but outside the central city 2 Annexation 3 Suburban Lifestyle 4 Local Government Fragmentation a consolidations of city and county governments b federations B Suburban Sprawl 1 Density gradient 2 U.S. & U.K. Suburbs 3 Smart Growth C Suburban Segregation 1 Residential Segregation 2 Suburban Consumer Services 3 Suburban Business Services D Reliance on Motor Vehicles 1 Transportation Epochs 2 Benefits & Costs of Motor Vehicles a comfort, choice, and flexibility b perceived cost E Legacy of Public Transport 1 Public Transit Around the World 2 Public Transport in The United States a recent trends in public transport b challenges face public transit

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography IV Key Issue 4: Why Might Cities Be More Sustainable?

A The City Challenged 1 Job Skills 2 Challenges for Families 3 Challenges to Health & Safety 4 Services B The City Renewed 1 Gentrification—converting an urban neighborhood from a predominantly low-income, renteroccupied area to a predominantly middle-class, owner-occupied area 2 Attraction of inner-city neighborhoods 3 Reviving Consumer Services 4 Removing Public Housing C Controlling Vehicles 1 Relieving traffic congestion a information about traffic congestion so that motorists can change routes b ways to decrease traffic i tolls ii permits 2 Sharing Vehicles a sharing with others a vehicle you own b sharing with others a vehicle that no single individual owns 3 Autonomous Driving Vehicles a Level 1: assisted driving b Level 2: partially automated c Level 3: partially automated d Level 4: fully automated e Level 5: driverless 4 Impacts of Near-future Changes in Vehicles a electrification of vehicles i plug-in hybrid ii full electric with lithium ion battery iii hydrogen fuel cell b electricity & pollution D Revisiting Geography’s Key Concepts 1 Place—specific point on Earth, distinguished by a particular characteristics 2 Region—an area of Earth defined by one or more distinctive characteristics 3 Scale—is the relationship between the portion of Earth being studies and Earth as a whole 4 Space—refers to the physical gap or interval between two objects 5 Connection—relationships among people and objects across the barrier of space

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Chapter 13: Urban Patterns

Chapter Content Outline Key Issue 1: Why Are Cities Challenging to Define?

Cities & Geography Historically, urban settlements were very small and compact. As these settlements have rapidly increased in size, however, definitions have been created to describe their different parts: the central city, the urban area, and the metropolitan area.

Central City A central city (or simply city) is an urban settlement that has been legally incorporated into an independent, self-governing unit known as a municipality. Virtually all countries have a local government system that recognizes cities as legal entities with defined boundaries.

Metropolitan Area The U.S. Bureau of the Census has created a method of measuring the larger functional area of a settlement, known as the metropolitan statistical area (MSA). An MSA includes an urbanized area with a population of at least 50,000, the county within which the city is located, and adjacent counties with a high population density and a large percentage of residents working in the central city’s county.

The census has also designated smaller urban areas as micropolitan statistical areas (μSAs). A μSA includes an urbanized area of between 10,000 and 50,000 inhabitants, the county in which it is located, and adjacent counties tied to the city. The census combines MSAs and μSAs in several ways. A core-based statistical area (CBSA) is any one MSA or μSA. A combined statistical area (CSA) is two or more contiguous CBSAs tied together by commuting patterns. A primary statistical area (PSA) is a CSA, an MSA not included in a CSA, or a μSA not included in a CSA. Urban Area An urban area consists of a central city and its surrounding built-up suburbs. The U.S. census recognizes two types of urban areas. The urbanized area is an urban area with at least 50,000 inhabitants. An urban cluster is an urban area with between 2,500 and 50,000 inhabitants.

Overlapping Metropolitan Areas In the northeastern United States, large metropolitan areas are so close together that they now form one continuous urban complex, extending north of Boston to south of Washington, D.C., this region is known as megalopolis. Other continuous urban complexes exist in the United States—the southern Great Lakes between Chicago and Milwaukee on the west and Pittsburgh on the east, and southern California from Los Angeles to Tijuana.

The Central Business District The central business district (CBD) is the core of the city where many services cluster. Services are attracted to the CBD because of its accessibility. The CBD is usually near the original site of settlement. The CBDs of older cities are often situated along a body of water.

Public Services in CBDs Public services typically located in a CBD include city hall, courts, county and state agencies, and libraries. Public services are located in the CBD to facilitate access for people living in all parts of town. Sports facilities and convention centers are found in the CBD and attract many suburbanites and out-of-towners. Cities place these facilities in the CBD because they hope to stimulate business for downtown restaurants, bars, and hotels.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Consumer Services in CBDs Retail services were once important to the CBD but are now less so. Changing shopping habits and residential patterns have reduced the importance of retail services in the CBD. In the past, three types of retail services clustered in the CBD because of its accessibility. These retail services include retailers with high thresholds, those with a high range, and those that served workers in the CBD. Changing shopping habits and residential habits have reduced the importance of retail services in the CBD. Retailers with High Thresholds Retailers with a high range and threshold traditionally preferred a CBD location in order to be accessible to many people. Department stores with high thresholds are likely to be located in suburban malls.

Retailers with High Ranges High-range retailers are often specialized, with customers who patronize them infrequently. These retailers once preferred CBD locations because their customers were scattered over a wide area. Some retailers with high ranges have located in CBDs because they are visited by tourists. Some local residents also patronize shops in the CBD as a leisure activity on evenings and weekends.

Retailers Serving CBD Workers Specialized retailers and those serving downtown workers still remain in the CBD. Retailers selling office supplies, computers, and clothing or offering shoe repair, rapid photocopying, or dry cleaning are actually expanding in the CBD. The number of downtown office workers has increased, and downtown offices are now requiring more services. The total volume of sales in downtown areas has been stable, but the pattern of demand has changed.

Business Services in CBDs People in business services such as advertising, banking, journalism, and law depend on proximity with professional colleagues. Even with the diffusion of modern communications, many professionals still exchange information with colleagues primarily through face-to-face contact. A central location also helps businesses that employ workers from a variety of neighborhoods.

Competition for Space in CBDs A CBD’s accessibility produces extreme competition for the limited available land. As a result, land values are very high in the CBD. Because of intense competition for land, the CBD has distinctive features. The CBD has a three-dimensional character, with more space used below and above ground level than elsewhere in the urban area. Land uses commonly found elsewhere such as industrial and residential activities, are rare in the CBD. The CBD has a three-dimensional aspect with the use of spaces above and below ground level.

Removing Manufacturing from the CBD In the past, inner-city factories and retail establishments relied on waterfront CBDs that were once lined with piers for cargo ships to load and unload and warehouses to store goods. Port facilities have moved to more modern facilities downstream. Port cities have transformed their waterfronts from industry to recreational activities. Derelict warehouses and rotting piers have been replaced with new offices, shops, parks, and museums, becoming major tourist attractions.

Residents in the CBD Many people used to live downtown. Many people moved to suburbs pulled by the offer of larger homes with private yards and modern schools. They were pushed from CBDs by high rents that businesses and retail services were willing to pay and by the crime, congestion, and poverty that they experienced by living downtown. Downtown living has become attractive recently to people without schoolage children. People without school-age children are attracted to the entertainment, restaurants, museums, and nightlife that is clustered downtown.

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Chapter 13: Urban Patterns Vertical Features of the CBD

The CBD makes more intensive use of space below and above ground.

The Vertical CBD: Underground A vast underground network exists beneath most CBDs. The typical “underground city” includes garages, loading docks for deliveries to offices and shops, electric and telephone wires, and pipes for water and sewer service. Subway trains run beneath the streets of large CBDs. The Vertical CBD: Skyscrapers Skyscrapers developed to maximize the floor space in the highest-demand areas. Downtown skyscrapers give a city one of its most distinctive images and unifying symbols. The first high-rises caused great inconvenience to neighboring structures because they blocked light and air movements.

