Contemporary Human Geography, 5th edition James M. Rubenstein Solution Manual

Type:

Solution Manual

Contemporary Human Resource: Geography Edition:

5th Edition

Author(s):

James M. Rubenstein

Chapter 1: This is Geography

CHAPTER

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This is Geography Learning Objectives

By the end of this chapter, students should be able to: 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.10 1.11 1.12 1.13 1.14 1.15 1.16 1.17 1.18 1.19 1.20 1.21 1.22 1.23 1.24 1.25 1.26 1.27 1.28 1.29 1.30

Compare and contrast geography and history in terms of what geographers and historians do.

Summarize geography’s five most basic concepts.

Trace the development of geography in the ancient world through the Middle Ages to the Age of Exploration.

Identify contemporary analytic tools of geographers, including remote sensing, Global Positioning System (GPS), and Geographic Information System (GIS).

Describe the role of volunteered geographic information (VGI) and mashups in contemporary geography.

Explain three ways of representing scale on a map: ratio scales, written scales, and graphic scales.

Discuss how map projections are used to solve the problem of distortion in flat maps.

Define geographic grid.

Compare and contrast the characteristics of both latitude lines and longitude lines.

Explain how latitude and longitude are used to locate points on Earth’s surface.

Explain how we use longitude to establish time zones.

Summarize the historical search in England in the 1700s for a way to measure longitude accurately.

Explain how geographers can use characteristics such as location, site, situation, and toponyms to describe the unique nature of place.

Define cultural landscape.

Classify regions as functional, formal, or vernacular.

Explain how the process of globalization impacts the cultural landscape, local diversity, and access to communication.

Cite examples of changes in economy and culture occurring at global and local scales.

Explain how geographers use spatial association to study the relationships among features of a region.

Define density, concentration, and pattern as properties of distribution across space.

Describe how patterns can vary in time and space.

Illustrate how distribution and patterns in space can vary according to gender, sexuality, and ethnicity.

Discuss the impact of electronic communications in the context of the inequality between core and periphery and the problem of uneven development.

Identify diffusion, hearth, and spatial interaction.

State three ways in which cultural groups can change because of connections across space.

Describe the role of networks, distance decay, and space–time compression in spatial interactions.

Explain how the three aspects of sustainability are connected to each other.

Identify the four spheres of the Earth system.

Explain how the ecosystems that make up the biosphere interact with Earth’s abiotic systems.

Compare and contrast environmental determinism and possibilism.

Evaluate the sustainability and environmental modifications of ecosystems in the Netherlands and California.

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Chapter 1: This is Geography

Chapter Overview This chapter, titled “This Is Geography,” examines cornerstone concepts in geography. It defines geography, divides the discipline in two branches, and offers a quick explanation of the differences between history and geography. It also explains the purpose of geography and traces the early development of the discipline. The chapter goes on to discuss maps and their role in geography as well as the essential elements of a map, including scale and projection. Following up this is the discussion of the geographic grid and its locational and temporal function. The chapter also explains the role of contemporary geographic tools such as geographic information systems, the Global Positioning System, remote sensing, and mashups in geography. Central to the discussion is the unique nature of place.

Location (the place that something occupies in space) and other features contribute to the uniqueness of a place. The chapter explores other factors that contribute to the uniqueness of a place, such as a region, as well as globalization. The process of globalization adds a human dimension and human diversity to the uniqueness of a place and creates unequal development and regional difference. The rest of this chapter examines the idea that cultural groups compete to organize space and human geographers follow several approaches to study this. The text examines the connection between places by describing how they are distributed in space, and how spatial interactions such as diffusion produce and keep these connections.

The chapter introduces students to the concept of sustainability and its relationship to Earth’s physical systems. The chapter also explores the concept of environmental determinism and its role in geographic thought. Like all the other chapters in the book, Chapter 1 concludes with a review of key questions and vocabulary words.

A Special Note about Chapter 1 One challenge in teaching Chapter 1 is that many of your students have little exposure to geography.

Therefore, the time you spend on Chapter 1 will influence how well and how fast your students grasp the rest of the concepts in contemporary geography. Please note that there is no fixed rule to the teaching of geography, and the following are merely suggestions. For this chapter, focus on the added photos and maps to emphasize your point. You may want to assess this chapter on its own before continuing to others. Reteach the concepts that your students do not understand. Assign material from Mastering Geography Study area.

1.1: Welcome to Geography Section 1.1 explores the nature and significance of geography and compares the subject with history. It places geography broadly into two branches, human and physical, and introduces students to cornerstone concepts in the discipline. These concepts include place, region, space, scale, and connection, and geographers use these terms to explain the uniqueness and interrelatedness of place. Introduce your chapter by conducting a brief survey of your students on the first day of class to determine whether they have any background familiar with geography in their state or country of origin. Approach this as a spatial activity by giving your students a map of the United States or a world map, or you can locate their responses on a large classroom map if you have one. Segue into a discussion of the definition of geography, emphasizing the spatial nature of information that they provided for you, and introduce the branches of geography. Familiarize your students with the images in Figures 1.1.1 to 1.1.6 to emphasize concepts of place. An important assignment that should accompany this chapter is map that shows continents, oceans, world regions as well as some countries we find in each region of the world. You can find maps like this in Map Master 2.0 within the study area.

1.2: Contemporary Geographic Tools Section 1.2 focuses on the tools of geography such as maps and those associated with GIScience. It defines a map as a scale model of the real world made small enough to work on a desk or a computer and lists some of the many purposes of maps. The section also explores one of the most crucial elements of a map, scale, which is the relationship of a feature’s size on a map to its actual size on the ground that GIScience refers to the analysis of data about Earth, acquired from satellites and other electronic devices 2

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Chapter 1: This is Geography

from which we collect data for Contemporary tools These tools include GIS, photogrammetry, remote sensing, Global Positioning System (GPS), and volunteered geographic information (VGI). VGI, a new addition to this edition and part of a new trend in geography, citizen science, utilizes free data gathered by individuals using electronic devices, such as cellphones and tablets. It is important to emphasize the utility of GPS, GIS, mashups, and remote sensing in real-world situations. Discuss the use of these geographic tools and lead the students to a classroom demonstration in MapMaster 2.0 found in Mastering Geography.

You could assign this as homework or give some simple spatial analysis tasks to complete. It is also important at this stage to distinguish between GIS and VGI. Students can find examples of VGI in their lives. Refer students to What’s your Geography feature on page 9.

1.3: Making Maps Section 1.3 traces the development of geography as a science through Greece’s classical era, and to the Middle Ages and summarizes the development of cartography. The section highlights the contribution of influential figures in geography and cartography through earlier periods to the revival of geography during the Middle Ages and the age of Exploration. A new addition to the chapter is the traditional types of maps geographers use to display data. This section briefly discusses development of geography through maps from earliest times to the age of exploration. Using the PowerPoints that accompany the textbook, draw students’ attention to Ptolemy’s map as one of the first to refer to the geographic grid.

Have students comment on the stages of the world map in history. At this point, you should highlight the connection between the beginning of cartography and the discipline of geography. For further information on the types of maps used by geographers, you can assign students further reading or complete activities in the geography.

1.4: The Geographic Grid For Unit 1.4, students should learn about the pattern created by latitude and longitude: the geographic grid. Their understanding of the geographic grid is important especially since it is used to locate places and tell time. The geographic grid, defined in the text as “a system of imaginary arcs drawn in a grid pattern on Earth’s surface,” allows people to locate places on the surface of Earth. Also, in this section is a discussion of maps and scales as one of the principal elements found on a map such as ratio, written, and graphic scales. The scale on the map is a way of translating distance on the map to actual distance on the ground.

Important in this section also is the concept of projection, of fitting the spherical shape of Earth onto a flat surface, discussion about fitting the spherical shape of Earth onto a flat surface. The text offers a brief but useful visual of projection and the numerous ways geographers deal with the problem such the four types of distortion: distortions in size, distance, shape, and direction. Introduce the students to the example of projections.

Mastering Geography can extend their learning on these topics in Unit 1.4 with the utilization of videos available in the study area. If time permits, show the video in class.

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“Mapping the World” and assign it in Mastering Geography Map Projection Animations

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Chapter 1: This is Geography

NB: For Units 1.5–1.8, you can teach this as ways in which we can describe a location. Here, students should be able to master spatial thinking skill unique to geography. Mastery of these skills will allow a deeper understanding of concepts offered in Chapter 1 as well as those following.

1.5: Place: A Unique Location Place and location are important cornerstone concepts in human geography. The section explains how we can use attributes such as location, site, situation, and toponyms to describe the unique nature of place.

The text defines toponym as the name given to a place on Earth and places derive their names from their founder or religious figures. This section also introduces the concept of the controversial toponyms⸻place names in which there is no consensus about the name of a place.

Defined in this section are also the terms site and situation, two other cornerstone concepts. Site is the physical character of a place and situation, the other hand, refers to the location of a place in relation to other places. The author makes the point that situation is an excellent way of describing location because it allows comparison with other places and helps us understand the importance of a location. Using the example of controversial toponyms given in the text, ask students to identify others. Point them to Figure 1.6.3 in your PowerPoint to prompt discussion on why site and situation are significant. You may have students apply their new knowledge of site and situation to the location of such places as shopping malls or baseball or basketball stadia. Assign students questions in related to the learning objectives 1–13.

1.6: Region: A Unique Area Of equal importance are the terms region and cultural landscape. The cultural landscape is “a combination of cultural features such as language and religion, economic features such as agriculture and industry, and physical features such as climate and vegetation” and geographers describe this at different scales. Region, an “area on the surface of Earth defined by one or more distinctive characteristics” is divided into three types: formal, functional, and vernacular. It is important for students to note that a region is unique because it has not just one distinctive characteristic but combinations of them and that these unique characteristics are acquired through the existence of the cultural landscape. Distinguishing among the types of regions and finding examples for each is critical for this chapter. Direct your students to Figures 16.2–1.6.5 for examples. They should be able to formulate examples of their own.

1.7: Scale: From Global to Local This section introduces the concept of globalization as a factor that accounts for the similarities among places—one of the keystone concepts of spatial thinking analysis. Unit 1.7 deals specifically with the definition of globalization, how it occurs, and the effects it has on space. According to the text, globalization is responsible for uniformity of culture among diverse places prompted especially by advancement in communication technology. According to the author, globalization did not disrupt the unique nature of some places and instead cultural and economic diversity persist there: this is because of the dichotomous tensions globalization produces.

It is important that students understand the relationship between globalization (actions or processes that involve the entire world and result in making something worldwide in scope) and transnational corporations such as McDonald’s. Transnational corporations are purveyors of globalization and diffuse culture, ideas, and innovations through their global activities. The Pearson PowerPoints should provide the seeds for an interesting discussion on the concept of globalization. As geography educators, we should make our students aware that the process of globalization is a dichotomy: while for some it is beneficial, globalization may be a threat to the preservation of some cultures. Despite this, according to the text, diversity of local culture persists in many parts of the world. Assign students questions matching objectives 1.16–1.18 in Mastering Geography.

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1.8: Space: Distribution of Features Unit 1.8 continues the discussion of similarities among places but emphasizes the distribution of features in space. The text defines space as the “physical gap or interval between two objects” and makes the point that geographers concern is with how people and objects arrange themselves across space. Humans and objects are arranged either sparsely or close together, and we call this arrangement as distribution.

According to the text, the distribution has three properties: density (the frequency with which a phenomenon occurs in space), concentration (the extent to which a feature is spread over space), and pattern (the geometric arrangement of objects in space). Spatial thinking as a fundamental geographic skill helps students understand the organization of space. The distribution properties of Social Distancing in COVID-19 pandemic are a prime example of distribution (see 1.8.2). Students’ understanding of the properties of distribution (density, concentration, and pattern) is critical for all upcoming chapters.

The PowerPoints (IRC) good to show examples of these—use them.

1.9: Space: Identity The main idea in this section is that spatial patterns vary according to social constructs such as, ethnicity, and sexuality. Ethnic groups, especially, cluster in cities while LGBQT gravitate toward certain locations that allow them to interact with others like them. Some gender traits show specific distribution. For instant, the book uses the examples of distribution of race in the twin cities of Minneapolis and Saint Paul. You can view this distribution in Figure 1.9.2. The author notes the distribution of people who identifies as LGBQT in the USA as well as globally. Two maps 1.9.3 and 1.9.4 illustrate this distribution.

1.10: Space: Equality Inequality is particularly prevalent among females where hierarchies are created based on perceived gender roles. Gender equality may be defined as “equal chances or opportunities for females to access and control social, economic, and political resources” the map 1.10.3 shows the distribution of gender inequalities. Your students should note that gender equality does not exist in the world. Discussed as well is the concept of uneven development noted through unequal access to technologies and disparity in income between core and periphery countries produce uneven development. There is an increasing gap between the core and periphery countries especially where there are disparities in income, consumption etc. The section notes that these same disparities exist within countries. Assign students an interactive mapping assignment in Mastering Geography related to learning objectives 1.21 and 1.22 or a test question from the item library to enhance learning. Unequal access also has a particular distribution.

1.11: Connection: Diffusion and Interaction Unit 1.11 explores connection between places as one of the spatial thinking concepts that students must acquire to navigate the rest of the curriculum. Connection refers to “the relationships between people and objects across the barrier of space.” These connections occur through expansion diffusion or relocation diffusion. Expansion diffusion is an additive movement from one place to another whereas relocation diffusion is the spread of a feature through the movement of people. These movements produce interactions among groups that result in assimilation, acculturation, or syncretism. According to the text, interactions occur through a network—a chain of communication that connects places—influenced by distance decay and space–time compression.

You may want to stress spatial diffusion, types, and real-world examples, the influences and results of those interactions. An activity for homework may help reinforce the concept of diffusion. You can also pull up examples of advertisements as examples of hierarchical diffusion. However, you will discuss diffusion again in Chapter 4, and at that point, you can spend more time on its application to and relevance for migration and cultural traits such as language and religion. In your discussion, draw out the ideas of distance decay and space–time compression. Direct students’ attention to Figure 1.11.5 to help them understand the space–time compression concept.

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1.12: Connection: Sustainability This section introduces the concept of sustainability and its three interconnected pillars. The text defines sustainability as “the use of Earth’s resources in ways that ensure their availability in the future.” The world resources are concentrated within Earth’s physical system, which consists of four interrelated spheres: the atmosphere, the hydrosphere, the lithosphere, and the biosphere. The section discusses the purpose of each sphere and recognizes the role of the biosphere, which acts as an interface among them; in other words, all four spheres interact with each other in the biosphere. Understanding the physical system of Earth allows students to understand humankind’s interaction with and influence on the environment. Students should understand that geographers are most concerned with human interaction with the environment. To initiate discussion on the interconnections among the four spheres, an instructor can introduce Figure 1.12.1.

1.13: Humans and Their Environment An important theme in geography is human–environment interaction, and this is the focus of the concluding section in Chapter 1. Cultural ecology studies how people both alter and adapt to the environment. Unit 1.13 discusses how the approaches environmental determinism and possibilism have shaped geographic thought. Environmental determinism claims that the physical environment influences the social development. Geography now supports the idea that humans can adapt and change their environment from alternatives within their own environments. This section continues the discussion of sustainability in the previous section and offers two examples of human–environment interaction in which humans have attempted to modify and adjust to their environment in sustainable (the Netherlands) and unsustainable (California) ways, respectively. In the Netherlands, they have created polders and dikes to adapt to land below sea levels. The text also describes the dilemma California faces with its rising population and depleting water supply.

It is imperative that students understand that although the discipline of geography embraced environmental determinism for a while, it now rejects the theory. Have your students view “Message in a Bottle” or play it in class (see student study area in Mastering Geography). Discuss these modifications, how the modifications benefit people, and the problems and issues these modifications generate socially, culturally, environmentally, and politically. You could have students give examples of modification in their own communities.

Complete this chapter by assessing students learning. Create test from the test bank available as Microsoft document or use the Pearson-created Blackboard version. This is infinitely easier to use because you can figure out what to reteach or assign in Mastering Geography student-centered, objective-based assignments and coaching activities.

Answers to Thinking Geographically 1. Geography plays an important role in our electronic devices. What was the most recent geographic item that you consulted on your electronic device? Describe how this item illustrated each of geography’s five basic concepts of place, region, scale, space, and connection.

Answers may vary. (Sample) Student response should include Geographic item—A trip to a mall in another county. This place would have physical and human characteristics of place such as weather, topography, and language spoken. The mall, where it is located, is part of a region and the scale is local. Population around this mall is sparsely distributed but the area where they live is urban and dense. Students should find connections such as transport and retail.

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2. The South and the West are commonly cited vernacular U.S. regions. What are some features that you would expect to distinguish one of these regions?

Answers may vary but should include: The South is agricultural, with large pockets of descendants of former enslaved Africans, southern Baptist Protestants, and people who vote consistently Republican in the last 40 years of presidential elections. Distinguishing northernmost border could be Virginia (voted twice for President Obama in his election and went for Hillary Clinton.) Among the regions in the USA, the perceptual South has the lowest graduation rates in the country.

3. Describe elements of your daily life that derive from the globalization economy and culture and ways in which your actions and behavior represent distinctive displays of local diversity.

Answer will vary Our daily lives are influenced by things that occur at both a global and a local scale. We benefit negatively or positively from economic factors such as the oil trade or production of various goods. It determines the price we pay for goods and services reliant on oil. This in turn affects spending patterns etc. Globalization can also influence the production of various commodities in one country where the capital and labor originate in another.

Culture has become globalized, social media, for example, Facebook, Instagram, and TikTok spread culture. Our actions and behavior determine the level of diversity within local communities.

4. How did your connections with other places change as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic? Can you identify a change in connections with other places that has been long term or permanent since the onset of the pandemic? What might account for that permanent change in connections?

As a result of COVID-19, our connection with other places has changed. Isolation produced the intensification or introduction of new ways of communicating at the workplace or school or each other. What might become permanent is businesses that used brick and mortar buildings and offered services will operate remotely. One reason is that operating remotely will cut cost and will reach larger marketplaces.

Answers to Geospatial Analysis Environmental Challenges for the Dutch Add the World Elevations layer. Click the Settings icon in the Legend, and select Show Political Labels.

Zoom in as far as possible to center the map on the Netherlands (northwestern Europe between Belgium and United Kingdom). Add the Population Density layer and select Split map window.

1. Hover over the Netherlands. What is the elevation of this area?

Much of the elevation is below sea level.

2. Compare the elevation map to the population density map. Describe the distribution of population within the Netherlands (density, concentration, and pattern).

In some areas, the densities reach as high as 12,000 people per square kilometers; the densest populations are concentrated in low-lying elevations, nearest to the coast. The pattern of distribution is fairly even throughout the country.

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3. What environmental challenges do people living in the Netherlands face? How are the Dutch addressing these challenges? Are these challenges likely to become more severe or less severe in the coming years? Explain your answer.

The Netherlands is subject to frequent water management issues such as flooding because much of the country lies below sea level and have many rivers that run across it. To manage the flooding, the country modified their environment by building polders and dikes. A polder is “a piece of land created from draining the water from an area” and dikes are much like sea wall that prevents the sea from coming in. However, climate change is likely to exacerbate the situation by raising sea levels.

Answers to Explore Dili 1. What do you see on the water side of the street? Is there an attractive beach? Are people swimming in the water? Does this look attractive to you? Why or why not?

Nearby islands, yes. Not an attractive beach because of garbage, color of sand. No facilities.

2. What activities are taking place on the land side? Is the area attractive? Why or why not?

Land side is residential, road runs parallel to the beach. Not very attractive either.

3. Take a look at the road nearest the water. Is it busy with traffic or quiet? Why might that be?

Discussion Topics and Classroom Activities 1. At the beginning of class, provide your students with maps of the United States or the world.

Take a brief survey of where students come from, and write those places on the board by country or by state. Ask students to indicate whether they have had any experience with geography. If they have, put a check beside their state or country. Ask students to generalize about the data on the board. Ask them if they could map that information. Demonstrate how to place this information on a map of your own and let them do one or two states for themselves. Guide students to the conclusion that the information given is spatial and that we can map most information. From there, you can segue into a discussion of geography, its definition, and development.

2. If you have geography majors, you may assign students the task of researching the various theoretical approaches to academic geography. Student could discuss the impact of environmental determinism and possibilism theories on the development of geography thought.

3. Have students debate how the process of globalization benefits or hampers a group or country development.

4. Individual project assignment: Have students list the types of projections, explain the distortions in each one, and describe the utility of a projection. Ask students to describe how they could use each projection to harm or to aid people.

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Suggested Assignments For this exercise in Mastering Geography and MapMaster, you are going to practice placing data layers on a map.

1. Sign into your Mastering Geography account associated with your Contemporary Human Geography textbook with the authorization in your textbook.

2. Go to the STUDY AREA tab at the top of the page then scroll down to MapMaster 2.0, and click on the tab.

3. Click on the Add Data Layer Tab then scroll down to population density. Make sure your Refine by Geography field says world.

4. Click Add Data Layer to the map.

5. Go to legend on the setting button, check Show Political Label, and show city Labels. This should label your countries and cities.

6. Uncheck show hill shade.

7. Go to Add Annotations. Add point markers in the four places with highest densities (more than 12,801 per square kilometer). Write down the name of the countries.

8. Identify four places in Africa with low densities and write down the names; use the circle in Annotation tab to help you identify them.

9. Click the Show Your Location Tab then use a textbox from annotation to name it.

10. Measure the distance as the crow flies or straight-line distance between your location and Indonesia. Write down your distance but keep the connecting line on the map.

11. Go to the Print tab then give your map a name. Remember that your title should reflect the information on the map. Enter a subtitle, your name, and a file name for your map.

Download a copy to send to your professor then print one. Upload your completed map to place assigned in Mastering Geography.

12. Reset map and practice adding data layers and using annotation tools.

Additional Resources •

Czechia—The name of the Czech Republic: http://www.czechia-initiative.com/czechia_name.html

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The Global Positioning System, https://www.gps.gov/systems/gps/

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The Truth About GPS: How it works https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fpPwMu3foGg&list=PL55179C4C04759E94&index=2&feat ure=plpp_video

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Furuti Carlos A. 2002 Map Projection, http://www.progonos.com/furuti/MapProj/Normal/CartDef/MapDef/mapDef.html

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Map Projections: A working Manual https Snyder, JP: //pubs.usgs.gov/pp/1395/report.pdf

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Jackson, P Thinking Geographically 2006 http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.466.2210&rep=rep1&type=pdf

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Hubbard, P., Kitchin, R., Bartley, B., and Fuller, D. (2002) Thinking Geographically: Space, theory, and contemporary human geography. London: Continuum.

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Chapter 2: Population & Health

CHAPTER

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Population & Health Learning Objectives

By the end of this chapter, students should be able to: 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.10 2.11 2.12 2.13 2.14 2.15 2.16 2.17 2.18 2.19 2.20 2.21 2.22 2.23 2.24 2.25 2.26

Describe the distribution of human population as represented using regional maps and a cartogram.

Identify the four major population concentrations or regions in the world.

Explain the main reasons for the uneven distribution of the world’s human population.

Compare and contrast the three types of population density.

Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of each type of population density for a geographer.

Define natural increase, doubling time, crude birth rate, and crude death rate.

Explain the three types of how the indicators natural increase, crude birth rate, and crude death rate are used by geographers to measure population change.

Describe the stages of the demographic transition model (DTM).

Determine which countries fulfill the characteristics of each stage of the demographic transition model.

Explain health risks faced by baby girls in China and India.

Explain health risks faced by mothers, and how those risks differ between the developed and the developing world.

Explain how changes in infant mortality rates and life expectancy affect population structure, the potential support ratio, and the dependency ratio.

Interpret population pyramids to understand changes in population structure.

Compare and contrast health care expenditures and medical facilities in developing and developed countries.

Describe the stages of the epidemiologic transition, including the leading cause of death in each.

Summarize Malthus’s population theory.

Explain how modern supporters or dissenters of Malthus have used his theory to predict recent population-related changes.

Describe the population characteristics of a country that enters a possible stage 5 of the demographic transition.

Explain the significance of the total fertility rate in estimates of the world’s future population.

Predict what countries with large populations like India, China, and Japan will look like (population-wise) in the future.

Summarize the differences between a pronatalist and an antinatalist population policy.

Describe a possible stage 5 of the epidemiologic transition, and state reasons why such a stage might emerge.

Discuss reasons for the emergence (or reemergence) of infectious diseases, including malaria, tuberculosis, and HIV/AIDS. Discuss the global distribution of COVID-19 cases, and why there are differences in prevalence between the developed and developing world.

Evaluate the role of education and health care in reducing birth rates in developed and developing countries.

Evaluate the role of contraception in reducing birth rates in developed and developing countries.

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Key Words Agricultural density (pg. 36) Arable land (pg. 36) Arithmetic density (pg. 36) Census (pg. 54) Crude birth rate (CBR) (pg. 41) Crude death rate (CDR) (pg. 41) Demographic transition (pg. 42) Dependency ratio (pg. 44) Doubling time (pg. 40) Ecumene (pg. 39) Epidemiologic transition (pg. 50) Epidemiology (pg. 50) Industrial Revolution (pg. 42) Infant mortality rate (IMR) (pg. 44)

Life expectancy (pg. 45) Maternal mortality rate (pg. 46) Medical revolution (pg. 42) Natural increase rate (NIR) (pg. 40) Overpopulation (pg. 58) Pandemic (pg. 50) Physiological density (pg. 36) Population pyramid (pg. 45) Potential support ratio (or elderly support ratio) (pg. 45) Sex ratio (pg. 47) Total fertility rate (TFR) (pg. 52) Zero population growth (ZPG) (pg. 43)

Chapter Overview The world population today is approximately 8 billion people, concentrated in a few regions of the world.

More people are alive and living longer today than at any other time in the history of humankind.

Chapter 2 of the textbook examines population and health, which are important parts of human geography. The chapter discusses distribution of population and growth and decline of population, emphasizing that most of the growth in world population is currently occurring in regions of Africa, Asia, and Latin America. The chapter also introduces students to the processes involved in population growth and decline, the structure of population, the reasons for changes, and the measurements geographers use to describe and represent these changes. The chapter also takes a critical look at population growth trends, including the demographic transition. In addition, the chapter contains a critical discussion of Malthus’s theory of population growth and the dichotomy its application presents to current and future world population changes. The chapter also answers questions about the health challenges some regions of the world face and examines factors that determine why those challenges exist.

2.1: Population Density Section 2.1 continues with the question of where people are distributed and focuses on population density. It defines the three measurements of density: arithmetic, physiological, and agricultural density.

The text defines arithmetic density (also called population density) as the total number of people divided by the total land area. Physiological density, a more meaningful measurement, is defined as the number of people divided by the amount of arable land (land suited for agriculture). The chapter also defines another measurement, agricultural density, as the ratio of farmers to the amount of arable land.

Students should understand that using the three types of density allow students to have a clearer understanding of the capacity of the land to provide sustenance for humankind. Conversely, the use and comparison of agriculture and physiological density may be utilized to understand the relationship between resources and population. MapMaster Interactive Maps in Mastering Geography could be used to reinforce students’ understanding of the concept of carrying capacity—the ability of the land to feed its people. One thing that could be clear is that arithmetic density is an average and not such a useful measurement. Have students use the world map in MapMaster Interactive Maps to compare the various densities for different world regions to foster their understanding of the role and importance of each type

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of density in geography. See the section on Mapping Geography assignments below for sample exercises using the interactive MapMaster application.

2.2 Population Concentrations Section 2.2 introduces students to the distribution of humans across the globe. It points out that people are unevenly distributed and are concentrated in portions of approximately one billion because of several factors, including elevation and climate. The chapter illustrates that people do not inhabit places that are too cold, too hot, too dry, too wet, or too high. The section also identifies the ecumene where there is no population and the four regions of the world that have large clusters of people: East Asia, South Asia, Southeast Asia, and Western Europe. A cartogram is used to display the population by size.

Display the cartogram (from the IRC that accompany this book) on the screen if you have technology such as a smartboard or projector in your classroom. You may also direct students to view the cartogram in their textbook, as well as the map in Figure 2.1.1, which shows population concentrations around the world. Try to engage students in a discussion about the possible reasons for this concentration. It is also important that students be able to distinguish populous regions from densely clustered regions. As a follow-up activity, your students can go to Mastering Geography to explore the MapMaster Interactive Maps for Sections 2.1 and 2.2. Here, you will find both short-answer and multiple-choice questions related to both sections. You may use this as a form of evaluation or reinforcement of students’ learning.

Discuss densely populated areas like the eastern United States, Brazil, and western Africa outside of the four clusters.

2.3: Population Change The third section of the chapter introduces students to a discussion of the factors that cause population to change. Specifically, it examines the three main measures of population growth: natural increase rate (NIR), crude birth rate (CBR), and crude death rate (CDR). In your lecture, highlight the rate of growth of population from the 1800s to the present by displaying Figure 2.3.1. It is a good idea to discuss with your students the relationship between population growth over time and improvements in agriculture and technology. Students should also be aware that the areas with the fastest-growing population are also among the poorest countries in the world. It is also imperative to comment on the prospect of doubling time, which is the number of years it takes a population to double. The significance of doubling time as an indicator of rapid population growth cannot be underscored. You may also segue into a discussion with your students of some problems and issues that rapidly growing populations can cause. You can assign students tasks that you design in Mastering Geography, to reinforce these concepts or see below for some suggestions.

2.4: The Demographic Transition Section 2.4 deals with the processes of change in a society’s population. Geographers use the demographic transition to represent this change in population over time. According to the text, the demographic transition comprises four stages, and each country falls in one stage or another. The author emphasizes that no country is presently at Stage 1 of the cycle, though throughout human history, most countries at some point fell into this stage. Stages 2 and 3 of the demographic transition comprise rapidly growing population, though there is some tapering off in the latter. The text describes Stage 4 of the demographic transition as having a decline in birth rate and a much larger decline in death rate. To familiarize your students with the concept of demographic transition, introduce Figure 2.4.1. Describe the characteristics of each stage with your students and ask them to predict where the United States would fit.

You should also discuss with students the possibility of a Stage 5 then asks students to name countries that might fit in this category. See the exercise in Discussion Topics and Classroom Activities below.

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2.5: Aging & Health According to Section 2.5, the demographic transition helps to identify the percentage of people in various age groupings and this aids in identification of healthcare challenges each country faces. This section is a comparative view of the young and aging population as it relates to health. The section highlights several indicators of health: infant mortality rate and life expectancy by comparing them regionally. Some countries have higher rates of infant mortality than others. There are larger numbers of older people, referred to as the “graying” of the population. Geographers use the potential support ratio to calculate the number of adults over 65 that require support. Life expectancy at birth, on the other hand, measures the average number of years an infant is expected to live. This section also discusses a geography tool: the population pyramid used to display population by age and gender.

Draw students into a discussion about these measurements by focusing their attention on the maps in Figures 2.6.1 and 2.6.2. Have them interpret the maps and name areas with the highest and lowest infant mortality and life expectancy rates in class. At the end of the lecture, student should be able to correlate these measurements with levels of economic development. From this point, you should have students speculate why these spatial differences exist. It is important to emphasize that the regions with the lowest life expectancy and highest infant mortality rates are often the poorest countries in Africa, Asia, and Latin America. To evaluate students’ learning and to reinforce these concepts, you can have students use MapMaster, which will allow students to play around with two layers on a map. Students can answer the questions in Mastering Geography. For this section, it is very important that students understand the role and importance of the population pyramid. See also the exercise in Discussion Topics and Classroom Activities below.

2.6: Gender & Health This section offers students the understanding that the distribution of gender varies in some parts of the world, some in significant ratios. The section also discusses maternal mortality as another issue that places the females at risk. Maternal mortality rate refers to “the annual number of female deaths per 100,000 live births from any cause related or aggravated by pregnancy.” The text compares rates among several countries and shows the distribution of these rates in Figure 2.6.3. This section discusses health risk females naturally face at childbirth and the “missing” female babies in China and India. The text explains the reason for these missing female babies and describes how this phenomenon affects the male– female ratio in these countries, compared to others around the world. The text attributes the reasons to cultural preferences for male children and government policy to restrict population in both India and China.

Discuss with your students the concept of gender selection in China and India and ask them to deduce the plausible causes of this phenomenon in these countries. You may also introduce the students to Chapter 10, Development.

2.7: Medical Services In continuation of the discussion in earlier section on health indicators, Section 2.7 compares healthcare services and notes that there are regional variations in how they provide health care and in the provision of medical facilities. Some regions of the world face more health challenges than others, and we can explain this by examining the relationship between health expenditure and wealth. The text notes that in most developed countries except in the United States, health care is a public service and available to most people at little or no charge. Developed countries, especially in Europe, spend more on health care than do developing countries but are now finding it more difficult to do in the face of declining economies. To teach this section, utilize the maps on healthcare expenditures and physicians per 10,000 populations to identify the countries that face challenges in health care. You may want to discuss with the students the reasons for the disparity.

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2.8: Epidemiologic Transition Section 2.8 examines the epidemiologic transition. Population changes because of sudden spikes and declines in population caused by death in each stage of the demographic transition. The epidemiologic transition, based on the demographic transition, is divided into four stages: the stage of pestilence and famine, the stage of receding pandemics, the stage of degenerative diseases, and the stage of delayed degenerative diseases. As in the demographic transition, in the epidemiologic transition, each stage consists of declining death rates, but we can explain this by changes in types of diseases ranging from epidemics to slow-acting degenerative diseases. The section also mentions Dr. John Snow and his use of overlaid maps (an early example of GIS) to show the distribution of cholera patients in London in the nineteenth century.

You can teach the epidemiologic transition by reviewing the demographic transition and then comparing what happens in each stage. Students should understand that there is some correlation between improvement in economic development and the epidemiologic transition. You may also have students complete an exercise in Mastering Geography to reinforce the topic. For further information on John Snow and cholera, you can show students the video “John Snow and Early GIS” or view it on their own in Study Area of Mastering Geography.

2.9: Population Futures The section mentions the possibility of a fifth stage in the demographic transition and would feature characteristics such as a very low CBR, increasing CDR, and a negative NIR. There is also a discussion of world population projections that vary widely due to vastly dissimilar total fertility rate. Total fertility rate is defined as the total number of children a woman will have throughout her childbearing years. The section gives a comparative view of the population futures of Japan, China, and India and notes the diverging population policy methods used in India and China. Particularly significant is the case of Japan, whose female population has chosen work over marriage and childbearing. This results in Japan being the first country likely to enter the proposed fifth stage of the demographic transition model. This section also mentions pronatalist and anti-natalist policies that some countries use to increase or decrease population, respectively.

Display the following statement taken from the textbook on page 52: “The United Nations estimates that world population will be as high as 11 billion in 2100.” Engage students in a discussion of this statistics.

Emphasize that developing countries will grow faster, while developed countries’ population growth will decline. Then discuss with students how various countries could deal with the issues of rapidly increasing population or declining growth. See Mastering Geography for additional videos.

2.10: Family Futures The text says that crude birth rate has been declining worldwide and names two strategies responsible for the reduction in birth rates: improving education and health care and contraceptive usages. According to the text, if communities improve their economic conditions, then they would have wealth to spend on education and health care, and this would lead to better educated women who would make better reproductive choices. The pie charts in this section compare methods of contraception used in three countries—Germany, China, and Nigeria. Students can draw conclusions about the extent to which these methods are successful in developed and developing countries. They can also speculate about why these methods fail in other regions of the world, such as sub-Saharan Africa.

2.11: Epidemiologic Futures Section 2.11 explains the possible emergence of a Stage 5 in the epidemiologic transition. According to the text, the cause is rooted in three explanations: poverty, evolution, and increased connections. COVID 19, as other infectious diseases spread through relocation diffusion. People traveling around the world, pass on COVID 19 to others. The maps tell the story of the distribution of COVID 19 cases worldwide.

Of note is the fact that COVID 19 is more prevalent in developed countries. Explanations for this vary.

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Please see textbook (pg. 56) for some of the explanations. However, the deadliest pandemic in recent times, much greater than COVID with the worst effect in sub-Saharan Africa. We can attribute the spread of this disease to expansion diffusion. Please see maps (2.4.11.1–2.11.4) for more information.

Remind students about the possibility of the addition of Stage 5 of the demographic transition, and discuss the likelihood of this occurring also with the epidemiologic transition. Segue into discussion about the reasons for a Stage 5. Spend more time on this section if you can. Use students’ experiences with COVID- 19. Talk with your student but please remember it might be a sensitive subject for some. Discuss with students the reasons for such a distribution. Students also should know the factors influencing the spread of HIV/AIDS. Have student speculate about the spread of HIV/AIDS throughout the United States by showing the maps in Figures 2.11.3 and 2.11.4 utilizing terminology learned in previous chapters.

Emphasize the role of rapid transportation in the spread of HIV/AIDS. Students can extend their own learning by completing exercises in Mastering Geography.

2.12: Population & Resources` Section 2.12 discusses the concept of overpopulation, defined as “a condition in which the number of people in an area exceeds the capacity of the environment to support life at a decent standard of living.” It continues the discussion of the possible reasons for a Stage 5 of the DTM and identifies poverty and the evolution of infectious diseases and genetic engineering and the unintended consequence of new strains of diseases. The section also examines Robert Malthus’s theory that population growth would one day exceed the food supply. It provides arguments in support of and against Malthus’s theory. To teach this concept, you can place your students in groups and instruct them to find arguments to support or oppose Malthus’s theory. Assign your students a paper or a response paper, which uses additional resources to reinforce their arguments, or write a critical response to the other peer-reviewed or magazine articles. See assignments in Mastering Geography or see Discussion Topics and Class Activities.

You may choose to measure your students’ learning by using a type of formative assessment, the test bank in Instructor Resource in Mastering Geography. You have the option of preparing a paper test or one that you can host in the platform your school uses.