Most North American and European cities enacted zoning ordinances early in the twentieth century in part to control the location and height of skyscrapers.

Key Issue 2: Where Are People Distributed in Urban Areas?

Models of Urban Structure Sociologists, economists, and geographers have developed three models to help explain where different types of people tend to live in an urban area—the concentric zone, sector, and multiple nuclei models. The peripheral model is a modification of the multiple nuclei model. The three models have been applied to cities in the United States and in other countries with varying levels of success.

Concentric Zone Model The concentric zone model, created in 1923 by sociologist E.W. Burgess, was the first model to explain the distribution of different social groups within urban areas. According to the concentric zone model, a city grows outward from a central area in a series of concentric rings, like growth rings of a tree. The precise size and width of the rings vary from one city to another, but the same basic types of rings appear in the same order.

Sector Model In the sector model, developed in 1939 by land economist Homer Hoyt, the city develops in a series of sectors, not rings. Certain areas of the city are more attractive for various activities, originally because of an environmental consideration or even by mere chance. Once a district with high-class housing is established, the most expensive new housing is built on the outer edge of that district, farther out from the center. The best housing is therefore found in a corridor extending from downtown to the outer edge of the city.

Multiple Nuclei & Galactic Models According to the multiple nuclei model, developed by geographers C.D. Harris and E.L. Ullman in 1945, a city is a complex structure that includes more than one center around which activities revolve. Examples of these nodes include a port, a neighborhood business center, a university, an airport, and a park. The multiple nuclei theory states that some activities are attracted to particular nodes, whereas others try to avoid them. Heavy industry and high-class housing rarely exist in the same neighborhood.

According to the galactic (or peripheral) model developed by Harris in 1960, an urban area consists of an inner city surrounded by large suburban residential and service nodes tied together by a beltway or ring road. The nodes of consumer and business services around the beltway are called edge cities.

Applying the Models in North America The three models of urban structure help us understand where people with different social characteristics tend to live within an urban area.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Social Area Analysis The study of where people of varying living standards, ethnic backgrounds, and lifestyls live within an urban area is social area analysis. Social area analysis helps to create an overall picture of where various types of people tend to live, depending on their particular personal characteristics. Effective use of the models depends on the availability of data at the scale of individual neighborhoods. Urban areas in the United States are divided into census tracts that each contain approximately 5,000 residents and correspond, where possible, to neighborhood boundaries. Each decade the U.S. Bureau of the Census publishes data summarizing the characteristics of the residents and housing in each tract. Social scientists can use social area analysis to compare the distribution of characteristics and create an overall picture of where various types of people tend to live.

Social Area Analysis: Concentric Zones In this model two households with the same ethnicity and income are compared. The household in the newly constructed home is more likely to live in the outer ring. In comparison, the older home is more likely to be located in the inner ring.

Social Area Analysis: Sectors Household distribution patterns in the sector model show that households with high incomes are unlikely to live in the same sector as households with lower incomes.

Social Area Analysis: Nuclei to live near each other.

In this analysis people with the same ethnic or racial background are likely

Limitations of the Models None of the three models taken individually completely explains why different types of people live in distinctive parts of a city. Critics view the models as too simple and fail to consider the variety of reasons that lead people to select particular residential locations. Because the three models are all based on conditions that existed in U.S. cities between the two world wars, critics also question their relevance to contemporary urban patterns in the United States or in other countries.

Structure of European Cities American urban areas differ from those elsewhere in the world. These differences do not invalidate the three models of internal urban structure, but they do point out that social groups in other countries may not have the same reasons for selecting particular neighborhoods within their cities.

CBDs in Europe Europe’s CBDs have a different mix of land uses than those in North America. Differences stem from the medieval origins of many of Europe’s CBDs. European cities display a legacy of low-rise structures and narrow streets, built as long ago as medieval times. Differences include residences, consumer services, and public services.

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Residences—more people live downtown in cities outside of North America.

Consumer services—more people live in Europe’s CBDs in part because they are attracted to the concentration of consumer services, such as cultural activities and animated nightlife.

Public services—the most prominent structures in Europe’s CBDs are often public and semipublic services, such as churches and former royal palaces, situated on the most important public squares.

Business services—Europe’s CBDs contain professional and financial services. However, business services in Europe’s CBDs are less likely to be housed in skyscrapers than those in North America.

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Chapter 13: Urban Patterns Concentric Zones in Europe As in U.S. urban areas, the newer housing in the Paris region is clustered in its outer rings, and the older housing is closer to the center. Unlike in U.S. urban areas, much of the newer suburban housing is in high-rise apartments rather than single-family homes.

Sectors in Europe Similar to U.S. urban areas, higher-income people cluster in a southwest sector in the Paris region. This preference has its roots in the Industrial Revolution when factories were built in the north and east.

Multiple Nuclei in Europe. European urban areas, including Paris, have experienced a large increase in immigration from other regions of the world. In contrast to U.S. urban areas, most ethnic and racial minorities reside in the suburbs of Paris.

Premodern Cities in Developing Countries Cities in developing countries may date from ancient times.

For most of recorded history, the world’s largest cities have been in Asia. However, until modern times, most Asians lived in rural settlements. The ancient and medieval structure of these cities was influenced by the cultural values of the indigenous peoples living there.

Ancient & Medieval City: Beijing Archaeological evidence of Beijing dates from 1045 B.C.E., although the city may have been founded thousands of years earlier. A succession of invaders and dynasties shaped what is now the central area of Beijing.

Beijing During the Yuan Dynasty Beginning in 1267, Kublai Khan, founder of the Yuan Dynasty, constructed a new city called Dadu. Three palaces were built in the heart of Dadu, two housing the imperial family, and the other offices. Residential areas were laid out in a checkerboard pattern divided by wider roads and narrower alleys. Three markets were placed in the residential areas. An outer wall surrounded the residential areas, and an inner wall surrounded the palaces.

Beijing During the Ming Dynasty After capturing Dadu in 1368, the Ming dynasty reconstructed it over the next several decades. The imperial palace was demolished and replaced with new structures, including the Forbidden City and the Temple of Heaven. The city was then called Beijing.

Colonial Legacy When Europeans gained control of much of Africa, Asia, and Latin America, their colonial policies left an indelible mark on many cities. One feature of European control was the imposition of standardized plans for cities. For example, all Spanish cities in Latin America were built according to the Laws of the Indies, drafted in 1573. The laws explicitly outlined how colonial cities were to be constructed. In some places, European colonial powers built a new city next to the existing one. The new city was the location for colonial services, such as administration, military command, and international trade, as well as housing for European colonists. In other cases, European colonial powers simply demolished the precolonial city.

Applying the Models in Developing Countries The three models of urban structure described earlier in this chapter help to explain contemporary patterns within the urban areas in developing countries. Rapid growth of population and land area has strengthened the applicability of the models in some cities, but reduced their usefulness in other instances.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Concentric Zones in Developing Countries The concentric zone model has been used to examine cities in developing countries most frequently. A notable example is geographer Harm deBlij’s model of sub-Saharan African cities. The inner rings are inhabited by people with higher-incomes. These inner rings have the most attractive residential areas due to proximity to businesses and consumer services. These inner rings also offer vital public services, such as water, electricity, paved roads, and garbage pickup.

As cities grow rapidly in developing countries, rings are constantly being added on the periphery to accommodate immigrants from rural areas attracted by job opportunities. Many residential areas in the outer rings take the form of informal settlements, also known as squatter settlements. The United Nations has identified an informal settlement as a residential area where housing has been built on land to which the occupants have no legal claim or has not been built to the city’s standard for legal buildings. Informal settlements have few services because neither the city nor the residents can afford them. Informal settlements have a variety of names such as barriadas and favelas in Latin America, bastes in India, and barong-barong in the Philippines.