Answers to Thinking Geographically 1. Scientists disagree about the effects of high density on human behavior. Some laboratory tests have shown that rats display evidence of increased aggressiveness, competition, and violence when very large numbers of them are placed in a box. Does living in very high-density places, such as Hong Kong, cause humans to behave especially aggressively or violently? Why or why not?

Answers will vary. Aggressiveness in humans will occur if there are not enough resources to meet their needs and not just in high-density places such as Hong Kong. History shows that when limited resource and a growing population confront humans there tends to choose flight instead of fight. There are places where density is low, and resources are equally low where people display some aggressive tendencies toward each other.

2. Compared with the previous generations, the boomers (born 1946–64) received more education, and women were more likely to work outside the home. Boomers married later (if at all) and were more likely to cohabit. They had fewer children and more children while unmarried. In what ways do you think the Gen Z generation (born after 1995) might display similar or different demographic characteristics than Boomers? Why? Answers will vary. Generation Z (1995 and after) will display distinctive characteristics from the baby boomers (1946–1965) but will have a few similarities. They will have even less children 16

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than the boomers, some opting to have no children at all. This is primarily because they will be far better educated than the boomers, and their education would have started earlier than most boomers. They, like the boomers, would marry later to avoid the mistakes of their parents, cohabitating before marriage. Furthermore, generation Z is by far the largest population globally, especially because better health care guarantees a higher CBR and lower CDR. 3. Healthcare indicators for the United States do not always match those of other developed countries. What reasons might explain these differences? Why might a need exist for a medical clinic in a sports arena, such as in Los Angeles?

Answers will vary. Students’ response should include the idea that private citizens are required to pay an average of 55 percent of their own healthcare costs. Individuals pay significantly higher for health care than their counterparts in other developed countries. In other developed countries, government absorbs most if not all the healthcare costs of its citizens. Therefore, healthcare indicators such as life expectancy are lower than those in developed countries. Even with the Affordable Care Act, millions of people in the USA are without Health insurance. Florida is one of the states that refused federal aid to extend Medicaid to people of low income. Thus, lowincome people access to health care is limited. Some organizations offer free health care some time using vans to those who cannot afford to pay for it.

4. Some geographers believe that the demographic transition now has a fifth stage in places such as Japan, but the leading international demographic organizations, such as the Population Reference Bureau (PRB) and the UN Population Fund are sticking with four stages. What sort of evidence might help to determine the existence of a possible Stage 5?

Answers will vary. Your response should include the idea that there are countries with demographic characteristics that do not fit any of the four stages of the DTM. These characteristics are developed countries with very low CBRs, increasing CDR, and a ZPG. Answers to Geospatial Analysis Obesity and Income Chapter 1 defined spatial association. Let’s investigate possible spatial association among demography and health features.

Add Gross National Income per capita. In the Legend, deselect all income classes below $20,000. Only $20,000–$49,999 and $50,000–$103,630 are to be displayed. Add the Adult Obesity Rate layer and select Join with data layer. In the Legend, deselect the two lowest classes for Gross National Income per capita.

1. Hover over the United States. What are the figures for income and obesity for the United States?

34 percent adult obesity rates and $56,070 per person (GNI per capita) 2. Is the obesity rate in the United States relatively high or low compared with other countries with relatively high incomes? What might account for this?

Obesity rates are lower in most countries with high income. Greater access to health care for every one people to be more aware of the causes and dangers of obesity.

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Answers to Explore Nagel-Gulab, Egypt Use Google Earth to explore Nagel-Gulab, a small town in Egypt along the banks of the Nile River.

Search for Nagel-Gulab, Egypt.

1. What color is most of the land immediately to the west of the town? Does this indicate that the land is used for agriculture or is it desert?

The land is brown and looks like desert.

2. How wide is the green strip? Why is the green strip closer to the river and the tan area further away?

The green strip is about 32 miles in some places. The Nile runs through Egypt, and people farm near the river because that’s where arable land can be found. People do not inhabit dry areas as seen in this satellite imagery.

Additional Discussion Topics and Classroom Activities Population Pyramid Exercise 1a. Discuss the distribution of world population. Emphasize that the densest populations are found mostly in Asia and in Europe. Another population cluster is in the eastern United States.

1b. Select two contrasting countries, Benin and Denmark, from the following website: www.census.gov/programs-surveys/international-programs.html Use the data for 2015 or 2016.

Have the students plot a population pyramid using graph paper and then answer the following questions: ➢ Compare the demographic characteristics of Benin and Denmark, using the population pyramids you created. ➢ Explain the relationship between the structure of the population and economic development for the two nations. How can this structure be both negative and positive for both nations? ➢ At what stage of the demographic transition would you place each nation? Explain.

2. Discuss population policies and issues in China, India, and Germany, and evaluate the success of methods used to solve them.

Suggested Mastering Geography Assignment 1. Sign on to Mastering Geography, and click on Chapter 2: Population & Health.

2. Choose Assignment from the drop-down box.

3. Select which assignment (you can choose all of them) you would like your students to complete for example, Thinking Spatially & Data Analysis: Demographic Transition, Population Indicators, and Population Pyramids.

4. In settings, assign the category of students’ coursework, whether practice, assignment, or quiz.

You may also set your assignments by the objectives in Mastering Geography. Direct student to

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the assignment. You may print the direction or send it electronically. In many schools, learning systems such as BlackBoard will have a portal to Mastering Geography.

5. On students’ completion, you may add their grade manually to your gradebook, or transfer to your gradebook.

Suggested Chapter 2 Videos in Mastering Geography Chapter 2 Videos in Mastering Geography 1. TVE: Kill or Cure?

2. TVE: The Real Leap Forward 3. BBC: China—White Horse Village Urbanization Additional Resources ➢ Dr. John Snow: http://www.ph.ucla.edu/epi/snow.html ➢ The World Factbook: https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-worldfactbook/rankorder/2102rank.html ➢ Population Pyramids and Demographic Data by Country: http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/idb/country.php ➢ Boom or Bust? The Economic Effects of the Baby Boom: http://research.stlouisfed.org/publications/review/94/09/Boom_Sep_Oct1994.pdf ➢ Census Bureau: http://www.census.gov ➢ World Health Organization: https://covid19.who.int/

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Chapter 3: Migration

CHAPTER

3

Migration Learning Objectives

By the end of this chapter, students should be able to: 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8

3.9 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13 3.14 3.15 3.16 3.17 3.18 3.19 3.20 3.21 3.22 3.23

Explain the Wilbur Zelinsky migration model.

Identify the basic types of migration based on distance and destination.

Describe the global pattern of migrant distribution.

Identify the three historical stages of U.S. migration.

Identify the principal sources of immigrants during each of the three historical stages of U.S. migration.

Describe the history of interregional migration in the United States.

Describe interregional migration in large countries such as Russia, Brazil, Canada, China, and Brazil.

Explain the differences between the three forms of intraregional migration (urbanization, suburbanization, and counterurbanization) as it relates to developed countries and developing countries.

Distinguish between push and pull factors of migration.

Discuss Ravenstein’s three reasons for migrating and the role of intervening obstacles.

Distinguish among the three categories of people forced to migrate for political reasons.

Provide examples of environmental and economic push and pull factors.

Evaluate the benefits of remittances to receiving countries.

Describe the age profile of immigrants to the United States.

Discuss the various factors that have affected the percentages of male and female migrants to the United States.

Describe global patterns in government policies that restrict immigration.

Describe the major changes that the United States has made to its immigration policies in the twentieth century.

Identify the types of immigrants who are given preference to enter the United States.

Explain the diversity of conditions along the U.S.–Mexico border.

Summarize data on the number and characteristics of unauthorized immigrants.

Summarize the history of guest worker programs in Europe in the 1960s and 1970s.

Identify the sources of recent European migrants.

Identify the factors that have led to the rise of anti-immigrant attitudes in Europe.

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Chapter Overview With the improvement in transportation technology, we live in a highly mobile time. People take less time to travel, and inaccessible places are more accessible to the common person; migration occurs from distant places with more frequency. Chapter 3 of the textbook examines migration across time and space, delving into the origin and distribution patterns of migration globally and specifically in the United States. The chapter also outlines the various phases of migration to the United States, with specific references to the countries of origin and nationality of migrants. Interspersed in the chapter are the use of Ravenstein’s laws of migration to describe the characteristics of migrants as well as the factors, both push and pull, that drive the movement of people. The chapter classifies migration into international and internal migration and highlights interregional and intraregional migration in the United States and other large countries. Many international migrants face obstacles in their destination countries. The chapter identifies immigration policies and attitudes as obstacles migrants face in their sojourn in their host countries.

3.1: Migration Principles Chapter 3 begins with the question of where migrants are distributed by clarifying such concepts as migration, immigration, and emigration. According to the text, migration is defined as a permanent move to a new location. The text recognizes the absence of a comprehensive theory in migration studies in geography. The principles from Wilbur Zelinsky’s migration transition and Ravenstein’s laws of migration, though, have become the cornerstone of contemporary geography. Comparable to the DTM, Zelinsky migration transition outlines the phases of migration is followed with a discussion of Ravenstein’s law concerning distance of migration, characteristics of migrants, and reasons for migration.

To introduce students to the topic of migration, begin with a discussion of where your students came from to attend college. Briefly discuss the theoretical framework of migration and the role of Ravenstein’s laws. Students should know about international (forced and voluntary) and internal migration (Inter and Intra regional). If you have students who are geography majors assign further research on Zelinsky and Ravenstein (see Additional Resources for further reading.) Use the map in Figures 3.1.4 and 3.1.5 to draw students’ attention to migration and movements patterns in Mexico and across the globe. Have your students speculate about the reasons for these patterns. Encourage students to use the Study Area in Mastering Geography. There are several useful videos that students can watch there that can enhance their learning.

3.2: Global Migration Distribution Section 3.2 begins by explaining the terms emigration and immigration and net migration. The text uses pie charts to show the global origin and destination of international migrants. It also traces the changing origin and composition of U.S. immigrants at the time of independence to the present. Early migrants came to the United States in three phases: (1) The first phase saw the migration of people from the United Kingdom and the forced migration of enslaved Africans. The slave trade officially ended in 1808 but the importation of enslaved Africans continued in the United States for much longer. (2) According to the graph, people later came from Western, Eastern, and Southern Europe during the mid-nineteenth century to the early-twentieth century. (3) From the late-twentieth century to the early-twenty-first century, the text shows a change in the origins of migrants from Europe to Asia and Latin America. Introduce students to the graph in Figure 3.2.4.

Students should be able to identify the major phases or peaks of migration in the United States.

Instructors can use MapMaster interactive to enhance their lectures. They can go to the Study Area in Mastering Geography to use MapMaster interactive, select North America then population. Navigate the area to show the distribution of migrant groups within the United States. For additional information, students may also visit the Web Links Page—Migrations in History for additional information about the groups that came to the United States.

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3.3: Interregional Migration Section 3.3 addresses interregional migration in the United States and other large countries and identifies rural to urban migration as a primary type of movement. Interregional migration is defined as movement from one region of a country to another. The map in Figure 3.3.3 shows how the population center of the United States shifted over time from a concentration on the Atlantic coast to the current center in St. Louis, Missouri. The same pattern is true for Canada. The maps in this section are valuable resources, and you should use them to guide your discussion of interregional migration. Survey your students to find out if they came from other regions of the United States. Relate this to interregional migration as a part of your discussion. You could use one of the outline maps in the Study Area of Mastering Geography and ask some students to identify their movement across country. Use your IRC slides to show maps of interregional migration across the United States and other large countries.

3.4: Intraregional Migration Section 3.4 continues the discussion of where migrants are distributed and identifies intraregional migration as one within a region. Intraregional migration includes three separate types of movement: rural to urban, urban to suburban, and urban to rural migration. The text contends that most intraregional migration occurs from rural to urban areas, but in recent times and especially in developed countries, the most common movement (suburbanization) has been from urban to suburban areas. One factor that might have facilitated an increase in this movement is the improvement in transportation technology. Of note is the fact that intraregional migration is declining, and one reason is that people no longer need to migrate for work.

Students should understand that migration occurs for economic reasons in many developing countries.

Urban-to-rural migration is a new migration trend, especially in developed countries. To introduce your student intraregional migration, discuss with them the numbers of people who live in urban spaces across the world especially in the United States and Europe. Identify and distinguish among the types of intraregional migration and stress the reason why each occur. Students should give examples of intraregional movements within their experience. Point students’ attention to the map in Figure 3.4.5.

Have students identify on the map places with high in-migration and high out-migration. The IRC is an effective way to teach this topic, but you should as a part of your lecture, evaluate students learning perhaps by taking a question from Mastering Geography aligned to the objectives 3.6–3.8. See sample In Lecture questions below.

3.5 Reasons for Migrating This unit describes the characteristics of migrants by age and gender. Based on Ravenstein Laws, most migrants are young male adults at the time the research was done but today many migrants especially from Central America are teenagers male. Current migrants are women with a rising numbers of unaccompanied minors. Contemporary migrants are mostly women and children, and women account for more than half of total migrants to places like the United States. The book also notes that one of the motives for migration environmental (a push factor) cause people to move away from their present location. Environment can also impel or attract people to migrate. Water, whether too much of it or too little is often a factor in movement of people. People who live on floodplains are especially at risk as well as those who live in very dry area such as the Sahel and thus, are more likely to move. Rising sea level is now causing entire island to migrate in fear of flooding.

3.6: Economic Reasons for Migrating According to Ravenstein, most migrants move for economic reason. 3.6 says that the most common reason people migrate is to find employment. According to the text, United States and Canada are the most prominent destinations for people who are migrating to find work. However, places such as Ireland is both a destination or a source for migrant as the country’s fortunes wax and wane. Like Ireland, East Asia and Southwest Asia are both source and destination for many workers seeking employment. The text 22

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notes the relationship between those migrating for work and remittance. Remittance is defined as “the transfer of money by workers to people in the country from which they emigrated.” Remittance as become one of the leading income providers, and India is now the largest recipient. Several countries GDPs consist of mostly remittance.

3.7: Political Reasons for Migrating The text explains that people may be forced to migrate because of political reason and identifies reasons for a push factor such as political conflicts. The Trail of Tears, a forced migration of Native Americans through the Indian Removal Act of 1830 is an example discussed in the text. This module identifies and defines terms used to describe political push or pull factors, such as refugees, internally displaced persons, and an asylum seeker. To begin your instruction for Section 3.5 through Section 3.7 talk about the push/pull factors that cause people to move. You may want to have student say why they or their family member left an area or another country. Emphasize environmental or political factors that can become an intervening obstacle to migration. MapMaster 2.0 (Study Area of Mastering Geography) showing refugee movements or assign it as homework reinforce push and pull factors in migration, and remind students that, according to Ravenstein, most people move for economic reasons. Students can view the Mastering Geography video “Cash Flow Fever on their own, the video is an about 55 minutes long and focus on remittance in Central America. The video is found in the Students Study Area. Some geography educators advocate for students becoming active learners in your college classroom. Your students can become active learners by mapping this information within a class setting or creating a bar charts that reflects these factors. They can see it as an in-class activity or on their own, and you could assign a summary reaction paper not more than two pages. See Discussion Topics and Classroom Activities below.

3.8: Government Migration Policies Section 3.8 explores immigration laws and their selective natures in countries like the United States. The policies are influenced by four factors including public opinion, the United Nations classify receiving countries into four categories based on their willingness to accept immigrant but notes that many countries’ immigration policies often lead to a brain drain “a large-scale emigration by talent like doctors and researchers.” In some regions like Asia, brain drain causes chain migration.

This module, Section 3.8, describes the challenges faced by European immigrants due to changing attitudes and concerns across the continent. Migrants from countries that are member countries in the European Union, the borders are open and there is free movement of migrants without passports.

Immigrants are a desired addition to the labor force in some country, doing low-paying, low-status jobs.

In the early 1960s and 1970s, European countries used guest workers or temporary migrants to fill the employment gaps but many stayed on instead of returning home: immigrant workers that previously satisfied the demand for inexpensive labor as guest workers for European countries in Stages 4 and 5 of the DTM. Guest Workers are part of circular migration (movement of workers between the home country and the host country to find work). Some countries in Europe face the additional challenge from people of other continents attempting to enter illegally.

In your discussion, compare the attitudes toward migrants in the United States and in the Europe. Link the stages of Europe on the DTM with the need for migrants. It is important that you discuss where migrants originate and the effect of their origin on attitude toward them. Students should understand that a rising number of immigrants are refugees from Syria and that their arrival has exacerbated anti-immigrant attitudes.

3.9: U.S. Immigration Policies Section 3.9 describes immigration laws its selective natures in the United States the Immigration and Nationality Act allows a limited number of permanent visas per year, with no limit on family reunification and helps to determine how many refugees will be resettled in the country. A quota system gives preferences to a certain migrant, including skilled and talented workers, reunified family members, 23

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and spouses. The other part of the module describes the characteristics of unauthorized immigrants in the United States. Many immigrants enter the United States without proper documentation and are called unauthorized (or undocumented) immigrants. They arrive in the USA to find jobs. The texts explain that unauthorized immigrants numbered approximately 11.3 million in 2018 and are predominantly from Mexico (5.9 million) with children accounting for over 1 million of those immigrants. They form a substantial proportion of the unskilled portion of workforce despite their illegal status, and most settle in the border states of California and Texas, with significant numbers in Nevada. The other migrants originated from other Latin American countries (24 percent) and the rest from other countries.

Your students, regardless of where they hail, have all been exposed to acrimonious rhetoric about unauthorized immigration to the United States. Avoid that debate in your classroom lecture. However, as an alternative, structure a discussion board assignment where students have less of an opportunity to become contentious and more of a chance to have a respectful yet contemplative exchange of meaningful ideas and opinions. Your discussion then should feature the landscape difference among border crossings between Mexico and the United States and stress declining numbers and the characteristics of unauthorized immigrants. Use Explore Google Earth assignment in Research analyze and Apply- Mexico other border as an active learner assignment. Students can use their own device in class.

3.10: U.S.–Mexico Border The final module of this chapter is virtually a continuation of the one above but focuses on the border itself. A special joint commission is responsible for maintaining the border, through the years, various laws in the USA created miles of border fencing. The issue of USA–Mexico border divided the country along such lines as border security and unauthorized immigrations. A map (3.10.2–3.10.6) shows several border crossings some in rural areas in hostile territories. See map on page 83.

You might want to think about using modules 3.9 and 3.10 as a Socratic seminar/discussion board assignment or have students use MapMaster 2.0 to create their own maps that show countries of origins for unauthorized immigrants in countries such as the United States, France, United Kingdom, and China.

(See Mastering Geography.) You may also want to assess students’ learning by creating a BlackBoardready multiple-choice or essay exam on the entire section. For a longer, more encompassing exam, combine Chapters 1–3.

Answers to Thinking Geographically 1. What might be the impact of emigration on the country from which migrants departed?

Emigration from a country is consequential. Sending countries can benefit from remittance, which for some countries, become a part of GDP. Countries also benefit from their Diaspora sending back new technologies, new political ideas, and so on. In this way, migration becomes a vehicle for development. Conversely, emigration leads to brain drain, a migration of the talent, researchers, teachers, doctors, and other highly skilled labor who are often the recipient of government spending on education and training.

2. Has your community experienced net in migration or net out migration in recent years? what factors might explain your community’s net migration?

Answers may vary. Some responses include employment availability, high or low standard of living, students leaving for college not returning, and so on.

3. At some point in the future, do you expect to migrate? If so, do you expect to undertake international, interregional, or intraregional migration? Why

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Chapter 3: Migration

Answers will vary. Students may choose to return home. Prohibitive cost of living on their own.

Job availability in other regions.

4. The number of unauthorized immigrants from Mexico to the United States has been declining since 2007. Given the push and pull factors underlying people’s reasons for migrating, what might account for this decline?

Answer should include decline in jobs in the United States due to recent recessions, stringent immigration policy changes in the United States. Better living conditions in Mexico.

Answers to Geospatial Analysis Questions Europe’s Immigrants and Emigrants 1. Europe can be divided between east and west. Which of the two has net out-migration, and which has net in-migration?

Western Europe has net in-migration while Eastern Europe has net outmigration.

2. Which half of Europe has higher gross national income per capita?

Western Europe 3. In what way do you think the patterns on the two maps are associated with each other?

The pull factor in Western Europe, better jobs, and better standard of living. Push factors—poor economic condition, few jobs.

Answers to Explore Mexico’s Other Border 1. Use Street View for a ground-level view of the border crossing. Which if any of Mexico’s border crossings with the United States in Figure 3.9 does the Talisman one resemble? Why? U.S.–Mexico border at Columbus and Puerto Palomas. Few people moving through both border crossing and remoteness of border crossing.

2. Click the X in the upper left to return to aerial view. Zoom out to around 3 km.

3. What is the country bordering Mexico? The border mostly follows a river. What is the river's name?

Guatemala, Suchiate River 4. Follow the river to the south. Do you see any other official border crossings? Does the border look easy to cross or difficult? Why? Aduana Tecun Uman crossing—easy to cross. Looks hardly manned.

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Discussion Topics and Classroom Activities 1. Students could interview an internal or international immigrant about the push/pull factors that influenced his or her migratory decision. Students should write up their interview findings as an essay and include the following: •

The type of migration: forced or voluntary, permanent, or temporary, internal, or external.

•

An evaluation of the extent to which migration follows Ravenstein’s laws of migration. The documentary “Cash Flow Fever” explores the power of the remittance as a development tool.

Rural El Salvador has developed a culture of migration, and an increasing number of young people expect to migrate to the United States. For countries like El Salvador, the remittance has become a development tool replacing foreign direct investment as the number-one form of foreign aid. Countries like Jamaica and the Philippines manage migration using their diaspora to stimulate economic development. This is called diaspora-driven development, and it refers to the variety of policies and programs governments systematically utilize to encourage expatriate populations, either permanent or temporary, to contribute to the economic development of their home country.

View the documentary “Cash Flow Fever.” While you view the film, answer the following questions: a. Assess the benefits and drawbacks of remittances for the sending countries. b. Discuss the push and pull factors in the migration of Salvadorans to the United States. c. Discuss the efforts of governments and international organizations to improve the way remittances are used as a tool for economic development in El Salvador. d. Identify and describe some of the problems undocumented migrant workers face when coming to the United States from El Salvador. e. How is the study of remittances “geographic?”

Summarize the film. Using the summary and your answers to the questions as your guide, develop an argument for the inclusion of diaspora-driven development in a state’s economic development strategy.

Additional Resources •

How the United States Immigration System Works: A Fact Sheet: http://www.immigrationpolicy.org/just-facts/how-united-states-immigration-system-works-factsheet

•

Immigration Act of 1990: https://immigration.laws.com/immigration-act-of-1990 Legal Immigration to the United States: http://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/legal-immigrationunited-states

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UK Public Opinion toward Immigration: Overall Attitudes and Level of Concern: http://www.migrationobservatory.ox.ac.uk/briefings/uk-public-opinion-toward-immigrationoverall-attitudes-and-level-concern

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Ravenstein’s laws of migration: http://www.csiss.org/classics/content/90

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Major U.S. Immigration Laws, 1790–Present: https://www.migrationpolicy.org/research/timeline-1790

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Migrations in History: http://smithsonianeducation.org/migrations/start.html

•

Workers’ Remittances, Remittance Decay, and Financial Deepening in Developing Countries: http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5008547806 26

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Chapter 4: Culture & Social Media

CHAPTER

4

Culture & Social Media Learning Objectives

By the end of this chapter, students should be able to: 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13 4.14 4.15 4.16 4.17 4.18 4.19 4.20

Define and identify culture, folk culture, popular culture, habit, and custom.

Compare and contrast the origin, diffusion, and distribution of folk and popular culture.

Compare and contrast folk music and popular music in terms of origin, diffusion, and distribution.

Describe how soccer became a good example of popular culture despite originating as folk culture.

Identify examples of sports that are preferred by specific cultural groups.

Compare and contrast clothing preferences in folk and popular culture.

Explain what causes certain clothing styles to become widely adopted.

Explain the relationship between food taboos and preferences and the environment.

Describe the impact of cultural traditions on food preferences.

Describe the French concept of “terroir,” and explain how it influences wine production and distribution.

Illustrate the key difference between how folk and popular culture vary using housing styles as an example.

Identify and describe the three hearths of folk housing in the eastern United States, and describe how they differ in style and distribution.

Explain how access to media, including television and the Internet, influence folk and popular culture.

Compare and contrast the diffusion of the television and the Internet.

Discuss the origin, diffusion, and distribution of social media such as Facebook, smartphones, Twitter, and Instagram.

Describe how various groups have attempted to restrict media access and Internet use.

Discuss the challenges faced by folk culture using two case studies: the Amish and dowry in India.

Hypothesize as to why popular culture may threaten folk culture more so than vice versa.

Discuss, citing examples, how popular culture spreads uniformity as well as diversity across the cultural landscape.

Explain how popular leisure activities such as golf alter the physical landscape.

Chapter Overview Chapter 4 focuses on material culture and takes a comparative look at the two components of material culture: folk and popular culture. It begins by comparing the main characteristics of folk and popular culture. The chapter also compares folk and popular music, and this comparison flows throughout, regarding other elements of culture, such as housing styles, clothing, food preferences, and taboos.

Discuss the distribution of folk and popular culture, and identify their influence the landscape and traces, comparatively, the diffusion of television and Internet. Discussed here also, is how social media such as Facebook, Twitter, and other media are distributed globally, and observes that unequal access to the Internet and social media exists. The last two sections of the chapter examine the challenges to sustainability for folk culture, and how popular culture modify the physical environment and creates homogenous cultural landscape.

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Note to the Instructor: Review the concept of spatial diffusion with your class before you begin to teach this chapter. Students should understand the processes that drive the spread of cultural traits such as music, clothing, food preference, and housing.

4.1: Material Culture & Geography Section 4.1 compares the geographic differences between folk and popular culture. This section begins with a definition of culture as “the body of material traits, customary beliefs, and social forms that together constitute the distinct tradition of a group of people.” This section focuses particularly on the origin, distribution, and diffusion of popular and folk cultures, noting that folk cultures are usually found in small homogeneous groupings in rural settings. On the other hand, we find popular culture in large, diverse societies. The origin of folk culture is usually unknown and becomes isolated and distinctive due to lack of communication with outside areas. Conversely, we can trace the origin of popular culture to a person or corporation. Popular culture tends to spread rapidly globally because of new communication technology. In addition, the author uses the spread of houses in the United States to demonstrate the differences between the diffusion of folk (relocation) and popular (expansion) culture diffusion.

The PowerPoints that go with this textbook are excellent tools for teaching this chapter. It is important that students can define culture, distinguish between habits and customs. Have them define culture in their own words and transition into a discussion of the social customs—discussed further in chapters following. Students’ experiences count. Have them offer examples from their own experiences to engender discussion in your classroom, if your classes are small. Your PowerPoint becomes a crucial tool in your lecture especially in large groups. Use the photos included in the text to emphasize a concept. To supplement students learning use the videos in the study area of Mastering Geography. Use Learning Catalytics in Mastering Geography to assess students’ learning during your lecture and assign homework or quizzes based on learning outcomes in Mastering Geography. This is something you can do for all the sections in this book.

4.2: Popular & Folk Food Customs Section 4.2 describes the regional variations that exist in folk and popular food preferences.

Environmental factors are responsible for the distribution of food preferences while popular cultural traits influence the distribution of popular foods.

According to the text, cultures often impose restrictions on popular food preferences, behaviors, or practices, including certain foods, and these restrictions are called taboos. The text notes that many cultures eat certain foods for their perceived natural properties. Conversely, other cultures practice avoidance of some foods, and this refrainment is often due to environmental factors. Unlike with folk culture, popular food preferences are influenced by cultural factors rather than environment. However, some regional variation persists within popular food preferences. The text uses the preferences for CocaCola and Pepsi to explain this point. The author uses barbeque sauce to distinguish between folk and popular food custom, and 4.2.6 show these regional differences.

For your discussion about folk food preferences, find out what food preferences, if any, their families have, and discuss the factors that determine these preferences. Guide your students to an understanding of food taboos, while emphasizing the role of environment in folk food preferences. The maps in the section are excellent tools for reinforcing the idea of popular food preferences and the factors that influence its distribution.

4.3: Distribution of Electronic Communication Section 4.3 explains how the cell phone as a media diffused globally with the largest market shares in the United States. Noteworthy is the mention that ownership of smartphones is up to 90 percent in the United States while ownership in Africa increased. The module also includes the distribution of social media

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platforms like Facebook, Twitter etc., their userships, as well as the regional difference in the use of some of these platforms. The rest of the section traces the diffusion of social media (Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram. They say, “a picture is worth a thousand words”: use them in your discussion. The maps and charts convey a lot of information that can spark any discussion. (Figures 4.3.1–4.3.8) 4.4: Diffusion of Clothing This section compares reasons for distribution of clothing styles in folk and popular culture. Environment largely determines clothing choices. In folk culture, agricultural practices, climatic, and cultural factors, such as religious beliefs decide clothing choices. The section mentions how some folk clothing choices such as the poncho from South America, the dashiki of the Yoruba people of Nigeria, and the Aleut parka became popular clothing styles. According to the text, folk clothing can become items of controversy in places where popular clothing persists and vice versa. Conversely, popular clothing preferences are distributed “across the landscape with little regard for distinctive physical features” and are more likely to be determined by occupation or income. Popular clothing diffuses rapidly partly because of swiftly evolving and competitive designs and because of improved communications.

To engage students in a discussion of folk and popular clothing styles, introduce them to the photos in Figures 4.4.1a–b and 4.4.2. Ask students to deduce what environmental or cultural factors may have caused the people in the photographs to dress in that manner. This will help you to guide them to the understanding that environmental factors such as climate and cultural factors such as religion determine the mode of dress in many folk cultures. Students should also understand that diffusion could transform folk dress preferences to popular culture. Use the examples in the textbook or ask students to suggest examples. Emphasize the reasons for the distribution of both clothing preferences. Ensure that your students recognize that the distribution of Western clothing outlets has in some ways affected folk clothing and that this too, leads to conflict.

See Mastering Geography for additional reading and practice quiz. You can use all short videos in Mastering Geography for assignments. See the Item Library where you can search by objectives or sections in Mastering Geography.

4.5: Diffusion of Music Section 4.2 explains the differences in the origin, diffusion, and distribution of folk and popular music.

According to the text, the origin of folk music is usually unknown, but it is transmitted orally over time. It is often related to an event, tells a story, or passes down information. Conversely, popular music is often written to be sold, and its origin is usually well known. Some music genres have become more popular, aided by new technologies and new methods of diffusion such as streaming. In addition, popular music also cluster in areas where there is other creative talent. Popular music might also have regional variation.

Your students’ attention on the folk song found in their textbook on page 96. You can add it to your Pearson-created PowerPoints. Use the folk song to show how they usually tell a story or a work song to emphasize an environmental feature such as climate or agriculture. Most students are familiar with various genres of music. Ask students about the origin and diffusion of hip-hop or country music so that they can compare how folk and popular music spread from its origin. Go on to discuss the spread of other popular music genres around the world. Students should understand that sometimes folk music can become popular music.

4.6: Diffusion of Sports Most sports that we now consider as part of popular culture had their beginnings in folk culture.

Section 4.63 traces the transformation of sports from folk to popular culture. The section begins with the author tracing the transformation of soccer from a folk custom in England in the eleventh century to a global popular sport. The sport diffused through migration and colonization from England to other parts of the world. Soccer became part of popular culture when it was first played as an organized sport in the late 1800s, and people started paying to see it. A brief paragraph on the Olympics describes the sports 29

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included and the criteria for inclusion. It also shows how other folk sports followed much the same patterns in their evolution to popular sport. These sports include cricket, baseball, and American football, Wushu a type of martial arts and lacrosse. The book also introduced esports as a popular such as video games made popular by YouTube and other streaming platforms such as Twitch.

Your lecture should include the story of the origin of soccer. Students should recognize that many sports that began as folk culture became part of popular culture. For example, soccer a folk sport, began in England in the eleventh century then diffused globally. Students should also know about the mechanisms that drove the diffusion of these sports. Your discussion should also touch on why some sports develop in some areas and not others, noting the role of climate, imperialism, and migration in the origin and spread of popular sports. Have your students suggest other examples of sports that began as folk culture or those that would still be considered folk culture. Many of your students are gamers who will certainly appreciate a brief discussion of popular esports. The origin and diffusion of such a sport may be compared with Olympic sports.

4.10: Maintaining Unique Folk Culture Landscapes Folk and popular cultures both experience challenges that threaten their sustainability in some ways. This section discusses these challenges. According to the text, a folk culture’s increased connection with popular culture makes it difficult to maintain its own traditions. Folk housing depends on the building materials found in the surrounding environment as well as sunlight or climate the sustainability of folk culture is threatened by increasing exposure to popular culture, and these include marriage and dowries in India. In India, rapidly diffusing popular cultural values and social customs resulted in “unintended negative consequences” where there has been an increase in the demand for dowries. This increase in demand comes from the groom and family who demand large sums of cash or popular goods from the bride. Brides according to the text are sometimes ignored if their family failed to pay a dowry.

The concept of terroir, the notion that a location’s distinctive physical features such as soil, climate, and other local environmental factors contribute to the way food taste. The example given in the text is that of a type of olive grown only around the village of Kalamata, Greece (Figure 4.10.3). In order to ensure its sustainability, the EU granted that area “protected designation of origin” status, the concept terroir, also impact the production of wine. Wines’ distinct flavor is influenced by the soil, climate (Mediterranean) the direction of a slope toward sunlight.

Engage students in a discussion of the challenges faced by folk culture and the efforts made to maintain sustainability. The instructor can have students hypothesize as to why popular culture may threaten folk culture. Essential in your discussion is how popular culture has led to protests of long-standing cultural traditions that degrade and/or devalue women. Students can conduct further research specific folk cultures or come up with other threatened folk culture. See also Crowley, William K. “Old Order Amish Settlement: Diffusion and Growth. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 68 (1978): 249– 65 in the Student Study area in Mastering Geography.

4:11: Uniform Landscapes of Popular Culture Section 4.11 identifies examples of sustainability challenges for popular culture. Popular culture faces challenges that derive from unsustainable practices and experiences and acknowledges that popular culture can significantly alter or control the environment and thus promotes uniformity in landscape.

According to the author, travel is “refashioning” the landscape in popular culture. The hospitality industry, important in developing countries, poses a challenge to folk cultural practices but must balance the demand from tourists. The text adds that sometimes over tourism can occur and cite such examples as Venice.

Sometimes it may be difficult to distinguish between a built environment such as a golf course with its natural equivalent and is the result of deliberate modifications of the landscape by people in pursuit of popular leisure activities. In other instances of modification of a folk cultural landscape is Dubai where 30

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they produced an indoor ski slope. This is known as cultural homogenization (the process of reduction in cultural diversity across space).

You can emphasize what you mean by uniform landscapes with the photograph in Figures 4.11.1 and 4.11.2. The slides—IRC—with other photos of unsustainable cultural landscapes should be enough. You can also use Explore—Ski Dubai as an assignment (see end of chapter).

To assess students’ learning in this chapter, you may choose to test separately or test with Chapters 5 and 6. Draw your questions from the test bank where you can post immediately to Blackboard for an online exam or create a word exam from the instructors’ section of Mastering Geography. Continuously assess students’ learning during lecture by means of the Learning Catalytics in Mastering Geography. See below for suggested assignments or use the assignments in the textbook or in the Item Library in Mastering Geography. In the Item Library, questions are available by learning objectives. Use the learning objectives provided at the front of this chapter for a more focused planning. See GeoSpatial Analysis at the end of Chapter 4 for assignments using MapMaster 2.0 or use the MapMaster Interactive maps to create thematic maps with one or more themes. You can use these maps in your lectures or assign as homework.

Answers to Thinking Geographically 1. Google Maps has extensive street view coverage in the developed regions of North America and Europe but remains spotty in the developing regions of Africa and Asia. What factors might account for these differences in coverage?

Answers will vary. Students’ responses should include the facts that some areas in Asia and Africa are not properly charted if at all because of preferences. Need to preserve their folk culture.

Street addresses in those areas are absent that make it impossible to map using contemporary methods. Areas might be inaccessible to vehicles used by google to map areas.

2. Coke and Pepsi predominate in different countries. What factors might contribute to this variation?

Answers will vary but should include some regions have preference of one drink over the other.

3. Social media platforms and electronic devices have settings and apps that offer varying degrees of privacy from unwanted material and collection of personal information. Do you use privacy settings on any of your devices or apps? Why or why not?

Answers will vary. Most people, adults in particular, apps choose to adopt privacy setting to prevent individuals or organizations from mining their information for nefarious reasons, To prevent malwares or ransomwares from attaching themselves to your computer or software.

4. Some young people volunteer to work in another country as a way to interact with people of other cultures. Is this form of cultural convergence more sustainable than other forms of international tourism? Why or why not?

Other types of cultural convergences might be less sustainable. Tourist visiting places like this might cause folk cultures to be endangered by building of hotels, ports, etc. These local areas might find it difficult to balance the protection of their culture versus the needs of their society.

Some popular cultural sites can suffer from over tourism, and this also is not sustainable.

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Answers to Geospatial Analysis Connectivity in Sub-Saharan Africa Sub-Saharan Africa has relatively poor mobile phone coverage and relatively low Internet usage. But there are exceptions.

Add the Internet Users layer. Select the Settings icon from the Legend, and select Show Political Labels.

Add the Cellular Phones layer, and select Split Map Window. Zoom to Sub-Saharan Africa.

1. What are the only four countries in sub-Saharan Africa that have at least 400 Internet users per 1,000 population?

Mali, Nigeria, South Africa, and Madagascar 2. How many of the four countries with relatively high Internet users have relatively extensive cellular phone subscriptions (at least 800 subscriptions per 1,000 inhabitants)?

South Africa and Mali 3. How might people stay connected in the countries with high Internet usage but low cellular phone subscriptions?

Email, Skype, Facebook, and Twitter 4. How might people stay connected in the countries with high cellular phone subscriptions but low Internet usage?

Phone calls, Facetime, Instagram, and Twitter Answers to Explore Ski Dubai Pictures of skiing in the desert are on page 109. Let’s see what else is in the vicinity of the desert ski resort.

Search for Ski Dubai.

1. What is housed in the structure immediately adjacent to Ski Dubai?

Mall of the Emirates, Dubai Community Théâtre, and Arts Center 2. What places to eat are located in the Ski Dubai structure? Why might these restaurants wish to locate here?

Fast-food restaurants such as KFC, McDonald’s, Burger King, Shake Shack, I Hop, London Fish, and Chips. Restaurants such as McDonald’s are familiar sights to the American tourist. Caters to tourists who crave the American experience culture.

3. Use Street View to enter inside Ski Dubai. Check out the skiing. How challenging does the course appear?

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The courses are not as challenging as some in the United States especially since this is a built structure and not a part of the physical environment. It modifies or remakes the area.

4. How are the women dressed, and what are they doing in Ski Dubai? How might this differ from a ski area in the United States?

The women seem to be looking after children on the slopes rather than skiing themselves. Foreign women were skiing. Women are dressed like regular skiers, but some were wearing hijabs as head coverings.

Discussion Topics and Classroom Activities 1. Assign students comparative research on types of folk and popular music. Part of this research should include the origin, spread, and distribution of each type of music. Students should include a map with their discussion.

2. Place your students in several groups, and provide them with additional resources regarding folk and popular music types, housing types, sports, and food and clothing preferences. Each group should compare and contrast each of the named cultural elements for folk and popular culture.

They can make their presentation in another class session.

3. Have students discuss the influence of the television and the Internet, particularly Facebook, on the creation of cultural landscapes.

4. Have students summarize the article about McDonald’s listed in Additional Resources and then write a reaction to the article. They should also evaluate the extent to which the article is a good example of the effect of franchises such as McDonald’s on culture and geographic space.

5. Discuss the differences in characteristics between folk and popular culture. You can also use the test generator to create multiple-choice or essay examinations to assess your students’ learning.

The test generator is Blackboard friendly. You may also prepare tests from the Instructor Resource section in Mastering Geography or pearsonhighered.com/irc. Students can also review questions at Mastering Geography.

Additional Resources •

Internet World Stats: www.internetworldstats.com

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OpenNet Initiative: opennet.net

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Cyber Geography Research: www.cybergeography.org

•

McDonald’s Abroad: Outposts of American Culture: http://www.geo.hunter.cuny.edu/courses/geog347/articles/mcdonalds_culture.pdf

• •

A Brief Introduction to Hasidism: http://www.pbs.org/alifeapart/intro.html Freedom House, Manipulating Social Media to Undermine Democracy: Freedom on the Net 2017: https://freedomhouse.org/sites/default/files/FOTN_2017_Final.pdf

•

The Making of Jamaican Music 1959–1973: http://www.niceup.com/history/ja_music_59-73.html

•

The Calcio Storico, the most brutal sport on earth—in pictures: https://www.theguardian.com/football/gallery/2015/jun/27/the-calcio-storico-the-most-brutalsport-on-earth-in-pictures 33

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Chapter 5: Languages

CHAPTER

5

Languages Learning Objectives

By the end of this chapter, students should be able to: 5.1

Summarize the distribution of writing systems in Europe and nearby parts of North Africa and the Middle East.

5.2 Differentiate among language families, branches, and groups.

5.3 Categorize major languages using the language family tree’s branches and groups.

5.4 On the language family tree, locate the largest language families, and explain their geographic distribution.

5.5 Identify on the language tree the two language families with the most speakers worldwide.

5.6 Identify the eight branches of the Indo-European language family on the language family tree.

5.7 Describe the geographic distribution of the four largest branches of the Indo-European language family on the language family tree.

5.8 Summarize the diffusion and present distribution of Austronesian languages.

5.9 Describe the origin and diffusion of English.

5.10 Compare and contrast the “Nomadic Warrior” theory and “Sedentary Farmer” theory of the origin and diffusion of Indo-European Languages.

5.11 Define lingua franca and pidgin language.

5.12 Discuss the role of English as a lingua franca on the Internet.

5.13 Identify reasons for the global distribution of English and the possible emergence of China as a new lingua franca.

5.14 Identify and define the terms “dialect” and “isogloss.”

5.15 Illustrate, citing examples, the differences between British and American English.

5.16 Explain why there are regional differences in the English dialects in the United States and the United Kingdom.

5.17 Explain, citing examples from the Romance branch, how a dialect can become a language.

5.18 Explain the term “official language,” and hypothesize as to why a country might adopt an official or a standardized dialect.

5.19 Discuss African American English as a dialect; how English has been combined with other languages; and creolized languages.

5.20 Discuss the concept of a multilingual state, and provide examples from the chapter.

5.21 Compare and contrast how various multilingual states deal with the problems created by multiple languages.

5.22 Describe how language diversity may produce challenges for a country, citing examples.

5.23 Define and give examples of extinct languages.

5.24 Define endangered languages, and list the United Nations’ levels of endangerment.

5.25 Explain the concept of an isolated language, and provide examples.

5.26 Explain how and why languages are revived, citing examples.

5.27 Identify ways of preserving endangered languages, citing examples.

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Chapter Overview There are approximately 7,100 languages spoken globally today. Chapter 5 examines the classification, origin, distribution, and diffusion of languages. It also discusses the distribution of dialect forms in the United States and highlights the differences between spoken English in the United States and Britain. The text underscores the significance of English as a global language and distinguishes among isolated, endangered, and extinct languages. Some languages like French and Spanish are increasingly spoken outside their hearth and, according to the text, mix to form new languages. The chapter also examines multilingual states, the difficulties they face, and the efforts made to reduce conflict among speakers. The author ends the chapter with a discussion of preserving and reviving languages such as Hebrew.

5.1: Classifying Languages Section 5.1 focuses on the classification of languages. Here, it defines language as “a collection of sounds that a group of people understands to have the same meaning” and places languages into three main categories: language family, language branch, and language group. A language family is defined as “a collection of languages related through a common ancestral language that existed long before recorded history.” Another classification is a language branch, which is defined by the text as “a collection of languages within a family and related through a common ancestral language.” The third classification, the language group, is a collection of languages within a language branch where there are few differences in grammar and vocabulary. However, there are other language classifications of equal importance explained in this section, and these include institutional languages, developing languages, vigorous languages, threatened languages, and dying languages (see key terms for definition). The section also include an image of a language tree that represent the language family (trunk), language branch, and language group as well as individual languages (leaves).

Students should understand the relationship between migration and language distribution and classification before you go further in your lecture. Section 5.1 is important because it contains most of the concepts important to your discussion of languages throughout the chapter. To teach this section, take a survey of the languages spoken by students in your classroom, and discuss with them the origins of their family members. Introduce students to Figure 5.1.3 from the Pearson PowerPoints or their textbook and let them identify where on the language tree their language falls. You should also discuss the various language families, including Indo-European, and emphasize that this group has the largest number of speakers and language branches. Help your students to recognize the differences among language family, language branch, and language group. See MapMaster Layered Thematic: Language—Global Patterns Assignment (Multiple Choice).

5.2 Distribution of Languages Section 5.2 discusses the distribution of language families and writing systems. There are approximately 141 language families and 3,856 writing systems but only four are frequently used (see Figure 5.2.3 for a map showing distribution of the chief writing systems across the globe). The rest of the section features the distribution of major language families in Asia and Africa. It is important to note that Asia’s eight language families have about 50 million speakers each.

The maps in this section should be the focal point of your discussion. Students should know that many languages have a literary tradition, or a system of written communication. Engage students in a discussion of the distribution of language families and literary tradition around the globe. For additional information, see Web Links in Mastering Geography, or students can produce language maps in MapMaster 2.0 in Mastering Geography. See additional assignments in the Item Library of Mastering Geography or reinforce the concept with the assignment named in Section 5.1.

5.3: Distribution of Indo-European Languages The focal point of Section 5.3 is the Indo-European language family, this section is developed through a series of maps. It identifies eight languages that make up the Indo-European language family, but it 35

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focuses on the four main language branches: Romance, Germanic, Balto-Slavic, and Indo-Iranian. Feature the maps in Figures 5.3.1–5.3.4. Romance languages are those derived from Latin including Spanish, Portuguese, and French. Germanic branches include languages such as English and Dutch, while BaltoSlavic include Russian and Eastern European languages. The last of the main Indo-Iranian language includes Hindi and Bengali. Discuss with your students the distribution of the four main Indo-European language branches. Alternatively, they could use MapMaster to create a map as a graded assignment. If you have a lab available, student can complete it as an in-class assignment.

5.4: Into & Out of Africa Like most other cultural traits, languages spread from their original hearth through migration or conquest.

Section 5.4 focuses on the origin and early diffusion of languages. The Austronesian language is an example of how a language can diffuse into far-flung places. The same language family is found in another place more than 6,000 km away. The text reflects on the theory proposed by Quentin Atkinson that language originated in Africa and most likely diffused with migration into other areas and recognizes that there are disagreement about the origins and diffusion of Indo-European languages. The text considers two divergent theories of the origin and diffusion of Indo-European language. The first, Nomadic Warrior Theory, says that Indo-European languages originated from nearby Russia and diffused by conquest by Kurgan warriors. Conversely, the Anatolian theory or Sedentary Farmer Theory suggests that Indo-European languages originated near modern-day Turkey, diffused with agriculture 2,000 years before the Kurgans.

For this section, it is important to consider the various theories related to the spread to the diffusion of older language families as well as the Indo-European languages. The maps in Figures 5.4.2, 5.4.3, and 5.4.4 should be an important part of your discussion. Use the Pearson-originated PowerPoint to show these maps. You can provide your students with other resources, and they could conduct a research assignment in which they critically examine the theories. They should also be able to locate the hearth for each theory, and describe the direction of the diffusion. For more assignments, see Mastering Geography.

A research into the various theories about the diffusion of languages could be a good assignment especially for geography majors.

5.5: Origin & Diffusion of English The unit explains the origin and diffusion of English and the impact of various Germanic and French invasions on the language. English is a West Germanic language that had early influences on the language from invading Germanic speakers from the north. They displaced the original Celtic speakers, pushing them north and westward. English currently is widely distributed in more than 50 countries as official language.

English has become the dominant language of communication around the globe, often seen on signage in many countries and has facilitated the diffusion of popular culture. Section 5.5 also examines English as a lingua franca—a language mutually understood and used to communicate by people who have different native languages. Some people speak a Pidgin version of English (a form of speech that adopts a simplified grammar and limited vocabulary of a lingua franca). English dominates as the language of the Internet despite a growing presence of people speaking other languages.

To teach this section, direct students’ attention onto the map in Figure 5.5.4. English is also widely distributed and is official language in more than 50 countries. The text predicts that Chinese will replace English as the most common online language by 2020 primarily because how it’s written (Logograms, which are symbols that represent words, or meaningful parts of words) and the number Chinese users.

Have your students list some of the areas of the world where English is spoken as the official language or as the de facto national language. Segue into a discussion about the diffusion of English and its rise to global dominance through British conquest. Students should understand that the recent dominance of

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English is due in part to the hegemony of the United States. Use the video FT: Myanmar: Burma— Learning Foreign Languages in the Study Area as an example of how other countries learn English. You can use it in class or assign it to students to reinforce their learning. For additional assignments, see Mastering Geography MapMaster 2.0: Physical Environment: Languages and Ethnicity: The Caribbean (multiple-choice) as practice.

5.6: Dialects Section 5.6 examines the regional variations in languages. Variations in languages are caused by migration and geographic isolation. One such variation is a dialect. The section defines a dialect as “a regional variation of a language distinguished by distinctive vocabulary, spelling, and pronunciation” as in the case of the United States. English in the United States is different from those spoken in Britain, Canada, or India. Dialects develop when speakers of languages migrate to other areas. Certain words in a dialect form a distinctive pattern in their distribution and have definite boundaries. The book calls such word-usage boundary an isogloss. In the United States, many differences exist in the dialects spoken around the country. According to the text, these differences are caused by differing dialects among the early settlers, and we recognize three distinct areas: Northern (or New England), Midlands, and Southeastern. Like the United States, regional differences exist in dialect in the United Kingdom and are a legacy of past invasions. The section also deals with the differences between British and American English in terms of vocabulary, spelling, and pronunciation.

Many of the students come from distinctive dialect areas. Begin your discussion of dialects by finding out from your students if they have distinctive patterns in their speech in the places where they come from to go to attend school. Let them tell you where they are from and launch into a discussion of dialects and their distribution in the United States and the United Kingdom. Note the relationship between the two countries dialect region and explore the differences in British English and American English using the examples in the textbook. Let students name their own examples. You should emphasize that these differences result from geographic isolation and migration. For reinforcement, see discussion topics and classroom activities. Other assignments are available in Mastering Geography in the Item Library as multiple-choice or short answers, based on desired objective or by sections.

5.7: Dialect or Language?

Section 5.7 notes that tensions between globalization and local diversity exist within culture, and a trait such as language is one of the best examples. According to the text, globalization of languages (often due to colonization and migration) produces different dialects, but that process is responsible for the suppression of dialects by requiring people to speak a standardized language. Colonization also produced creolized languages that are “languages that result from the mixing of a colonizer’s language with the indigenous language of the people being dominated. “On the other hand, some dialects become distinct languages in part to promote cultural identity (e.g., Haiti and Haitian creole, Catalán, Galatian). Some dialects become languages to promote local unity and diversity. As a lingua franca, English combined with other major languages such as French, Spanish, and German to produce Franglais, Spanglish, and Denglish, respectively. In some languages, some words may be gender specific and appear at the end of another.

The text lists several examples of dialects turned languages drawn from Romance languages family that you can discuss with your students. Let them suggest other examples from other language families and branches. Do not forget to mention sign language as a natural language with many variations. See MapMaster Assignment Physical Environment: Languages and Ethnicity Have students go to the Study Area to view the video FT: Myanmar | Burma—Learning Foreign Languages.

5.8: Multilingual Countries Section 5.8 deals with multilingual places and explains how some countries manage linguistic diversity.

Two or more languages often share space with each other, and when this occurs, problems may exist. The 37

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text uses the case study of four countries—Switzerland, Belgium, Canada, and Nigeria—to explain how they deal with language diversity. In Switzerland, they speak four official languages (German, French, Italy, and Romansch), and speakers peacefully coexist with some people speaking at least two languages a week. In Belgium, two languages—French (the official language of Belgium), spoken in southern Belgium, and a Dutch dialect called Flemish in the north—result in ongoing conflict between the two groups. Like Belgium, Canada is bilingual but speakers of the two languages live in relative harmony and English and French are official languages. After some struggle, the Québécois region enjoy political autonomy.

The text also mentions the problems that exist in Nigeria, a multilingual state, where the people speak more than 500 distinctive dialects. Of these distinct languages, three—Igbo, Hausa, and Yoruba—are spoken by more than 10 percent of the people in Nigeria. As in Belgium, this has led to conflict that the government tried to allay by moving the capital from Lagos placing geographic distance between these Igbo, Hausa, and Yoruba speakers and the new capital.

Draw students’ attention to the maps in Figures 5.8.1–5.8.4 to initiate discussion of multilingual states and the issues that arise at the boundaries of languages. See your IRC for these photos. You may discuss with them how different multilingual states have managed these issues and the extent to which they have succeeded. Have students complete the “Explore Multilingual Belgium” assignment on page 135.

Remember to assess your students’ learning by using ticker questions from the faculty site in Mastering Geography.

5.9: Endangered & Extinct Languages Section 5.9 provides a discussion about how languages survive and focuses specifically on endangered and extinct languages. Different terms are used by Ethnologue and the United Nations to describe levels of endangerment. There are several languages, considered to be endangered languages (language at risk of extinction) because there are few remaining speakers of those languages. Most endangered languages are found in eight countries (see Figure 5.9.1). Extinct language is one that was spoken in the past but is no longer in use by anyone in the world. Ethnologue estimate, according to the text, that we lose at least six languages a year (see Figure 5.9.2 the distribution of extinct languages since 1950). The United States lost 74 languages spoken by native Americans. Dakota, a Sioux language, became critically endangered because of COVID-19. Languages become extinct when its last speaker dies or no longer spoken (see Section 5.10). Your students should be able to distinguish between the terms extinct language and endangered language. Show students the map in Figure 5.9.2 to begin your discussion of extinct and endangered languages. You might have students who know of a language that is extinct or endangered.

The maps should have additional information for your students.

5.10: Preserving & Reviving Languages Section 5.10 continues the discussion of why languages survive or perish. Many cultures make a deliberate effort to preserve or revive endangered language in the face of declining ones to preserve their language. The text describes the effort of speakers of the Brythonic Celtic (to revive their tongues). These languages include Welsh, Irish, Breton, Scottish, and Cornish. People speak some of these languages frequently and other languages such as Irish and Scottish Gaelic (Goidelic Gaelic) are spoken in rural areas of these countries. Languages considered extinct, such as Hebrew and Myaamia, (a language spoken by a Native American group in Florida) are being revived. Despite the numbers of languages lost every year, new languages are still being invented, including Koro Aka and Light Warlpiri spoken in New Zealand.

Your lecture should include a discussion of ways in which groups can revive and preserve their languages. Use the Video: Israel: Reinventing Hebrew as a part of your lecture. At a little over 4 minutes, the video is appropriate for your discussion of revived languages. Your students can review the video on

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their own time in the Study Area of Mastering Geography then answer the questions in the GeoVideo section of the textbook.

Note to the instructor: Please remember that your chapter contains useful debate questions, map questions, and other assignments that you can use. I have mentioned some throughout the chapter. Mastering Geography is a useful source to find assignments already created for you. It is also very user friendly, and you can create your own assignments for your students based on objectives in your Item Library. The grades students receive in these assignments can be printed, added manually or automatically through Blackboard learning system.

If you are using a learning system like Blackboard, download the entire Test Generator package then upload to Blackboard to create your chapter exams or midterms.

Answers to Thinking Geographically 1. Although English is the principal language of the United Kingdom, its capital London is home to many people who speak another language. This map shows the most used second language around each subway stop. Why might a city like London exhibit language diversity? What might account for differences among different parts of the city?

Answers will vary. Answer should include Great Britain as a former colonial power is the receiving country of people from these former colonies. They speak English as well their native language. They tend to settle in ethnic neighborhoods where there are other speakers of their native language.

2. Chinese languages are written with logograms. For example, Figure 5.CR.2 shows several logograms related to bodies of water. What similarities and differences can you detect in these various water related logograms? In what ways might you make use of logograms when you communicate through social media?

Answers will vary. Answer should include the stroke at the left side of the logogram are all the same. Three tiny strokes are on the left side. Top two similar logogram and added one for bed.

All the rest are different. Chinese use less characters in a word than English, the language spoken by most people on the Internet. The characters would be easier to use on social media where there are restrictions on the numbers of characters that may be used.

3. Dialects and subdialects exist in many languages, not just English. For example, the word for “car” varies among Spanish dialects. What patterns do you see in the distribution of different words for “car” through the Western Hemisphere? What might account for those patterns?

Answers vary. Migration of Settler societies create distinctive patterns in word pronunciation or vocabulary. Words for an object for example can be affected because of isolation.

4. New languages are constantly being discovered. Most frequently discovered are new sign languages. What might account for the relative frequency of new sign languages compared with spoken ones?

Sign languages are natural languages and not mutually intelligible. Various sign languages communities usually invent their own system of signing thus the creation of sign languages would occur frequently. Conversely, spoken language is less organic and takes much longer to develop.

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Answers to Geospatial Analysis South America’s Indigenous Languages On a world map, most of South America appears in the Indo-European language family. Some diversity exists within the region, as shown in Figure 5.2.4.

1. Add the Spanish as Official or De Facto Language layer and zoom to Latin America.

2. What is the one large country in South America where Spanish is not the official language? If you do not know the answer, in the Legend, select the Settings icon, and select Show Political Labels.

Brazil 3. Add the Indigenous Languages (South America) layer. Reset the map. Add the Population Density layer and select Split Map Window. Are indigenous languages more likely to be spoken in areas of high population density or low population density?

Low density areas 4. Add World Elevations, and replace the Population Density layer. Hover over the area of highest elevation on the World Elevations map. Describe the spatial association between high elevation and indigenous languages.

Many of the indigenous languages are spoken in areas of high altitude especially where they speak Quechan.

Answers to Explore Multilingual Belgium Brussels, the capital of Belgium, is official bilingual, but many languages comingle there. In Google Earth, search for 54 rue de Flandre, Brussels.

1. What two languages are displayed in the window of the store at 54 rue de Flandre? What does the store sell?

Both Flemish and French. The Store sells shoes.

2. What language is displayed on the sign by the entrance to #47, directly across the street from #54? Why might a language other than the two official ones be used at the entrance to this shop?

English is on the sign # 54 and across the Street. International tourist might visit the area frequently 3. Scan up and down rue de Flandre. Which of Brussels’ two official languages is more common?

Why might that be the case? Can you find examples along the street where both official languages are displayed? Why might both official languages be used in these cases?

French is the most common of the two languages on this street but there are smattering of Dutch.

Examples: Dutch—Kronebourg, French-Au Louvre. Naming two official languages eliminates some of the cause of conflict.

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Additional Resources •

Ethnologue: Languages of the World: www.ethnologue.com

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Common Words of Indo-European Languages: http://www.hinduwebsite.com/general/indoeuro.asp

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The Language Families of the World: http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/languagefamilies.html

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Separation Anxiety: The 1995 Quebec Referendum: http://www.cbc.ca/archives/topic/separationanxiety-the-1995-quebec-referendum

•

U.S. Board on Geographic Names: http://geonames.usgs.gov

•

Wilson, Reid, 2013, What Dialect Do you: Speak, Washington Post https://www.google.com/search?safe=strict&ei=nTuDWqC_Fuuh_Qas2Z64Aw&q=%E2%80%A 2+wilson%2C+reid%2C+2013%2C+what+dialect+do+you%3A+speak%2C+washington+post+h ttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fblogs%2Fgovbeat%2Fwp%2F2013%2F12%2F 02%2Fwhat-dialect-to-do-you-speak-a-map-ofamericanenglish%2F%3Futm_term%3D.c7c9b5733a2b&oq=%E2%80%A2+Wilson%2C+Reid% 2C+2013%2C+What+Dialect+Do+you%3A+Speak%2C+&gs_l=psyab.1.0.35i39k1.8674.8674.0.11575.1.1.0.0.0.0.75.75.1.1.0....0...1.1.64.psyab..0.1.74....0.V5AlNU8v5DE

•

National Public Radio Inc Interview: Mapping the Birthplace of Modern Languages: https://www.npr.org/2012/08/24/159998664/mapping-the-birthplace-of-modern-languages

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CHAPTER

6

Religions Learning Objectives

By the end of this chapter, students should be able to: 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.9 6.10 6.11 6.12 6.13 6.14 6.15 6.16 6.17

6.18 6.19

6.20 6.21 6.22

Summarize the numbers of people adhering to various religions worldwide.

Distinguish universalizing and ethnic religions and describe their global distribution.

Distinguish among branches, denominations, and sects.

Describe the major branches of Christianity and their distribution.

Describe the distribution of religions in the United States.

Describe the major branches of Islam and Buddhism and their distribution.

Describe the distribution of ethnic religions, including Hinduism, Chinese traditional religions, primal-indigenous religions, and African traditional and diasporic religions.

Describe the distribution of other important religions, including Sikhism, Juche, Spiritism, Judaism, Baha’i, Jainism, Shinto, Cao Dai, Zoroastrianism, Confucianism, and Tenrikyo.

Describe the origins of the four largest religions and the locations of their geographic hearths.

Explain how the three main universalizing religions have diffused beyond their places of origin.

Describe the type of spatial diffusion associated with universalizing religions.

Describe the recent migration patterns of several religious groups (Christians, Muslims, and Jews).

Describe places of worship (Christianity, Judaism, and Hinduism) and pilgrimage (Buddhism and Islam) for several religions.

Distinguish between hierarchical religions and local autonomous religions.

Explain the organization of a hierarchical religion, such as Roman Catholics, in geographic space.

Illustrate how toponyms might be reflective of religious imprints on the cultural landscape.

Examine relationships of ethnic and universalizing religions to the physical environment (Hinduism and South Asia’s landscape) and the calendar (pagan religions and the solstice, calendars in Christianity, Islam, and Judaism).

Discuss religious fundamentalism and its role in contemporary society.

Interpret some challenges faced by religions in society (for example, Hinduism and social equality; religion and communism; and Tibetan Buddhism within China Islamic fundamentalism and democratic values).

Discuss the religious importance of Israel and Palestine and the city of Jerusalem in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.

Explain how the geography of Jerusalem makes it difficult to settle long-standing religious conflicts.

Discuss Israeli and Palestinian perspectives on territorial changes in Israel and its neighbors.

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Chapter Overview Religion is another cultural trait that geographers study. Geographers are particularly interested in the distribution and spread of religious adherents, practices, and the influence of religion on the physical landscape. Chapter 6 of the text examines these interests and more. The chapter begins with a discussion of how geographers classify religion and identifies universalizing and ethnic religion as two main categories. It also highlights the various divisions or branches in both universalizing and ethnic religions as well as the worldwide distribution, origin, and diffusion of select religions. In addition, the chapter explains how religion shapes the environment, focusing especially on the creation of holy places and places of worship in Christianity, Islam, and Buddhism. Another important part of this discussion is the influence of geography on religion, especially in Judaism and Hinduism and Islam. The text also tackles conflicts that often arise from dialectic religious positions and offers brief case studies of religious conflict in the Middle East or when governments come up against religion as in the case of China and Buddhism.

Note: You should have downloaded your PowerPoint already or created your own from the slides provided.

Some topics discussed in the text may be controversial, and you should be careful how you address the topics and the questions that follow. Examine the videos mentioned: you can find most in the Study Area of Mastering Geography to see which you will use in your lecture. Remember, the discussion below is only suggestion on how to use the materials that accompany your textbook.

6.1: Distribution of Religions There is no reliable, official census of religious adherents but there are at least four religions with numbers over or close to a billion. Section 6.1 examines the distribution of world religions naming Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, and Buddhism as the four with the most adherents, respectively. These religions make up 77 percent of the total world population and the other 23 percent include people from folk religions (16%), other religions (1%) such as Judaism and Sikhism, and the rest are unaffiliated including atheism and agnosticism. The text classifies religions into two main categories: universalizing and ethnic religions. Universalizing religions are global and often appeal to many people, while ethnic religions appeal to a particular group of people, often those born into them. The world’s largest religions are universalizing religions while Hinduism (also a large religion) and Judaism are ethnic religions.

Students should be aware that a geographer’s interest in religion is based on its origin, distribution, and diffusion as a cultural trait. Use the PowerPoints for this chapter to guide your discussion. The map on page 139 shows the distribution of the world’s religions. Students should know that although Christianity has the highest numbers of adherents, Islam is the fastest growing religion, and there are other important religions besides these two. Highlight the characteristics of universalizing and ethnic religions so students can distinguish between the two. Figures 6.1.2 and 6.1.3 can add additional information on the distribution of adherents of universalizing and ethnic religions around the world. For further reading, students can go to suggested reading in the Study Area. For reinforcement, they can complete the multiple-choice questions in the item library of Mastering Geography.

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6.2: Distribution of Christians Figure 6.2.4

Section 6.2 is a comparative examination of Christianity’s main branches. It explains the terms branch, denomination, and sect. A branch is defined by the text as “a large and fundamental division within a religion,” while a denomination is “a division of a branch that unites a number of local congregations into a single legal and administrative body.” A sect, on the other hand, is a small group that has broken off from a denomination. The text names three divisions in Christianity: Roman Catholicism, Orthodoxy, and Protestantism. The island of Eire’ where Ireland is located is more than 77 percent protestant except in Northern Island which remains a part of Great Britain is majority protestant. In the rest of Europe, Roman Catholics (47%) make up the largest percentage of Christians followed by the Protestants (35%) and the rest are Orthodox. However, there is a sharp contrast in the distribution of Christians in the western hemisphere. In South America, most Christians are Roman Catholics while in North America, most are Protestant (see Figure 6.2.4) for the distribution of religions in the United States.

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It is important that you distinguish between the terms branch and denomination, and you can emphasize the branches within Christianity to draw students’ attention to divisions in other religions later. Many students do not know these distinctions. The IRC PowerPoint has useful maps and charts you can use to illustrate distribution. Discuss the distribution of Christianity regionally, emphasizing where clusters of adherents occur. Students can complete their own maps using MapMaster Layered Thematic: Religion— World Patterns (Multiple Choice) assignment for homework or as part of a larger lab. Remember you can assess students’ learning while you lecture using the Learning Catalytics in Mastering Geography.

6.3: Distribution of Buddhists & Muslims This section describes the distribution of the major branches of Islam and Buddhism and consists of four cornerstone principles: the Four Noble Truth (the first teachings of Buddha). Buddhism, though not as widely distributed as Christianity and Islam, is found mostly in East Asia and is divided into three branches: Theravada, Vajrayana, and Mahayana. Most Buddhists are Mahayana and are found in China, Japan, and Korea while other Buddhists are concentrated in Tibet, Cambodia, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, and Thailand. Like Buddhism, Islam is also a divided religion. These divisions include Sunni and Shiites.

Sunnis constitutes 88 percent of the Muslim population worldwide. Widely concentrated in most Muslim countries, they far outnumber the Shiites who are clustered in Iran, Iraq, Bahrain, and Yemen.

Figure 6.3.2

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Figure 6.3.5

Use the maps in this section to stimulate discussion about the distribution of branches of Buddhism and Islam. Remind students that these divisions occur when there are disagreements in ideology. Show students the maps shown above from the Pearson-created PowerPoints. Have them locate where branches of the religions are and speculate reasons for such clusterings.

6.4: Distribution of Ethnic Religions Unlike universalizing religions, ethnic religions tend to cluster in regions where they originate. When ethnic religions do diffuse, they do so as relocation diffusion. Section 6.4 describes ethnic Hinduism an ethnic religion. Most Hindus are found in India while we find smattering in countries such as Nepal and Bangladesh.

Chinese folk religions consist of several indigenous folk religion, general syncretic as they mix with other religions. Chinese folk religions are mostly found in rural areas while the more formal. Buddhism and Confucianism are distinctly urban. On the African continent, more than 100 million people practice animism. Animism is the belief that everything in nature has a spirit. Despite the growth of Islam and Christianity in Africa, folk religion (animism) persists in a belt that separates Muslim North Africa from the sub-Saharan Christian. Currently, more than 55 percent of Africans are Christians while 37 percent are Muslims, which contrasts with thirty years ago.

Discuss with students the spatial distribution of ethnic religion. Students should note that despite the clustering nature of ethnic religions, some adherents have migrated from the hearth to other areas. If you have use of a computer lab let students use MapMaster from the study area to map the current distribution of traditional religions in Africa or East Asia and compare it to Figure 6.4.3. You can ask students to account for the change in distribution of the religions in Africa from 1900 to 2010 (see Figure 6.4.6). See MapMaster Layered Thematic: Religion—World Patterns (select Multiple Choice) assignment in Mastering Geography.

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6.5: Distribution of Other Religions Divided into two parts (religions with 14–23 million adherents and religions with 2–10 million adherents), Section 6.5 briefly describes the distribution of religions other than the big three discussed in earlier sections. There are four religions in the category 14–23 million and are regarded just as important as the major three. The religions are Sikhism, Juche, Spiritism, and Judaism. Most of these religions are clustered near their hearth in Asia but have concentration of adherents in other countries such as the United States. Judaism is monotheistic-the belief in one God and developed that way while religions around them were polytheistic (belief in many gods). Both Christianity and Islam have their beginning in six other religions fit the categories of having 2–10 million adherents. The six include Bahá’í, Tenrikyo, Jainism, Shinto, Cao Dai, and Zoroastrianism that originated in Asia and except for Baha’i is not widely distributed (see text for further explanation).

In this section, it is much easier if you use the maps (available in your PowerPoints) to discuss the distribution of the other religions other than the Buddhism, Christianity, and Islam. Tell your students that the religions discussed in the book are by no means the total number of religions, but these are the ones with the most adherents. You may briefly discuss the tenets and practices of the religions but do not spend too much time on them. Assign them research to present later if needs be.

6.6: Geographic Origin of Religions Section 6.6 examines the origins of the four largest religions and notes that the diffusion of universalizing religions especially Buddhism, Christianity, and Islam has recognizable founders and hearth and follow distinctive diffusion patterns. On the other hand, Hinduism, an ethnic religion, has no known origin and patterns of diffusion are limited. The section explains that all three major universalizing religions— Christianity, Buddhism, and Islam—originated in Asia and briefly discuss the founders and their roles in the origin and diffusion of the religion. To discuss origin and diffusion of a religion, students should be clear on the definition and characteristics of both universalizing and ethnic religions. Lead them into further discussion of the origins of the three major universalizing religions, highlighting the fact that all three religions began in Asia. Also, discuss the circumstances around the origin of these religions, noting the founders as well as any relationships among the religions. Have students find other less popular religions that we might regard as universalizing from the previously discussed ones. See Mastering Geography and Web Links for further reading.

6.7: Historical Diffusion of Religion This section summarizes how the three main universalizing religions diffused in time and space. All three religions have well-defined origins, often associated with the location of their founder. In the case of Christianity and Islam, their origin is in Southwest Asia while Buddhism originated in South Asia.

According to the text, for Christianity, recorded diffusion began in its hearth in Judea and through relocation diffusion (missionaries). Later, it spread by hierarchical diffusion through the Roman Empire and later by contagious diffusion after 1500. Islam diffused rapidly from its hearth in Saudi Arabia to Africa, Asia, and Europe after the death of Muhammed. Traders spread the religion along major trade routes while leaders extended Muslim-controlled territories. See Map 6.7.1.

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Figure 6.7.1

Missionaries and traders were responsible for the spread of Buddhism from a central hearth in India to other areas in Asia. Asoka, a ruler in India converted to Buddhism and later urged missionaries to spread the religion to other parts of India, and later China, Japan, and Korea. To begin a discussion of this section, introduce students to the map showing the central hearth and the subsequent diffusion of the three major universalizing religions in Figure 6.7.1. Discuss with students the diffusion of each religion, the cause of the diffusion, and the specific type of diffusion associated with each religion. The students should also complete the coaching activity, BBC Video Quiz—India: Islam and Hinduism to see how Islam diffused to India through conquest.

6.8: Recent Diffusion of Religions This section describes the contemporary migration patterns of Christians, Jews, and Muslims. Christians migrate to places that traditionally practice Christianity in North America and Europe. The text notes that most immigrants to the United States are Christians and that there are very little movements to Africa by Christians today. Conversely, Muslims migrate to Europe, North Africa, and Southwest Asia, specifically to Saudi Arabia. Noteworthy is that places with the largest Muslim population hardly receive Muslim immigrants while only 1 percent of Muslim immigrants go to the United States. Israel is the only Jewish state with a majority Jewish population and as such attracts more than three quarters of the numbers of Jewish migrants. The rest of the migrants fled persecution to North America in post–World War II where Jews in Europe existed on the fringes of societies in Ghettos (defined as city neighborhoods set up by law to be inhabited only by Jews) beginning as early as the sixteenth century. The images in this section are a good starting point to discuss the migration of Christians, Muslims, and Jews. You can find the images in your PowerPoints or select from the image PowerPoints to create your own. The Clicker PowerPoints are useful tools to assess students’ learning during your lecture. You can download these when you download the lecture PowerPoints.

6.9: Sacred Spaces Geographers pay special attention to how religions influence the landscape, and this impact is seen in the arrangement of human actions related to religion. Section 6.9 describes the place of worship in 48

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Christianity, Hinduism, and Judaism and compares Pilgrimages sites in Buddhism and Islam. Christian churches are distributed densely but bear no single style because there are many denominations. Some Protestant churches have simple, plain styling in North America. However, the Orthodox branch churches use an ornate architectural style copied from the Byzantine Empire. Much of Hindu worship happens in the home but temples are reserved to bring adherents closer to god. They act as shrines to one or several gods with its main purpose being for meditation. Jewish synagogues, however, are places of learning, prayer, and assembly. Both Islam and Buddhism consider shrines holy places. They are important places in their founders’ lives, for example, Lumbini and Makkah that are the birthplaces of the Buddha and Muhammad, respectively. Continue with the use of the PowerPoint but ask students to describe religious buildings in their hometowns. They should name the features and describe its façade. Show students the pictures of places of worship in religions discussed in the textbook (see Figures 6.9.1–6.9.3). Students should understand that holy places are often associated with the lives of their founders. In your discussion, emphasize the role of the church in Christian denominations.

6.10: Religious Settlements & Administration Section 6.10 is about how different religions are organized across space. The text points out that to maintain communication and consistency of doctrines, adherents of universalizing religions must be connected. Such connections continue through the organization of religion in space. The text takes a comparative view of hierarchical religions that have a well-defined geographic structure and organize territory into local administrative units. This includes Roman Catholicism and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints. Other religions are locally autonomous, which means they are loosely connected, limited in interaction, and self-sufficient. Locally autonomous religions include some Protestant Christian denominations, Islam, and ethnic religions such as Judaism and Hinduism. Discussed here also is the concept of the Utopian settlement defined as “an ideal community built around a religious way of life.” In these communities, buildings were laid out and sited according to economic activity and organized to facilitate the integration of religious principles into daily life.