Sectors in Developing Countries Geographers Ernest Griffin and Larry Ford show that in Latin American cities, wealthy people push out from the center in a well-defined elite residential sector. The elite sector forms on either side of a narrow spine that contains offices, shops, and amenities attractive to wealthy people, such as restaurants, theaters, parks, and zoos. The wealthy are also attracted to the center and spine because services such as water and electricity are more readily available and reliable there than elsewhere. Wealthy and middleclass residents avoid living near sectors of “disamenity,” which are land uses that may be noisy or polluting or that cater to low-income residents.

Multiple Nuclei in Developing Countries Cities in some developing countries show evidence of the multiple nuclei model by containing a complex mix of ethnic groups. T.G. McGee’s model of a Southeast Asian city superimposes on concentric zones several nodes of squatter settlements and what he called “alien” zones, where foreigners, usually Chinese, live and work. McGee found that Southeast Asian cities do not typically have a strong CBD. Instead, the various functions of the CBD are dispersed to several nodes.

Changing Urban Structure of Mexico City Mexico City provides an example of a city in a developing country that has passed through three stages of development: pre-European origin, the European colonial period, and postcolonial independence. The modern city also displays evidence of the models of urban structure.

Precolonial Mexico City The Aztecs founded Mexico City—which the called Tenochtitlán—on a hill known as Chapultepec (“the hill of the grasshopper”). They eventually moved their settlement to a 10-square-kilometer island in Lake Texcoco in 1325. The node of religious life was the Great Temple. Most food, merchandise, and building materials crossed from the mainland to the island by boat, and the island was laced with canals to facilitate movement. As the Aztecs conquered neighboring populations over the following two centuries, Tenochtitlán grew to a population of a half-million.

Colonial Mexico City The Spanish conquered Tenochtitlán in 1521 after a two-year siege. They destroyed Tenochtitlán, dispersed or killed most of the inhabitants, and constructed a new city on the site. The Spanish built Mexico City around a main square, called the Zócalo, on the site of the Aztecs’ sacred precinct in the center of the island. Streets were laid out in a grid pattern extending from the Zócalo.

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Chapter 13: Urban Patterns Mexico City Since Independence At independence, Mexico City was a relatively small city. The population grew modestly during the nineteenth century, reaching around 500,000 in 1900. The population grew dramatically during the twentieth century, to 3 million in 1950, and 21 million in the urban area in 2018.

Millions have migrated to the cities in search of work. In 1903, most of Lake Texcoco was drained by a gigantic canal and tunnel project, allowing the city to expand to the north and east.

Key Issue 3: Why Do Urban Areas Expand?

Suburbs have existed on a small scale since ancient times; residential areas were often located outside the walls surrounding a city. As cities grew rapidly during the nineteenth century, as part of the Industrial Revolution, more extensive suburbs developed.

Origin and Growth of Suburbs A suburb is a residential or commercial area situated within an urban area but outside the central city. In 1950, only 20 percent of Americans lived in suburbs compared to 40 percent in cities, and 40 percent in small towns and rural areas. The percentage living in suburbs rose rapidly thereafter.

Annexation The process of legally adding land area to a city is annexation. Normally, land can be annexed to a city only if a majority of the residents in the affected area vote in favor of the annexation. Peripheral residents generally desired annexation in the nineteenth century because the city offered better services, such as water supply, sewage disposal, trash pickup, paved streets, public transportation, and police and fire protection. Today, cities are less likely to annex peripheral land because residents prefer to organize their own services rather than pay the city taxes for them.

Suburban Lifestyle. Suburbs offer varied attractions – a detached single-family dwelling rather than a row house or an apartment, private land surrounding the house, space to park cars, and a greater opportunity for home ownership. By 1960, one-third of Americans lived in cities, one-third in suburbs, and one-third in small towns and rural areas. By 2000, 50 percent of Americans lived in suburbs compared to 30 percent in cities and 20 percent in small towns and rural areas.

Local Government Fragmentation Because MSAs in the United States are composed of many independent suburbs and central cities as well as counties, local governments are fragmented and less able to deal with regional problems. Most U.S. metropolitan areas have a council of governments, which is a cooperative agency consisting of representatives of the various local governments in the region. The council of governments may be empowered to do some overall planning for the area that local governments cannot logically do. Two kinds of strong metropolitan-wide governments have been established in a few places in North America: consolidations of city and county governments, and federations.

Suburban Sprawl Sprawl is the development of suburbs at relatively low density and at locations that are not contiguous to the existing built-up area. When private developers select new housing sites, they seek cheap land that can easily be prepared for construction – land often not contiguous to the existing built-up area. As a result, the peripheries of U.S. cities have pockets of development and gaps of open space. Sprawl incurs costs: local governments must spend more to extend roads and utilities to noncontiguous developments, more agricultural land, and trips to work and services use more energy because of the longer distances.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Density Gradient North American cities once followed a density gradient where density decreased consistently with increasing distance from the city center. Two changes have impacted the density gradient in recent years: fewer people living in the center and fewer differences in density within urban areas. These two changes flatten the density gradient and reduce the extremes of density between inner and outer areas traditionally found within cities. The construction of apartment and town houses in peripheral areas has increased density in those areas.

U.S. & U.K. Suburbs The supply of land for the construction of new housing is more severely restricted in European urban areas than in the United States. Officials try to limit sprawl by designating areas of mandatory open space. Several British cities are surrounded by greenbelts, or rings of open space. New housing is built either in older suburbs inside the greenbelts or in planned extensions to small towns and new towns beyond the greenbelts.

Smart Growth Some U.S. cities have pursued smart growth laws to limit sprawl. These laws and regulations seek to limit suburban growth and preserve farmland.

Suburban Segregation Many suburbs display two forms of segregation: •

Residential segregation Housing in a given suburban community is usually built for people of a single social class, with others excluded by virtue of the cost, size, or location of the housing.

Segregation by race and ethnicity also persists in some suburbs.

•

Commercial segregation Residents are separated from commercial and manufacturing activities that are confined to compact, distinct areas.

Residential Segregation People with low incomes and minorities are less likely to live in many U.S. suburbs because of the high cost of the housing and unwelcoming attitudes of established residents. Suburban communities discourage the entry of those with lower incomes and minorities because of fear that property values will decline if the high-status composition of the neighborhood is altered.

The homogeneity in suburban communities is legally protected through zoning ordinances. A zoning ordinance is a law that limits the permitted uses of land and maximum density of development in a community. Zoning ordinances typically identify districts designed only for single-family houses, apartments, industry, or commerce.

Suburban Consumer Services Consumer services have expanded to the suburbs because most of their customers live in the suburbs. Retailing has become increasingly concentrated in planned suburban shopping malls. In recent years shopping malls have lost customers due to the ready availability of online shopping services.

Suburban Business Services Offices that do not require face-to-face contact are increasingly moving to suburbs, where rents are lower than in the CBD. For some workers suburban office locations can pose hardships. Secretaries, custodians, and other lower-status office workers may not have cars and public transportation may not serve the site. Factories and warehouses have relocated to the suburbs for more space, cheaper land, and better truck access. Suburban locations facilitate truck shipments by providing good access to main highways and no central city traffic congestion.

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Chapter 13: Urban Patterns Reliance on Motor Vehicles The average American travels 37 miles per day. In the United States, 83 percent of trips in the United States are by car or truck, 12 percent are by walking or biking, 2 percent each are by public transport or school bus, and 1 percent is by other means.