This section also mentions the religious toponyms that are prominent in Roman Catholic landscapes. See Image 6.10.4 that shows the distinctive boundary between Roman Catholic and Protestant landscape. Use students’ knowledge of the Catholic religious organizations beginning with the pope. Show students the map of the Roman Catholic hierarchy in the United States (Figure 6.10.2). Discuss the different spatial units found in the Catholic Church such as parishes and dioceses and then compare those divisions to the Latter-Day Saints and locally autonomous religions.

6.11: Religions & the Physical Environment Section 6.11 continues the discussion on the religious organization of space. The author defines cosmogony as a set of beliefs concerning the origin of the universe and Christians and Muslims believe that God (or Allah, for Islam) created the universe. This is different for ethnic religions that believe that the powers of the universe are mystical. Because of that, universalizing and ethnic religions approach the environment differently. Holy places in ethnic religions are often related to events or features in the physical environment. In Hinduism, holy places are especially tied to physical features such as rivers and coastline. According to the text, the Ganges River is an important holy site because it is believed to begin from the hair of Shiva and provide purification for Hindus. Their burial practices involve cremation— burning of a body on a pyre after washing in the holy Ganges River. The text also discusses the role of calendars in Christianity, Islam, and Judaism, and major holidays in Christianity and Islam are based on events in the founder’s life. However, the Jews base their calendar on agricultural events in the Jewish homeland. Judaism is rooted in environmental constructs such as earth and light and the balance between nature and life. Judaism and Islam use calendars based on the lunar cycle.

As part of your discussion, reiterate the concept of a holy place. Underscore the notion that structures in ethnic religions are often grounded in the physical environment. Draw students’ attention to Jewish holidays, particularly Sukkot, a Jewish holiday that commemorates the gratitude of Jews for agricultural 49

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bounties offered by God. This is often celebrated using palm fronds and willow. See the additional reading “A Fine Line: Is Religious Real Estate Kosher?”

6.12: Religions & Social Change Religion, an element of cultural diversity, often causes conflict. The section also examines some challenges faced by religions in society. An example of religion with challenges that the text examines is the conflict between religion and social equality. As a religion, Hinduism has been challenged to dismantle its caste system. A caste system is a distinct hereditary order to which a Hindu is assigned before birth. The author notes that the resurgence of religious fundamentalism is another cause of conflict and defines fundamentalism as “a literal interpretation and a strict and intense adherence to basic principles of a religion.” Fundamentalist groups include the Taliban and ISIS that carry out harsh deeds in the name of Allah. Religion also conflicts with government in communist and former communist regimes in Southeast Asia and Russia. Though communism and its related conflict have disappeared from much of the world, the conflicts persist in China, with Buddhists. Your discussion in this section should center on religion as a source of conflict and the ways in which these conflicts can occur. This section is suitable for added research, and you can assign students to a group presentation assignment see group assignment or discussion board.

6.13: Geographic Perspectives in Israel Section 6.13 examines territorial conflicts related to religion between Israel and Palestine. Territorial conflicts often result from rivalry between religious adherents of differing didactic ideologies. The conflict described in Section 6.13 involves three religions—Judaism, Christianity, and Islam—and their struggle to control Palestine/Israel particularly Jerusalem, a contested space. The section traces the causes of the conflicts and the value of the contested territory to each group and examines how the Jewish territories changed in time and space. In your discussion, make sure to describe the conflict between Palestinians and Israelis. You can teach this section by assigning in-class group work. Students can use their textbook and Additional Resources to find the groups involved in the conflict, the stakes for the actors in the conflict, the impact of the conflict on the contested space of Jerusalem, and the geographic factors that affect the conflict. You can have your students report their findings to stimulate a discussion of the issue in class Students can also complete the assignment BBC Video Quiz—Israel and Palestine: West Bank: Our Land or Their Land.

Note to the Instructor: For this chapter, instead of a lecture, you could have your students conduct a research using in part the text as well as suggested material included in this manual or from the list of suggested reading from the Study Area in Mastering Geography. They should also include their own research (see group Assignments below). Use a half of your lecture to organize students and provide them with instructions. If you use Blackboard, you can organize it there and let them sign in. In the Assignment, they are not limited to those choices. If not, assess student learning by testing them with questions from the test bank provided by Pearson. Because of the length, this chapter is best tested alone or combined with Chapter 5.

Students can use the assignments as coaching activities to practice for their exam. Give students the assignments including Thinking Geographically and Video Assignments. There are also other videos in the study area for students that you can show in class.

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Answers to Thinking Geographically 1. The percentage of the world’s people adhering to Islam is forecast by the Pew Research Forum to increase from 23 percent in 2010 to 30 percent in 2050. What demographic factors presented in Chapter 2 (Population & Health) would underlie this increase? Conversely, why might the percentage of people adhering to Christianity not increase?

Answers may vary. The population in many Muslim countries such as Indonesia, Bangladesh, and Pakistan are growing rapidly as these countries fall in stage 2 of the Demographic Transition model. Rapid rise in population occur here while death rates are decreasing. On the other hand, many Christian countries fall in third, fourth, and for some the fifth stage of the DTM. Population growth in these stages begins to slow, decline, or experience no growth, respectively.

2. Most Christians accept that Jesus was buried and resurrected from a tomb that is now housed in the Edicule inside the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem. A few years ago during renovations, researchers unsealed the Edicule. What did they discover? In your Internet browser, search for “Jesus tomb Uncovered.”

Researchers in 2016 found at the alleged burial site for Jesus housed inside the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem the limestone burial bed and a cross that was carved into the surface as well as unknown debris.

3. Based on your understanding of reasons for migration discussed in Chapter 3 (Migration), as well as the distribution of Muslims by country, what factors might account for the distinctive origin of pilgrims? How might the COVID-19 pandemic impact the distribution of pilgrims?

Most immigrants migrate for economic reasons: to find job, seek education, and improve their standard of living and Muslim migrants are no exception. They migrate to countries in Europe (former colonizers) and Southwest Asia. The percentages in these Europe and the United States are low and thus at least 80 percent of the pilgrims come from Southwest Asia.

4. Three-fourths of the Chinese people adhere to a Chinese folk religion or are unaffiliated with any religion. Given the relatively small percentage of Chinese who adhere to the principal universalizing religions, why might the government of China be engaged in conflicts with Tibetan Buddhists and Muslims living in the western portion of the country?

As Karl Marx had once said religion was the opium for people and often competes with communist governments for loyalty or provide a challenge to rule. Throughout history, religion was considered this way (Roman Empire). Religious conflicts are sometimes tied to territory. As long as China can restrict the religion, they can control the territory.

Answers to Geospatial Analysis South Asia’s religions South Asia has several religious boundaries that appear to be sharp on a world map. Add Religions and zoom to South Asia. In the Legend, select the Settings icon, and select Show Political Labels.

Add the British Empire, Early 1920s layer, select Add Group Data Layers to Map, select Split Map Window.

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1. What present-day countries in South Asia were part of the British Empire in the early 1920s?

Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, Myanmar, and Sri Lanka. In those countries, there were different ethnicities, religion, and language grouping, hence, difficult to rule.

2. What religions were contained within the British Empire? Why might this have been a challenge for the Empire rulers? Why might this have been a challenge when the Empire was broken into independent countries?

Buddhism, Islam, Christianity, Hinduism, and Sikhism. Different religions were still found within the borders of a country. This will make it difficult to unify as one nation as one religion often wants to dominate. India in 1947 was split into several states.

Answers to Explore Masjid’s Surroundings Use Google Earth to explore the surrounding of Masjid al-Haram, Islam’s most important mosque, in Makkah, Saudi Arabia. Search for Masjid al-Haram, Makkah.

1. What is the name of the tall building complex immediately to the south of the Masjid? Click on the name. What is in the building complex?

Abraj Al-Bait or the Tower House is a complex that houses several hotels and financial centers.

2. Why might this building complex be located immediately next to Islam’s holiest place (refer to Section 6.9.2)?

Makkah is the site for the Al Ka’ba, the center of Masjid al-Haram, the largest Muslim temple where Muslims visit in Pilgrimage or the Hajj. Muslims, according to the Koran, must go on a Hajj or Pilgrimage to Makkah at least once in their lifetime. Hotels are needed around the religion’s holiest places to house the pilgrims.

Suggested Discussion Topics and Classroom Activities Religion Project Religion and geography might appear to the average student to be unrelated and to have little in common with each other. Geography looks at religious philosophies, but its focus is on its origin, diffusion, distribution patterns, and landscape expressions.

Religions • Hinduism

• Christianity

• Buddhism

• Islam

• Judaism

• Sikhism

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For this research, you will examine one of the above religions (or another of your choosing) and consider the following questions.

• • • • • • • • •

The basic belief of the religion.

Classification of the religion (universalizing or ethnic religion). For this, you must show how the religion conforms to characteristics of universalizing or ethnic religions.

The origin and diffusion of the religion, as well as its current geographic distribution. You must include maps in your discussion here.

How geography influences the religion, and how religion influences the physical landscape.

Burial practices.

Holy spaces in the religion.

Challenges in the religion.

Conflicts associated with the religion.

Religious taboos and the influence of geography.

Output I. II. III.

PowerPoint presentation Class presentation Individual paper For the paper, you will formulate a thesis statement based on your findings and discussion above.

Your paper must include proper citations and a bibliography of sources used in the presentation and paper.

Additional Resources •

A Fine Line: Is Religious Real Estate Kosher? http://realestate.aol.com/blog/2011/09/29/a-fineline-is-religious-real-estate-kosher/

•

Adherents.com: http://www.adherents.com

•

Is Judaism a Hierarchy or an Autonomous Religion? http://people.opposingviews.com/judaismhierarchy-autonomous-religion-9670.html National Geographic: Unsealing of Christ’s Reputed Tomb Turns Up New Revelations https://news.nationalgeographic.com/2016/10/jesus-christtomb-burial-church-holy-sepulchre/

•

Carter, Jimmy. We Can Have Peace in the Holy Land: A Plan That Will Work. New York: Simon and Schuster, 2009. Katoch, Prakash 2011, China’s War on Buddhism—Tibetan’s Strategic Depth, http://www.indiandefencereview.com/spotlights/chinas-war-on-buddhism-tibetansstrategic-depth/

•

Bollech-Fonseca, H. 2013. Changing Lives with Spiritism: Fresh Perspectives for a New Humanity. Leon Denis Spiritist Group

•

Jae-jung Suh. 2013. Origins of North Korea's Juche: Colonialism, War, and Development.

Lanham, MD: Lexington Books

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CHAPTER

7

Ethnicities Learning Objectives

By the end of this chapter, students should be able to: 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8 7.9 7.10 7.11

7.12 7.13 7.14 7.15 7.16 7.17 7.18 7.19 7.20 7.21 7.22 7.23 7.24 7.25 7.26 7.27

Distinguish between ethnicity, and race, and nationality.

Describe how multiethnic Brazil classifies people by race.

Using maps, describe the regional distributions of the most populous ethnic groups in the United States.

Explain how the U.S. Bureau of the Census classifies races.

Explain what ethnic enclaves are and why ethnic groups are clustered in them.

Describe how ethnic enclaves in Chicago and Paris have changed over time, including the formation of ethnoburbs.

Describe the three major migration flows that have shaped the current distribution of African Black Americans within the United States.

Explain how the forced migration of enslaved Africans contributed to the current distribution of African Black Americans.

Determine the factors Explain how redlining and blockbusting are responsible for the current clustering of African Black Americans in cities.

Compare and contrast how races were legally segregated in the United States and South Africa.

Describe how spatial interactions between Blacks and Whites in the United States were affected by the notion of “separate but equal;” how the Federal Civil Rights movement outlawed segregation; and how racial discrimination continues.

Describe how examples of environmental racism persist on the contemporary American landscape.

Discuss how groups such as Black Lives Matter (BLM) have diffused from an American to an international movement.

Describe the geographic effect of apartheid laws in South Africa.

Distinguish between the concepts of ethnicity and nationality, citing examples.

Explain why the United Kingdom is an example of a multiethnic state.

Explain the concept of centripetal force and its relationship to nationalism.

Discuss the distribution of ethnicities found in West Asia.

Describe the geographic distribution of the Kurds and explain how they came to be a stateless ethnicity.

Describe the distribution of ethnicities in West–Central Asia.

Identify the principal ethnic conflicts in West–Central Asia.

Define ethnophobia, xenophobia, ethnic cleansing, and genocide.

Identify ethnicities of the former Yugoslavia.

Describe the role of ethnic cleansing in recent Balkan history.

Discuss civil wars in Sudan since 1983 and Mali that have involved ethnic cleansing and/or genocide.

Describe the long-standing conflict between the Hutus and Tutsis in Rwanda and Burundi.

Hypothesize why Africa has suffered multiple instances of ethnic cleansing or genocide in recent decades.

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Chapter Overview Human beings often identify themselves using one or a combination of terms such as race, ethnicity, nationality, and gender. People often use the terms race and ethnicity interchangeably. Chapter 7 of the text begins by distinguishing between the terms and discusses the distribution of races and ethnicity across the United States. The chapter also examines the relationships among ethnicities and nationalities, ethnic diversities in some countries, and the issues that arise when ethnicities combine within one territory. The chapter also offers case studies of conflicts, ethnic cleansing, and genocide among ethnic groups in Europe, Western Asia, and Africa.

7.1: Ethnicity, Race & Nationality Section 7.1 distinguishes among race, ethnicity, and nationality and discusses the difficulties faced in defining the terms. The author notes the terms though different in principle are not sharply defined.

According to the text, nationality is identity with a group of people who share legal attachment to a country while ethnicity is defined as “identity with a group of people who share the cultural traditions of a particular homeland or hearth.” Race, on the other hand, is a biological construct and is defined by this text as “identity with a group of people who share a biological ancestor.” According to the text, race is a social construction (an idea or a meaning that is widely accepted as natural by a society but may not represent a reality shared by those outside the society). Racism—the belief that race is the primary determinant of human traits and abilities and that racial differences produce an inherent superiority of a race—occurs when people use these social constructs to identify people. Geographers reject the social construction of race because it is not as rooted in place as is ethnicity. Discussed in this section as well are the problems faced by Brazil, a country with multiple races and ethnicity like the United States. The Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics conducts the official census and categorizes people according to skin color, but these classifications proved problematic since the citizens repudiate them. To teach this section, you should differentiate among the terms race, ethnicity, and nationality.

7.2: Distribution of U.S. Ethnicities The census department provides information about the racial composition of the United States. The census also shows that various ethnicities tend to be clustered in specific areas within a country.

Section 7.2 describes the regional distribution of three major ethnicities and Indigenous peoples in the United States: Hispanics, African Americans, and Asian Americans. According to the maps in this section, Hispanics are clustered in the Southwest: California, Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona. The government census uses the term Hispanics to identify Spanish speakers from all countries, but some people have expressed a preference for the term Latino(a) or Latinx. African Americans are mostly clustered to the south and southeast. On the other hand, Asian Americans are mostly in the west but make up at least 40 percent of Hawaii. Indigenous people divided into different groups and are mostly clustered to the southwest and north central United States. .

7.3: Migration Patterns of U.S. Blacks Section 7.3 focuses on the distinctive migration and distribution patterns of African Americans.

According to the text, African Americans were part of a forced migration movement between the colonies and Europe. During the eighteenth century, enslaved Africans were forced to migrate from their hearth in western Africa to various areas such as the Caribbean, Latin America, and the United States. The triangular slave trade—a trading pattern involving the Americas, Europe, and Africa—was responsible for the arrival of more than 10 million Africans in the Western Hemisphere. Recent DNA testing shows that most enslaved Africans originated in West Africa. After slavery ended, some remained as sharecroppers (person who works fields rented from a landowner and pays the rent by turning over to the landowner a share of the crops) while others and their descendants fled to large urban centers in the north and west. Because of these intraregional and interregional migrations from the south, distinctive patterns of settlements were formed in the inner cities. African Americans formed Ghettos exacerbated by white flight, redlining, and blockbusting that keep Black people confined to certain parts of a city.

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7.4: Ethnic & Racial Segregation This section focuses on the situation that exists when spatial interaction between ethnic groups is discouraged deliberately or through legal means, as in the case of segregation in the United States and apartheid in South Africa. Under the “separate but equal” doctrine in the United States, no spatial interaction was allowed between Black people and whites. Black people and whites attended separate schools, went to different restaurants, used separate bathroom facilities, and were prevented from living in the same neighborhoods. The court case Brown versus the Board of Education of Topeka Falls, ended legal segregation and discrimination but they persisted despite the Civil Rights Acts of the 1960s. Civil Rights movements in the 1960s rose to protest the discrimination. The text talks about an analogous situation that existed in South Africa, under apartheid. Apartheid was a series of laws that physically separated races into different geographic areas. The laws decided where people would live, work, and own land. People were further isolated by race in areas designated as “homelands.” South Africa repealed apartheid laws in the 1991.

7.5: Black Lives Matter Racism in the United States manifests itself in several ways and does so physically. Section 7.5 shows that racism can reveal itself on the cultural landscape. The Civil War and the Civil Rights movements created cultural landscapes containing the vestiges of slavery, monuments honoring Confederate States of America Civil War heroes for instance, statues, roads and highways, and schools. Many of these monuments have been removed since 2020. Sometimes racism can show itself as environmental issues The author gives the example of Flint, Michigan where water became polluted. The water served a predominantly Black community and took a long time to resolve. The section continues with a mention of Black Lives Matter, an organization that campaigns against racial discrimination and racial injustice in the United States. Black lives matter diffused to other countries partly because of their show of solidarity and partly the occurrences of these same issues as in the United States.

7.6: Ethnicities & Nationalities This section of the text further continues the topic of the terms nationality and ethnicity and compares how the United States and Canada view the term nationality and ethnicity. For the United States, the two terms are distinct from each other in most cases but less pronounced in Canada. In Canada, the distinction between ethnicity and nationality is sometimes blurred, and this perhaps averted the separation of Quebec from Canada. The British Isles is equally convoluted. Two countries, Ireland and Great Britain, share the island (Eire) where more than 80 percent are Irish. Great Britain consists of Northern Ireland, the English, the Scottish, and the Welch. Their nationality is disputable and difficult to define. The author also defines the concept of nationalism as loyalty and devotion to a nationality, and this can function as both a centripetal force and a centrifugal force. Centripetal force refers to “an attitude that tends to unify people and enhance support for a state” and centrifugal force, on the other hand, is the opposite. Some ethnicities lack a territorial border and therefore a nationality. The Kurds, approximately 35 million are distributed among many nations with Turkey as the majority and so far, they have been unable to become fully independent.

It is important that students understand that we can view nationalism as both a dividing and unifying force in the existence of the state and that nationalism can lead to conflict.

7.7: Ethnic Diversity in Asia Western and West Central Asia is a hodgepodge of ethnicities and nationalities. However, ethnic boundaries and national boundaries do not necessarily coincide in Western Asia especially since several ethnicities inhabit areas that were apportioned to seven nationalities (see page 180). The text mentions four nationalities in Western Asia that includes Turkey, Iraq, Syria, and Lebanon, and displays the ethnic groups that compete for territories and control within their borders.

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Another focus of this section is also the ethnic conflicts in West Central Asia. This region includes Pakistan, Iran, Afghanistan, the Caucasus, and the five central Asian states of the former Soviet Union. In Pakistan, according to the text, the two largest ethnic groups are Punjabis and Pashtun. In Afghanistan, the majority ethnic group is the Pashtun a faction of which later became the Taliban. The Taliban created strict laws that they claim adhered to Muslim values. The Taliban were deposed but since 2021, they regained full control and now have more than 4 million internally displaced persons (see Chapter 3). See the E-Study area in Mastering Geography for more reading materials such as Murphy, Alexander B. “Territorial Policies in Multiethnic States.” Geographical Review 79 (1989): 410–21 as well as: BBC— 60 Minutes Video Quiz: Turkey and Armenia: Battle Over History—The Armenian Genocide.

7.8: Ethnic Cleansing in Asia Ethnic cleansing is “a purposeful policy designed by one ethnicity or religious group to remove by violent and terror-inspiring means the civilian population of another ethnic or religious group from certain geographic areas.” This unit highlights conflicts that are because of ethnophobia or xenophobia or both (see definitions of the terms in the glossary at the end of chapter).

This section describes an extreme form of ethnic cleansing: genocide occurring in East and Southeast Asia. The text defines genocide as “the mass killing of a group of people in an attempt to eliminate the entire group from existence.” This section focuses on contemporary ethnic cleansing and more specifically genocide of Uyghurs, ethnic Turks—found in an autonomous region in Western China. Many ethnic Uyghurs are placed in detention, forcibly removed, and abused by the Chinese Government who denies that this occurs. Another genocide is occurring in Myanmar where Buddhist majority and the Muslim minority called the Rohingya. The Rohingya migrated to the region during British colonization.

The military conduct the mass killing, burning of villages as well as other abuses. The Buddhist majority’s efforts to carry out ethnic cleansing and genocide are ongoing despite efforts to end it.

7.9 Ethnic Cleansing in Africa This section identifies the major ethnic conflicts and genocides in Africa. Africa has many ethnicities, languages, religions as led to many conflicts including ethnic cleansing and genocide. Europe superimposed colonial boundaries in Africa on already existing ethnic boundaries. This exacerbated an already complicated situation. One of the latest conflicts is between the Fulani and Dogan over territorial rights. Another conflict in Africa is found in the Sudan. The conflict in Sudan features two groups: ArabMuslims to the north and Black Christians and animists to the south. Causes of this conflict include repression by the Arab-Muslims of the blacks and discrimination and neglect by the Arab-led government. The text also describes the long-standing conflict between the Hutus and Tutsis in Rwanda and Burundi that diffused into the neighboring Congo. Ethnic cleansing of Tutsis began in Rwanda as early as 1962 when they gained independence. The newly empowered Hutus began there cleansing or the Tutsis while same happened in Burundi. The Democratic Republic of the Congo, with an ethnic majority of Bantu continues to be plagued by wars, continues to use the Hutus or Tutsi to cleanse some of their own ethnic minorities.

7.10: Ethnic Cleansing in Europe Section 7.10 centers on ethnic cleansing in Europe. According to the text, ethnic cleansing occurs because one group desires to get rid of another to occupy that space alone. The text discusses the case of the former Yugoslavia (a nation created after World War 2), consisted of several ethnicities in one nation, put together because they spoke languages that were similar. In the 1980s, former Yugoslavia, traditionally a hotbed of unrest, broke up because of conflict between these ethnic groups. The text closely examines the ethnic conflicts in two of the seven countries formed after the collapse of former Yugoslavia: Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Kosovo, then describing the process of ethnic cleansing in Kosovo. At present, Serbia controls Kosovo, which at the time of the dissolution of former Yugoslavia, consisted of 82 percent Albanian. The new president at the time began cleansing the area of ethnic Albanian. It ended with

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intervention from NATO. The text also describes ethnic cleansing and genocide that occurred in Bosnia & Herzegovina in the 1990s. Croats and Serbs, two of the multi ethnicities found in the country, systematically cleansed more than 2.7 million of 3.3 million people. Leaders of the conflicts have since been charged with war crimes and an Agreement signed to end that created some measure of peace in Bosnia & Herzegovina.

Suggestions on how you can teach this Module: •

Students should understand that contemporary geographers reject the classification of humans into races because these classifications have no relation to place. Skin color, one aspect of race, is more palatable to geographers primarily because it decides where people live and work. Students can offer examples from their personal life. Compare the pie chart with the groupings by race/color in Brazil from the census with the result of the self-identification survey. Discuss the situation in the USA as well as Brazil.

•

Introduce students to the maps in Figures 7.2.3 to 7.2.6 and use them to engage your students in a discussion about the distribution of ethnicities in the United States. Students learn more, however, if they produce their own map. You could have students produce ethnic distribution maps by providing them with simplified census data or having them visit MapMaster 2.0 in the Study Area in Mastering Geography. Assign questions from Mastering Geography for homework. You should emphasize the regional distribution of each group and the clustering of groups such as African Americans and Hispanics in urban centers as a function of migration. It is also important that students know that the current distribution of Asians and Hispanics was influenced by migration beginning in the 1960s for Asians and the 1970s for Hispanics.

•

Introduce students to the map of the origin and destination of enslaved Africans in Figure 7. 3.1.

Ask students to identify the origin and destination of enslaved Africans indicated by the arrows.

Your discussion with students should include the triangular slave trade (Figure 7.3.1) and the landmasses involved in the trade. Use Figure 7.3.4 to initiate discussion about the second movement of African Americans from the South to the Northeast and the West. You can also use the map of Baltimore to illustrate intraregional migration of African Americans from the city into adjoining areas (Figure 7.3.5). You may also assign students the following from Mastering Geography: Thinking Spatially and Data Analysis—Sub-Saharan Africa—African Slave Trade for additional reading.

•

Students should understand how races were deliberately isolated from each other through legal means such as the “separate but equal” doctrine in the United States and apartheid in South Africa. Using Figure 7.5.3, discuss with students the separate landscapes that discrimination by race can create. In addition, explain to students the historical and geographic effects of these laws on the United States and South Africa. See Mastering Geography for assignments to reinforce these concepts. Students may also view the video “South Africa’s Post-Apartheid Geography” mentioned in Additional Resources.

•

Help your students reach a conclusive definition of the term genocide and help students understand the relationship between genocide and ethnic cleansing. Discuss with students the general causes for genocide in all four countries mentioned. Students should understand that an outcome of genocide and conflict in Sudan is the division of the country into separate nations 58

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with the newly formed South Sudan formally recognized by the United Nations in 2011. You can have your students guess why instances of genocide especially in Africa continue to occur in this time. Your discussion should also address the causes and effects of genocide in Rwanda, particularly the effects on space, territory, and population distribution. Draw students’ attention to the map on page 187 as an explanation for the persistence of genocide there. If time allows, you can show this short clip BBC—60 Minutes Video Quiz: Sudan and Chad: The Darfur Crisis.

•

Also, clarify terms such as ethnic cleansing, genocide, ethnophobia, and xenophobia and mention the term balkanization to describe the process of breaking up. Students should understand that the outcome of ethnic cleansing includes death of a specific population, isolation, and displacement.

Use the video “Srebrenica: Looking for Justice” in Mastering Geography, an excellent starting point for a discussion on ethnic cleansing in contemporary times. After the film, see the E-Study area in Mastering Geography for more reading materials.

Note to the instructor: Please remember that topics in this section are sensitive for some of your students. Spend time to clarify concepts throughout the chapter. To reinforce this chapter, you should assign students tasks and readings from Mastering Geography as well as the Review, Analyze, & Apply feature at the end of the chapter. Use the assignments already prepared for you or create your own. For a chapter assessment, create an exam by using the test generator especially written for learning systems such as Blackboard or go to the assessments in Mastering Geography done in Microsoft Word if you need a paper copy. It is a good idea to assess Chapters 6, 7, and 8 together.

Answers to Thinking Geographically 1. Hawaii demonstrates a racial and ethnic diversity distinct from the other 49 states. What geographic factors contribute to Hawaii’s distinctive ethnic and racial distribution?

Answers may vary but should include the migration of Asians to work on Dole pineapple plantation. Hawaii’s Proximity to Asian countries such as Japan makes it easy for migrants from those regions to enter Hawaii and in large numbers. Americans move from contiguous USA primarily for the milder weather and climate.

2. Since the repeal of apartheid laws, races in South Africa continue to be highly segregated. Why might spatial separation persist despite the end of legal segregation?

Answers will vary but may include people tend to settle where others of the same ethnic group are creating ethnic enclaves. Here, they speak the same language, practice the same religion, same mores, etc. and have ties to the land or space they occupy. They have no desire to leave the space despite the memories associated with it.

3. The Kurds claim to be the world’s largest ethnic group not in control of a country. Based on Figures 7.7.1 and 7.7.2, what other ethnic groups might have a strong claim to reorganize territorial boundaries so that they could become the majority? What are some of the obstacles that might be faced in sharing power with other ethnicities?

Answers will vary: Much of Asia contains many areas that are culturally similar, speaking the same language or a close facsimile or the same religion. If the borders of Azerbaijan and Iran and part of Shia Iraq, (if they border Iran) Iran that region would potentially become a Shiite state where religion would 59

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match territorial borders. Some obstacles that might be faced in sharing power with other ethnicities include one or more groups striving for more political power and control as in the Taliban in Afghanistan, cultural differences (language and religion) that lead to conflict among groups. Some groups’ distribution may not match their territorial borders as in the case of the Pashtuns and Azerbaijanis.

4. Professional divers hold competitions to dive off the Stari Most bridge in Mostar (refer to Figure 7.10.4). Why might the bridge be an important place to hold professional diving competitions? The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) has placed the bridge on its list of World Heritage sites. Why would the bridge be considered a World Heritage site? Consult unesco.org and search for World Heritage site #946.

Answers will vary. The new bridge replaced the old one destroyed by the Croats during ethnic cleansing in the 1990. It is a memorial for Bosniaks, but its replacement was an international effort. The new diving competition would help to wipe out the pain and suffering associated with the bridge.

Answers to Geospatial Analysis Ethnic Diversity in Sub-Saharan Africa Sub-Saharan Africa has the world’s most ethnically diverse countries. Add the Ethnic Diversity layer.

Select the Settings icon from the Legend, and select Show Political Labels. Zoom to sub-Saharan Africa.

1. Select one country that is most ethnically diverse and one country that is least or less ethnically diverse. Place the cursor over these two countries. How do the data show that one country is more ethnically diverse than the other?

Most ethnically diverse—Nigeria; Least ethnically diverse—Swaziland. For Swaziland, only two ethnic groups are shown. For Nigeria, as many as nine ethnic groups were listed.

2. Add the Refugees, by Country of Origin layer, select Split map window. Does the spatial association between the two maps appear to be strong or weak? Why might that be the case?

It appears weak. The countries that have diverse ethnic populations do not necessarily have the largest refugee population. That spatial association exists with Democratic Republic of the Congo.

Answers to Explore Lingering Apartheid in South Africa Use Google Earth to explore a township where only Black people lived during South Africa’s apartheid period.

Search for 500 Barracuda Road, Lawley, Gauteng, South Africa.

1. Continue east along Barracuda Road until you reach the end. What nonresidential activities did you see along the road?

Restaurant, tire repair shop, Auto-mechanic, club, and daycare shops

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2. Describe the condition of the houses. Large or small? Modern or old? In good shape or poor?

Most of the houses were in good condition, and there was a mixture of large and small houses.

Larger houses interspersed with small houses.

3. Describe the landscaping around the houses, especially when you get to the end of the road.

There was little landscaping around the houses. Walls prohibited view of landscape, but most had grass around it. Landscaping at the end of the street was less tidy than those further west.

4. Why is it important for people to erect fences or walls around their houses?

Building walls around the house was to protect the properties.

Additional Resources •

Detroit Census Confirms a Desertion Like No Other: http://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/23/us/23detroit.html

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South Africa’s Post-Apartheid Geography: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e0HCgNef9N8

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When Nationalism and Sports Collide: http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2007/oct/13/whennationalismandsportcol

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Blurred Vision: Seeing Beyond Government Racial Categories: http://reason.com/archives/1997/07/01/blurred-vision

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Multicultural and Multi-ethnic Societies: http://www.unesco.org/most/giordeng.htm

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U.S. Bureau of the Census Distribution by Race and Ethnicity in the United States: www.census.gov

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Managing Power-Sharing: Dealing with Challenges in Consociation Political Settlements: http://constitutionaltransitions.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/Power-Sharing-MeetingNote.pdf

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Ethnic Power Sharing: Three Big Problems: http://scholarship.law.duke.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=5970&context=faculty_scholarship

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The socio-cultural impact of cross-border refugee flows and the possible spread of conflicts in host countries in Africa: https://www.iapss.org/wp/2015/04/16/the-socio-cultural-impact-ofcross-border-refugee-flows-and-the-possible-spread-of-conflicts-in-host-countries-in-africa/

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CHAPTER

8

Political Geography Learning Objectives

By the end of this chapter, students should be able to: 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7 8.8 8.9 8.10 8.11 8.12 8.13 8.14 8.15 8.16 8.17 8.18 8.19 8.20 8.21 8.22 8.23 8.24 8.25 8.26 8.27 8.28 8.29 8.30 8.31 8.32

Identify the defining attributes of a state and explain the concept of sovereignty.

Summarize the origin and purpose of the United Nations, the range of land areas of member states, and the growth in United Nations membership since 1945.

Citing examples from the section, explain the challenges geographers face in defining states.

Citing examples, describe disputes among states on defining territorial waters and access to ocean resources, and explain how the Law of the Sea Treaty can help resolve those disputes.

Beginning with the development of city-states in the ancient Middle East, trace the development of states from the Roman Empire to Medieval states to the current configuration of states in Europe.

Define and then identify examples of nations, nation-states, and multinational state.

Explain the challenges faced by multiethnic and multinational states in maintaining unity.

Summarize the distribution of ethnicities in Russia the former Soviet Union.

Explain the notion of a colony and describe reasons for European colonialism.

Identify the remaining colonial possessions in the world.

Explain the role of international treaties over the possession of polar regions.

Explain what the difference between boundaries and frontiers are and provide examples of each.

Differentiate among physical, cultural, consequent, and geometric boundaries, and list the various types of each.

Identify the five basic shapes of states and provide an example of each.

Determine the advantages or disadvantages the shape of a state might pose.

Explain the problems associated with being a landlocked state.

Compare and contrast unitary and federal states as forms of local government and provide examples of both.

Discuss why there is a current global trend away from unitary government in favor of federal government.

Distinguish among the three types of national government regimes.

Use the map of the State Fragility Index to identify the location of failed or weakened states.

Explain the process of gerrymandering and its effect on legislative boundaries.

Compare two forms of gerrymandering: cracking and packing.

Explain in what ways states cooperate with each other.

Describe the roles of the European Union.

Determine the degree of success of the Eurozone since its creation.

Describe the geographic influence of military alliances in Europe from 1949 to the present.

Define terrorism, and list its distinctive characteristics.

Summarize terrorist attacks against Americans within the United States since 9/11.

Summarize the organizational structure of al-Qaeda, and describe its role in anti-U.S. terrorism.

Identify the four most active current terrorist organizations—the Taliban, Boko Haram, Islamic State, and al-Shabbab—and how they differ from each other.

Describe the origin, development, methods, and goals of the so-called “Islamic State” (or ISIS).

Discuss how the use of religion by terrorist organizations al-Qaeda and the Islamic State poses challenges to Muslims and non-Muslims.

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Chapter Overview The world has approximately 200 states, and most of them are members of the United Nations. Chapter 8 features 12 sections, spotlighting political geography, and begins by defining the concept of the state. The chapter also traces the evolution of the state from its appearance in the Fertile Crescent to the city-states in the Mediterranean and then later in the European states. The chapter also highlights those states where the ethnicities correspond with their national territories—the nation-state as well as multinational states where more than two nationalities combine to create a single state. Not all states conform to typical characteristics or definitions, and some are difficult to define. The chapter introduces the states that present such challenges. During the seventeenth to nineteenth centuries, newly empowered nation-states in Europe established colonies in the Americas, Asia, and Africa. Today, only a few of these colonies remain, and they are mentioned in this chapter.

Chapter 8 also discusses the shapes and physical and cultural boundaries of states, which are important in political geography. The chapter also briefly discusses governments whose formation is influenced by geography, such as unitary and the federal states, and it examines the spread of democracy around the world. Electoral geography, another aspect of political geography, is highlighted in the chapter, and specific attention is paid to gerrymandering in the United States. The chapter also examines the types of cooperation that exist among states and features a discussion of the rise and spread of terrorism around the world.

8.1: A World of States The text defines state as “an area organized into a political unit and ruled by an established government that has control over its internal and foreign affairs the terms state and country are synonymous, but the word state can also be used for the geographic designation within a country such as the United States.

States has sovereignty meaning that it operates independently without interference from outside. There are approximately 200 states today compared to 50 in 1940. The largest state is Russia while the smallest are several with the very little land area known as microstates. Most of these nearly 200 states are members of the United Nations. Created at the end of World War II, the United Nations provides a forum for international concerns and maintains peace and security for most countries. The United Nations grew as an organization with 51 member states at its inception to 193 currently. Students should understand that the terms state and country are synonymous, but the word state can also be used for the geographic designation within a country such as the United States. Show students the map of the United Nations in Figure 8.1.2, and emphasize the significance of the United Nations as an organization of states. You should highlight the growth of the United Nations from its inception with about 50 states in 1945 to its 193 members in 2011 by using the map in Figure 8.1.3. You should also discuss with students the case of countries with large populations and territories that the United Nations do not identify as states because they lack sovereignty or recognition by all nations. Use the Pearson created PowerPoint for this chapter from this point on. The maps are always excellent starting point for any lecture.

8.2: Sovereignty of States Section 8.2 describes the ways in which states are organized. A sovereign state is that has independence over its internal affairs and is one of two types. The text distinguishes between a unitary state and a federal state. A unitary state allots most of the political power to the national government and less to the local governments. Unitary government usually governs where its citizens are culturally homogenous example and national unity. Examples include France, United Kingdom, and China. Conversely, a federal state is defined as a state in which “strong power is allocated to units of local government.” The local governments are more empowered in a federal state than in a unitary state. The text points out that the unitary type of government is more suitable for states that are geographically cohesive and compact, while a federal type is suitable for larger states. Recent trends show that unitary governments are ceding some power to local authorities especially where local areas consist of the same ethnicities demanding self-rule (devolution). Also, described in this section in this chapter is the economic (European Union) 63

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and Military (NATO) cooperation that exists among European states. NATO—North Atlantic Treaty Organization—was formed to maintain balance of power and curb the spread of communism and Russian.

Discuss with students how military and economic cooperation work and give them examples of other economic cooperation around the world. Also, discuss the two examples of military alliance in the twentieth century, NATO, and the Warsaw Pact, and engage students in a discussion of the European Union and the creation of the Eurozone and its economic impact on its member states. Considering current hostilities between the Ukraine and Russia, you might use it in your discussion since your students are aware of the situation.

8.3: Evolution of States Section 8.3 traces the historical evolution of the state concept. States originated in Mesopotamia around the same time as agriculture. They began as city-states, which are sovereign states that comprise a town and the surrounding countryside, and later became empires as many successions of powerful groups took place. In Europe, the formation of the state began after the dissolution of the Roman Empire. The Roman Empire extended into such areas as Western Europe, North Africa, Southwest Asia, and Spain. During the Medieval period, Europe became fragmented because it was ruled by kings and other nobles opposing each other for power, consolidated as nation-states (e.g., England, France, and Spain). The text notes the development of twentieth-century European states; the map of Europe was redrawn to ensure a weakened Germany, and after World War II, the country was divided into two. Since 1990, the two Germany reunited, and the current German states are much different from post cold war.

Make good use of the maps on pages 196–197. Ask students questions related to the maps to stimulate discussion. For example, show students the PowerPoint slides with these maps. Your discussion should include the influence of geography on the development of the city-state concept in the Mesopotamia region and the evolution of city-states into early empires as well as in nearby Egypt. You should also emphasize how Europe has changed in time and space. Ask students to note how the map of Europe changed from 1300 to 1980. Which Empires existed, how they changed, what factors might have influenced the change? Is it likely to change from its current configuration?

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Figure 8.3.3

Figure 8.3.4

See Item Library in Mastering Geography for questions on this section for homework or practice.

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8.4: New Nation-States Section 8.4 identifies states that were recently created. The breakup of Yugoslavia and the former Soviet Union, saw the creation of several nation-states. One such example given by the text is Slovenia where people have a common language and religion. Former USSR, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republic between 1990 and 1991 broke into 15 different independent nation-states. Some of the states within the former Soviet Union were multinational states (states with more than one nation). Russia and the Ukraine were the largest multinational states. Russia uses language to identify ethnicities and more that 81 percent considers themselves Russians. The text also deals with the Ukraine whose history is inextricably tied to Russia. Russia at different times in history controlled all or parts of the Ukraine the latest portion was of Crimea that was annexed in 2014.

In your lecture, focus on distinguishing among the concepts nation-state, multiethnic state, and multinational state as they developed in Europe. Draw students’ attention to the maps in Figures 8.4.2– 8.4.5 in your PowerPoint presentation of the chapter to help visualize concepts introduced in this section.

See the Research & Analyze feature for questions students can answer. Students could also view both videos found in this chapter in the E-Study area in Mastering Geography to understand the consequences of the collapse of multinational states.

8.5: Colonies The text defines colony as “a territory that is legally tied to a sovereign state rather than being completely independent.” Section 8.5 explains this concept, and describes their distribution. The text says that a few colonies remain today, but they are characteristically small islands in the Pacific and Caribbean except for Western Sahara.

Figure 8.5.1

It is difficult to define some nations as colonies since they do not fit the characteristics. While Puerto Rico is part of the commonwealth of the USA, Green Land, Hong Kong, and Macao maintain varying degree of autonomy.” European countries control other states through a process called colonialism, which the text defines as “an effort by one country to establish settlements in a territory and to impose its political, economic, and cultural principles on that territory. Beginning as early as 1400s, European states established colonies in Asia, Africa, and the Americas in distinct phases but for the same motives: god, gold, and glory. The colonies were important because of the resources they provided, to spread Christianity, and to increase their power in Europe. However, since World War II, colonies in Africa and Asia colonies gained their independence some of which joined the UN later.

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Ask students to come up with their own definition of colony and then use the text definition to reinforce their learning. Introduce students to the maps in Figures 8.5.2–8.5.5 and have them name colonizers and colonial possessions. Students should note that colonies are characteristically small islands with small populations. You should emphasize the status of Puerto Rico, Greenland, and Hong Kong. Students can learn a great deal more about colonies with this assignment: MapMaster Layered Thematics: Colonialism (Multiple Choice). Plan to have them complete it in class if you have computer labs available to you or assign it for homework. See Mastering Geography and the tab for this assignment.

8.6: Boundaries Between States Section 8.6 examines types of boundaries that exist between states. A boundary surrounds a state’s territory and is defined in the text as “an invisible line that marks the extent of a state’s territory.” In the past, states were demarcated by a frontier zone where no state exercises complete political control instead of a boundary. The text uses the term antecedent boundaries to describe those that existed before settlement, usually physical features. Physical boundaries are visible and correspond with a physical feature in the landscape and include mountains, deserts, and water bodies. According to the text, for some of the seas or oceans form their borders and as a result, an International Law of the Sea Convention determines their rights and responsibilities.

The other types of boundaries are cultural and are not visible and often follow the distribution of cultural traits such as language or religion and can be geometric or ethnic. These include superimposed, subsequent, relic, consequent (Cyprus-disputed territory between Greece and Turkey) and geometric. The geometric boundary consists of straight line for example, the boundary between the United States and Canada. In your discussion of boundaries, you should define the term boundary and lead students to the understanding that the term border is sometimes used to mean the same thing. Explain to students that conflicts can occur when disputes over border location and the reasons geographers are interested in border studies. Show this video—BBC: Iraq and Saudi Arabia: Defining the Border—at this point to increase students’ awareness of potential difficulty with constructing boundaries. Your discussion should distinguish between physical and cultural boundaries. Introduce students to Figures 8.6.3–8.6.5 using your Pearson-created PowerPoints to augment your discussion of physical and cultural boundaries.

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Figure 8.6.4

Use the examples of boundaries given in the textbook and direct students to Mastering Geography for additional reading or assignments.

8.7: Boundary Disputes Some countries or regions around the world have boundary disputes, generally physical or cultural in nature. Section 8.7 discusses contemporary cultural and physical boundary disputes. One instance of disputed physical boundary is the islands known as Diaoyu in China, Diaoyutai in Taiwan, and Senkaku in Japan. Pakistan and India both claim the northern region of Kashmir. Pakistan claim to Kashmir is rooted in the fact that most of Kashmir is predominantly Muslim. The problem is an issue created when the British superimposed borders on South Asia to delineate India\Pakistan border. The border between Chad and Libya is also disputed territories. The boundary, referred to by the book as the Aouzou Strip is a geometric straight-line boundary 1,000 mile in length. The issue was resolved in favor of Chad in 1994.

Territories in the polar regions are also claimed by other states. In Antarctica, the claims are not all recognized by some states, including the United States, but the Antarctic Treaty of 1959 provides a legal framework within which they operate. The Arctic regions, rich in energy resources, are regulated by the Law of the Sea. Another example of a border challenge is the Western Sahara or the Sahrawi Republic.

According to the text, the state has declared its sovereignty and is recognized by other states in Africa.

However, Morocco has laid claim to the territory because of its historical associations and controls most of the populated areas of the country. The United Nations failed in its efforts to find solutions to the problem, and the country remains in limbo.

As part of your lecture, the types of boundary disputes and their existing examples. To augment students’ learning, assign reading in the E-Study area in Mastering Geography. Your own material for additional reading should include Agnew, John. “Sovereignty Regimes: Territoriality and State Authority in Contemporary World Politics.” Annals of the Association of American Geographers 95 (2005): 437–61.

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8.8: Shapes of States The study of the shape of states is very important in the study of political geography. According to the text, geographers recognize five basic shapes a state may have. The shapes of states discussed in this section may be a landlocked state and therefore lacks a direct outlet to the sea (e.g., Zimbabwe and Zambia). Compact states are efficient states in which the distance from the center to any point is the same (e.g., Kenya and Rwanda) while a perforated state such as South Africa surrounds another (Lethoso).

Another type of state shape as described by the text is a prorupted state defined as “an otherwise compact state with a large projecting extension.” A state may also be elongated—that is, long and narrow (e.g., Chile and the Gambia). Another shape is the fragmented state, made up of several fragmented or discontinuous territories (e.g., Angola and Russia). Please note that all these examples given are in Africa.

You can assign students an in-class task (using their textbook) to identify the types of shapes and the advantages and disadvantages of each shape. Keep your slide with the shapes open so they can view them. (See the assignment below.) You could also have them identify other countries with these shapes on a labeled map of the world. In your discussion, emphasize the economic and geographic problems that a landlocked state faces, using examples from the text and a map of the world. For additional reading for yourself or if the students are majors see additional reading Additional Resources on the last page.

8.9: Gerrymandering Boundaries Section 8.9 explains the practice of Gerrymandering and describes the ways in which it occurs. According to the text, political boundaries are redrawn after a census to ensure that legislative districts remain the same size. This is necessary because migration can result in a loss or gain of population for a district and might need redrawing. The section features specifically the process of gerrymandering, which is defined as “the process of redrawing legislative boundaries to benefiting the party in power. “Gerrymandering can take two forms: cracking (wasted votes) and packing. With cracking, they spread voters who are likely to vote for the same party over several districts, so their votes do not count while packing, “Like-minded voters are stacked in one district to prevent them from affecting elections in other districts.”

Gerrymandering, however, varies by state and for most relies on the state legislature of the party in power to do the redrawing of the districts. GIS is often used by department to help to draw new boundaries.

According to the text Louisiana is the most Gerrymandered state compared Kansas with very little gerrymandering. Comparatively, European states use an outside body to redraw their electoral districts where political party preferences are not important.

Begin your discussion with the notion of elections as a part of political geography. Emphasize the drawing of boundaries as a concept that is distinctly geographic. Discuss with students the necessity of drawing and redrawing legislative boundaries periodically, and explain how and why the process of gerrymandering occurs. Use your maps in the section of the chapter. Explanation or description of gerrymandering must be visual. Introduce students to Figures 8.9.2–8.9.7 on your PowerPoint. Have them study the diagrams and lead them in a discussion about the two forms of gerrymandering to reinforce this concept. You may also want your students to see how voting occurs in other countries. Let them go to the study area.

8.10: Terrorism Section 8.11 focuses on the concept of terrorism and identifies terrorist activities in the United States and around the globe. The author defines terrorism as “the systematic use of violence by a group in order to intimidate a population or coerce a government into granting its demands.” Terrorism has distinctive characteristics used to identify terrorist acts. This section discusses the well-known examples of terrorist acts against America, perpetrated by internal as well as external individuals or groups. These acts include the World Trade Center and Pentagon attacks (9/11 attacks), the Unabomber, and the bombing of the Oklahoma City Federal Building and the more recent 2019 killing of 22 people Austin, Texas. The section goes on to discuss the role of the Taliban, al-Qaeda, Islamic State (ISIS), and Boko Haram as the main purveyors of international terrorism and their use of religion to justify their actions.

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For some students, the memories of 9/11 or the recent spate of school shootings might remain poignant.

Introduce your students to the text’s definition of terrorism, and show them the maps in Figures 8.10.2 and 8.10.3, which show the distribution of terrorist activities against Americans in the United States and those by terrorists’ groups abroad. Students should be able to recognize the difficulty of distinguishing between terrorist activities and other political acts of violence. Introduce students to Figure 8.10.5.

Students should be able to identify terrorist activities carried out by al-Qaeda or ISIS, transition into a discussion of al-Qaeda and ISIS organizations, their motivation for terrorism, and their attractions to individuals.

8. 11: States in War & Peace This section describes three regime types of government, and identify suspect states: democracy, autocracy, and anocracy. The text defines autocracy as “a country that is run according to the interests of the ruler rather than the people” and anocracy as “a country that is not fully democratic or fully autocratic but rather displays a mix of the two types.” There is, however, an increasing trend toward democracy in many countries. Figure 8.11.3 displays the level of stability of state using the Fragile State Index. Most fragile states are in Africa according to the map. Discussed in the text also are countries deemed as Nuclear states because they possess nuclear among other weapons of mass destructions. The USA and Russia possess more than 90 percent of the total numbers globally, but they reduced their numbers with a treaty signed in 1970. Other countries with nuclear weapons include China, India, Pakistan, France, United Kingdom, and North Korea. Other states, such as Iran, with whom the United States have a complicated relationship is one of the states who they suspect have been creating nuclear or other weapons of mass destruction. The same is true for North Korea and Israel.

To teach this section, your discussion should begin with the classification of national government regimes and a characterization of each type. Using the Pearson-created PowerPoint, draw students’ attention to the map in Figure 8.8.3 so you can discuss the distribution of these types of states. Show them the chart in Figure 8.8.3 to highlight the differences among these types of states. Have your students add examples of each type from the map. You may also discuss with students the growing trend toward democracy in places such as the Middle East and Africa, reminding them of events in Egypt, Tunisia, Syria, and Yemen. You might want to create a discussion board assignment where students can first write a reaction piece to a given article or the textbook itself and then ask students to respond to each other.

Note to the Instructors: This chapter is suitable for essays or short free response. You can find these questions in Blackboard, or you can use the Item Library in Mastering Geography to create free response questions. If your classes are too large, continue to create multiple-choice exam.

Answers to Thinking Geographically 1. In 2014, Russia invaded Crimea and annexed it, claiming that the majority of the Crimean people, who are ethnic Russians, supported the action (refer to Figure 8.4.5). Nearly every other country in the world continues to recognize Ukraine’s sovereignty over Crimea. Should Crimea appear on maps (such as Figure 8.1.4) as part of Ukraine or as part of Russia? Why? Though there are ethnic Russians living in Crimea, Crimea should appear on the map as Ukraine until much of the world recognize them as belonging to Russia. Other states have seceded and claimed independence. But until much of nations around the world recognize the action then they belong to whatever nation they seceded from and therefore the same should apply.

2. Puerto Rico is a commonwealth of the United States. Puerto Ricans are U.S. citizens but don’t vote in U.S. elections or have a voting member of Congress. In a recent referendum, 52.5% of Puerto Ricans voted in favor of Puerto Rico becoming the fifty-first U.S. state, and 47.5% of 70

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Puerto Ricans voted for independence or a free association with the United States. What might be the advantages and challenges of Puerto Rico becoming a U.S. state or becoming an independent country?

Both choices have its challenges. For one, if Puerto Rico went for independence, their challenge would be securing an economy that works, providing security internally and externally, etc.

3. The Arctic Ocean sea ice has receded in recent decades as a result of climate change. How might the reduction in sea ice affect claims by states to the Arctic region? How might states benefit or be harmed by the loss of the ice?

Several states have claims in the Arctic regions were established after the law of the sea convention in 1982. Signatories to the convention are granted access to the resources if their borders fall within a certain distance (200 miles from their territorial waters) from their shores. A shift in the ice sheets may cause the boundaries to shift and lead to conflict over competing claims. The state that would benefit most would the ones with their territorial borders closer to the shifting ice sheets.

4. For a few months in late 2020 and early 2021, the Center for Systemic Peace temporarily changed the classification of the United States from democracy to anocracy. What events in the United States at that time influenced the change?

2020 was the election of the president of the United States. The incumbent Donald Trump lost the election to Joe Biden. The time between the election and for some time after the political landscape resembled of an anocratic state. Part Democracy with one party failing to accept the outcome of the election.

Answers to Geospatial Analysis Most countries in Europe have joined economic and military alliances. But differences persist among the member countries. Add the NATO layer. Select the Settings icon from the Legend and select Show Political Labels. Add the Gross National Income Per Capita layer and select Split map window. Zoom to Europe.

1. What differences in GNI per capita do you see between countries in the eastern countries of NATO and the western countries?

GNI per Capita are much lower among Eastern European NATO countries than those Western Europe.

2. What historical factor accounts for the income difference between east and west? Refer to Figure 8.4.4 or view Former Warsaw Pact Members in MapMaster 2.0.

Many Eastern European countries were former communist countries whose economies stagnated after the fall of communism.

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Answers to Explore Europe’s International Boundaries Use Google Earth to view the international boundary formed by the Rhine River.

Search for Le Jardin-des-Deux-Rives (Two Rivers Garden).

1. In what country is the Garden? What country is on the other side of the Rhine River?

The Garden is in France while Germany is on the other side.

2. Drop to Street View at the red pin marking the garden. Move the photo across the bridge. How do the border controls across the Rhine compare with those illustrated in Chapter 3 between the United States and Mexico?

There are no security checkpoints on either side of the border.

3. Why do you think the border crossing at the Rhine differs from border crossings between the United States and Mexico?

The purpose of the heavy security checkpoints at the border of the United States and Mexico is to prevent illegal migration and the movements of illegal goods between the two countries.

Germany and France are members of the European Union, and this allows free movement among European countries thus no necessity for border checks point.

Assignment: Discussion board View the film “Gerrymandering.” Summarize the film in approximately one page. Discuss the geographic nature of the redistricting process in the United States. Evaluate the redistricting process in the United States by comparing it to other processes in Europe.

Additional Resources •

Korean Athletes March Together into Sydney Olympics: http://www1.koreanp.co.jp/pk/148th_issue/2000092710.htm

•

Prisoners of Geography: http://foreignpolicy.com/2009/11/20/prisoners-of-geography/

•

World Factbook: Western Sahara: https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-worldfactbook/geos/wi.html

•

The Arab Spring: The 5.0 Democracy Wave: http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/n.php?n=thearab-spring-the-5.0-democracy-wave-2011-08-19

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Gerrymandering Began Here; Let’s End It Here: http://rangevoting.org/BGWed.html

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Gerrymandering: The Film: http://www.imdb.com/title/tt1241319/

•

The Geographic Nature of Terrorism: http://www.ontology.buffalo.edu/smith/courses01/papers/Rock(Geo).pdf

•

Saving Failed States: http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2010/06/21/saving_failed_states

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•

The Question of “Failed States,” Australia and the Notion of State Failure: http://www.uniya.org/research/state_failure.pdfSeabrook, N: 2017, Drawing the Lines: Constraints on Partisan Gerrymandering in U.S. Politics Cornell University Press, NY

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Bebler, A Crimea and the Russian-Ukrainian conflict, 2015

•

http://www.atlanterhavskomiteen.no/files/dnak/Documents/Publikasjoner/2015/Spb_1-15.pdf

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Crimea: Human Rights in Decline https://www.hrw.org/report/2014/11/17/rights-retreat/abusescrimea.

•

Charles K. Ebinger and Evie Zambetakis 2009 The geopolitics of Arctic melt https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/11_arctic_melt_ebinger_zambetakis.pdf

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CHAPTER

9

Food & Agriculture Learning Objectives

By the end of this chapter, students should be able to: 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7 9.8 9.9 9.10 9.11 9.12 9.13 9.14 9.15 9.16 9.17 9.18 9.19 9.20 9.21 9.22 9.23 9.24

Explain how humankind survived before the invention of agriculture.

Determine whether environmental or cultural factors were the most important determinant of the first agricultural revolution.

Trace the origins of agriculture referring to where, when, and how it began. Identify the primary agricultural hearths, and summarize when and how they began.

Explain how the diffusion of agriculture during the Columbian Exchange influences dietary choices in Europe, Africa, and the Americas.

Compare and contrast subsistence and commercial agriculture regarding farm size, percentage of farmers in society, use of machinery, scientific information, and electronic technology.

Hypothesize as to explain why subsistence agriculture is associated with developing countries and not developed countries.

Explain why consumption of food varies around the world.

Using a map, describe the distribution of the three major cereal grasses that fulfill the kilocalorie needs of world’s inhabitants.

Compare and contrast developed countries and developing countries in terms of ability to meet dietary needs.

Contrast the sources of nutrients, such as proteins, in developed and developing countries.

Describe the extent of undernourishment, and identify the regions and/or countries where it is most prevalent.

Identify and describe agricultural regions in developed and developing countries.

Hypothesize about the relationship between climate and agricultural region.

Describe the five most common agricultural practices, including forms of subsistence agriculture, in developing countries.

Explain how plantation agriculture differs from other types of agriculture found in developing regions, and identify the most important plantation crops.

Explain the contribution of fishing to our food supply.

Describe how water-based foods are acquired, the world’s major fishing regions, and the global distribution of fish production.

Discuss the relationship between growth in fish consumption and production and their effects on fish populations.

Define the concept of agribusiness.

Identify the six main types of commercial agriculture, and describe their distinguishing features.

Identify the primary producers and consumers of livestock products.

Explain the relationship between types of agriculture practiced and the physical geography of a region.

Illustrate how the von Thünen Model determines the choice of crops grown on commercial farms.

Explain the global trade in food products between net exporters and importers, and how it has affected subsistence farmers in developing countries.

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9.25 Discuss the global trade in crops that can be converted to drugs and which regions of the world supply these drugs.

9.26 Describe U.S. government policies to address the challenges of overproduction in the food supply.

9.27 Explain factors that influence global food prices.

9.28 Explain why, despite rapidly growing populations in developing countries, food supplies continue to increase.

9.29 Discuss the supply of agricultural land in relation to changes in world population and food production and the effects of desertification and other types of land degradation.

9.30 Discuss the supply of agricultural land in relation to environmental changes such as desertification and urban growth.

9.31 Identify farming methods that subsistence farmers can use to increase the food supply.

9.32 Explain, citing examples, how the Green Revolution helped to increase food supply in the 1970s.

9.33 Describe how commercial farmers have increased productivity in recent years.

9.34 Summarize the controversy over the use of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in food production.

9.35 Discuss the growth in demand for organic foods, the distribution of organic farming worldwide, and the distinctive characteristics of organic farming practices.

9.36 Describe three methods of sustainable land management that help conserve soil.

Chapter Overview Chapter 9 deals with agriculture and food. The first part of the chapter describes the origin, distribution, and diffusion of agriculture. Before agriculture, humans were hunters and gatherers but slowly developed as farmers, domesticating plants and animals. Agriculture originated simultaneously in several different hearths in Asia, Africa, and the Americas. Agriculture provides the population with food. However, food consumption varies around the world. Not all peoples have equal access to quality foods; production and consumption of foods vary because of physical conditions and cultural preferences. The chapter defines the concept of food security and explains how satisfying the dietary needs of the world’s population happen in significantly diverse ways around the world. Special attention is focused on Africa, where the struggle with undernourishment and a limited food supply illustrates the lack of food security in the region. The chapter describes the world agricultural regions—subsistence and some commercial regions—and compares them based on farm sizes, the number of people engaged in farming, and the use of technology. Chapter 9 also discusses the types of commercial and subsistence farming and illustrates their distribution around the world. Food consists of both land- and water-based resources. The chapter therefore explores fishing: fish production and consumption and the problems associated with overfishing worldwide. The remaining sections of the chapter explain the challenges to subsistence and commercial agriculture and discuss sustainable agriculture as a means of protecting land resources for the future.

Download PowerPoint for Chapter 9 and use this to supplement your lecture. Like your other chapters, this is an excellent starting point. Please note that many of your students who live in urban places have no connection to agriculture, and you might experience some difficulties getting the content across.

9.1: How Much We Eat Section 9.1 is an exploration of the variations in the quantity of food people consume. How much people consume contemporary food consumption varies both in quantity and in the sources of nutrients.

According to text, levels of development, physical conditions, and cultural preferences influence these variations. The text uses the UN definition of food security: “physical, social, and economic access at all times to safe and nutritious food sufficient to meet dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life.” Dietary energy consumption defined as “the amount of food that an individual consumes” is measured using kilocalorie. The text observes that the average caloric requirement is around 1,844 kcal per day. Developed countries consume far above this requirement, while some areas in sub-Saharan Africa fall well below. Sometimes, people fall below the level of dietary energy consumption required for 75

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a healthy life and carrying out physical activity, and this is called undernourishment. Undernourished people are distributed all over the world but there has been decline in the numbers. In contrast, over consumption of food also cause health concerns with the problem of obesity and, up to 17 percent of all food produced go to waste. At present though, food cost rose significantly. And households spend much of their income for food.

9.2: Diet Section 9.2 explains the variation in what people eat. The notes that most humans receive most of their caloric intake from cereal grass, including rice, wheat, maize, and sorghum. These grains (seed from a cereal grass) are concentrated in specific regions across the world. According to the text, wheat is the main cereal grain cultivated in developed countries, while rice dominates in South Asia, East Asia, and Southeast Asia (see Map 9.2.1). In some regions, additional sources include yams, cassava, millet, etc.

The text points out that developed and developing countries differ significantly in sources of nutrients such as protein. Developed countries receive their protein from meats, while developing countries source theirs from cereal grains or legumes. Some of these food choices are more sustainable than others.

Continue your class discussion by asking students to list the types of foods they eat in their households.

Have them categorize them into grains, vegetables, and meats and then transition to a discussion of how and why food consumption varies around the world. Introduce students to the maps in Figures 9.3.2–9.3.4 in your PowerPoint presentation or overhead projector. Students should note where people consume certain cereal grains and generalize about the levels of development and types of food consumed.

Discuss the dietary requirements for each person, and compare these requirements in developing and developed countries. Students can conduct additional research from the Review, Analyze, and Apply at the end of the chapter.

9.3: The First Agriculture Revolution The text in Section 9.1 defines agriculture as “deliberate modification of Earth’s surface through cultivation of crops (any plant grown by people) and rearing of animals to obtain sustenance or economic gain.” Before the invention of agriculture, people were hunters and gatherers and depended exclusively on game, fish, berries, nuts, and roots. The change from the reliance on hunting and gathering to the cultivation of crops and domestication of animals was called an agricultural revolution. The revolution produced a stable food supply and occurred around 8000 BC. The population increased for the first time.

Disagreements exist over where agriculture originated, but most people agree that a combination of environmental and cultural factors influenced the development of agriculture. The domestication of plants and animals occurred in multiple hearths in Asia, Sub-Saharan Africa, and Latin America between 4,000 and 12,000 years ago (see the map in Figure 9.3.2).

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Figure 9.3.2

The text recognizes that agriculture originated in several hearths across Asia, Africa, and the Americas almost simultaneously. The diversity in locations produced distinctive crops, animals, and techniques that later diffused around the world. The diffusion of agriculture from their hearths was facilitated by the Columbian exchange, an exchange of plants, animal, culture, and technology across the Western and Eastern hemisphere and across several continents.

Survey your class to identify students who have been on a farm of any type, live in farming areas, or have never seen a farm before. Begin by defining agriculture. Discuss with students what people did before the advent of agriculture. Have them compare hunting and gathering with agriculture, emphasizing the effects that both had on population size. Introduce students to the map in Figure 9.3.2. Ask students to identify from the map where agriculture originated and note the various crops that people cultivated at each hearth. Ask students to speculate about why agriculture originated and help them to conclude that both environmental and cultural factors influenced its development. Use Learning Catalytics to engage your tech savvy student in discussions and assess their learning so you can adjust your lectures to fit their learning style. An additional reading for you, though very old, is quite useful. See Sauer, Carl O. Agricultural Origins and Dispersals, 2nd ed. Cambridge, MA: M.I.T. Press, 1969.

9.4: The Second Agricultural Revolution The second agriculture began in the United Kingdom in the early 1700s. The hallmark of this revolution was the increase in agricultural production due to changes in agricultural techniques such as crop rotation and in the breeding of livestock. Section 9.4 compares subsistence and commercial agriculture.

Subsistence agriculture, found in developing countries, is done to feed the family whereas commercial agriculture in developed country is farming done for profit. According to the text, subsistence and commercial agriculture differ significantly in terms of farm size, percentages of farmers, and the use of technology in farming. Section 9.4 also describes types of agricultural regions (Figure 9.4.4) and their distribution worldwide, based on the seminal work of Derwent Wellesley in 1936. According to the text, Wellesley identified eleven agricultural regions. Subsistence agricultural regions include shifting cultivation intensive subsistence wet rice dominant, pastoral nomadism, and plantation. Commercial agricultural regions include mixed crops and livestock, grain, dairying, Mediterranean, and commercial gardening. Climatic patterns dictate the distribution of agricultural regions. For example, shifting cultivation occurs in sub-Saharan Africa where tropical climates persist.

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Your discussion should include an explanation of the differences between subsistence and commercial agriculture as well as the distribution of both subsistence and commercial agricultural regions. Students should be able to conclude that the distribution of agricultural regions is related to climate as well as the level of development in each region. Your students can map agricultural regions in MapMaster if time allows or completes the following assignment in Mastering Geography: MapMaster Layered Thematics: Food and Agriculture—Africa, Asia (Multiple Choice). This exercise is an excellent way to enhance students learning. See Geospatial Analysis on page 241 for assignment on climate and agricultural region.

Ask students questions during class to assess their understanding as you teach using ticker questions found in the instructor’s section of Mastering Geography. If you have time, show the video: Sowing Seeds of Hunger or BBC Video—Zambia: Agriculture Changes in Southern Africa. Either one may be basis for your discussion on subsistence farming and food security. You can create a one-page Summary response to the video.

9.5: Comparing Subsistence & Commercial Agriculture Section 9.5 compares agricultural practices found in developing and developed regions. Subsistence agriculture includes shifting cultivation, pastoral nomadism, intensive subsistence, and plantation farming. Intensive subsistence agriculture Wet Rice Dominant occurs in densely populated areas in East Asia, South Asia, and Southeast Asia where they focus on Wet rice or Paddy cultivation. They grow rice in flooded fields called Sawah. On the other hand, in Intensive Subsistence, Wet Rice Not Dominant crops grown include wheat and Barley.

The text describes two of six types of commercial farming practices. On a mixed crop and livestock farm, nearly all the land is used for growing crops, but foods such as beef, milk, and eggs are also produced, and corn is the most frequently cultivated. We find this practice in the United States and in Europe. Dairy farming focuses on the production of milk and milk products and is practiced near urban areas. The dairy farms are near to the market because this is where milk can be supplied without spoiling, and this is known as the milk shed.

Use the maps and pictures in Figures 9.8.1–9.8.6 to generate discussion about the distinguishing characteristics the types of subsistence and commercial practices described above. You may create your own slides by using the pictures and photographs from JPEG images in instructor’s resources.

9.6: The Third Agricultural Revolution Section 9.6 explains how agriculture has become more productive given predictions that we would have future famines. The third agricultural revolution or the green revolution increased productivity and outpaced population growth. The green revolution refers to the inventions and subsequent diffusion of new machinery and agricultural techniques such as crop rotation and double cropping. With these, subsistent farmers increased their own crop yield. Beginning in the 1950s, people began research with wheats to produce a plant that was higher yielding and hardier and could at the same time withstand the vagaries of geography. This experiment diffused to other grains such as rice and later corn in many developing countries. Productivity also increased in commercial farming with the increase in use of mechanization, fertilizers, and herbicides. Around the same time, according to the text, dairy production increased. The text also discusses the von Thünen model, a cornerstone model that geographers use was developed by Johann Heinrich von Thünen in 1876. Von Thünen model proposes that a commercial farmer would consider two factor before locating their farm, land cost as well as transportation cost.

The von Thunen’s model is a difficult concept to understand for many students. The text made this so simple that all that is need for students. If your students are geography major, you can go into more detail.

Use the diagram from the PowerPoint to aid your explanation. To give you students an example of the application use the location of dairy farms near the market.

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9.7: International Trade: Meat Section 9.7 explains the role of expanding exports in the supply of foods. Trade in food has increased since 2000 for both developing and developed countries (Figure 9.7.1). Africa and Asia are the beneficiary of food exported from Latin America and the South Pacific. Map 9.7.2 shows the net importers and net exporters. The United State is among the world’s net importers of food. Meat is one of the food products exported. Most meat comes through ranching, an extensive type of agriculture. The text defines ranching as “the commercial grazing of livestock over an extensive area.” Livestock include cattle, sheep, and it is practiced in arid and semiarid regions in countries like the United States, Brazil, and China that is now the world’s largest producers of meat.

Human beings also obtain their food supplies from the land as well as water bodies. Water-based food takes two forms: fishing and aquaculture. Aquaculture is the rearing of fish or seafood under controlled conditions. There are 18 fishing regions worldwide, the largest of which can be found in the Pacific Ocean. China produces more than one-third of the world’s total fish production. Fish consumption has increased worldwide and tripled in developing countries. This led to overfishing—the capturing of fish faster than they can be produced—which caused a decline in the population of certain fish species, especially tuna and swordfish.

You should display Figure 9.7.4 on your Pearson created PowerPoint. The map shows global meat production a useful topic for assessing student map reading skills. Pose a question concerning the relationship between the United States as a net importer and the percentage of farmers in the USA. Students should be able to identify areas with the highest and lowest production of fish. They should also note from Figure 9.7.5, where the world’s major fishing regions are found. You can also brainstorm with students about why fish accounts for only 6 percent of all protein consumed by humans. For extra reading, see “Fish as Food” in the Students Web Link in Mastering Geography.

9.8: Trade in Commercial Crops Section 9.8 explains the role of expanding exports in the availability of foods. In developed countries activities, (food production) related to commercial agriculture is known as agribusiness. Various types of agriculture prevail in some regions mainly because of climate. Grain farming for example occurs in areas like the Great Plains of North America in areas too dry for other types of farming. Grains such as wheat, barley, oats, rice, and millet are grown primarily for human consumption. Another such kind of agribusiness is Mediterranean agriculture, which includes the cultivation of crops on slopes around the Mediterranean Sea as well as the western regions of North and South America. The type of crops grown in Mediterranean regions include grapes and olives, and horticulture.(farming flowers and vegetables) market gardening, a type of commercial agriculture focusing on the production of fruits and vegetables.

Mostly conducted in the south it feeds the urban centers in the northeast. Plantations found in countries in Africa, Asia, and Latin America (sometimes owned by Companies in developed countries) participate in single crop (banana and sugarcane are examples). The section also discusses how governments in developed countries, such as the United States, use subsidies and other policies to deal with the possibility of overproduction and to protect farmers from financial ruin. Farmers in Europe receive much of the same from government. In concluding this section, the author notes that the real challenge in food and agriculture is food prices and not supply. In some developing countries, they grow crops, which can be converted to drugs for sale in developed countries. These crops include coca and the poppy plant used for cocaine and heroin, respectively, as well as marijuana.

Discuss with the students the dichotomy that exists in agricultural production, especially for developing countries. Students should understand that despite increased production of food and agricultural goods, some pockets of the world still experience food shortages caused by the need to produce export crops.

Use the PowerPoint to show the direction of flow of drug crops and the chart of global price. Your discussion should also include challenges associated with commercial farming, such as overproduction, and how governments in developed countries use subsidies to solve this problem. You can ask students to 79

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hypothesize about how the use of subsidies might affect developing countries. Use Learning Catalytics to engage the student in discussion, and you can show the video on increased food importation in the Study area. See: Financial Times Video Quiz—China: Agricultural Challenges and Food Imports or a longer video: TVE: The Coffee-Go-Round for homework.

9.9: Threatened Subsistence Agricultural Practices This section aims to explain the possible reasons for the decline of traditional subsistence agriculture.

Shifting cultivation is a type of subsistence agriculture that utilizes extensive land. The text characterizes it as a type of agriculture where the farmers clear the land (slash and burn) and then later move often because of soil depletion. The amount of land required for shifting cultivation declined for one, the growing population and the current use of land for logging or grazing (cattle Ranching) or cash crop cultivation. Another form of subsistence farming that requires extensive land use nomadic pastoralism.

Nomadic pastoralists raise cattle for domestic uses such as milk and clothes but not necessarily its meat.

The movements of these farmers are not arbitrary but have their own territory over which they travel.

However, nomadic pastoralism like shifting cultivation is threatened communication and transportation technology, and government policy of encouraging communities to become sedentary farmers. Some pastoralists like other ranchers practice transhumance, which is a seasonal movement of herds between a mountain and a low land (mostly sheep).

Review chapter about the different types of folk cultures threatened by the emergence of some popular culture. Have students explain how popular culture is interfering with the way of life for subsistence farmers and determine if there are benefits brought by cultural changes. Use ticker questions from instructors’ resources to assess students’ learning.

9.10: Agriculture & Resource Depletion Section 9.10 describes the reason for the loss of agricultural land. Currently, 38 percent of all the global agricultural system provides enough for earth’s population excepts for some pockets. Land is used for agriculture, but we are losing farmland to urban sprawl. In the USA especially Prime agricultural land is lost when urban growth impinge on land on the periphery of rural land, as with land, most of the demand for water comes from agriculture. Where water is insufficient for agricultural production farmer use irrigation. However, one of the challenges brought about by increase food productivity is that arable land has declined because of desertification (when human actions cause land to deteriorate to desert-like condition). An example of desertification given is the Sahel in northern Africa. California and its neighboring states are responsible for more than a third of the productions of fruits, nuts, and vegetable and together require much water.

9.11: Biotechnology & Sustainability According to the text in Section 9.11, a contemporary debate in agriculture is the question about using genetically modified seeds in agriculture. The text defines genetically modified organism (GMO) as a “living organism that possesses a novel combination of genetic material obtained using modern biotechnology.” Most genetically modified material comes from the United States. There is a big debate in the United States regarding the labeling of genetically modified products. Countries like those in Europe, China, and India require labeling on such products. In some developed countries, farmers are turning to sustainable agricultural practices as a means of preserving arable farmland. One increasing practice, organic farming, uses no herbicides and pesticides and neither is antibiotics used for animals. To carry out sustainable land management, they use three techniques: Conservation tillage, ridge tillage, and no tillage.

Your discussion should begin with an explanation of the term sustainable agriculture. From the definition, students should be able to identify organic farming as an example of sustainable agriculture.

Introduce students to the chart in Figure 9.11.2 to start a discussion about countries involved in organic farming. You can also describe the methods used in organic farming that distinguish it from conventional 80

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farming. For an interesting debate, can sustainable farming practices feed the world’s burgeoning population? There is also a video in the student’s Study Area, BBC UK: Organic farming in the UK. For assessment, see Mastering Geography or the test generator on the Pearson instructors’ site.