Transportation Epochs Transportation improvements have played a crucial role in the changing structure of urban areas. Geographer John Borchert identified five eras of U.S. urban areas resulting from changing transportation systems: • • • • •

Sail-Wagon Epoch (1790–1830) Iron Horse Epoch (1830–1870) Steel Rail Epoch (1870–1920) Auto-Air-Amenity Epoch (1920–1970) Satellite-Electronic Jet Propulsion (1970–?)

Cities have prospered or suffered during the various epochs, depending on their proximity to economically important resources and migration patterns. Parallel to this, cities retain physical features from the earlier eras that may be assets or liabilities in subsequent eras.

Benefits & Costs of Motor Vehicles There are around 1.3 billion motor vehicles in the world, including 275 million in the United States. The perceived cost and comfort, choice, and flexibility of motor vehicles has maintained the mode of transportation’s dominance in the United States. Most motorists perceive that the cost of using vehicles is less than the cost of using public transportation.

Motor vehicles have environmental costs. The consumption of land is one unseen costs of motor vehicle culture. An average city allocates about one-fourth of its land to roads and parking lots. Congestion is an issue not often considered by motorists as well; the average American wastes about 19 gallons of fuel and loses 42 hours per year sitting in traffic jams.

The U.S. government encourages the use of cars and trucks by paying 90 percent of the cost of limited-access, high- speed interstate highways, which stretch for 48,000 miles across the country. U.S. policies also keep fuel prices cheaper than those found in Europe, further supporting the use of motor vehicles.

Legacy of Public Transport in the United States Public transit is better suited than motor vehicles to moving large numbers of people because each transit traveler takes up far less space. Public transport is cheaper, less polluting, and more energy efficient than privately operated motor vehicles.

The heaviest flow of commuters into the CBD is in the morning and out of it in the evening. Rush hour is the four consecutive 15-minute periods that have the heaviest traffic.

Public Transit Around the World Public transit is classified as heavy rail (underground subways and elevated trains), light rail (trams and streetcars), and bus. According to varied sources, there are 178 cities with underground heavy-rail systems in operation in 2017 and 401 cities with light-rail systems in operation as of 2018. Cities with existing service have been expanding them. A greater importance is placed on public transportation outside of the United States.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Public Transport in the United States In the nineteenth century expansion of cities was limited by poor transportation as people needed to live near their place of employment. Suburbanization in the twentieth century relied on motor vehicles and provided residents with greater flexibility in housing location.

Recent Trends in Public Transport Public transport is used primarily for workers commuting in and out of the CBD. Public transport declined in the 1970s, but ridership increased from 8 billion in 1995 to 10 billion in 2017. Light-rail lines have increased, and seven cities opened entirely new subway systems between 1972 and 1993.

Challenges Facing Public Transit Public transportation in the United States is caught in a vicious circle because fares do not cover operating costs. As patronage declines and expenses rise, the fares are increased, which drives away passengers and leads to service reductions and still higher fares. Public expenditures to subsidize construction and operating costs have increased, but the United States does not fully recognize that public transportation is a vital utility deserving of a large subsidy. The minimal level of public transit service in most U.S. cities means that low-income people may not be able to reach places of employment.

Key Issue 4: Why Might Cities Be More Sustainable?

The City Challenged One hundred years ago, low-income inner-city neighborhoods in the United States teemed with throngs of recent immigrants from Europe. Such neighborhoods that housed perhaps 100,000 a century ago may contain fewer than 5,000 inhabitants today. Those remaining may face significant challenges, distinct from those faced by suburban inhabitants. The underclass is a group in society prevented from participating in the material benefits of a more developed society because of a variety of social and economic hardships. A disproportionately large share of the underclass lives in inner-city neighborhoods.

Job Skills Inner-city residents are increasing disadvantaged in competing for jobs. Many of these residents lack technical skills needed for most jobs. Inner-city residents have limited access to low-skilled jobs, such as custodial and fast-food service jobs because the jobs are increasingly located in distant suburbs in areas poorly served by public transportation.

Challenges for Families Unwed mothers give birth to two-thirds of the babies in U.S. inner-city neighborhoods, and 80 percent of children in the inner city live with only one parent. Because of child-care issues, many mothers must choose between working to generate income or staying home to take care of the children.

Challenges to Health & Safety and drug addiction.

Inner-city neighborhoods have relatively high crime rates, gang violence,

Services Inner-city neighborhoods often lack adequate police and fire protection, as well as access to shops and health-care facilities. Food deserts are common in low-income inner-city areas.

The City Renewed The process of converting an urban neighborhood from a predominantly low-income, renter-occupied area to a predominantly middle-class, owner-occupied area is known as gentrification. Most cities have at least one substantially renovated inner-city neighborhood that has attracted higher income residents. A deteriorated inner-city neighborhood is attractive for several reasons. The houses located there may be larger and more substantially constructed and may include attractive architectural details. These dwellings are also conveniently located near offices downtown, and cultural and recreational amenities.

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Reviving Consumer Services Some consumer services are returning to the inner city in part, to meet day-to-day needs of residents of gentrified neighborhoods. Inner-city consumer services are also attracting people looking for leisure activities, such as unusual shops in a dramatic downtown setting or view of a harbor.

Several North American CBDs have combined new retail services with leisure services.

Removing Public Housing Public housing is government-owned housing rented to low-income individuals, with rents set at 30 percent of the tenant’s income. During the mid-twentieth century, many substandard inner-city houses were demolished and replaced with public housing. Because of poor conditions, many high-rise public housing projects built during that time period have been demolished. As a result of lower allocated funds, the supply of public housing and other government-subsidized housing in the United States decreased by roughly 1 million units between 1980 and 2010. During that same period, the number of people in need of low-rent dwellings increased by more than 2 million.

Controlling Vehicles The current generation of innovative techniques to increase road capacity are aimed at providing drivers with information so that they can make intelligent decisions about avoiding congestion.

Demand to use congested roads is being reduced in a number of ways, primarily through congestion charges, tolls, permits, and bans of vehicles from certain portions of central areas of cities.

Sharing Vehicles In the past urban residents have used taxi cabs and short-term car rentals if they did not own a car. In recent years, vehicle sharing services have emerged as an alternative for urban residents. Two types of sharing have developed—transporting people in your private vehicle in ride sharing serves such as Uber or using a shared vehicle for a short period of time. The shared vehicle is stored in a designated location, reserved, and then used for a short period of time.

Autonomous Driving Vehicles An emerging trend in transportation technology is the development of autonomous driving vehicles. Vehicles include technological capabilities supportive of hands-free driving, such as sensors and GPS, and they can perform hands-free functions, such as automatic braking, parallel parking, and prevention of unsafe lane changes. Transportation systems are likely to include this form of transportation in the future. Five levels of autonomous driving include: assisted driving (level 1), partially automated (level 2), highly automated (level 3), fully automated (level 4), and driverless (level 5).

Autonomous vehicles are likely to result in fewer accidents caused by human error, provide mobility for people who are too young to drive or have a disability, and decrease the safe distance between vehicles and therefore increase the number of vehicles that can fit on a road. Still unsettled are many practical problems created by autonomous vehicles, such as liability and insurance.

Impacts of Near-future Changes in Vehicles sources, ownership, and autonomy.

Key changes in cars in the near future will include power

Electrification of Vehicles In 2018 only 1 percent of the world’s automobiles sold were powered by electricity. Several countries have initiatives to ban the sale of gas-power vehicles beginning in 2030 or 2040.

There are several types of electric vehicles: A plug-in hybrid with a gasoline engine and a battery recharged by driving or plugged in to an electrical outlet, a full electric car with a lithium ion battery that must be recharged by being plugged into an outlet as it has no gasoline engine, and cars with hydrogen fuels cells used in a few locations where hydrogen fueling stations have been built.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Electricity & Pollution U.S. scientists working with the U.N. devised a strategy with three key elements to promote sustainable changes in future transportation.

• • •

Sharp decrease in the use of the three fossil fuels.

Increase in the use of renewable energy.

Use of carbon capture and storage (CCS), which involves capturing waste CO2, transporting it to a storage site, and depositing it where it will not enter the atmosphere.

The fossil fuels used to generate electricity challenge both developed and developing countries as they try to control pollution and use alternative fuels.

Revisiting Geography’s Key Concepts Throughout this book the key geographic concepts of place, region, scale, space, and connection have been applied. Place is a specific point on Earth, distinguished by a particular characteristic. Region is an area of Earth define by one or more distinctive characteristics. Scale is the relationship between the portion of Earth being studied and Earth as a whole. Connection refers to the relationships among people and objects across space.

Introducing the Chapter The chapter begins with two major themes of urban geography: diversity and spatial inequality. Consider starting the chapter discussing what factors and processes lead to the formation of cities, a natural segue from Chapter 12.

Student Engagement Activity Ideas The Cultures of Cities Have students brainstorm words that come to mind when they think of cities. Write the words or phrases that students generate on the board. Depending on the background of your students, there may be a trend in the words toward positive or negative views of a city.

Discuss the list you’ve created, including the questions: • • • •

Why do people live in cities?

What problems do we associate with cities?

What differences are there between the city and the countryside, that is, in politics, recreation, cost of living?

How is the city changing?

This discussion will start the class thinking about the North American city.

Wordle Display the “wordle” graphic on page 461. The underlying premise of the diagram is the emphasis on the relative importance of the words based on the size of the type. Ask students if they agree or disagree with the graphic’s ranking of words. Is the central business district really the most important concept of an urban area?

Are there other words that could or should be added? Or omitted? Use this initial overview to engage student thinking about the chapter’s content.

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Challenges to Comprehension Costs of Sprawl Students from a suburban setting frequently do not grasp the inefficiencies of sprawl, as it is the only model of urban life they have known. For example, many students in an introductory human geography class answer the question “Why do people live in the suburbs?” with “Because everything is close and convenient, you can drive anywhere you need to go.” True enough, if you don’t mind paying for the car and gas.

Additional Classroom Activities and Assignments Review/Reflection Questions These questions can be used in addition to the “thinking geographically” questions at the end of each chapter.

Students can be assigned these questions as homework, they can be given as essay questions on exams, or they can serve as focus questions for in-class discussions.

The italicized section that follows the question sets the criteria and parameters for student answers. Use these suggestions to provide guidance in the assessment of student answers. In addition, a sample answer has been provided. Know that student answers will vary based on the examples and explanations you provided in class.

•

Why do people live in cities? Why do people live in suburbs?

Student answers should include the variety of services a city provides. Answers should clearly reference the difference in the use of space for suburbs and cities.

Sample answer People live in cities for opportunities. Cities are centers of commerce, culture, government, and education. in order to People live in suburbs to escape the crowding and traffic congestion in the city itself.

•

Identify whether you live in the city or in the suburbs and explain why you live there (if you live with your parents or on campus, explain your parent’s choice of house).

Student answers should identify the type of community in which they live and include a reason why.

Sample answer I live in a suburb in a single-family home with a large yard. I enjoy the open spaces of living in a suburb.

I grew up in an urban environment and appreciate the ability to garden that suburban living affords me.

•

How are cities in North America different from cities in Europe? How are cities in Europe similar to cities in less developed countries?

Student responses should clearly identify at least one difference between North American and European cites. The spatial arrangement of the lower-income areas should be mentioned when making the comparison to the less developed countries.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Sample answer The arrangement of income groups within cities differs when comparing Europe and the United States. In North American cities the urban poor reside in the inner city, whereas in Europe the city of the center is a residential area for the elite. In less developed countries this is also the case with the urban poor living on the periphery of the city.

The hierarchy of a city’s importance differs for European and North American cities. In Europe the country’s capital is the most dominant city in the country. In the United States, Washington, D.C. is an important political city, but New York is far more important as a global city. The state capitals are not the largest city or most important city in each state.

•

Describe the issues associated with suburban “leapfrog” development. How could these issues be resolved in North America?

Students should define the meaning of the term “leapfrog” development and identify the pressure on the city to provide services to the outlying areas. Students should also discuss possible resolution to the issues they identify.

Sample answer As people move to areas outside of the city, developers may use non-contiguous areas to build housing.

This lack of connectedness to the central city poses problems in terms of transportation, utilities, and city services.

City Structure Use Google Earth to view the layout of any of the following cities. Search for the city, and zoom out until you can observe the road patterns and settlement patterns. Examine all of the cities and then focus on two of the cities as you answer the questions.

• • • • • • • •

Indianapolis, Indiana Moscow, Russia Pamplona, Spain Paris, France Washington, D.C. Rome, Italy Algiers, Algeria A city of your choice

Answer the following questions based on your “visit” to the cities.

• •

•

Which of the cities you examined show evidence of former walls? How did the landscape change as the city expanded beyond the walls? (Paris, Moscow, Pamplona, Rome) Zoom in and pan around the cities. Select one of the cities and describe evidence of various functions of a city—center for transportation, government, trade, education, and types of housing.

(I examined Rome and saw rail lines, Pontifical North American College, supreme court, the embassy of Nigeria, hospitals) Use Street View to visit the cultural sites in two of the cities. Identify the city and describe what you observed. (visited an old stadium and saw tourists in the ruins, many Catholic churches 418 .

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• •

•

throughout the city) How did patterns of land use change over space? (more green space moving outward from the city center, farmland about 22 km. from center of the city) Use the Internet to determine how many people live in one of the urban areas? Use the measure tool to estimate the extent of the city. (to the outer ring road, the distance is about 12 kilometers) In which part of the city are residents most concentrated? (near the central city) In your opinion, which of the cities has made the most efficient road network? Explain the reasons for your answer. (Indianapolis because multiple interstate highways converge there)

Urban Walk and Gawk Have students apply the geographic perspective in an analysis of your local environment by completing the following activity. Students have the opportunity to use their cell phones to document their observations.

Overview Urban and suburban areas provide services to their citizens. In this exercise you will examine your neighborhood documenting its features and relationship to nearby areas. It is highly recommended that you do your investigations during daylight hours and use caution to protect yourself. Be respectful of the property rights of others and do not trespass.

The Task Take a walk in your neighborhood and take pictures of its features. Include the photos taken with your cell phone in your “paper.”

Observe and describe 1. A typical house in your neighborhood. How far apart are the houses? What style, colonial, craftsman, modern? How many stories? Attached, detached or no garages?

2. A typical yard in your neighborhood. Estimate of average lot size. Front yard larger than back yard?

General conformity in landscaping?

3. Infrastructure: Overhead or underground power lines? Average distance between light poles? How bright are the lights and how big an area do they illuminate? Which cable provider serves the area?

4. Transportation: Pattern of roads in the neighborhood. How many entrances/exits for the neighborhood? Design of streets, e.g., cul-de-sacs, major intersections, traffic lights available when entering or leaving the neighborhood? Distance from an interstate entrance? Walker or car friendly design? How close is the nearest bus stop? Which bus lines, if any, serve your neighborhood?

5. City services: How far apart are the fire hydrants? Is there a community park? What amenities does the park have? Sidewalks? Mailboxes at the curb, on the house, in a group? Sewage pump station?

Manholes, storm drains? Where does the storm water go? Signage indicating the community’s name?

How far to the nearest fire hydrant? Estimated distance to fire station? Estimated distance to recreation center, public library?

6. Convenience: distance from an interstate? Distance to local shopping area? What types of services/stores does that shopping area include? Which, if any, fast food stores are within walking distance? Driving distance?