Answers to Thinking Geographically 1. Pizza is the most popular food in the United States. Is it a favorite for you and your family? What are the principal ingredients in your favorite pizza? Are these ingredients grown locally, or are they imported?

2. How does the diffusion of agriculture compare with the diffusion of the Indo-European language family (refer to Figures 5.4.5, 5.4.6, and 9.1.2)? What might account for similarities and differences in the two distributions?

Collin Renfrew’s theory that language diffused with agriculture is plausible in that it follows the same pattern of Indo-European language. The difference is that agriculture did not spread to south Asia as the Indo-European language did.

3. Global trade has made possible shipping food long distances. The bananas in this photograph traveled 5,000 kilometers (3,000 miles) before reaching a supermarket shelf. What impact might the globalization of agriculture have on the nutritional value of food?

Answers may vary. Some foods travel over long distances before they reach to the table.

Products like banana and many other fruits are picked before they are fully mature. To prevent ripening before time, growers will use certain product that might have adverse effect on consumption.

4. What might be some of the obstacles to introducing or expanding organic food service at your university or school?

Answers may vary. An obstacle to introducing or expanding organic food service includes the high cost of organic food: meat and vegetable.

Answers to Geospatial Analysis Agriculture and Climate in China Eastern China is divided into three principal agricultural regions. How closely do they follow climate regions?

Add the Agricultural Regions layer. Select the Settings icon from the Legend and select Show Political Labels. Add the Climate Zones data layer and select Split map window. Zoom to East Asia.

1. What is the principal form of agriculture in southeastern China? Hover over this area. What is the predominant climate?

Rice, Sub tropical moist all year round 2. What are the principal forms of agriculture in northeastern China? What is the most common climate?

Rain fed cropland and humid continental, hot summer, and climate 81

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3. What are the principal forms of agriculture in inland China? What is the predominant climate?

Remote rangeland, Humid continental mild summer climate 4. Why does the predominant agriculture vary among the climate regions (refer to pages 228–299)?

Whitley in the 1930s identified agricultural regions and noted that climate determined agricultural regions. For example, in China as in other rice producing regions, a constantly wet climate is required to grow rice. Remote rangelands are grassland used for grazing and does not receive much rainfall.

Answers to Explore Rice Fields in Asia Use Google Earth to examine how rice is grown in Asia.

Search for Pura Desa Banjar Calo, Indonesia. Zoom in to around 800 meters. Move the image so that Pura Desa Banjar Calo is on the far left of the screen.

1. Immediately to the east of Pura Desa Banjar Calo is patch of dense forest. Describe the landscape to the east of the forest patch. What do the many parallel features represent?

Area appears like it is cleared for farming. There is a distinct rectangular pattern created by the plots of land from a distance.

2. Search for Jl. Melati, Indonesia, which is the north-south road to the east of the parallel features in Question 1. Drag Street View to Jl. Melati. Zoom in on the west side of the road. Why is the west side of the road wet?

Irrigation canals taking water to sawahs Sample Assignments and Charts Use this chart as a guide for an in-class discussion of the topic below. Students as an activity can do research on electronic devices or text.

1. Have students fill in the following chart to compare developed and developing countries in terms of ability to meet dietary needs.

Region

Ability to Meet Dietary Needs

Developing countries

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Chapter 9: Food & Agriculture

Developed countries

2. Have students use the textbook to compare comparing subsistence and commercial farming. Good for quick in-class activities.

Types of Agriculture

Farm Size

Number of Farmers

Country/ Region Use of Machinery

Subsistence agriculture

Commercial agriculture

3. Discuss with students the four ways in which countries can deal with the challenges of subsistence farming, rapid population growth, and increased exports. Discuss the extent to which these methods have been successful. Assign as a paper or test question for Chapter 9.

4. Have students research the effects of the adoption of subsidies in developed countries on developing countries.

Additional Resources •

Aquaculture: http://www.fishfarming.com/

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Von Thünen’s Model: http://geography.about.com/od/urbaneconomicgeography/a/vonthunen.htm Von Thünen’s Regional Land Use Model: http://people.hofstra.edu/geotrans/eng/ch6en/conc6en/vonthunen.html

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Organic Farming in the United States: http://www.epa.gov/agriculture/torg.html

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Industrial Livestock Production and Its Impact on Smallholders in Developing Countries: http://www.pastoralpeoples.org/docs/gura_ind_livestock_prod.pdf

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Diamond, Jared M. (2005). Guns, germs, and steel: the fates of human societies. New York: Norton

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Jared Diamond (1987): The Worst Mistake in the History of the Human Race: Discover (May), pp. 64–66.

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CHAPTER

10

Development Learning Objectives

By the end of this chapter, students should be able to: 10.1 10.2 10.3

Clarify the concepts of development, developed countries, and developing countries.

Distinguish between the HDI and the inequality adjusted HDI as measures of development.

Identify the nine world regions, specifying which are considered developed and which are considered developing.

10.4 Explain standard of living as a factor in the HDI. 10.5 Contrast developed and developing countries regarding income, economic structure, productivity (including the concept of value added), and goods produced.

10.6 Identify the three major sectors into which jobs fall, citing examples from each sector.

10.7 Identify two factors that the UN uses in the HDI as indicators of health.

10.8 Explain how the quantity and quality of schooling influences the process of development.

10.9 Explain how the HDI and IHDI may be used to determine the degree of inequality within a country.

10.10 Describe the UN’s measures of inequality.

10.11 Describe the factors used in the UN’s Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) 10.12 State the long-term trend regarding inequality in developed countries.

10.13 Describe regional internal variations in inequality in developing countries, citing the examples of Turkey and Brazil.

10.14 Describe the UN’s measures of gender inequality.

10.15 Explain the role of women’s reproductive health as a factor in the Gender Inequality Index (GII).

10.16 Describe empowerment related components of gender inequality.

10.17 Explain how the Gender Social Norms Index (GSNI) is calculated, and what factors are used in its calculation.

10.18 Discuss worldwide variations in women’s labor force participation rates in developed and developing countries.

10.19 Identify and explain the two models (paths) for development, and provide examples for each.

10.20 Analyze reasons for the success of the international trade model, including the shortcomings of self-sufficiency and the effects of converting to international trade.

10.21 Explain how the World Trade Organization works to reduce barriers to trade.

10.22 Assess criticisms of the international trade model put forth by progressives and conservatives.

10.23 Summarize Wallerstein’s world-systems theory with respect to the core–periphery model.

10.24 Explain how developing countries finance development through foreign direct investment (FDI) and loans by international lending agencies.

10.25 Explain how “structural adjustment programs” work, and how the IMF and World Bank respond to criticisms of these programs.

10.26 Explain how microfinance has enabled people in developing countries to build small businesses.

10.27 Explain how the fair-trade model of development applies to producer practices and worker standards.

10.28 Determine the extent to which fair trade benefits producers, workers, and consumers.

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10.29 Describe the overall progress made in development since 1980 in terms of gross national income (GNI), life expectancy, and education.

10.30 Summarize the Sustainable Development Goals adopted by the United Nations in 2015.

Chapter Overview Chapter 10 explores the concept of development in geography. Development is part of economic geography, and according to the text, all of the nearly 200 countries falls at some point on the development continuum. Countries are classified as either developed or developing based on the Human Development Index (HDI) established by the United Nations. Developed countries have characteristically higher standards of living than developing countries, and they determine the standard of living by how they earn and spend their wealth. The text also mentions access to knowledge as a factor that determines development, since according to the UN, access to knowledge is important if people are to have a good quality of life. Another characteristic of development is access to health care. The United Nations uses several health-care features, such as life expectancy and health-care access, in calculating HDI. As with education, developed countries have greater access to health care than do developing countries. The text also examines gender-related development and notes that developed countries, despite lacking equality for women, display greater equality among men and women than developing countries. The chapter also attempts to answer questions about promoting development and offers two examples of such solutions: development through self-sufficiency and development through international trade. These solutions, facilitated by the World Trade Organization and foreign direct investment, promote development in developing countries. The text outlines some measures utilized to stimulate development, and discuss ways in which they finance development. The chapter also focuses on the future challenges to development and explores fair trade as a development model and the plans to close the gap between developed and developing nations.

10.1: Human Development Section 10.1 defines development as “the process of improving the conditions of people through diffusion of knowledge and technology” and recognizes the process as a continuous one. The text argues that each country falls somewhere on a developmental continuum. According to the book, a nation is either developed (more developed [MDC]) or developing (less developed [LDC]). The United Nations established the Human Development Index (HDI), which uses a combination of three factors—standard of living, access to knowledge, and a long and healthy life—to determine development. The text uses a map (10.1.2) to show the distribution of HDI by country and another nine world regions, two of which are the developed regions of North America and Europe (Map 10.1.3) that geographers recognize. The classifications do not include Japan and South Korea in the region of East Asia because their levels of development are higher than the rest of region itself.

Ask students to define development and make a list of criteria they would use to determine this process. In addition, ask them to identify the characteristics of families that are wealthy, middle class, and poor. Their responses should lead to a discussion of the components used to determine the levels of development.

Students should understand that older classifications, such as first world and third world, are no longer valid, and we now use only two categories. Use the students’ contributions to elicit a discussion about HDI and the criteria used in this tool for measuring development. Show students the map of the distribution of HDI in the 200 or so countries across the world and have them compare it with the diagram showing the nine world regions. Have students speculate about why low development is clustered in Africa, and why countries north of the equator tend to be more developed.

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Figure 10.1.2

10.2: A Decent Standard of Living Geographers note that the generation and consumption of wealth differ among developed and developing countries. To measure standard of living, the United Nations uses an index called gross national income per capita at purchasing power parity (Figure 10.2.2). The text describes Gross national income (GNI) “as the value of the output of goods and services produced in a country in a year, including money that leaves and enters the country.” The other part of the index purchasing power parity (PPP) account for differences among countries in the cost of goods. In addition, per capita GNI means the average of the income per person. Together, they all give an idea about the standard of living of an average person.

The economic structure of a country affects a decent standard of living. The structure is divided into three. For instance, most farmers participate in the primary sector in developing countries where incomes are lower, while in developed countries, most workers belong to the tertiary or service sector where workers have higher wages. Some workers may fall in the manufacture or secondary sectors. Income, productivity, and access to consumer goods are also highest in developed countries. The author notes that technological advancement is helping to bridge the gap in productivity between developed and developing countries.

Your classroom discussion with students should include a comparative study of the standard of living in developed and developing countries. Have your students compare income levels, economic structure, productivity, and prevalence of consumer goods in developed and developing countries using the maps in Figures 10.2.1–10.2.3 and 10.2.4. Your students should be able to guess why income, productivity, and access to consumer goods such as phones and motor vehicles are so much lower in developing countries.

To reinforce your discussion, have students complete assignments in MapMaster, including producing maps of the standard of living, criteria of income, etc. Students should complete the assignment in Mastering Geography for homework MapMaster 1.0: Physical Environment: Economic: World (multiple choice).

10.3: Access to Health & Knowledge Two criteria for development are access to education and access to health care. Section 10.3 explores the differences in access to healthcare and education between developed and developing countries. One development goal is the provision of nutrition and medical services and the United Nations uses life expectancy at birth as one of the health indicators. Developed countries have higher life expectancy than developing countries as shown in image 10.3.1. According to the text, developed countries usually have 86

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greater access to health and education than developing countries. The United Nations uses four measures to determine education: years of schooling for today’s adults, expected years of schooling for today’s youth, pupil/teacher ratio, and literacy rate. In all measures of education, developed countries (such as some in Europe) record higher levels of knowledge than developing countries. The United Nations considers health care an integral part of development. Life expectancy was already discussed in some detail in Chapter 2, but you may want to review the importance of life expectancy at birth in this discussion. According to the text, babies born in developed countries are expected to live longer than those born in developing countries. From previous knowledge, students should understand that access to health care and the amount of money that governments spend on health care impact life expectancy at birth. Discuss with students the importance of education and health in development and ask the students to determine the extent to which education can affect the process of development even from their own experiences. The maps here are important tools. Use the maps in the Pearson PowerPoint for Chapter 10 to aid your discussion. Many of your students are visual learners and would get more from the maps.

10.4: Inequality-Adjusted HDI Development occurs unevenly across space and time. Inequality is present in countries regarding access to a decent standard of living, education, and health care. This section begins with a discussion of how the UN uses the inequality-adjusted HDI (IHDI) to determine the level of inequality in a country. When HDI and IHDI are equal, that means you have perfect equality. Inequalities exist in both developed and developing countries, but it is wider in developing countries. However, inequalities seem to be widening in developed countries like the United States and the United Kingdom. The text notes that at least 21 percent of people in developing countries live in poverty earning less than $1.90 per day. Poverty is also measured using an index called Multidimensional Poverty Index. The index takes into account income, standard of living, fuel, adequate sanitation, etc. the MPI varies by region. Countries in sub-Saharan Africa accounts for much of the high poverty rates. See all maps on page 251 that shows poverty features globally. Display the maps on a PowerPoint slide. Have students compare the maps and determine where inequality dominates in the world. You should also ask students to identify developed countries where inequalities persist and do the same for developing countries. Students should complete this assignment as a part of the ones in Mastering: MapMaster Layered Thematic: Uneven Development (Multiple Choice).

This assignment is useful to show the distribution of uneven development in the world as well as specific countries.

10.5: Gender Inequality Section 10.5 examines gender inequality as an element of economic development. The United Nations use two indices to measure inequality. These measures include the Gender-related Development Index and the Gender Inequality Index and so far none of these measures show where women are equal to men in any country. According to text, “the Gender Inequality Index (GII) measures the gender gap in the level of achievement in three dimensions: reproductive health, empowerment, and the labor market.” The index, uses empowerment, labor force participation, and reproductive health, in the same way as the IHDI. The higher GII means more inequality. Women in developing countries experience greater inequality than developed countries primarily because of the disparity in reproductive health. Examples of Regions with the highest GII include North and sub-Saharan Africa, Southwest Asia, and South Asia.

Empowerment as it relates to GII, refers to gaining economic and political power. Women lag behind men in educational achievement especially in South Asia. Women also lag behind men in the labor force. The text notes that only 46 percent of females in developing countries work outside the home compared to women in developed countries. Reproductive health is also considered for GII and includes maternal mortality ratio and adolescent fertility rates.

Use the maps in Figures 10.5.2 and 10.5.6 to support your discussion of gender inequality explain that adolescent fertility rates are higher in developing countries. It is also important to discuss with students the significance of women’s participation in the labor force, participation in politics, and reproductive 87

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health as key to reducing gender inequality and decreasing childbirth in the regions mentioned above.

Discuss with your students how reproductive health can affect gender inequality. To learn more about gender inequality, see the BBC Video Quiz—Saudi Arabia: Women and Jobs assignment in Mastering Geography.

10.6: Gender Development Section 10.6 describes the way in which the UN measures gender development. The Gender Development Index (GDI) measures the gender gap in development using the elements of the Human Development Index: income, education, and life expectancy. There are disparities between males and females in the in GDI and even starker disparities between developed and developing countries. Women lag behind men in all the components of the GDI except life expectancy. Women in developed countries receive more years of education but less than men. It is also true that women in developing countries receive less than their male counterpart and even less than women in developed countries.

In addition, the text discusses gender attitude especially where it favors men. In recent years however, women have challenged sexual abuse and discrimination in a variety of organizations such as the #Me Too Movement. The United Nation created an index to measure the depth of attitudes and Biases toward females called Gender Social Norms Index (GSNI). The measure includes four dimensions: Political Empowerment Index, Educational Empowerment Index, Economic Empowerment Index, and Physical Integrity index. Unlike the UN other measures, the GSNI was constructed from surveys conducted in both developed and developing countries.

This part of your lecture should explain and compare how gender development and empowerment of women in various sphere are measured, and discuss why it is central to the process of development. See Video Quiz—Saudi Arabia: Women and Jobs in the preceding section.

10.7: Two Paths to Development Section 10.7 explores how countries can promote development and examines two paths of development that developing countries often take: the self-sufficiency path and the international trade path. According to the text, the self-sufficiency path has several features, one of which is that the country spreads investment equally across all sectors in economy. The self-sufficiency path also attempt to limit imports as well as discourage multinational organization from investing in the country. But, according to the text, this method of developments have drawback that impact its success. This includes businesses that are inefficient, Very little competitiveness and bureaucracies that are as large as they are corrupt. Conversely, international trade path is based on the five-stage model proposed by W.W. Rostow in 1960. The five stages are the traditional society, the preconditions for takeoff, the takeoff, the drive to maturity, and the age of mass consumption. The model proposes that all countries will pass through each stage successfully until full development is achieved in Stage 5. The text notes, however, that both models have shortcomings that often limit their success. This unit also evaluates the role of the World Trade Organization (WTO) and foreign direct investment (FDI) in the adoption of the international trade path.

According to the text, the WTO works to reduce barriers to trade among member organizations. It attempts to do this by reducing or eliminating government subsidies, quotas, and tariffs and by enforcing trade agreements.

For this section, you can let your students have a brief debate over the pros and cons of the international trade approach and the self-sufficiency approach. In the debate or discussions, students should also examine both paths to discuss the extent to which each has been successful. It would be prudent to have them complete their own research before class. They could also do this as a discussion board assignment on Blackboard or as an in-class assignment.

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10.8: World Trade Section 10.8 analyzes reasons for the success of the international trade development path. More countries are utilizing international trade as a model for development because it is widely accepted. It is accepted by more countries based on the success of other countries, presence of resources especially in developing countries as well as competition among countries often competing for the same resources. However, some countries like India who before used the self-sufficiency model, no longer pursue this track. Formerly, India attempted to control sectors of the economy, limiting foreign trade as mentioned in the previous unit. Core and Periphery and north-south split both show the relationship between developed and developing countries. The Core Periphery Immanuel Wallerstein World System theory, according to the text, posits that developed countries form an inner core. Developing countries, on the other hand, are found on the periphery. Countries that do not belong to either are called semi-periphery. There is also the idea that a north-south split where development is concerned. We find most developed countries north of the equator while the developing countries are to the south, with the exception of New Zealand and Australia.

10.9: Financing Development Because developing countries do not have the money to finance their own development, they have to procure financial aid or loans from international lending agencies. Section 10.9 discusses how developing countries can stimulate economic development by accepting FDI from transnational corporations from developed countries. According to the text, “Investment made by a company based in one country in the economy of another country is known as foreign direct investment (FDI).” These countries use the money to build infrastructures such as roads, bridges, hydroelectric dams, and flood-protection systems. An alternative to FDI is, which is small loans and other financial services offered to individuals and small businesses in developing countries unable to get loans from conventional sources. Alternatively, countries can get funding for development by borrowing from international lending agencies such as the International Monetary Fund or the World Bank. However, to receive any financing from these agencies, developing countries have to reform their economy to the specifications of the lending agency. According to the textbook, countries have to prepare a Policy Framework Paper, which outlines structural adjustment programs that the country will attempt. A structural adjustment program includes only what a country can spend for investing in scarce resources where they would best be utilized. Discuss with students how developing countries can finance development aside from using FDI. Have the students speculate about possible issues the developing countries might have with the funding. Use the maps to explain the distribution of World Bank loans. See Helping Ourselves video in Mastering Geography Study Area.

10.10: Sustainable Development The penultimate section of this chapter describes the progress made in development globally and the efforts made by the Millennium Development Goals to bridge the gap between rich and poor countries.

To reduce the disparities between rich and poor countries, the United Nations developed several Millennium Development Goals. These are the top 8: end poverty and hunger; achieve universal primary education; promote gender inequality and empowering women; reduce child mortality; improve maternal health; combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases; ensure environmental sustainability, and develop a global partnership for development. The author uses a chart to show the seventeen millennium goals adopted by 193 countries in the United Nations and demonstrates the degree to which these goals were met. The text also describes three ways of measuring progress in development. Though progress has been made for developing nations, they still lag behind developed countries in the Human Development Index (HDI). The text compares three measures that make up the HDI include GNI per capita, life expectancy, and education for both developed and developing countries. Of these measures, only in life expectancy has the gap narrowed.

To teach this final section, show the film “Millennium Goals: Dream or Reality?” from Mastering Geography in class. You may even want to show this video at the beginning of your lecture. After the 89

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film, discuss with students the disparities that exist between developed and developing countries. You should review the 17 millennium development goals with them and ask them to evaluate the extent to which this program has been successful.

10.11: Fair Trade This is the final unit in this chapter explains the principles of fair trade and compare it with international trade development approach. Fair trade according to the text is “international trade that provides greater equity to workers and small businesses in developing countries. Fair trade protects workers’ rights by ensuring fair wages, union organization, and compliance with environmental standards. Workers also receive better returns on prices for their products. When consumers purchase fair trade goods such as coffee, tea, and banana, they connect directly with the producers. Standards protect small farmers and artisans in countries where they have difficulty receiving loans for their small businesses. It also ensures that people who work in the small businesses have a voice and that their products are protected. When compared to fair trade international trade approach has very little government oversight into poor working conditions of workers, workers may work long hours and low wages.

To begin your discussion, define fair trade and ask students if they have ever shopped on websites that had fair trade signage on them as an in-class assignment, so students can compare fair trade with international trade. They should evaluate which of the models are most advantageous for workers and small businesses in developing countries. You can also ask students to view the documentary for homework, “The Coffee Go Round” in Mastering Geography, or if time permits you can show this documentary in class and then have students answer the questions that accompany the film.

Note to the Instructor: You may want to create assessments in Mastering Geography, or if you need a paper test, you can create one from your download from the instructors’ in Mastering Geography site. You might also want to use the test generator to create your assessment. This chapter can benefit from an in-class lab assignment. See below or use the assignments in Mastering Geography if you have access to computer labs or just create your own. Download clicker questions that you can copy to your lecture PowerPoint to assess learning while you teach.

Answers to Thinking Geographically 1. Which indexes of development presented in this chapter (HDI, IHDI, MPI, GDI, GII, PHDI) do you think best measures a country’s level of development? Which do you think is least successful at measuring a country’s level of development? Why? Development is a multifaceted concept that needs to have more than just focusing on the earning potential of a country’s economy (GDP or GNI). By themselves, these measures are meaningless or limited in its scope. While HDI might be a good measure of development, it does not consider the different levels within a country. It might be a good idea to use IHDI, which make allowances for regional disparities in development and the multidimensional poverty index that consider multi deprivations in people’s lives such as a lack of cooking decent housing, standard of living, etc. The MPI also allows for regional variation as like IHDI. No one measure is best.

2. Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia appear to have the highest levels of gender inequality. What factors discussed in earlier chapters might be contributing to the high level of gender inequality in these two regions?

Responses may vary.

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Culture may be one factor that determines female labor participation or involvement in politics in South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa lags behind men in a number of key measures. The United Nations identify them as a feature of de Chapter 2 shows that fertility rates are much higher in sub-Saharan Africa and in South Asia because women start having children earlier than those in developing countries. Women with large families are limited in their opportunities for gender equality have difficulties when aver Women in these societies traditionally work in agriculture However, culture prevents them from owning the land and therefore cannot participate in activities that will help close the gap between them and their male counterparts.

3. Although the international trade path has proved more successful at promoting development, developed countries like the United States and the United Kingdom have taken steps to reduce their commitment to international trade. What reason might be behind this movement?

Developed countries like the United States are supporting the idea that international trade threatens the sovereignty of a state to give it to trade organizations such as the World Trade Organization. The government wants to protect local jobs and products and prevent the free flow of goods from other countries.

4. Do you make purchase decisions on whether the producer or the shop promotes fair trade? Why or why not?

Answer will vary—for many people, the choice is immaterial simply because they focus on getting the product cheaper and not whether the shops protect their supplier.

Answers to Geospatial Analysis HDI in Southwest Asia The HDI for Southwest Asia & North Africa overall ranks in the middle among developing regions. The region’s mid-range HDI masks wide variations among the region’s individual countries and factors contributing to the HDI. Add the Human Development Index (HDI) layer. Select the Settings icon from the Legend, and Select Show Political Labels. Add the Per Capita Gross Domestic Product layer, and Select Split map window. Zoom to Southwest Asia and North Africa.

1. Do most of the countries with relatively high HDI have GDP that is relatively low or average?

Most are high or in the middle.

2. Remove Per Capita Gross Domestic Product layer. Add Life Expectancy, and select Split map window. Do the countries with the highest HDI have the highest life expectancy? What might account for this situation?

Yes, except the United States, which is low among developed countries. Life expectancy is measured within HDI and may account for the high life expectancy.

3. Remove the Life Expectancy layer. Add the Literacy Rate layer, and select Split map window. Do the countries with the highest HDI have the highest literacy rate? What might account for this situation?

Yes. Literacy rates (access to knowledge) are included in the calculation of HDI. Countries with high incomes can afford to give more of its people a quality education.

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Answers to Explore The World’s Lowest HDI Central African Republic has the world’s lowest HDI score. Let’s examine its development possibilities.

In Google Earth, search for Bayanga, Central African Republic 1. Describe the image that Google Earth supplies for Bayanga.

The image Google provides is limited to 8.59 km above. It is possible to zoom further but zooming out will give detail that can barely be read. All we can see is a clear image of a river and what appears to be a forest with clearings. There is a settlement, but those are not very visible as the river.

2. Does Google Earth offer Street View for Bayanga? Why do you think this is the situation?

Google Earth offers no street view for this region because that data layer may not be available.

The country is developing and cannot afford to collect that kind of data or probably little interest to others.

3. Zoom in to around 5 km. What transportation features are visible? How might these features help Bayanga become more economically developed?

A major highway or road system runs through the area. It gives Bayanga connection with the outside. Roads can transfer goods to markets and ports for export and bring in tourists for a Safari. This leads to more employment and, therefore, better standard of living.

4. According to the video, what two problems must China solve to ensure continued economic growth and social stability?

According to the video, China’s government must prevent a Russian-style anarchy and respect human rights. China could find a way to balance freedom of millions of rural people with social order.

Discussion Topics and Classroom Activities 1. Using the Internet as your source, a. Create two tables or graph that show the 10 most developed nations and 10 least developed nations based on the Human Development Index. b. Create two other tables, charts, or graphs showing countries with highest and lowest gross national income. Use at least 10 countries. c. Use per capita gross national income data to create two other tables like the ones in a and b. d. Analyze and discuss these charts. e. Discuss the data in your research on measures of development. What do your findings have in common, and how do they contrast? f.

Given the definitions of economic development used in your text or class, are these true measures of development? Which do you think is the best measure of economic development? Explain in detail.

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g. Which of the indicators that you have researched best adhere to the stated definition of development used in the textbook and class handouts? Explain. h. Show the information on the three world maps provided. Are there any spatial patterns that these results create? Explain.

Note: Please ensure that your tables, chart, or maps include your sources, with dates. Every table must have a title and a key, if necessary.

2. In-class assignment: Assign one side of the class to the self-sufficiency path and the other side to the international trade path. Ask students to fill in a table with information from the textbook.

You may also give them additional readings or, if time permits, let them bring in their own information.

Additional Resources •

Education and Economic Development in Africa: http://www.afdb.org/fileadmin/uploads/afdb/Documents/Knowledge/Session%20II.2.1_2.%20Edu cation%20and%20Economic%20Development%20in%20Africa.pdf

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Gross National Income: Countries Compared: http://www.nationmaster.com/graph/eco_gro_nat_inc-economy-gross-national-income

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United Nations Economic and Social Council: http://www.un.org/en/ecosoc/

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Human Development Reports: http://hdr.undp.org/en/

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Manley, Michael. (1987). Up the down escalator: development and the international economy: a Jamaican case study. Washington, D.C: Howard University Press.

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Industry Learning Objectives

By the end of this chapter, students should be able to: Explain what is meant by the term “Industrial Revolution.”

Describe current and past distributions of industry.

Explain what a situation factor is, and how it contributes to determining the optimal location for a factory.

11.4 Explain the concept of a site factor, and provide an example of how labor concerns can influence location of a factory.

11.5 Discuss the relationship of capital availability to the placement of industries.

11.6 Describe the types of land that are typically most valuable for the location of a factory.

11.7 Explain why textile and apparel manufacturing is classified as a labor-intensive industry.

11.8 Describe the steps involved in textile and apparel production, and how each step relates to the distribution of clothing production.

11.9 Explain what a bulk-reducing industry is, and explain its relationship to cost of inputs and cost of transportation.

11.10 Summarize the characteristics and distribution of mineral resources.

11.11 Explain what a bulk-gaining industry is, and why some industries locate near markets.

11.12 Identify the three types of industries for which cost of transportation is critical to determining location and provide examples.

11.13 Describe how the optimal location for steel mills has changed in the United States through the 19th and 20th centuries, noting the reasons for those changes.

11.14 Explain how the worldwide steel industry has restructured, and identify the cause of that change.

11.15 Identify the four methods of transporting products, and explain the benefits of each.

11.16 Explain what a break-of-bulk point is, and why they exist.

11.17 Explain the advantages of just-in-time delivery, and describe the problems that can disrupt it.

11.18 Discuss how the new international division of labor contributes to the creation of nontraditional industrial locations.

11.19 Explain the concept of outsourcing, and how it affects the global distribution of industry.

11.20 Explain the factors that have how the ratification of NAFTA has led to an increase in manufacturing in Mexico.

11.21 Identify the “BRIC” countries, and explain why they are expected to dominate global manufacturing in the twenty-first century.

11.22 Illustrate how the distribution of manufacturing in the United States has changed.

11.23 Explain the relationship between the change in location of industries in the United States and “right-to-work” laws.

11.24 Describe and give reasons for recent intraregional shifts in industrial production in Europe.

11.25 Evaluate skilled labor and post-Fordist production as factors in the changing distribution of industry in developed regions.

11.26 Explain how the location of industries within China have changed with shifts in site and situation factors.

11.1 11.2 11.3

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Chapter Overview Chapter 11 explores the origin and distribution of industries worldwide and factors that influence the locations of industries. Industries originated in Great Britain during the Industrial Revolution in the late eighteenth century and diffused rapidly to continental Europe. Industrial production is clustered in three of the world’s nine regions, and these three regions account for three-fourths of the world’s industrial output. The chapter highlights site and situation factors that determine industrial location. Three industries—steel production, auto production, and the textile industry—provide examples of the importance of site and situation factors in industrial location. The chapter also describes transportation methods and costs as it relates to and influences industrial production. Changing mobility of factors of production and the need to minimize production cost led to the proliferation of industrial locations outside the three primary global industrial regions.

11.1: Industrial Regions Section 11.1 describes the past and present distribution of industry and defines the Industrial Revolution as “a series of improvement in industrial technology that transformed the process of manufacturing goods.” The revolution originated in Great Britain during the latter half of the eighteenth century. The revolution produced new technologies that concentrated industries to specific places instead of dispersed as the cottage industry (home based) system. Technologies, including railroads, led to the diffusion of industrial revolution all over Europe. The industrial revolution diffused rapidly to places like the RhineRuhr valley, Northeastern Spain, and these locations remain major industrial centers today. Section 11.1 uses annotated maps to display the distribution of industries worldwide. Concentrated in three world regions, East Asia – South Korea, China, and Japan, became the world’s most significant industrial regions while in North America, industries remain clustered in the northeastern United States and southeastern Canada.

Introduce the chapter by defining the term Industrial Revolution. Explain to students that the hearth of the Industrial Revolution was in Great Britain. Display the annotated maps in Figures 11.1.3–11.1.5 shown in the Pearson PowerPoint. Use the maps to illustrate the distribution of the world’s major industrial regions.

Discuss where industrialization initially started in each region. Have students discuss the geographical reasons for the origin of the industrial revolution. Students should complete this assignment: MapMaster Layered Thematics: Industry (Multiple Choice) as one of several such assignments from Mastering Geography. See Study Area.

11.2: Shipping Raw Material & Product A key factor that influences location of manufacturing industries is transportation costs. Section 11.2 explains why industries use different modes of transportation. Manufacturers typically use one of four modes of transportation: boat, rail, truck, or air. Manufacturers use ships for long distances, but air transportation is a better choice for small, high-value commodities with time constraints. Of the various modes of transportation, air is the most expensive. Sometimes, a manufacturer uses multiple transportation modes. Whenever the transfer occurs, it incurs a high cost. According to the text, many companies with multiple modes locate near a break-of-bulk point—where exchange of transportation mode occur—to minimize transportation cost. As an alternative, companies choose to cut warehousing cost by using just-in-time delivery, which involves delivering raw material only when needed. The text points out factors that may cause expensive disruptions, such as labor unrest, traffic, and natural hazards.

Start your discussion of modes of transportation by asking students about the shipping costs they pay when they purchase an item online. Emphasize to students that overnight cost is usually higher than the standard cost of air and that overnight shipping is the most expensive form of transportation. Lead them into a discussion of transportation methods that manufacturers use, and discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each method. Explain to students that a manufacturer may locate its company near a break-of-bulk point to minimize cost. Your discussion should also include the advantages and disadvantages of just-in-time delivery.

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11.3: Site Factors in Industry Section 11.3 analyzes the three types of site factors in industrial location. Site factors, one of two geographic costs to consider in locating industries ( the other is situation to be discussed in 11.5). Site factors are industrial locational factors related to the costs of factors of production—labor, land, and capital. According to the text, labor is the most significant cost of production for labor-intensive industries, in which “wages and other compensation paid to employees constitute a high percentage of expenses.” It makes up 11 percent of the total labor cost but may vary from industry to industry. The text points out the difference between labor-intensive and high-wage industries using examples from motor vehicle and textile. The need for capital (second site factor) is the funds used to set up new factories or expand existing ones) also results in clustering of industries. Some manufacturers have opted to remain in developed countries such as the United States but have adopted “lean” or post-Fordist production.

According to the text, this method allows for greater productivity, equality, and creativity and is popular in computer-related industries.

Another site factor, land, which includes raw material, factory space, and transportation, is vital for manufacturing. According to the text, early factories were in urban areas where land prices were high but an abundant labor supply and access to capital was paramount. Today, manufacturing plants are likely to be built in suburban or rural areas to minimize cost and maximize space. Factories also cluster in industrial parks near major transportation routes to take advantage of low cost.

Review students’ knowledge of site and situational factors such as labor, land, and capital availability influence the location of manufacturing industries, especially in the United States. You should also discuss how manufacturers deal with high labor cost and the impact of the cost on outsourcing. Assign students to complete the Explore and Geospatial Analysis activity on page 289 for homework. (See Discussion Topics and Classroom Activities for other suggested activities.)

11.4: Changing Site Factors: Clothing Section 11.4 explains the distribution of clothing production, a leading example of a labor-intensive industry. According to the text, this industry needs less skilled and low-cost labor and accounts for 6 percent of the world’s total dollar value for manufacturing industries. At the same time, it uses about 14 percent of the world’s labor force. Textile and apparel production involves spinning fiber to make yarn, weaving, or knitting yarn into fabric, and cutting and sewing fabric for assembly into clothing and other products. All three steps are labor intensive and need low-cost, unskilled labor. Most of this production today takes place in developing countries where labor costs remain low. Large numbers of manufacturing and assembly plants for textiles and apparel are found in Latin America, India, and China. Figure 11.8 displays information on the international trade in clothing that occurs. Most of the goods produced come to North America. Ask students to check their clothing tags to find out where their clothes were made or assembled. Move on into a discussion of textile production and its various parts. Emphasize the laborintensive nature of this industry and introduce students to the maps in Figures 11.3.2 and 11.3.4 to show students where cotton spinning, cotton weaving, and blouse production occur worldwide. Discuss the role of China in production of textiles and have students theorize about reasons for the shift in textile industries to China, India, and other developing countries. See the Students’ Study Area for readings and videos, and for additional assignments see the Item Library in Mastering Geography. For example, Rubenstein, James M. The Changing U.S. Auto Industry. London: Routledge, 1992.

11.5: Situation Factors: Locating near Inputs Section 11.5 examines the factors that influence the location of industries. These factors can be classified into two categories: site and situation factors. Situation factors refer to the transportation of materials to and from a factory. A firm aims to minimize the costs of transporting raw materials and finished goods to and from the market, respectively. The text explains that the location of an industry is determined by the location of its inputs, such as raw materials and labor, or by the location of its markets. In a bulk-reducing industry, the inputs weigh more than the final product. Bulk-reducing industries, such as copper 96

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production, locate closest to the inputs because the cost of transporting the raw material might be high.

The text describes the processing of copper from mining through manufacturing and describes many useful metallic and nonmetallic minerals necessary for usage in some industries. Figure 11.5.5 shows the distribution of mineral with clustering of minerals in East Asia and North America. According to the text, metals will combine with each other to produce an alloy which can contain iron (ferrous) or not (nonferrous).

For this section, your discussion should define bulk-reducing industry using the copper industry as an example. Ask students to give you other examples to assess their understanding of the concept. You can compare bulk-reducing and bulk-gaining industries that come up in the next section.

11.6: Situation Factors: Locating Near Customers Section 11.6 explains why some goods locate near the markets. Some goods gain bulk or weight during production; these are called bulk-gaining industries, and they tend to minimize transportation cost by locating near the market; for example, the bottling of beverages. Locating near the market is important for single-market manufacturers and perishable products as well. A single-market manufacturer specializes in producing one or two goods for the market; for example, buttons and zippers and perishable goods such as milk will locate around the market because of access to market and perishability, respectively. The auto industry is bulk-gaining, and factories are typically found near the market. The markets for motor vehicle production are found in China, other Asian countries, Europe Asia, and North America and factories are found conveniently in the same regions.

Begin your discussion by asking students to recall where dairying as an agricultural land (Chapter 9) use is located. Have them hypothesize about locating a shoe factory, and list the factors that they would use to determine location. Transition into a discussion situation factors used to determine industrial location such as proximity to market and proximity to inputs and should also include how these factors determine location of bulk-gaining industries, single-market industries, and perishable goods industries. Use the maps in Figures 11.6.3 and 11.6.4 from the textbook to support your discussion of worldwide car manufacturing location. Students should compare the two maps to determine that manufacturing and markets for motor vehicle occurs in four industrial regions. See the Map 11.6.5 to see the distribution of assembly and engine plants in North America. See Mastering Geography for additional class activities.