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Analyze Would you consider your neighborhood urban or suburban or rural? Provide evidence to support your categorization.

Reflect What changes would you like to see in your neighborhood? Why? Complete this assignment in narrative format rather than just providing answers to the questions posed.

Mastering Geography™ provides additional assignable learning activities and ready-made resources designed to extend and reinforce student skills and mastery of key content, concepts, and vocabulary. The resources include MapMaster 2.0 interactive maps, videos, GeoTutor coaching activities, Google Earth Explorations, outline maps, chapter quizzes, Dynamic Study Modules, and more. Further details about these resources and recommendations for use are provided in the Resources section of this document. You can assign these media-rich activities as pre or post lecture homework.

Thinking Geographically Questions Key Issue 13.1: High-rise buildings that once housed business services are being converted to apartments in many U.S. CBDs, including these buildings fronting on Millennium Park in Chicago.

1. What is the attraction of living in these apartments? What might be some of the challenges?

The apartments in the CBD converted from former business services would be attractive to people who work downtown. The major advantage would be proximity to work and a wide variety of cultural events and opportunities. One of the challenges would be the lack of food stores in the downtown area. If the individual owned a car, garaging it would be expensive.

Key Issue 13.2: The outer rings of cities in many developing countries contain extensive informal settlements that lack electricity, running water, and other services.

2. What might motivate people to migrate from rural areas to informal settlements on the outskirts of cities?

People migrate from rural areas to informal settlements on the outskirts of cities as they migrate to the city to find work but cannot afford housing.

Key Issue 13.3: Shopping malls in the United States have been closing at a rate of around 50 per year.

3. What might account for the rapid rate of closure of shopping malls?

Closure of shopping malls is due to the lack of tenants as more people are turning to the prices and convenience of online shopping. Fewer customers make it difficult for mall tenants to pay their rents and still be profitable.

4. How might changing retail habits alter the geography of urban areas?

Fewer retail stores will be located in the urban areas as online shopping increases. The existing buildings could transition to housing more service-oriented ventures rather than retail operations. For example, a yoga studio or baby workout area or specialty niche restaurant may replace retailers and draw consumers to the former shopping area.

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Chapter 13: Urban Patterns Key Issue 13.4: Electric bikes and scooters are diffusing rapidly into cities.

5. How might the diffusion of electric bikes and scooters alter transportation patterns in CBDs? What impact might they have in urban areas outside the CBD? Electric bike and scooter rental areas are springing up in cities. An individual would rent a bike in one area and return it near the final destination. The use of these forms of transport could reduce car traffic in the city.

The distances in the CBD are relatively short which would support this type of transportation. I doubt that electric bikes would be used within the larger urban area.

Pause and Reflect Questions 13.1.1 Do you live inside or outside a central city? An urban area? A metropolitan area?

I live outside a central city. I live in a suburban area. I live in the 27th largest metropolitan statistical area in the United States.

13.1.2 Do you ever spend time in a CBD? If so, for what reasons? If not, why not?

I seldom spend time in the CBD. If I do venture downtown it would be for a sports or theater event.

13.1.3 What might be the attractions of living in a former factory near the CBD? The rent to live in a former factory would likely be somewhat affordable for living near a CBD. Also, one would have convenient access to cultural amenities and consumer services.

13.2.1 If you cut down a large tree, which of the three models will the cross-section resemble? Why is the cross-section of a tree a good analogy for one of the models of urban structure?

The cross-section of a felled tree would most resemble the concentric zone model. A cross-section of a tree would be a good analogy for this model because the concentric rings of a tree would resemble the concentric zones of the model.

13.2.2 Would you expect the distribution of families with children to follow most closely the concentric zone, sector, or multiple nuclei model? Why? I think the distribution of families with children would follow the sector model, as there are low-class residential and middle-class residential sectors distributed relatively evenly across the model.

13.2.3 Are Paris’s famous tourist sites located predominantly in inner or outer rings? Why might this be the case?

They are primarily located in inner rings. Prominent structures built hundreds of years ago were typically located near the center of town, where CBDs are currently located.

13.2.4 Which node is Fès do you think would be more interesting to visit, the Medinah or the French colonial center? Why? I would prefer to visit the Medinah, as the narrow, winding streets sound really neat to navigate.

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13.2.5 Would you expect the distribution of people with college degrees to follow most closely the concentric zone, sector, or multiple nuclei model? Why? I would think that Griffith-Ford’s sector model of a Latin American city would be the best fit, because it allows for a mixed distribution of each sector in the urban area.

13.2.6 How did the Spanish change precolonial Tenochtitlán to create colonial Mexico City? Why might contemporary Mexicans wish to excavate and explore the ruins?

The Spanish would have wanted to destroy the Great Temple so that they could impose their political, social, and cultural norms on the indigenous population. Contemporary Mexicans may wish to excavate and explore the ruins so that they might find artifacts that may shed light on their heritage.

13.3.1 Why might differences exist between the local government where you live and neighboring ones?

Each local government is elected to implement policies that would best serve its citizens.

13.3.2 How might urban growth boundaries help to slow suburban growth?

Implementing smart growth policies would limit the expansion of existing suburban areas and help protect and preserve rural land for agriculture, recreation, and wildlife.

13.3.3 Are you able to walk from your home to consumer services? Would you want to live near shops? Why or why not?

I am able to walk from my home to consumer services. I would want to live near shops, as I frequently patronize them already and I appreciate the exercise that walking provides me.

13.3.4 Referring to details from this section, explain why you think the United States should either continue to encourage the use of motor vehicles or invest more in public transport.

The United States is currently supporting both policies. Individuals have come to rely on the convenience of point-to-point transportation provided by their cars. Suburban areas are not well served by public transportation and the time between the buses that run is a major barrier to their use.

I would suggest a compromise plan that would transport workers to the city center or to the edge cities in which they are employed. There would be a type of hub system in which individuals drive to a stop along the rail line, park, and then use public transport to go to work. The government should provide incentives for development of energy-efficient and alternative fuel cars.

13.3.5 Do you regularly utilize public transport? Why or why not?

I do not regularly use public transportation, as it does not provide connections to places I frequently travel to and the time between the buses that do run is great.

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Chapter 13: Urban Patterns 13.4.1 How might additional investment in education address some of these features of the underclass?

Increasing education funding will address some of the persistent poverty, as increased funding is associated with higher graduation rates, higher rates of employment with jobs that provide a living wage, and lower rates of poverty in adulthood.

13.4.2 What might be the attractions and the challenges of buying groceries in places like the Reading Terminal or Ferry Building?

There are probably unique items that are offered at these locations, but they are probably too expensive to buy on a regular basis. Shopping in a downtown market may be self-limiting as a person needs to transport the purchases home by carrying them.

13.4.3 Do you want to give up some or all control of the vehicle? Do autonomous vehicles excite you or frighten you? Explain your answer.

I would be apprehensive relinquishing control to an autonomous vehicle. However, I view features that detect barriers and distracted driving as a definite plus as they may serve to reduce accidents.

Autonomous driving vehicles are frightening to me as machines do malfunction. However, features that detect barriers and distracted driving are a definite plus and may serve to reduce accidents as more bicycles share the road.

13.4.4 What is happening in or near your community to reduce generation of electricity through fossil fuels?

Some of the power plants that were using coal to generate electricity switched to natural gas which is still a fossil fuels, albeit cleaner burning. Living in a relatively flat area, there is little potential for generation of hydroelectricity. A nearby U.S. naval installation has constructed an extensive area of solar panels on its fields.

13.4.5 Pick a city you are familiar with, and write a sentence describing the city in terms of each of the five concepts of human geography.

Place: Cleveland, Ohio is located where the Cuyahoga River flows into Lake Erie. Its location on the southern coast of the lake makes it a center for trade and commerce.

Region: Cleveland is located in the Midwest region of the United States.

Scale: In terms of land area the city of Cleveland is the second largest city in the state in terms of population and the 51st largest city in the United States.

Space: The Cuyahoga River divides the city into an east and west side. Gentrification and conversion of old warehouses to apartments and entertainment centers is occurring in some parts of the CBD. The inner city adjacent to the CBD is still inhabited by low-income residents and people living in poverty. The further one goes out from the city center, the higher the incomes and the larger the lots.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography Connection: Cleveland is connected by rail to other parts of the United States with the rail hub located downtown in the Terminal Tower. The airport and other locations within the city and Cuyahoga County are connected by light rail. Extensive bus routes connect the suburbs to the central city and each other.

Caption Questions Figure 13-8, John Hancock Center and Water Tower, p. 467 1. Why might retail services wish to pay high rents for street-level space?

Retail services would likely pay higher rents for street-level space in order to provide better visibility for their customers and ease of access.

2. Why might residents prefer the upper floors?

Residents would prefer the upper floors in order to be away from street-level noise and add an element of security from break-ins.

3. In the image of the Hancock Center, note how the windows change between the lower business services floors and the upper residential floors. Why might the two types of land uses prefer different window styles?

The business services on the ground floor would likely prefer an expanse of large windows to best show off their merchandise to people walking past their shops. Large windows also provide a degree of security when the business is closed. Lights inside the business at night would increase the visibility of potential thieves.

Residents would prefer smaller windows for privacy as well as lower heating and cooling costs.

Figure 13-28, Multiple Nuclei in Paris, p. 473 1. What part of Paris has the largest concentration of immigrants?

Immigrant areas in Paris are located to the east of the central city primarily in a north-south corridor east of the Seine River.

2. Comparing Figure 13-28 with Figure 13-26, what is the income level of most immigrants in this area?

With a few exceptions, the areas inhabited by immigrants have an average monthly income below 1,000 euros.

Figure 13-68, Public Transit Passengers in U.S. Cities, p. 489 1. Where are most cities without rail connections found?

Places without rail connections for the most part are located on the southern and outer edges of the country.

They include Tampa, New Orleans, San Antonio, Tucson, Las Vegas, and Milwaukee.

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Chapter 13: Urban Patterns 2. Where are most cities with transit ridership below 100 million trips?

Cities with relatively low ridership are found in the less populated middle of the country.

Figure 13-71, Gentrification in Cincinnati, p. 492 Make a list of five amenities visible in (b) that make the gentrified streetscape more attractive to pedestrians .

The streetscape includes benches, eating areas, stores, planter boxes on the buildings, and decorative street lights.

Debate It! Should some urban streets be reserved for bicycles? p. 486 1. Do you use a bicycle to get to places? Why or why not?

I do not use a bicycle to get to places because I live in a suburban area without dedicated bike lanes. Some of the streets I would travel are two-lane roads with deep ditches on the sides.

2. What challenges might your community face to add bike lanes?

Our part of the state is well known for traffic congestion. In a neighboring city, a proposal was made to increase bicycle rider safety by converting one of the three traffic lanes to a dedicated bike lane. The proposal faced opposition because the loss of an entire car traffic lane would increase congestion on the already-crowded roads.

Doing Geography Counting People Who Are Homeless, p. 491 What’s Your URBAN Geography?

The number of homeless Americans varies by state and locality. Learn about the homeless population in your community. Open the website United States Interagency Council on Homelessness (www.usich.gov). Scroll to the bottom of the home page and click State Data & Contacts Map. 1. What is the total number of people without homes in your state?

The number of homeless in Virginia is 5,975 in 2018.

2. Use the bar below the map to move to the oldest date. Has homelessness increased or decreased in your state?

Homelessness in Virginia has decreased since 2010 when there were 9,080 homeless in the state.

3. Scroll down to detailed information about your state. The national rate of homelessness is approximately 150 per 100,000. Is the rate in your state higher or lower than the national average? What might account for that difference?

The site no longer provides a rate of homelessness per 100,000. However, there is an option to select percent which is 1.08 percent in 2018. The rates vary from state to state from a high in California of 23.55 to a low of .1 in North Dakota.

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4. Information is provided for four types of people without homes. What distinctive challenges might each of these four groups face in seeking permanent homes in your community?

The four groups comprising the total homeless population include: family households, veterans, persons who are chronically homeless, and unaccompanied adults ages 18-24 years old. Finding housing to keep households intact may be difficult as it would be easier to shelter one individual rather than an entire family. Veterans who are homeless may be suffering from post-traumatic stress and have a need for counseling and other services. The chronically homeless may be resistant to going to a shelter or seeking help as they have survived on their own for so long. The young adults may benefit from job training and employment counseling so that they can transition to financial independence.

Sustainability & Our Environment What to Do with the Electric Vehicle Batteries? p. 496 1. Can you think of other uses?

Not really.

2. What obstacles can you envision to increased use of used car batteries?

The increased use of car batteries will increase the number of batteries that need to be repurposed at the end of their useful life. New designs for batteries that are easily disassembled need to be developed as well as new methods to retrieve and recycle components of the batteries.

GeoVideo Future of Cities and Public Transit in Rio de Janeiro Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, has added cable cars to the city’s public transport system.

1. Why are cable cars important for improving Rio’s slums (called favelas)?

Narrow streets and steps preclude travel by car or bus in the densely populated, overcrowded areas occupied by the favelas. Cable cars are used to connect the favela to the rest of the city. A trip by foot takes 58 minutes longer. Residents can use the cable car to avoid crime ridden areas on their journey to the city or visit clinics located near the stations thus improving their quality of life.

2. How have cable cars already begun to transform Rio’s favelas?

Places located near the cable car stations have increased in price. Favela residents have easy access to the city and the opportunities it offers. Businesses are being established at the various stations. Tourism may increase.

NOTE: The cable car system is no longer in operation.

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Writing Geographically Assume a 200-mph transport system was installed in Megalopolis.

1. If the high-speed transport system ran in a sector between the CBD of a city in Megalopolis and one of its edge cities, what changes might occur in the distribution of social areas within the city? Refer to the models of internal structure of U.S. cities.

The quick transport system connecting a CBD to one of its edge cities would facilitate interaction between the two areas. People living in the edge city would be able to quickly access opportunities in the CBD. As the social analysis for the sector model suggests people with different incomes live in different parts of the city.

Therefore, places along the rail line would have regions based on income.

2. If the transport connected the CBDs of the large cities in Megalopolis but did not stop elsewhere, what changes might occur in the activities found in U.S. CBDs? As a result of the connection of the CBDs of multiple cities in Megalopolis the activities occurring within the CBDs would become more uniform through the process of diffusion along the rail line.

Explore Brasília: A Planned City Brasília was planned in the 1950s as Brazil’s new capital. Go to Brasília. Zoom in to around 20 kilometers (12 miles). The city was planned in the shape of an airplane. The plane’s fuselage runs from the National Congress in the east, west along a linear park flanked by government offices. The plane’s swept-back wings curve to the north and south. The wings are labeled SHCN and SHCS. 1. Go to SHCS, Brasília, zoom in on this residential area, and enter Street View. Describe the housing and the probable incomes and occupations of the residents.

The area has high-rise apartments. Because of the relatively high density, incomes would be middle class.

2. Go to St. O, Brasília, and zoom in to around 2,000 meters. Use Street View to examine a typical street in this neighborhood. Compare the characteristics of the St. O neighborhood with the SHCS neighborhood.

St. O has individual houses in a less densely populated area. The incomes in this area are likely higher as costs for individual houses are higher than those for apartments.