See discussion question 1 below for reinforcement of the concept and see Additional Resources. See the Item Library in Mastering Geography quizzes or homework assignment by objectives or topics.

Figure 11.6.3

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Figure 11.6.4

11.7: Changing Situation Factors: Steel Section 11.7 summarizes the changes in distribution of the steel industry. Using annotated maps, the text shows the changing locations of one of the primary bulk-reducing industries in the United States. Steel production is traditionally found near one of its two main raw materials, iron ore or coal deposits, to minimize transportation costs. However, because of a shift in the location or importance of these raw materials, there has been a corresponding change in optimal location. This is particularly true in the United States, where steel industries were traditionally located near iron and coal deposits in Ohio and Pennsylvania. Later, a westward shift occurred when new sources of raw materials were discovered in Minnesota. During the early twentieth century, steel mills were located on the edge of the Great Lakes because they figured prominently in the transportation of raw materials. According to the text, the midtwentieth century saw the situation of steel mills primarily in the Northeast and in the West to offset transportation costs of imported iron ore. The location of steel mills in the northeast provide greater access to scrap metal obtained from minimills. However, the manufacturing of steel has doubled worldwide and has now shifted away from the United States to China, India, South Korea, and some developing countries. China steel production is more than 50 percent of the world’s total.

Use the annotated maps in Figures 11.7.1 and 11.7.2 to start your discussion about the changing location of the steel industry in the United States. Students should note the progressive shift of the steel industry while observing it diffusion globally. They could speculate about factors that might have caused the shift.

Explain to students how changes in raw material source or significance can affect the optimal location.

Introduce the maps in Figures 11.7.4 and 11.7.5 to show students how the location of steel industry shifted to the other parts of the world. See Mastering Geography for additional material or readings. See MapMaster 2.0: Physical Environment: Location of Industries: The Russian Domain (multiple choice).

11.8: Industrial Change in Developed Regions This section explains industrial location changes within developed regions.

Trade agreement among countries removes barriers to trade. It allows for the free movement of inputs and final products among several countries. One such trade agreement is USMCA (among USA, Mexico, and Canada). The trade agreement among these three countries precipitated the growth of manufactured 98

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region in Mexico where they manufacture cars. Manufacturing jobs have shifted from the North to the South and the West in the United States primarily because of the adoption of right-to-work laws (open Shop) in several southern states that has made it difficult for unions to organize. The result has been lower wages, and manufacturers have found the South to be a more attractive location. In Europe, manufacturing shifted to more economically distressed regions in Eastern Europe because of the skilled but cheap labor force in those countries. The numbers of motor vehicle assembly plant increased at different times in countries all over Europe despite closure of these plants in some countries.

Introduce students to the new production techniques and have them compare the old processes and the new ones. You should emphasize that these new techniques allow certain industries to operate profitably in the United States. Continue your discussion of how industrial distribution changes by introducing students to the maps in Figure 11.8.7. Ask them to describe how the distribution of manufacturing changed in the early twenty-first century. Students should also examine the relationship between the right-to-work laws and changes in the industrial location to the South. You might also want to assess students by asking them to explain why some car production has shifted to Mexico.

11.9: Emerging Industrial Regions This final section explains reasons for the emergence of new clusters of industries. The emergence of new manufacturing regions, primarily because of the new international division of labor. The new international division of labor, according to the text, is the selective transfer of some jobs to developing countries to maximize cheap labor costs. Manufacturers carry this out through a process called outsourcing, which involves “turning over much of the responsibility for production to independent suppliers” in developing countries. Outsourcing occurs in industries such as electronics and the textile industry, particularly in Asia. According to the text, however, most future growth in manufacturing will occur in newly emerging economies such as BRICS countries—Brazil, Russia, India, China, and at times South Africa. These countries control much of the world’s total manufacturing output and will continue to control future production, especially since they have several factors of production, including raw materials and cheap labor. However, most of industrial production globally comes from three countries, the United States, Japan, and now China. According to the text, China’s ability to maximize industrial production come from site and situational factors that put them at an advantage. China has both proximity to inputs (clustering of raw materials in a previous section) as well as proximity to customers especially because China has the largest population globally.

Discuss with students where their iPhones or iPads are manufactured. Ask them to speculate about why they are produced there. Discuss the concepts of outsourcing and the new international division of labor.

You should also explain the role of USMCA in the location of manufacturing in Mexico. Important to your discussion is the impact of outsourcing on the country sending the jobs as well as the receiving countries. Show your class the short video “BBC: China: New Industrial Power” in class. After the video, discuss with your students why BRICS countries, particularly China, will dominate global manufacturing in the twenty-first century. See Mastering Geography for more assignments.

Note to the Instructor: Remember to download the test generator from the instructor's site in Mastering Geography. Here, you can create a paper test for the students. For the Blackboard friendly test, download from Pearson Higher education website. It is a good idea to assess student learning of this chapter with Chapters 9 and 10. It’s also important to assess students’ learning while you teach and for this, you can use the Pearson PowerPoint clicker questions. Students must also complete the Thinking Geographically, GeoSpatial Analysis, GeoVideo, and Explore questions on pages 288 and 289.

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Answers to Thinking Geographically 1. What might be the advantages and challenges of utilizing drones for just-in-time delivery to factories?

Answers will vary. Using drone for just-in-time delivery will be dependent on the type of industry and the site and situational factors, bulk-gaining or bulk-reducing industry. What the inputs necessary for production.

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Possible disadvantage would be it would not work for heavy industries located near the raw material.

Advantage: rapid delivery of raw material or final products to the market, cheaper transport cost, more sustainable method of transport.

2. Check your clothing labels. Do you have any clothing made in a developed country in a developed country of Europe or North America? What might account for that clothing being made in a developed country rather than in a developing country?

Answers will vary. a) If the country is embracing economic nationalism. b) Large pool of unskilled labor willing to accept much lower wages. c) proximity to the customers 3. Every car has a 17-digit Vehicle Identification Number (VIN) that tells a lot about the vehicle, such as where the vehicle was assembled. Enter the VIN in a search engine for a vehicle owned by you, a family member, or a friend to find out where it was made. Locate the region of assembly for the vehicle. Was the location where the vehicle was assembled important to the purchaser of the vehicle? Why or why not?

Not necessarily 4. Refer to section 8.8.1 about landlocked states and Section 8.11.1 about regime types. How might the distribution of landlocked states and regime types impact the ability of African countries to emerge as new industrial regions?

Africa has as many as 15 landlocked states with no direct access to waterbodies and surrounded by other states. Thus, they have limited access to shipping ports—the cheapest form of transportation. Prohibitive cost of transportation lead to high importation and exportation cost.

This causes goods to be less competitive on the global marketplace. Many African countries are anocratic or autocratic with high levels of political corruption, curtailed or nonexistent rights, and have difficulty negotiating access with neighboring countries.

Answers to Geospatial Analysis Railroads and Industries Add the Major Manufacturing Regions (North America) layer. Select the Settings icon from the Legend, select Change Map Projection and select Albers, and select Show City Labels. Zoom to North America.

1. What major cities in the United States appear to be within major manufacturing regions?

Boston, Bridgeport, New York, Philadelphia, Newark, Baltimore, Chicago, Milwaukee, etc.

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2. Add the World Railroads layer. In which city do the largest number of railroads appear to converge? What industry discussed in this chapter is highly clustered near this city? What might account for this clustering?

Chicago-steel mills. Steel mills close to water from Lake Michigan and deposits of coal needed for the steel making process.

Answers to Explore Auto Assembly Plants Auto assembly plants take up a lot of land. Let’s compare one of the oldest and newest in the United States.

1. In Google Earth, search for 7777 Kia Parkway, West Point, Georgia. This is a Kia assembly plant opened in 2009. Describe the use of land surrounding the factory.

Forest, shrub land, transportation networks, residential housing, and agriculture 2. Search for 12600 S. Torrence Ave., Chicago. This is a Ford assembly plant opened in 1924.

Zoom out to around 2 km. Describe the uses of land that surround the factory. How do the surroundings differ from those around the Kia plant?

Residential housing and other factories. Kia factory is in a rural area with some housing mixed in with agriculture and forest. Ford plant is distinctly urban.

Discussion Topics and Classroom Activities Group Assignment or In-Class Assignment 1. Alfred Weber’s theory of industrial location states that industries locate based on factors such as transportation cost, location of raw material, and location of the market. Using Weber’s theory as your guide, have students locate one of the following industries: a. Beer factory b. Auto factory c. Dairy industry d. Copper production Students should explain their choice, and explain whether the industry is bulk reducing, bulk gaining, or other.

2. Discuss with students the advantages and disadvantages of using certain modes of transportation in manufacturing industries.

3. As an in-class assignment, students should discuss how the need for cheap labor—the new international division of labor (outsourcing)—has resulted in the movement of manufacturing from the United States to countries in the periphery. Discuss the impact on the United States and the countries in the periphery.

4. Use the test generator to create a chapter test for Chapter 11. Your students can also complete quizzes in Mastering Geography. Go to the Item Library to create your exam.

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Additional Resources •

The Origins of the Industrial Revolution in England: http://www.historyguide.org/intellect/lecture17a.html

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Alfred Weber’s Theory of the Location of Industries: http://www.archive.org/stream/alfredweberstheo00webe/alfredweberstheo00webe_djvu.txt

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U.S. Department of Labor’s Bureau of Labor Statistics: www.bls.gov

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The Economist. (2015). Made in China, https://www.economist.com/news/leaders/21646204asias-dominance-manufacturing-will-endure-will-make-development-harder-others-made

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World Bank. The problems of landlocked countries https://gfptt.org/node/44

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CHAPTER

12

Services & Settlements Learning Objectives

By the end of this chapter, students should be able to: 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8 12.9

Explain what a service is, and identify the three basic types of services.

Explain the economic importance of services, and how their distribution relates to settlements.

Describe how employment in the various job sectors has grown in the United States.

Explain what “central place theory,” is and how it explains the distribution of services in a region.

Distinguish between a range of a service and a threshold of a service, citing examples.

Explain why geographers use hexagons to represent market areas.

Compare and contrast the rank-size rule and the primate city rule.

Apply the rank-size rule and primate city rule to developed and developing countries.

Describe how central place theory accounts for the distribution of services in terms of the nesting of services and settlements.

12.10 Assess the applicability of the central place theory to the current arrangements of services in the United States.

12.11 State the two main predictions the gravity model makes about consumer behavior and the optimal location of a service.

12.12 Explain the steps used by central place theory in determining the profitability of a consumer service and the best location to build retail stores.

12.13 Explain how central place theory influences location factor for e-commerce distribution centers.

12.14 Describe periodic markets and the role they play in the economies of developing countries.

12.15 Discuss the concept of sharing services, and why it’s challenging to classify them as either consumer services or business services.

12.16 Explain how cities of the world are characterized.

12.17 Describe and cite examples of the types of consumer, public, and business services found in global cities.

12.18 Explain the functions of offshore financial services in the circulation of global capital.

12.19 Explain how and why developing countries increasingly provide back-office functions. business process outsourcing (BPO) services.

12.20 Compare and contrast basic industries and nonbasic industries, and explain their role in the economic development of settlements.

12.21 Discuss the role of the distribution of job-related talents in developing the economic base of U.S. cities, along with factors that may affect that distribution.

12.22 Compare and contrast clustered and dispersed rural settlements, giving examples.

12.23 Describe the type of services found in early urban settlements.

12.24 Identify the most populous cities and the regions where they were located in different historical periods.

12.24 Trace the development of urban settlement from Mesopotamia to the present.

12.25 Compare developing and developed countries in terms of the percentage of people in cities and the total number of people living in cities.

12.26 Describe how the largest urban settlements are distributed between developed and developing countries.

12.27 Explain why the majority of megacities are now located in developing countries.

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Chapter Overview The chapter defines services and identifies three types of services: consumer, business, and public services. The text presents a number of theories and models, including Walter Christaller’s central place theory, which may be used to explain the pattern and distribution of these services, particularly in developed countries. Geographers also use central place theory in market analysis to help locate or close down facilities. Other theories used are the rank-size rule and the primate city rule, both of which geographers use to organize cities hierarchically, according to the types and numbers of services they provide. This chapter also looks comparatively at business services in both developing and developed countries. The text also discusses the types of services found in rural settlements. Some settlements specialize in specific services for which they become well known. Services generally cluster in one of two categories of settlement: urban or rural. The chapter shows that rural settlements conform to four types: dispersed, clustered, clustered linear, and clustered circular. Settlements originated in several hearths approximately 5,000 years ago. Settlements grew in time and space to the point that we now have cities with more than 20 million people.

12.1: Urban Settlement Section 12.1 describes the distribution urban settlements. A settlement is defined here as a “permanent collection of buildings where people reside, work, and obtain services “Settlements may be either rural, where people are employed in agriculture or urban where people work in tertiary or secondary sector jobs.

For most of this unit, it compares the trends in urbanization in developed and developing countries and defines and discusses urbanization, which is defined as the process by which the population of urban settlements grows. The percentage of people living in cities increased rapidly in the twentieth century for the first time in history, and urban population exceeded rural population. Urban dwelling is reflective of a country’s economic development. At minimum, 79 percent of people in developed countries live in urban areas, whereas in developing only about 52 percent reside in urban centers. The author notes however, that while developed countries have larger percentages of people living in cities, developing countries have very large cities. According to the UN, a megacity as an urban settlement with a total population more than 10 million people and a metacity as an urban settlement with more than 20 million people. Of the 20 cities with the largest populations, only six are found in developed countries.

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Figure 12.1.3

To teach this section, compare and contrast the process of urbanization in developing and developed countries. Use the map in Figure 12.1.3 to compare the cities with the largest populations. Using this figure, have students identify large cities with over 3 million, 10 million, and 20 million people. See Mastering Geography for this assignment: MapMaster Layered Thematics: Urbanization (Multiple Choice). They should complete this as a part of the set discussed above in other sections.

12.2: Types of Services Section 12.2 describes the three type of services. The text defines a service as “any activity that fulfills a human want or need and returns money to those who provide it.” It specifies three types of services: consumer, business, and public services. Consumer services include retail and wholesale education, health care, and leisure and hospitality and more than 50 percent of the jobs in the United States fall within this sector. Business services support other business including financial, professional, and transportation and information services. Public services afford security and protection for the community, and about 9 percent of the labor force in the United States is employed in this sector. Service amounts to roughly 9 percent of GDP in developed countries but much lower than that for developing countries. Services are located and often clustered in settlements where the optimal location for a service is near its customers.

The text traces the changes to the job sectors noting that some services like transportation declined because of new and more efficient transport modes that do not require many workers while at the same time, financial services increased. The author notes that the service sector in the United States grew while the primary and the secondary sector declined.

Conduct a brief survey to find out the types of jobs the family members of students are engaged in and then go over the types of economic activities with them (primary (extractive), secondary (manufacturing), tertiary (service) etc.) making sure to list the kind of activities found in each sector. Use the image in Figure 12.2.1 to show the numbers of people engaged in the different types of services and the image in Figure 12.2.2 to show the percentage of GDP gained through services. Use Figure 12.2.3 to illustrate to 105

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students how the service sector emerged as the most important sector in the United States. See Mastering Geography for assignments. You may give students all four premade Mastering Geography assignments to accompany the chapter.

12.3: Central Place Theory Section 12.3 explains the concept of market area, range, and threshold. This section describes how geographers define the concepts of market area, range, and threshold and use the Central Place Theory developed by Walter Christaller in the 1930s to explain the location of consumer services across space.

Other geographer added the theory in later years. The theory identifies a central place or market center where the exchange of goods and services takes place. Centrally located, the central place has access to the surrounding regions, which it serves, called the hinterland or the market area. The text gives media as an example of a market area where everyone uses the same content in the area. Central places compete and form a regular pattern of settlement. According to the text, the market areas of services vary with the range and threshold. The text defines range as “the maximum distance people are willing to travel to use a service” and threshold as “the minimum number of people needed to support the service.” Figures 12.3.4–12.3.6 explain how geographers use geometric figures to illustrate market area.

To teach this section, ask students to say where they would go for certain services. Lead into a discussion of central places and Central Place Theory, defining both terms. Explain how this theory may be used in a real-world situation by giving students examples. Students should understand that a market area or a central place is determined by the range and the threshold. Ask students how far they would travel to watch a movie or go to a doctor from their home. You can also ask them how many of them would be willing to watch a movie down the block from their school, and how many would go to the next town over. From there, introduce and distinguish between range and threshold. Then, have your students give examples of these terms to locate the market area of a service. See Mastering Geography for additional readings and assignments for this section.

12.4: Hierarchy of Consumer Services Section 12.3 describes the distribution of different-sized settlement and explores central place theory hierarchy and patterns created by the distribution of towns and services. The text also observes that the rank-size rule persists in developed countries. According to the rank-size rule, “A country’s nth-largest settlement is 1/n the population of the largest settlement.” The second-largest city would be half the size of the largest city, while the fourth-largest city would be approximately one-fourth the size of the largest city. When geographers plot such a distribution on logarithmic paper, a straight line usually results. The author observes that not all settlements follow such a distribution. Sometimes the largest city is as much as 10 times larger than the second-largest city. In this case, the primate city rule is applicable. This rule says that the primate city—the city with the largest population—has the largest settlement, with more than twice as many people as the second-ranking settlement. According to the text, small settlements tend to provide services with small range and threshold. In contrast, larger settlements have larger range and threshold. Central place theory, according to the text, holds that market areas or central places manifest as series of hexagons (instead of circles or squares) of various sizes. The size of a settlement determines the size of the hexagons and, in developed countries especially, larger hexagons overlap smaller ones, creating a “nesting” effect. The text uses the city of Minot as an example of a real-world Central Place.

See Figure 12.4.6 for an illustration of the concept.

Discuss with students how central place theory can explain the hierarchical distribution of services. Use the book example of Minot, North Dakota, as a real-life application of Christaller’s theory. Your students can name other examples besides those in the textbook.). Have students hypothesize about the rank-size rule as an indicator of development, and why London and Paris are exceptions. Assign students an inclass assignment (see Discussion Topics and Classroom Activities below. See Mastering Geography for coaching activities about Rank size rule.

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12.5: Market Area Analysis Section 12.5 explains how to use threshold and range to find optimal location of a service. Geographers often borrow concepts from other disciplines that help them to explain a process or a phenomenon. In this case, the gravity model, borrowed from physics, can be used to predict the optimal location of a service.

The model, when applied to retailing, will identify a service location as one that has the shortest distance a customer will travel use a service. Businesses also apply central place theory to market area analysis. A market area analysis is a study that can give service providers information about opening, expanding, or even closing their facilities. The theory utilizes the range and threshold of potential customers to evaluate the profitability of a given service and offers a practical example of the use of central place theory. The steps in locating a new service using the central place theory involve defining a market area, estimating range and threshold, and predicting market share. Amazon, the largest e-commerce retail store, in some ways utilizes the central place theory for the procurement and fulfillment of their orders to their distribution to local areas. Located in densely populated areas with large markets, the fulfilment centers have large range and thresholds (see Figures 12.5.4 and 12.5.5).

To continue your discussion, explain to students how central place theory can be used to predict optimal locations of retail services by citing the example of Target or a Family Dollar store. Discuss with students how using the gravity model can find the optimized location for a service. Students should evaluate the extent to which the theory can be applied to real-world situations. Discuss Amazon and its procurement and distribution centers by using their own experiences as consumers on the e-commerce retail site.

12.6: Periodic & Sharing Services Section 12.6 discusses examples of consumer services that do not have fixed locations and as a result are more flexible. The text identifies periodic and sharing services as two examples of such services. Periodic services include markets that meet at regular intervals often on the same or alternate days in same location or different locations at alternation days. Regions that engage in these types of markets include Muslim countries, rural China, and sub-Saharan Africa. Sharing services (transportation and lodging), the other consumer service discussed here, rapidly diffused but a dichotomy exist because it they straddle the line between a business service and a consumer service. Discuss the idea of periodic services and the Market example given in the text. Your students are aware of concepts such as periodic and sharing services since most of them came of age during the launch of ride or lodging share. Use examples from their experience to have a lively discussion about how these services operate compared to traditional services.

12.7: Hierarchy of Business Services Section 12.7 discusses the clustering of business services in global cities. Cities vary in size, and some cities have a disproportionate number of business services. Geographers call cities with a large clustering of business services global or cities, and they play an important part in the flow of information and capital in world businesses. Global cities are small in number; however, they play a key role in global business services. The rank or levels in such cities are determined by such factors as economics, politics, cultural factors, and infrastructure. Technology such as communication and transportation prevent clustering of services as city functions decentralize. These factors contribute significantly to the development of global cities. Global cities characteristically have large market areas with many wealthy consumers, have leisure activities such as libraries, museums, concerts etc., and are also the seat of national or international power.

Teach this section by discussing the hierarchy of cities that offer business services. Define the concept of global cities and then describe the other layers of the hierarchy. Introduce students to the map in Figures 12.7.1, which shows the distribution of global cities. Have students list global cities in the United States, noting their various categories and have them explain why New York City differs from other global cites in Europe and Asia. Acquaint your students with the other tiers in the hierarchy of cities and have them identify the services that occur at each tier.

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12.8: Business Services in Developing countries Section 12.8 describes the types of services in developing countries. Two of the most popular types of business services in developing countries are offshore financial services and back offices. Offshore financial services offer tax-free services and privacy to their investors, regardless of nationality. Two examples of places that offer offshore financial services are the Cayman Islands or British Virgin Islands, both British dependencies. Back-office services or BusinessProcess Outsourcing (BPO), typically provide customer service for several service-oriented businesses, such as insurance, payroll management, and credit card billing. These PBO were traditionally located near the service but some developing countries because of their comparatively low wages and their ability to speak English have become the new Business Processing Outsourcing locations. Companies locate their back offices in countries such as Malaysia and the Philippines because of their colonial past and their association with Great Britain and the United States.

Draw on your students’ experiences of back-office services for credit cards or computer repair or insurance companies. Then, discuss the two distinctive forms of business services found in developing countries. Explain their functions and the benefits they offer to consumers and use the map in Figure 12.8.2 to show the distribution of these services. Explain to students why developing countries are ideal locations for these services and have students speculate on how this affects countries such as the United States. You can debate with your students the pros and cons of using offshore financial services and back offices outside of the country. Use Amazon or AT&T as examples of such services.

12.9: Economic Specialization of Settlement Section 12.9 defines the concept of economic base and describes the distribution of cities that specialize in certain services. A settlement’s economic base is determined by its basic industries—industries that export to businesses and individuals outside a community. New basic industries are important because they bring in other services. The author notes that geographers sometimes classify settlements in the United States according to their economic base or basic activity. Each type of basic activity has a distinctive distribution. Some settlements may either specialize in a business or consumer service. For instance, cities like Boston, Atlanta, and Minneapolis attract talented scientist. Cities like New York are seen as one for creativity. The section also discusses the uneven distribution of talents across the United States. The text notes, author Richard Florida found that some cities, especially those with cultural diversity, have many talented individuals who cities and many job opportunities attract.

In your discussion, compare basic industries and use the map in Figure 12.9.2 to show students the distribution of economic base in the United States. Discuss cities with specialized services as shown on your map on page 309. Ask students to give their own examples. Discuss with students, Richard Florida’s findings regarding the distribution of talented individuals. Introduce the maps in Figures 12.9.3–12.9.9.6 and have students draw their own conclusions. Students should be able to use the image in Figure 12.9.4 to determine why some business services cluster in a city such as Boston and not in others.

12.10: Services in Rural Settlement According to the text, services are clustered in settlements. Section 12.9 compares clustered and dispersed rural settlements. These settlements are usually centers of agriculture and provide limited services. There are two types of rural settlements: clustered and dispersed. Clustered rural settlements are agriculture communities where farmers live close to each other as in rural England. According to the text, there are two types of clustered rural settlements: circular and linear. Linear rural settlements tend to follow a road, a rail, or a body of water, forming geometric pattern. Clustered circular rural settlements follow a circular pattern, with a central open space surrounded by buildings. The text notes that von Thünen found these types of settlements in Germany. Masai kraals are cited as another example. A dispersed rural settlement is one where the farmers are isolated from each other on individual farms instead of living next to each other, and they are typical of the American rural settlements.

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See the in-class assignment below, which you can follow up with a discussion. Students could use their textbook or additional reading material. They can use the Search Lab in Mastering Geography to conduct required research. Use the clicker questions for formative assessment for this chapter. Have students go to the Student Study Area in Mastering Geography for additional assignments or practice. Students can use the Study Area for relevant outline maps and vocabulary words. See the Explore feature for any applicable assignments suggestions.

12.11: Services in Early Urban Settlement Section 12.11 summarizes the important urban settlements. The first urban settlement the text notes, originated before recorded history and therefore it is difficult to say when the first services began. Early urban settlement was sites where some services were present. Early settlements might have begun as burial sites that eventually became cities services related to religious practices. Some urban centers were sites where early public services like governance resided. Figure 12.11.1 shows a ziggurat found in present day Iraq that doubled as a site for consumer as well as public services. Early urban settlements also had business services. They served as places to store food, exchange goods etc.

The first cities originated in Mesopotamia in the Fertile Crescent and diffused into Egypt and China.

Others argue that these settlements might have developed independently of each other. Whatever the origin, the concept of settlements diffused into other areas from these four main hearths. According to the text, the first settlement to reach a population of 30,000 was Egypt, approximately 5,000 years ago. At various times in history, settlements in India, China, and Europe became the largest in terms of population. Engage your students in a discussion about agricultural hearth. Before the Middle Ages, Rome became a large urban center and as an empire spread other urban centers over areas they conquered in Africa, Southwest Asia, and Europe. These cities were centers of learning, administrative, military centers etc. when the Roman Empire collapsed urban centers declined while China cities grew and had population with more than a million people in several cities (see Figure 12.11.3).

Have students link the beginning of agriculture with the beginning of settlement. From there, lead students into a discussion of the four permanent settlement hearths—in the Fertile Crescent, Egypt, India, and China. Introduce students to the timelines in Figure 12.11.4 to identify the growth of cites over time and show the maps in Figures 12.11.3 and to initiate discussion about the locations of large cities in history.

Note to the Instructor: Make sure you have downloaded the PowerPoint for Chapter 12 before you begin. Use the images in this chapter to support your discussion and bring in student experiences with concepts whenever possible.

There are additional questions you may use in the Item library in Mastering Geography to create assessment or you can create exams from the Test generator on the instructors page or in Blackboard.

Your final exam should include Chapters 10–14. Many of the resources may be found on Pearson’s online Instructor Resource Center for download.

Answers to Thinking Geographically 1. An initiative called “Tulsa Remote” is offering $10,000 to tech workers to relocate to Oklahoma.

Compared with a megacity, what advantages might be offered by a small settlement like Tulsa?

Students’ response will vary.

Response should include: If Tulsa is willing to pay a relocation fee, they might be open to competitive salary. Lower cost of living, little competition for job in STEM.

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2. Shopping malls and specialized retailers have been going out of business in many U.S. settlements. What changes in people’s shopping habits have contributed to these closures?

Students’ responses will vary. Many people are now shopping online instead of traditional brick and mortar stores. Online is more accessible and caters more to the consumer needs some because people now work remotely, and others because of convenience. Additionally, online retailers like Amazon gets items to consumers within a day or two and is a one-stop shop for products from grocery to pharmacy, shoes store to bookstore. COVID-19 created a more robust online retail sector, which have diffused into other area.

3. Liechtenstein is a developed country in the heart of Europe that is an offshore financial service center (refer to Figure 12.8.2). What advantages might Liechtenstein’s location in Europe offer as an offshore financial service center?

Students’ response will vary. Liechtenstein central location is an advantage. The country is a member of the European Economic Area (EEA), though not a part of the European Union.

Individuals and countries within Europe would find it easier to deal with a country not far from their own.

4. Memphis, Egypt, was the world’s largest settlement 5,000 years ago. The largest structure in Memphis was a pyramid (refer to Figure 12.11.2). Based on our understanding of services in early settlements, what do you expect to be the purpose of the settlement’s most prominent structure?

The services found in Memphis might be early consumer services as well as early public service.

Rulers might be religious leaders as well. It might have also been a financial center where people bought, sold, and bartered goods.

Answers to Geospatial Analysis Urbanization & Environment in China China’s cities are not distributed uniformly across the country. How are China’s cities related to environmental features?

Add the Cities layer. Select the Settings icon from the Legend, and select Show Physical Labels. Zoom to East Asia.

1. Are China’s cities more likely to be located near water or far away from water? What might account for this distribution?

Most Chinese cities are located near bodies of water (Oceans and rivers). Access to water is for farming in the early days of the city. Access to the ocean is for exportation and importation of goods.

2. Add the World Elevations layer. Are China’s cities more likely to be located in regions of high elevation or low elevation? What might account for this distribution?

Most of China’s cities are found in areas of low elevation between 1 and 499 meters above sea level. Some mountain regions are too high to sustain the city.

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3. Add the Areas Affected by Acid Rain layer and replace the World Elevations layer. Are China’s cities more likely to be located in regions adversely affected by acid rain? What might account for this distribution?

Many of China’s cities are located in areas affected by acid rain. Industries are generally located near large populations where it is heavily polluted by industrial emission and emissions from cars and other transportation.

Answers to Explore New England Clustered Settlement Most U.S. rural settlements are dispersed. Newfane, Vermont, is an example of a clustered rural settlement. In Google Earth, search for Newfane, Vermont. Zoom in to around 500 meters. Clustered rural settlements in New England were typically arranged around a central common or public open space.

Newfane’s common is divided by roads into three sections—a small triangular section to the west, a larger triangular section in the middle, and a semicircular section to the east.

1. Describe the uses and the building materials of the structures that surround the common in Newfane. Some are labeled. You will have to enter Street View to check out most of them.

Many of the buildings are public service buildings. Most of them are built from stone or concrete.

There are also a few consumer services (yoga).

2. Why do you think these structures were placed at the most prominent location in the rural village?

Those public services needed to be within easy access or range of the people they serve.

Economic Base Mining Construction Manufacturing durable goods Manufacturing nondurable goods Retail Wholesale Personal services Finance Transportation Public services

City Houston Tampa Memphis Charlotte San Antonio Jacksonville Austin New York Atlanta Philadelphia, Washington, D.C.

Many manufacturing regions are located near or in cities. Cities are market areas for many of the business services that manufacturers need, such as financial, insurance, and real estate.

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Discussion Topics and Classroom Activities 1. Have students compare and contrast the following theories. Discuss the applicability of each theory to the United States.

Theorist

Description

Application/Weaknesses and Strength

Central place theory

Rank-size rule

Primate city rule 2. Group assignment: Have each student group select one of the following services and then follow the instructions below: ▪ ▪

▪ ▪

Supermarket Bank

Gym Pharmacy

a. Use the instructions in Section 12.4 of the textbook to predict the optimal location of the service you have chosen. b. In a paper, describe the difficulties you encountered, your findings, and recommendations.

Additional Resources •

Primate Cities: http://geography.about.com/od/urbaneconomicgeography/a/primatecities.htm

•

Major Agglomerations of the World: www.citypopulation.de/World.html

•

Demographia: www.demographia.com

•

Stephenson, J. (2014). Letting Teams Walk: Exploring the Economic Impact of Professional Sports Franchises Leaving Cities. https://uknowledge.uky.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1024&context=mpampp_etds

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CHAPTER

13

Urban Patterns Learning Objectives

By the end of this chapter, students should be able to: 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 13.5 13.6

Describe the three ways of defining urban settlements.

Define metropolitan statistical area.

Identify types of overlapping urban areas defined by the U.S. Bureau of the Census.

Identify three examples of urban corridors, which can be classified as a megalopolis.

Identify and define the attributes of the central business district (CBD).

Identify the four models of urban structure used to describe where groups typically cluster within urban areas.

13.7 Compare the characteristics of the rings, sectors, and nuclei in the three four models of urban structure.

13.8 Explain how geographers use the three four models of urban structure in social area analysis.

13.9 Identify the limitations of the three four models of urban structure.

13.10 Illustrate the differences between the central business district of European and U.S. cities.

13.11 Apply the three four models of urban structure to European cities.

13.12 Trace the development of medieval, precolonial, and colonial cities in developing countries.

13.13 Show how colonialism influenced the development of Mexico City and Fes (in Morocco).

13.14 Relate the models of urban structure to urban areas in developing countries.

13.15 Explain how and why cities in developing countries develop informal squatter settlements.

13.16 Describe the processes of annexation and fragmentation and their roles in the growth of cities and suburbs.

13.17 Explain the concept of sprawl and describe how it affects the landscape, local governments, and the lives of people in suburbs.

13.18 Explain the process of smart growth, comparing American and British, and how it impacts suburban development patterns.

13.19 Illustrate how suburban sprawl has affected the density gradients of cities in the United States.

13.20 Discuss the 5 epochs of transportation in relation to the changing structure of U.S. cities.

13.21 Describe the role of motor vehicles in American life and their impact on land use in urban areas.

13.22 Summarize the history and ongoing debate regarding public transport versus private motor vehicles in U.S. cities.

13.23 Identify major inner-city challenges.

13.24 Describe the process of gentrification and its effect on inner-city neighborhoods.

Chapter Overview Chapter 13 discusses urban geography, which involves the study of urban forms and patterns. The chapter begins with a discussion of the distribution of people within an urban area. The central business district is described by the text as the most visually distinctive part of the city, where consumer, business, and public services exist. The chapter also explores several models of urban structures—concentric, sector, and multiple nuclei models—which together explain how and where people live in cities in the United States and other regions of the world. Definitions for urban settlements vary, and this chapter provides three definitions of urban settlement: a city, an urbanized area, and a metropolitan statistical area.

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Sometimes metropolitan areas overlap and form a megalopolis. The chapter ends with a discussion of the challenges that cities face, such as fragmented governments, urban decline, suburban sprawl, and the proliferation of private transportation instead of public.

13.1: Defining Urban Settlement The size of urban settlements has changed over time and usual definitions do not fit. To deal with these changes, the Census department created new definitions to describe parts of the enlarged city.

Section 13.1 examines the ways in which we define urban settlements), the city or central city as “an urban settlement that has been legally incorporated into an independent, self-governing unit.” An urbanized area includes the central city as well as the suburban area outside the city. According to the text, the U.S. Bureau of the Census characterizes a metropolitan statistical area (MSA), as an urban area with at least 50,000 people that falls within the county where the city is located and has adjacent counties with a high population density. Another designation discussed is the micropolitan statistical areas (μSAs), or urbanized areas with a population between 10,000 and 50,000 and at least 10 percent of the United States live in them. The census department also combines MSA and μSAs into Core-based statistical area (CBSA) or Combined statistical area (CSA Sometimes metropolitan areas overlap into continuous urban areas, such as Megalopolis in the northeastern United States and similar areas in Europe and Japan.

Introduce students to the ways in which we define urban settlement and have students give examples from their own experiences. Use the image in Figure 13.1.1 to illustrate the definitions of urban settlement and have students give examples of these designations around the United States. Show students the example of overlapping metropolitan area (Boswash) on page 319 from the Pearson PowerPoint. Students can also complete this activity: MapMaster Layered Thematics: Megacities (Multiple Choice) in Mastering Geography.

13.2: The Central Business District Section 3.2 describes the distinctive features of the Central Business District CBD). Geographers use the term central business district (CBD) for the area in a city that most people call “downtown.” The CBD is usually the oldest part of the city, and the text describes the CBD as the most visually distinctive portion of the city and the focal point for business and transportation networks. The text uses a picture of Downtown Louisville, Kentucky, to exemplify a CBD. The cost of land in the CBD is very high and as a result, hold two features: previously industrial land use has let the CBD to cheaper land prices in suburb and rural areas, and the CBD is multidimensional with land usage underground as well as below ground.

The CBD has consumer, business, and public services, primarily because the city center is within easy reach of most transportation networks. There is an assemblage of business services in the CBD because they need access to communication, business, and professional contacts, as well as transportation. Public services such as city halls, libraries, and courthouses, as well as convention centers or sports facilities, cluster in the CBD. They meet the needs of the people working in these services and outsiders from the suburbs. Retail services with both high ranges and high thresholds formerly characteristics of the CBD no longer occupy those areas. The change in shopping habit and resident patterns resulted in movement to the suburbs. Conversely, consumer services that workers in the downtown still remain.

Most students are familiar with the concept of the downtown in the cities or towns they are from or attend school. Ask them to describe it. From there, offer them the definition and characteristics of the CBD. Next, discuss the types of services found in the CBD and the rationale behind their choice of location in the CBD. 13.3: Models of Urban Structure Section 13.3 discusses four models of the internal structure of urban areas to help explain where people live in cities. Where people live in the city is not arbitrary but instead, the models developed in Chicago by people in different academic fields describe the urban structure of cities. E.W. Burgess developed the first model, the concentric zone model, in 1923. Burgess argued that the city grows outward from a CBD

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in a series of concentric zones. The model describes the type of people, services, and land use found in each zone, starting in the CBD with nonresidential activities and working out to the commuter zone or bedroom communities of workers for the CBD. The author discusses another model, the sector model, developed by Homer Hoyt in 1939. Hoyt maintained that a city develops in a series of sectors and expands in wedges from the CBD. In this model, the most expensive housing extends from the center to the edge of the city. Industrial and service activities develop in wedges along lines of transportation. The book also describes the multiple nuclei model advanced in 1945 by Harris and Ullman. According to this model, a city has more than one center, with various nodes. Certain nodes attract special activities and land uses and some avoid each other. Also included in this section is a description of Harris’s revised version of the multiple nuclei model, called the galactic or peripheral model. According to the text, this model consists of an inner city surrounded by a large suburban residential area and nodes of services called edge cities connected by a ring of roads. See page 322 and 323 in the textbook for an illustration of each model.

As an in-class assignment or for homework, ask students to compare the models. The images of these models are integral to students’ understanding. Show them the images from the PowerPoints. They could use the images to compare the models. You can use a graphic organizer and then ask students to fill in the characteristics of each model. See Discussion Topics and Classroom Activities, below, for assignments or go to the Item Library in Mastering Geography.

13.4: Applying the Models in North America The three models of urban structure help geographers understand where people with different social and economic characteristics live, given their income or ethnicity. Social area analysis is the “study of where people of varying living standards, ethnic background, and lifestyle live within an urban area.”

Researchers conduct social area analysis at the census tract level to compare the distribution of social characteristics to determine where certain people live. A social area analysis using the concentric zone, found that older housing was near an inner ring in the city while newer houses was further away from the center. The findings from the social area analysis for the sector and the multiple nuclei theory revealed that people with different income levels would not occupy the same zone and those from the same ethnic groups would occupy the same area, respectively. According to the text, using the three models together better explains where people live in cities than does using a single model. However, the models have limitations. For one thing, critics claim that the models are too simplistic and not relevant to contemporary times. For another, generalizations that the models make about where people live do not always conform to reality.

Begin your discussion by asking students to recall the purpose of census data. Explain to students how geographers use census data to conduct social area analysis to explain the distribution of social characteristics. Utilize the images in Figures 13.4.1–13.4.6 to explain how the models can predict where people with different social characteristics live in the city. Students can theorize about the limitation of the model as part of the discussion. See Discussion Topics and Classroom Activities, below, for assignments.

13.5: Structure of European Cities Section 13.5 relates the model of urban structure to European cities According to the text, more people live in the CBDs of European cities than in U.S. CBDs. Wealthy Europeans tend to cluster near the CBD for proximity to services and amenities. European CBDs have fewer business services than their American counterparts. Evidence of concentric zone theory exists in European cities, especially in the outer rings, where individual freestanding housing persists. However, in Europe, lower-income people are relegated to the outskirts, where they have a longer commute, live in dense high rises, and have poorer shopping areas. We can also apply both sector and multiple nuclei model to London. The sector model especially applied to London shows high income people live the western portion of the city whereas lower income people converge in the northeast. Use the images in Section 13.5 to start discussion. In your 115

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discussion, emphasize the differences between European and American cities. You should also discuss the extent of the applicability of the three models to European cities. See Discussion Topics and Classroom Activities below for assignments or go to Mastering Geography for more reading and practice questions.

13.6: Urban Structure Models in Developing Countries Section 13.6 applies the models described in earlier sections to cities in developing countries but with some modifications. The model most frequently applied to developing countries is the concentric zone model. In sub-Saharan cities, people with higher income live in the central city to take advantages of the infrastructure provided there. As the city in developing countries grows, more rings are added, with many residents living in informal, or squatter, settlements. An informal settlement is defined as “a residential area where housing has been built on land to which the occupants have no legal claim or has not been built to the city’s standards for legal buildings.” Homes are not permanent and lack basic services. The sector model, according to the text, may also apply to cities in Latin America. The text notes that informal cities are known by a variety of names such as barriadas and favela in Latin America, bastees in India etc.

Geographers Ernest Griffin and Larry Ford show that in Latin American cities, the wealthy live in sectors extending from the city center, where they remain in close proximity to amenities provided by the city center. The wealthy avoid the “sector of disamenity” because it lacks amenities. In addition, aspects of the multiple nuclei model can be seen in Southeast Asia, where several nodes of squatter settlements, or “alien” zones, exist. Here, according to the text, no strong CBD exists.

Continue your instruction with a discussion of cities in developing countries. Introduce students to the images in Figures 13.6.1–13.6.7 from your PowerPoint to illustrate the changes in cities in developing countries. Your discussion should also include how and why developing countries sprout informal or squatter settlements, and you should have students figure out the extent to which the models apply to developing cities. Refer to the Favela in Brazil and Mumbai in India for good examples of informal cities.

See Discussion Topics and Classroom Activities below. Students can go to the study area in Mastering Geography for practice. Students can view the video, BBC Video Quiz - Brazil: Building Brasilia or You may also show the series of video on China to show how cities change in space and time. See Mastering Geography for quizzes in the Item library.

13.7: Changing Structure of Mexico City Mexico City has undergone several levels of development, from its precolonial past to current.

Section 13.7 describes stages of development and apply urban models to Mexico City. The first urban center, Tenochtitlan, a city built on a lake by the Aztecs, was connected to the mainland by a series of causeways. Most of the people’s daily requirement came from the mainland and at the pinnacle of the Aztec civilization there was a population of over 200,000. In 1521, the Spanish conquistadors captured and destroyed the city. The colonizers demolished cities if they were at odds with the citizens. According to the text, Mexico City was built on the deliberately destroyed ruins of Tenochtitlan. The new city consisted of a main square with streets following a grid pattern, a church, and a marketplace typical of Spanish cities at the time a standard practice of the Spanish at the time. Social patterns like this, that developed in the early colonial days are still maintained today in Mexico City. The city has grown since Mexico’s independence, primarily because of rural to urban migration. They drained the lake to help accommodate the growing population. The concentric urban structure, when applied to Mexico City shows that the outer rings consist of modest housing unlike that of North America. According to the text, the sector urban structure can be seen in sector of elite housing jutting out from the city center, while the cities poor live in informal settlements.

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13.8: Sprawl Section 13.8 explains how suburban growth and sprawls occur. The suburb began growing with the return of GIs from World War II. The suburbs were attractive because of the space, lower crime rates and a greater opportunity for home ownership. Traditionally, suburbs have lower density gradient than cities.

Density gradient refers to the ratio at which people to land declines outward from the center. However, density gradient decline in cities because many people moved to the suburbs where density gradient was low. The reverse became true because of urban sprawl. Suburban areas in the United States are characterized by sprawl, which is defined as “the progressive spread of development over the landscape.”

Suburban sprawl results in the loss of agricultural land, extension of infrastructure outside the city area, loss of city taxes, and the extension of commutes for some service. In the past, cities expanded through annexation. The text defines annexation as “the process of legally adding land area to a city.” Today, suburbs extend the city but are not part of city jurisdiction. This created fragmented governments.

Some places developed ways to deal with the challenge of urban sprawl such as smart growth. Smart growth refers to “Legislation and regulations to limit suburban growth and preserve farmland.”

You can compare suburban sprawl in developed countries with that in developing countries. You should also describe, citing examples, how the process of suburbanization results in sprawl and increase the density gradient. Students should be able to name the pros and cons of urban sprawl and understand how governments deal with the challenges of urban sprawl.

13.9: Urban Transportation The purpose of this chapter is to describe the role public and private transportation in cities. This section discusses a challenge that cities face: transportation. In the past, people lived in the CBD near to their jobs. However, today most people in the United States travel by private motor cars, though public transportation has recently become more popular in some cities. Public transportation includes underground subways, light rail, buses, trams, and streetcars. However, the prohibitive cost of traffic congestion especially during rush hour is taking its toll and more cities are investing in public transportation. Rush hour is defined as “the four consecutive 15-minute periods that have the heaviest traffic.” Also, discussed in this section is the advantages of using private cars, which number approximately 1.4 billion worldwide. Advantages include comfort, choice, and flexibility as well as the perceived notion that private transportation cost is less than that public. When compared to cities around the world, some American cities have very few modes of public transportation. The text cites the example of cities in Germany where public transportation is paramount.

The text cites geographer John Borchert’s claim that the changes through five transport epochs (from Sail Wagon epoch to the present Satellite-Jet Propulsion Epoch) has had significant impact on structure and success of a city.

Ask students what methods of transportation they use in their hometowns. Transition into a discussion of transportation in the United States. Explain how urban transportation developed, citing examples from cities around the United States. Discuss the reliance of the United States on private transportation, the role of government in this preference, and the effect this preference has on cities and towns. You may also compare cities in the United States to other cities in Japan and Europe. Students should complete this coaching activity Thinking Spatially and Data Analysis—North America—Settlement and Transportation to reinforce their understanding of the topic.

13.10: Challenges & Hopes for Cities Section 13.10 describes some of the challenges that cities face. The inner city particularly, faces challenges such as residents having inadequate job skills, a culture of poverty, crime, homelessness, and deteriorated housing. Gentrification, often seen as a panacea for inner-city ills, is the process by which middle-class people move into and renovate inner-city neighborhoods. Middle-class people are attracted to inner-city neighborhoods because houses are typically larger, more substantially constructed, and 117

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cheaper. Furthermore, a location downtown is closer to jobs and cultural, social, and recreational activities. According to the text, cities often offer incentives such as loans and tax breaks to individuals or groups to gentrify an area. However, some criticize the use of public funds for gentrification. According to critics, using public funds for gentrification amounts to offering subsidies to the middle class.

However, because of gentrification, consumer services were restored in the cities, but it also causes the displacement of many low-income people.

Have students give their own definitions of inner city. Discuss with them the challenges that inner cities face and let them brainstorm solutions. Describe the process of gentrification as one solution in your discussion and describe how the process affects inner-city neighborhoods. Let students give examples of cities in decline and renewal. Your students can conduct further research on inner-city challenges and solutions.

Note to the Instructor: You may want to create assessments in Mastering Geography, or if you need paper tests, you can create them from your download from the Pearson’s online Instructor Resource Center. Remember that you also have access to the test generator and can upload tests to Blackboard. It is much easier to create exams if you are using the Blackboard learning system. All you have to do is select the questions from a chapter pool. This chapter may be good for a group project or paper.

Answers to Thinking Geographically 1. Some professional sports stadiums and arenas are located in the CBD, and some are located in suburbs. What are the advantages and drawbacks for the fans of each location?

Answers will vary. When sports arenas are in the CBD, more people of varying economic classes have access to them. People do not need private transportation in CBDs because public transportation is readily available. On the other hand, it could be a disadvantage for the fans because the cost of land in the CBD is higher than in suburbs, and sports franchises are likely to pass on the cost to the fans in ticket prices. Another disadvantage of locating in the CBD might be limited parking space for consumers who have little connection to public transportation and congestion on game nights from traffic and pedestrian fans.

Stadiums and arenas began appearing in the suburbs beginning in the late 1950s and 1960s, when freeways and automobiles became numerous. An advantage of suburban locations is that they cater to the fan base of middle- to upper-middle-class people. Suburban locations are more accessible to suburbanites than to city dwellers. Suburban location automatically segregates fans by economic class because the people who can visit these stadiums or arenas are always middle to upper middle class.

2. Identify the ring, sector, and node in which you (or a friend or relation) live within an urban area. Do conditions in your place of residence fit the overall patterns expected of the urban structure models? Why or why not?

Answers will vary. Responses should include reference to many people living together in income zones or sectors from the downtown area. People tend to cluster together by income level and even by ethnicity. Some services, such as retail services, are distributed on the edges of zones in nodes connected by major highways that ring a city.

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3. Efforts are underway to improve the condition of informal settlements, such as the free Medellin Metrocable, which connects informal settlements with Medellin’s CBD. Why might the gondola be useful to residents of informal settlements?

Answers may vary. Low cost to the consumer because of economies of scale. Shorter, faster commutes to jobs in the CBD because it avoids major traffic jams by road. Reduces crimes because residents no longer must walk long distances to connect to the city’s other public transportation networks.

4. Electric scooters and electric bikes are diffusing rapidly into cities. How might their diffusion alter transportation patterns in CBDs? What impact might they have in urban areas outside the CBD? Responses may vary. Scooters like bicycles do not use fossil fuel, its use prevent traffic congestion and air pollution.

Answers to Geospatial Analysis Urban Air Quality Air quality varies among U.S. cities. Add the Urban Population (U.S.) layer and deselect all classes below 61% urban. Add the Poor Urban Air Quality layer and join the data. In Settings, click Show City Labels.

1. Are cities with poor air quality distributed uniformly across the United States? What might account for the distribution?

Poor urban quality is not evenly distributed across the United States. It is found in industrial cities (Midwest) and places with high populations (Northeast and West) Answers to Explore London’s Congestion Charge To try to reduce congestion, London charges vehicles to enter the CBD during weekdays. In Google Earth, search for 1 Marble Arch, London. Zoom in to around 100 meters.

Note the white C in a red circle. Motorists must pay a charge to drive across the red and white C into the CBD. 1. Use Street View to see street conditions in front of 1 Marble Arch. Do you see evidence that the charge is reducing congestion? What might be done to further address congestion?

There is evidence that the method is working. The side with the red circle is moving quicker, less congested, not as many vehicles. On the other hand, the traffic on the other side is moving slowly congested by buses and slow-moving trucks.

2. There are no toll booths at the entrance to the congestion charge zone. How do you think the toll is being collected?

They are probably using the same system currently used in New York City where they use a prepaid pass or cashless tolling. The system uses overhead scanners to scan and bill vehicles as they pass. The drivers are billed afterward.

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Discussion Topics and Classroom Activities 1. Compare and contrast the three models of urban structures proposed by Burgess (concentric zone model), Hoyt (sector model), and Harris and Ullman (multiple nuclei model), and discuss the extent to which the models may be applied to cities in the United States and other places in the world. To what extent does combining the models help geographers determine where people live in cities?

2. Compare American cities with cities in Europe and Latin America in terms of CBD and the application of the main theories of urban structures.

3. To what extent do Latin American cities resemble European cities? What factors account for their similarities and differences? You can assign this as homework or an in-class assignment.

4. Discuss the pros and cons of gentrification in cities such as New York and Chicago.

5. Choose four cities in the United States that have major sprawl problems. Discuss the causes and effects of urban sprawl and discuss the efforts of governments to solve problems associated with sprawl.

Additional Resources •

Gentrification and Resistance in New York City: http://www.nhi.org/online/issues/142/gentrification.html

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Does Urban Growth Have to Mean Gentrification? http://www.forbes.com/sites/stephensmith/2011/09/29/does-urban-growth-have-to-meangentrification/

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Jane Jacobs: http://topics.nytimes.com/top/reference/timestopics/people/j/jane_jacobs/index.html

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Jane Jacobs, Foe of Plans and Friend of City Life: http://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/25/arts/design/25jaco.html?ref=janejacobs

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Urban Sprawl: http://www.great-lakes.net/teach/pollution/sprawl/sprawl_1.html

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Changing the Intra-Urban Location Patterns of Major League Sports Facilities: http://www.ux1.eiu.edu/~jadavis2/Sports/Sports%20Venues.pdf

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Keeping the Neighborhood Affordable: A Handbook of Housing Strategies for Gentrifying Areas: http://www.urban.org/uploadedpdf/411295_gentrifying_areas.pdf

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CHAPTER

14

Resource Issues Learning Objectives

By the end of this chapter, students should be able to: 14.1

Identify the three fossil fuels from which most energy is derived, and list two other contemporary energy sources.

14.2 State the two main global inequalities in the demand for, and supply of, fossil fuels.

14.3 Hypothesize as to why the consumption of fossil fuels in developing countries has surpassed that in the developed countries.

14.4 Identify the three types of consumption that create the most demand for energy in the United States.

14.5 Describe the geographic distribution of coal, gas, and petroleum production.

14.6 Examine the role of OPEC in the global supply of petroleum.

14.7 Illustrate how the source of petroleum product has changed for the United States.

14.8 Identify proven fossil fuel reserves and the main countries where they are found and explain how potential reserves differ from proven reserves.

14.9 Give examples of two types of unconventional fossil fuel resources.

14.10 Identify the reasons why the demand for oil has declined in developed countries.

14.11 Discuss factors that will affect world trade in fossil fuels, especially petroleum resources, in the future.

14.12 Differentiate between renewable and nonrenewable energy.

14.13 Identify alternative energy sources and discuss their benefits and drawbacks.

14.14 Explain the difference between an active and a passive solar energy system.

14.15 Identify the three spatial scales of air pollution, citing examples.

14.16 Explain why geographers are interested in describing the environmental impacts from acid precipitation, and why its effects are worse far from its source region.

14.17 Explain why global-scale issues, such as global climate change and ozone damage, are significant.

14.18 List the three main sources that generate the most water pollution.

14.19 Explain how the demand for water affects agriculture and the biodiversity of aquatic life.

14.20 Compare and contrast point source and nonpoint-source water pollution and the geographic impact of both.

14.21 Explain how landfills are used to dispose of solid waste.

14.22 Speculate about how solid waste disposal affects the environment.

14.23 Explain why the disposal of hazardous waste is especially difficult.

14.24 Define recycling and explain how it benefits the environment.

14.25 Describe the strategies and the activities involved in the process of recycling.

14.26 Identify materials that are recycled and explain how manufacturers utilize these materials.

14.27 Evaluate the pros and cons of alternative energy sources for cars of the future.

14.28 Identify reasons for regional variations in electricity in the United States.

14.29 Define sustainable development and explain why it is difficult for countries to achieve.

14.30 Compare and contrast conservation and preservation as two different ways of regarding resources.

14.31 Explain biodiversity and identify the different strategies to protect genetic diversity among various countries.

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14.32 Evaluate whether strategies to decrease global pollution and fossil fuel dependency will succeed.

14.33 Review the five basic concepts of geography as they apply to the example countries of Luxembourg and Timor-Leste Chapter Overview The general theme of Chapter 14 is the depletion and misuse of natural resources. Two types of resources that are valuable to humans are energy and minerals. Most of the energy that we use on earth comes from three fossil fuel sources that are all nonrenewable: petroleum, natural gas, and coal. The highest consumption of energy occurs in developed countries. However, the distribution of the production of energy from all three fossil fuels is unevenly distributed among a few countries in the world. This chapter also explores how resources are polluted. Air pollution occurs at global, regional, and local scales. Water, which is necessary for human survival, is polluted through several sources, including industries, sewage, and chemicals from agriculture. The chapter also discusses disposal of solid waste in landfills and through incineration, recycling, and the difficulties of disposing of hazardous waste. To preserve and protect energy resources, many countries utilize resources such as hydroelectric power, solar energy, and wind power. Nuclear energy is also used as an alternative to fossil fuel. Another topic examined by this chapter is future energy sources. To maintain sustainability and ensure that we protect and preserve our resources for future generations, it will be necessary to practice resource management, which takes several forms, including conservation, preservation, and increasing biodiversity in our environment.

14.1: Energy Supply & Demand Section 14. 1 explores the distribution of demand and supply for the main fossil fuels worldwide. A fossil fuel is a type of energy resource that formed from the residue of plants and animals buried millions of years ago. The three main types of fossil fuel are petroleum, coal, and natural gas though would be the principal form of energy in the 19th century. Before these, fuel types were discovered, people depended on energy from animals or animate power. As said in the text, the demand for fossil fuel is not uniform, but neither is its supply. The term supply means the quantity of a good available for sale. Demand, on the other hand, is the quantity that people wish to consume and are able to buy. The greatest demand for fossil fuels comes from industries, transportation, home usage, and services such as retail and offices.

According to the text, the heaviest consumers of fossil fuels per capita are in developed countries, although the demand in developing countries such as China has surpassed the demand in developed countries. Most of the demand for fossil fuel comes from industries, transportation, homes, and commercial facilities.

Begin your instruction showing a video from the study area of Mastering Geography “Smokeless in China.” Provide students with a viewing guide. Beginning with this video sets the tone for this chapter, which main thrust is encouraging our student to engage in sustainable practices in order to protect the earth. Your students discuss the types of fossil fuels that are demanded by most countries. You should lead students to a determination of why demand for fossil fuel is increasing in developing countries.

Assignments in Mastering Geography should accompany this chapter beginning with this section.

14.2: Energy Production The supplies of world fossil fuels are disproportionately distributed, clustering in some countries and absent or minimal in others. Section 14.2 discusses the distribution of three fossil fuels around the world.

The distribution of fossil fuels relates to their formation. Most of the world’s petroleum production occurs in Russia, Saudi Arabia, and the United States, though other countries, members of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), produce it in significant amounts. The largest deposits of coal are in mid-latitude locations such as the United States and Canada. China and the United States produce most of the total world’s supply of coal. According to the text, most of the world’s supply of natural gas lies below the sea, in places such as the North Sea and the Persian Gulf. Russia and the United States are important natural gas–producing countries. As the text says that petroleum supply is unpredictable at best

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largely because some of our supplies come from regions with political and cultural issues. Most of the demand for oil is in developed countries especially in countries like Japan and China. At one time, Europe and the United States transnational companies managed the flow of oil with uncontrolled prices.

However, after the formation of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) petroleum supplies became more controlled, and oil producers could set prices that benefitted the group. For the United States, demand and supply for oil has waxed and waned and in 2020, during the height of COVID, the U.S. petroleum consumption declined for the first time in 70 years.

After students have viewed the video, use the maps in your PowerPoint to show and discuss the distribution of fossil fuel, Your students should be able to use the film “Smokeless in China” to understand how countries such as China cope with energy demands despite having little supply of their own.

14.3: Fossil Fuel futures Section 14.3 describes the distribution of fossil fuel production. It is however difficult to say how much longer fossil fuels will last, but it is possible to measure accurately these proven reserves. Proven reserves are deposits of fuel such as coal, natural gas, and petroleum that have been discovered. Developing countries possess most of the world’s proven petroleum reserves mostly in Southwest Asia. Coal supplies, especially in Europe, are dwindling, but the United States, Russia, and China have enough to last another 110 years. Unless new reserves are identified, the world will certainly run out of petroleum and natural gas. Potential reserves (the energy in deposits that are undiscovered but thought to exist) may provide enough supplies to prevent further depletion. Potential reserves may become proven reserves if they are operational. The text also discusses technologies that may solve some of the depletion problems by tapping unconventional resources, such as extracting petroleum from oil sands in Canada and hydraulic fracturing (or fracking) to obtain natural gas in Canada and the United States. Nuclear power also provides energy for at least 10 percent of the demand for power, but despite this, like fossil fuel it is nonrenewable. It also has the added disadvantage of creating radioactive waste, may be used as weapons and may cause accident if not properly maintained.

Some students are aware of the controversies surrounding fossil fuels in general and their method of extraction specifically. Ask them to give their opinions about fracking. You may want to discuss with them the pros and cons of unconventional resources and have them determine whether these methods are worth the risks and problems. Display the pie charts in Figures 14.3.1–14.3.3 to initiate discussion and show information about which countries control the highest percentage of the world’s proven fossil fuel reserves. You should also discuss with your students the role developing countries play in petroleum production and distribution. See Mastering Geography for activities or assignments. Students can watch for homework, BBC Video Quiz—Carbon Dioxide as a Fossil Fuel for a grade or the coaching activity: Video Field Trip: Energy—Coal-Fired Power Plant 14.4: Energy Alternatives Section 14.4 explores the use of renewable energy resources as an alternative to fossil fuel use. Resources can be renewable, which means they are replaced continually or at least within a human life span, or they can be nonrenewable, which means they formed over a prolonged period and have a finite supply.

Renewable energy resources include hydroelectricity, solar energy, nuclear energy, and wind power.

According to the text, hydroelectricity is the second-most-common form of energy in the world. Wind power is yet another alternative source of energy. According to the text, wind power is harnessed in only a few places in the world, including North America, Europe, and China. Wind power has less environmental impact than most other energy sources, but it poses some environmental challenges, including noise and danger to birds. Some places harness geothermal energy from volcanic areas where hot rocks meet and heat ground water, producing heated water or steam that can be tapped by wells. Solar energy, provided by the Sun, is ubiquitous, does not cause pollution or damage the environment, and,

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most importantly, is free. Solar energy harnesses from the Sun and transferred to electricity or heat energy from photovoltaic cells.

Your discussion of this section should include identification of the renewable energy sources and their possible benefits and drawbacks. See question 4 in Discussion Topics and Classroom Activities and the Video Field Trip: Solar Energy activity in assignment in Mastering Geography. Your students could complete question 4 as an in-class activity or as a take-home group assignment.

14.5: Air Pollution Section 14.5 begins a discussion of how our resources are polluted, beginning with air pollution. Air pollution occurs at local, regional, and global scales, and it has several effects, including global warming, damages to lakes and vegetation, and harming the health of animals. Earth’s atmosphere consists of 78 percent nitrogen, 21 percent oxygen, and less than 1 percent argon. The remaining 1 percent is trace gases. According to the author, air pollution occurs when an adverse concentration of trace gases and particulates is found in the atmosphere. Local-scale air pollution is especially severe where emission sources are concentrated, especially in urban areas. Urban air pollution has three components: carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, and particulates such as dust and smoke. Air pollution may also occur at a regional scale, in the form of acid deposition that damages regional vegetation and water supply. It results in acid precipitation in regions outside where the acid buildup occurs. Air pollution occurs at a global scale in two ways: global warming and ozone damage. Global warming—the rising of Earth’s temperature—is related to human action and results in climate change. Global-scale ozone damage occurs when the ozone layer (the zone between 15 and 50 kilometers above the Earth’s surface) becomes polluted by chlorofluorocarbons from widely used appliances such as refrigerators and air conditioners.

(See Keyword for more words and their definitions on page 363.

Your discussion in class should focus on the three scales of air pollution. Ask your students to cite examples and their locations. You should also discuss the significance of global warming and ozone layer damage and ask for suggestions from students about how as individuals they can deal with this type of damage. In addition, explore the three basic components of urban air pollution, their sources, and their effects. Students may complete question 2 in Discussion Topics and Classroom Activities.

14.6: Water Pollution Humans depend on water for survival and recreational activities. For such uses, water must remain unpolluted. However, this is not the case with the world’s water supply. Section 14.6 discusses the main sources of water pollution. According to the text, humans use around 3 billion cubic meters of water a year and use water for consumptive or nonconsumptive purpose. If water evaporates, the use is considered consumptive, and if it returns in one form or another to nature, it is nonconsumptive. The regions of the world that consume most water is North America, East Asia, and South Asia where most of it used in agriculture. The text points out that our water pollution generally comes from three sources: industry, sewage, and agriculture. Some industries need substantial amounts of water and chemicals in their processing, and they discharge the water and chemicals by the end of the processing. Sometimes, chemicals can spill into water sources when industrial accidents occur. In addition, sewage, despite being treated in developed countries, often discharges chemicals into the water supply. In developing countries, sewage is rarely treated and usually drains back into rivers and lakes. Fertilizers and pesticides carried by irrigation systems and natural runoff make their way into water sources. Water pollution may sometimes be detrimental to aquatic life since water that comes from sewage or industrial waste, uses oxygen that plant and animals rely on and may cause a lack of biodiversity. According to the text, we can place sources of pollution into two categories: point sources and nonpoint sources. Point source pollution enters a stream at a specific location and includes industrial pollution and municipal sewage. The text defines nonpoint source pollution as pollution that comes from a large, diffuse area, as occurs with agriculture.

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Begin with a discussion of the importance of water along with the ways in which water can become polluted. You may also compare point source and nonpoint source water pollution and their geographic effects. You can also have students view the film “Blue Danube” and answer the questions about it in Mastering Geography. Take a field trip (Video Field Trip) with your students to see Water—Wastewater Treatment Facility. See Additional Resources for readings on water pollution in the Great Lakes or have students use the feature, Research and Analyze at the end of the chapter.

14.7: Solid Waste Pollution Continuing the discussion of how we pollute our resources, Section 14.7 discusses the primary strategies for managing solid waste pollution. The developed countries produce more than twice the amount solid waste per person per day than in developing countries. We normally dispose of paper (the most common solid waste) and other solid waste in landfills or through incineration, and sometimes we recycle some of the waste. The most common means of disposal in the United States is the sanitary landfill. This involves trucking waste to a landfill and burying it underground. Sometimes, states such as New York and New Jersey send their solid waste to other states, and some of the solid waste might find itself in other countries. Another solid waste problem we have is plastic especially water bottles. Much of our plastic bags and water bottles end up in waterbodies like rivers, lakes, and the ocean. Landfills use incineration to dispose of about three-quarters of the waste. However, though this method uses less space, it emits dangerous toxins into the air. Hazardous wastes such as heavy metals (mercury, solvents, acids, and zinc) must be properly disposed of to prevent them from seeping into the groundwater or escaping into the atmosphere. If humans consume or breathe in this hazardous waste, it may lead to cancer, chronic ailments, or even death.

Figure 14.7.2

Your discussion on this section should include an explanation of the three methods of disposal of solid waste. Ask students to identify the pros and cons of using each method. See the assignment in Discussion Topics and Classroom Activities or question 2 in Thinking Geographically.

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14.8: Recycling & Remanufacturing Section 14.8 describes alternative strategies for recycling. Recycling involves the separation, collection, processing, marketing, and reuse of unwanted material while remanufacturing is rebuilding a product from recycled material to the specification of the original company. A little more than a quarter of the solid waste material collected in the United States is recycle. Recycling involves two activities: pickup and processing and manufacturing. Pickup and processing involves collecting materials that householders would ordinarily throw out. These materials are collected in four ways: curbside programs, drop-off centers, buy-back centers, or deposit programs. After collection, recyclables are sent to another facility for processing. The text also discusses how recyclable materials are manufactured into other materials. Paper, plastics, aluminum, and glass are recycled by four major manufacturing sectors. Some recycled materials, such as glass, are used to build roads, and paper in most forms can be recycled.

In many neighborhoods, collectors of recycled bottles and cans can often be seen pushing supermarket carts down the street. Ask students if they see this occurring in their neighborhoods. In your discussion of recycling of solid waste, you should emphasize that this is one of the four methods of pick-up and processing of recycled materials. Discuss the others and ask students to identify the one their community uses. Discuss, too, how remanufacturers use recyclable materials to process other materials. You may want to have a brief debate about the pros and cons of recycling since many parts of the United States have yet to recycle. See the Item Library for assignments to reinforce students’ learning.

14.9: The Car of the Future Section 14. 9 describes the importance of reducing vehicle emission. The text notes that reducing pollution can be challenging, especially because of our dependence on fossil fuel. We rely on petroleum for automotive fuel, and thus, demand has increased in both developed and developing countries, and thus, there is a corresponding increase in the emission of carbon dioxide. The UN research shows that some countries around the world have adopted solutions to reduce carbon dioxide emissions such as carbon capture and storage, a decrease in the use of non-fossil fuels (Electric Powered Vehicles, (EPV). and the use of renewable energy. Some countries in Europe reduced the number of cars made that require fossil fuel. The usage of these energy sources in the United States, however, may prove to be problematic because of regional variation in electricity. The reason for the variation is States produce electricity differently across the United States.

Discuss with your students the challenges of finding alternative power sources for automobiles, and the various attempts made so far to solve the problems. You should also describe the reasons for the regional variations in the source of electricity across the United States. See Mastering Geography for practice or for additional reading.

14.10: Revisiting Geography’s Key Concept Section 14.10 continues the discussion of how conservation of Earth’s natural resources occur. In this section, the text applies the five main concepts in geography to two countries: Timor-Leste and Luxemburg. This section defines sustainability as “use of Earth’s resources in ways that ensure their availability in the future.” Two types of sustainable development initiatives are conservation and preservation. There are two approaches to the management of resources. Conservation is “the sustainable use and management of natural resources such as wildlife, water, air, and Earth’s resources to meet human needs, including food, medicine, and recreation.” Conversely, preservation is the maintenance of resources in their present condition with as little human impact as possible and which should be protected at all costs. The text returns to concepts in chapter one: place, regions, scale, space, and connection in order to understand challenges that the two countries mentioned above face. Both are small countries on the edge of polluted waterbodies and unlike Timor-Leste, Luxemburg possess sound policies that minimize environmental damages. Luxembourg is located in Europe where they are subjected to acid rain. As a part of Southeast Asia, Timor-Leste, faces environmental issues related to climate change.

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In your discussion, explain what sustainable development is, and discuss the problems and benefits associated with sustainability. Distinguish between conservation and preservation as two initiatives of sustainable development. You could ask students which method would be more effective in preserving resources for the future. Your discussion should also include an explanation of the concept of biodiversity as well as basic strategies used in protecting and supporting biodiversity and the environment. Ensure that students understand that countries with different levels of development, located in different regions of the world can both experience issues related to climate change and have connections to each other.

Note to the Instructors: For an added grade, students should complete all the assignments in Mastering Geography for Chapter 14.

The video trips will provide students with other information that will enhance their knowledge. By the completion of this chapter, it would be time for the final examination. You should refrain from giving students cumulative exams and focus instead on those chapters you have yet to assess. Essay questions are useful to evaluate students’ learning especially for Chapter 14. The Item library has free response questions that you can use or select questions from the test generator. Your best assessment would be one that combines both free responses and multiple choice.

Answers to Thinking Geographically 1. Much of the remaining petroleum is located either offshore or in shale or oil sands that need to be mined. What are some of the pollution challenges to increased use of these sources?

The type of proven resources remaining has the propensity to create pollution of air and water resources. Offshore deposits when extracted run the risk of polluting oceans, for example, explosion of oil derricks in the gulf. In addition, continuous use of fossil fuel in factories and motor vehicles lead to global pollution because of the added carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.

Other proven sources such as oil sands can cause contamination of ground water sources or rivers through runoff.

2. What initiatives have your community or state taken to promote alternative sources of energy?

What are some of the positive outcomes and some of the challenges in using alternative energy sources?

The state has programs that encourage people to adopt alternative energy such as wind and solar energy. They make solar panels available at lower cost to the consumer who is willing to try alternative forms of energy. Solar power has limitless potential as does wind energy. Solar panels and wind turbines are considerably more attractive and less destructive to the environment. Wind turbines, however, can be noisy and dangerous to the bird life. For some, the experiment has been useful; testimonials suggest that energy bills are significantly lower.

3. When you throw something away in a trash can, where does it go in your community? What challenges does your community face in handling your trash?

Most solid waste goes to a landfill except if they are bottles and cans (only in some states). A sanitary landfill is the most common place to dispose of solid waste. My community experiences problems in disposing of the waste because of the sheer volume of the garbage. The number of landfills around the area decline significantly in favor of new high rises or low-cost housing developments. The city pays to have their garbage transported to other places, which charge a fee for the garbage.

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4. What initiatives have been undertaken at your university or school to encourage more sustainable development? In what ways might students, teachers, and staff be encouraged to adopt more sustainable practices?

Answers will vary. Sustainable development practices include discouraging the use of plastic water bottles by installing water coolers around campus. Placing recyclable bins in classrooms to catch plastic bottles.

Answers to Geospatial Analysis Emissions and Energy Consumption Carbon dioxide emissions and energy consumption have both increased. At the national scale, are the two related?

Add the Energy Consumption layer.

1. What world regions have the highest energy consumption per capita?

North America—Canada, SW Asia—Saudi Arabia, and Northern Europe—Norway and Iceland 2. Add the Carbon Dioxide Emissions layer and select Join with data layer. Probe the map. Are countries with high carbon dioxide emissions per capita those with relatively high energy consumption per capita or relatively low? What might account for this relationship?

Not necessarily so. For example, the United States has lower energy consumption per capita than Canada but because of its much larger population has higher carbon dioxide emissions. However, some trends on the map indicate that for the most part the relationship is true. In addition, developed countries tend to have higher emissions of carbon because of more cars, greater use of fossil fuel, and manufacturing industries.

Answers to Explore Alternative Transportation in Paris Paris has one of the world’s most extensive projects to support alternative vehicles.

In Google Earth, search for 192 Boulevard Saint-Germain, Paris, France. Use Street View to drop to 192 Boulevard Saint-Germain. Look at the cars parked along the street.

1. What is distinctive about the cars along the street?

They are mostly electric cars. And vey small. They are parked at or near a filling station.

2. What is written on the side of the cars parked there?

Car2Go, rideshare, electric

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3. Use your search engine to learn about Car2Go. Use a translation app if necessary.

Car to go is a ride share service that gives customers the ability to move around the city of Paris in small cars that use full electric cars. The concept has spread especially in developed countries.

Discussion Topics and Classroom Activities 1. Select one of the geographic scales at which air pollution occurs. Conduct research on the causes and effects of air pollution at the geographic scale you have chosen. Your final product should be a poster. Your poster should inform viewers about the dangers of air pollution and the actions they could take as individuals to reduce it.

2. Read the statement below (from http://www1.american.edu/TED/benin.htm), and discuss the extent to which the dumping of hazardous waste material from developed countries into West Africa is fair: Much of the trade in waste destined for cheap dumping sites in the developing countries, mostly in Africa, is conducted clandestinely. Toxic commodity brokers operate in the shadows from box numbers in Gibraltar, the Isle of Man and Liechtenstein. They buy and sell the waste like any other commodity. However, as the original producer has no binding responsibility for its final destination, it is traded as a liability rather than an asset. The destinations of the ships are often obscured, and the cargo is misrepresented as building materials or fertilizer. Mr. Michael Yokowittz of the OECD describes the trade as “let’s get rich quick.” He said: “It’s easy, anyone could do it. You register a private company and buy the waste with no questions asked. Then, you find the dump site, rent a ship, hire a crew, and you can retire early.

Additional Resources •

Observations of Solid Waste Landfills in Developing Countries: Africa, Asia, and Latin America: http://www.worldbank.org/urban/solid_wm/erm/CWG%20folder/uwp3.pdf

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TED Case Studies: Benin Hazardous Waste: http://www1.american.edu/TED/benin.htm

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Natural Resources: http://www.iisd.org/natres/

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Bottle Bills Complement Curbside Recycling Programs: http://www.bottlebill.org/about/benefits/curbside.htm

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U.S. Department of Energy Information Administration: www.eia.doe.gov

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Water Pollution in the Great Lakes: http://www.greatlakes.net/teach/pollution/water/water1.html

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Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Transportation Sources: http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/glob_c5.pdf

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