3. Do the positions of these two neighborhoods in Brasília and their socioeconomic characteristics follow the concentric zone model for cities in developing countries? Explain your answer.

Yes, the concentric zone model is evident in these two neighborhoods. The SHCS is located nearer the core of the city whereas the O St. neighborhood is located further out. The O St. neighborhood has more informal housing and does not appear to be as well-maintained as the apartment complexes in the SHCS area.

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The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography 4. Does Brasília’s status as a planned city affect the distribution of people and services? Why or why not?

Yes, A planned city would assign various groups to different sections of the city. The distribution of different types of housing would be aligned with the master plan resulting in more homogeneity in each of the sectors.

Geospatial Data Analysis Asia’s Large Cities and Urbanization Most of the world’s largest cities are in Asia. Select Major Cities of More than 5 Million. Zoom to South Asia. In the Legend, deselect the lower three classes. In Map Options, show City Labels. Select Change in Urbanization.

1. Compare the rate of urbanization among the six countries with very large cities on the map. (Bangladesh, China, Egypt, India, Japan, and Pakistan). Which of these countries has the lowest rate of urbanization?

Which three have the highest rates?

The data show the annual change in urbanization. The country showing negative growth is Japan. The countries with the highest annual change in urbanization are China, Bangladesh, and Pakistan.

2. As a result of varying rates of urbanization, what can you conclude about the future growth of the very large cities in these six countries?

China, the country with the highest annual change in urbanization and many cities with populations over 5 million will probably grow the fastest.

Extension Activity Remove the Change in Urbanization layer. Select World Railroads. In the Legend for Major Cities of More than 5 Million, select only the 18,000,000+ category. Change the opacity of this layer to 25 percent. Zoom in as needed.

1. Are all of the cities with populations over 18 million the country’s capital?

No, some countries have cities with population over 18 million people. In those cases only one is the country’s capital. In the case of New York and Sao Paulo, neither is the country capital and no other large cities are identified.

2. Describe the relationship between railroads and the cities with the world’s largest populations.

All of the largest cities are connected to rail lines. Connections also extend to other nearby cities.

3. From the economic theme, select Major Industrial Centers. Which of the cities over 18 million are not major industrial centers?

Even though Beijing and Cairo are among the largest cities, they are not identified as major industrial centers.

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Resources World Bank youthink! Issues: Urbanization The World Bank has a student-oriented information page on urbanization at www.blogs.worldbank.org/ youthink/category/tags/urbanization United Nations Human Settlements Program (UN-HABITAT) looks at human settlements around the world: http://www.unhabitat.org/

City Mayors The city mayors site provides statistics on the population of the world’s largest cities at www.citymayors.com/

Municipal Annexation Key Issue 3 of the text discusses annexation. Procedures for annexation differ by states, but a great source for understanding them is provided by the National League of Cities at https://www.nlc.org/municipalannexation.

Urban Areas The 2010 Census Urban Areas FAQs provides definitions of terms such as rural and urban and explains the process used to delineate urban areas at https://www.census.gov/geo/reference/ua/uafaq.html.

Skyway Guide In the support of the text’s description of vertical space in the city access the Minneapolis Skyway Guide, http://www.skywaymyway.com/ that illustrates how to navigate from building to building in the CBD without being at street level or outside.

GeoInquiries™ GeoInquiries™ by the Environmental Science Research Institute (ESRI) consist of scripted map-based online GIS activities designed to be completed within a 15-minute time frame. These Internet-based mapping activities run best in the Google Chrome browser and do not require the installation of any software. Access them at www.esri.com/en-us/industries/education/schools/geoinquiries-collections.

The following GeoInquiries™ support the development of the concepts and content of this chapter.

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Urban Distribution & Density from the Human Geography collection is a level two activity (log-in required) that explorers the location and concentration of the world’s major urban areas.

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Urban Areas and Edge Cities from the Human Geography collection explores the layout, size, and density of the world’s urban areas.

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Mastering Geography Media & Assessment Resources Mastering Geography™ provides additional assignable homework activities and ready-made resources designed to extend and reinforce student skills and mastery of key content, concepts, and vocabulary. These resources are invaluable to implementation of the flipped classroom. Use the Instructor Course Home areas to build assignments for your students. Highlights include: •

MapMaster 2.0™ provides students with the opportunity to reinforce their understanding of spatial relationships, e.g., variation, distribution, interaction, and association. Students get hands on with map building, exploration, and spatial data analysis by layering a wide range of maps. Multiplechoice assessments in the Mastering Geography item library provide directions for building maps aligned with chapter content, and focus on the development of spatial thinking and analysis skills.

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GeoVideos and Google Earth Explorations linked to chapter content provide an opportunity for students to “visit” other places and build an appreciation for other cultures. Use as an out-of-class assignment and have students explain how the video or Google Earth Explorations illustrate concepts learned in class and make comparisons between cultures.

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Interactive Data Visualizations powered by Social Explorer provide interactive data explorations for each chapter’s Key Issue, and include map stories, predictive graphing, interactive maps, interactive population pyramids, interactive charts, and more. These media are integrated into the Pearson eText and Study Area, and are also available for assignment with quizzes.

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GeoTutors are highly visual and data-rich assignable activities that help students master the most challenging concepts in geography.

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Dynamic Study Modules (DSMs) provide two sets of 25 multiple-choice questions per chapter topic. Because this resource includes a “I don’t know yet” answer choice,” it can be assigned as a pre-assessment or content preview. The modules are interactive as students are prompted to select, “I am unsure” or “I am sure” as they submit their answers. The questions could also be used as self-check for students at the end of the chapter. An infographic gauge represents their accuracy visually. Teachers can assign the DSMs for credit or students can access these on their own for self study.

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Learning Catalytics is an interactive student response tool paired with Mastering Geography that encourages team-based learning by using students’ smartphones, tablets, or laptops to engage them in interactive tasks and thinking. As a teacher, you can pose a variety of open-ended questions that help your students develop critical thinking skills, while monitoring responses with real-time analytics to find out where they’re struggling. With this information, you can adjust your instructional strategy in real time and try additional ways of engaging your students during class. Learning Catalytics also lets you manage student interactions by automatically grouping students for discussion, team-based learning, and peer-to-peer learning.

The Mastering Geography student Study Area includes a variety of tools that students can access on their own, including: • • •

The eText provides a fully digital online version of the textbook, with search and bookmarking functionality. Available for offline reading.

Chapter Quizzes include 15 multiple choice questions based on the chapter’s content.

Key Terms Flashcards to help students master the key vocabulary.

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Chapter 13: Urban Patterns Downloadable Outline Maps containing political and physical features provide students the opportunity to label key countries and physical features. Consider assigning these maps throughout the course so that students can refer to them as they interpret the many thematic maps provided in the textbook.

The following selections from the GeoVideos are particularly useful in supporting student understanding of key concepts of the chapter: • • •

Building Brasilia, 6:50 minutes Dhvari Slums, 5:35 minutes China: Changing China Return to White Horse Village, 6:43 minutes

The following map layers associated with this chapter’s content and concepts are included in the MapMaster 2.0™. In addition, there are a series of quizzes developed using MapMaster 2.0™.

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Change in Urbanization Human Occupation (Australia & Oceania) Megacities Major Cities of More than 5 Million Poor Urban Air Quality Population Growth Rates of Indian Political Units, (2006–2016) Urban Population (U.S.) Urban Population (Urbanization)

Additional resources in support of students with disabilities include the screen reader enabled e-text and more. Further details about these resources are available at www.pearson.com/us/accessibility.html.

Connections between Chapters Back to Chapter 1 This chapter highlights the tension between globalization and local diversity, as emphasized in the introduction. Reviewing this overarching theme helps students realize the overlap.

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