Classroom Assessment Principles and Practice that Enhance Student Learning and Motivation., 7th Edit

Type:

Instructor Manual and Test Bank

Classroom Assessment Principles and Practice that Resource: Enhance Student Learning and Motivation Edition:

7th Edition

Author(s):

James McMillan

Instructor’s Manual and Test Bank For

Classroom Assessment Principles and Practice for Effective Standards-Based Instruction

Seventh Edition James H. McMillan, Virginia Commonwealth University

Prepared by Susan A. Mauck, Ohio State University

Table of Contents Preface .......................................................................................................................................... 1 Organization of the Manual ............................................................................................................ 1 Evaluation of Student Performance ............................................................................................... 3 Chapter 1–The Role of Assessment in Teaching and Learning ..................................................... 6 Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 6 Suggested Activities ................................................................................................................... 6 Assessment Items .................................................................................................................... 10 Chapter 2–Standards and Cognitive Learning Targets ................................................................ 13 Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 13 Suggested Activities ............................................................................................................... 133 Assessment Items .................................................................................................................... 17 Chapter 3–High-Quality Classroom Assessment ....................................................................... 211 Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 211 Suggested Activities ............................................................................................................... 211 Assessment Items .................................................................................................................. 255 Chapter 4–Embedded Formative Assessment ............................................................................ 27 Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 27 Suggested Activities ................................................................................................................. 28 Assessment Items .................................................................................................................. 311 Chapter 5–Summative-Based Formative Assessment................................................................. 33 Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 33 Suggested Activities ................................................................................................................. 33 Assessment Items .................................................................................................................... 37 iii .

Chapter 6–Summative Assessment I: Planning and Implementing Classroom Tests .................. 39 Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 39 Suggested Activities ................................................................................................................. 39 Assessment Items .................................................................................................................... 42 Chapter 7–Summative Assessment II: Using Large-Scale Standards-Based and Standardized Tests ............................................................................................................................................ 44 Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 44 Suggested Activities ................................................................................................................. 44 Assessment Items .................................................................................................................... 48 Chapter 8–Selected-Response Assessment: Multiple-Choice, Binary-Choice, and Matching Items ..................................................................................................................................................... 52 Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 52 Suggested Activities ................................................................................................................. 53 Assessment Items .................................................................................................................... 57 Chapter 9–Constructed-Response Assessment: Completion, Short-Answer, and Essay Items .. 60 Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 60 Suggested Activities ................................................................................................................. 61 Assessment Items .................................................................................................................... 64 Chapter 10–Performance Assessment ........................................................................................ 66 Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 66 Suggested Activities ................................................................................................................. 66 Assessment Items .................................................................................................................... 70 Chapter 11–Portfolios: Paper and Digital ..................................................................................... 73 Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 73 Suggested Activities ................................................................................................................. 74 iv .

Assessment Items .................................................................................................................... 77 Chapter 12–Assessing “Noncognitive” Dispositions and Skills .................................................... 78 Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 78 Suggested Activities ................................................................................................................. 79 Assessment Items .................................................................................................................... 81 Chapter 13–Assessment for Students with Exceptional Needs ................................................... 84 Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 84 Suggested Activities ................................................................................................................. 85 Chapter 14–Assessment for Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Students ................................ 87 Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 87 Suggested Activities ................................................................................................................. 88 Chapter 15–Grading and Reporting Student Performance .......................................................... 90 Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 90 Suggested Activities ................................................................................................................. 91 Assessment Items .................................................................................................................... 96 References .................................................................................................................................. 99 Appendix .................................................................................................................................... 100 Answer Key……………………………………………………………………………………………...114

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Preface Classroom Assessment: Principles and Practice for Effective Standards-Based Instruction, Seventh Edition, by James H. McMillan is written for those who are entering the field of teaching and those who are already in the profession. As such, at times the text assumes prior knowledge or experiences. This manual is designed to guide the college or university instructor to help undergraduate or graduate students construct personal meaning for the concepts and skills presented in the text. A tenet of this text and the current state of knowledge in the field of assessment asserts that good assessment looks like good teaching.

We would like to gratefully acknowledge the work of Margie Gaines Tully on the prior editions of this manual. The suggested instructional and assessment activities that are based in her extensive experience and knowledge remain the basis for the current version.

Organization of the Manual This manual is organized according to the text chapters. Most chapters have three main sections: Introduction, Suggested Activities, Assessment Items, and Answer Key. The Introduction provides the main focus and learning outcomes of the chapter. The Suggested Activities section describes activities that can be used to activate prior knowledge, focus on understanding the content, extend and refine understanding, or summarize and integrate the information. The Assessment Items section includes two sections that contain Selected-Response Items and Constructed-Response Items. The Answer Key section provides answers to the selected-response items and the page numbers in the textbook where support for the answers to both the selected- and constructedresponse items can be found. There are no assessment items for Chapter 13 and 14 because the information in these chapters is taught for awareness rather than mastery.

Use of Suggested Activities The first activity in each chapter is designed to activate prior knowledge or engage students in a learning activity in order to develop a common experience. These activities attempt to make the learning personally relevant and meaningful, allowing students to connect with the content of the chapter. Other activities provide opportunities for students to apply knowledge and skills or to extend and refine their understanding. Each chapter ends with a summary activity.

There are probably more than enough suggested activities to fill the available instructional time.

Always set a time limit for group activities. Keep the pace moving quickly, and don’t wait for the last person or group to finish. Students must learn to adjust to your expectations and to work quickly and efficiently to accomplish tasks.

Assessment Items The Selected-Response (SR) Items may include multiple-choice, binary-choice (e.g., true/false), and matching items. The Constructed-Response (CR) Items require students to produce an 1 .

answer in a few sentences or brief paragraph in response to a question or request (e.g., describe, explain, or give an example).

There are no assessment items for Chapter 13 and 14 because the information in these chapters is taught for awareness rather than mastery.

The multiple-choice items require students to select one correct response. They were written following the guidelines in the textbook and those of Haladyna & Rodriguez (2013) reflecting the current best practice in test development. The guidelines include: 1) State the central idea in the stem of the item; 2) Minimize the amount of reading in the response options; 3) Use only options that are plausible and discriminating; 4) Qualify statements or questions; 5) Write multiple-choice items with three response options (i.e., one correct option and two distractors).

The true/false items were written following the guidelines presented in the textbook for writing binary-choice items. We recommend requiring students to justify any false responses as requested by the directions. This would require subjective judgment by the scorer. The true/false items should be spaced on the page to allow room for students to justify any statements they determine to be false.

The matching items were written using the guidelines in the textbook and the recommendations of Linn and Gronlund (2000) and Nitko (2001). The context for the matching items is terms and definitions. To promote the ability of the matching items to access deeper understanding, the stems of the items are novel presentations of information presented in the textbook. To prevent students from cuing the terms with the definitions, the number of options is unequal to the number of item stems (e.g., six terms with five definitions).

Constructed-response items were written using the guidelines presented in the textbook. While the CR items are intended to be scored objectively, there is some subjective judgment required of the scorer.

Assessment items usually include qualification that the answers are expected to come from the textbook. Adding a qualification is a common practice in test-writing and is especially important with content such as that in this textbook.

You should be able to copy and paste any of the assessment items you wish to use, however the line spacing between items and the numbering sequence may need to be changed.

Answer Key Answers to the selected-response items and page numbers that support the answers can be found following the presentation of items for each chapter in the Answer Key. This section also provides page numbers in the textbook that support answers to the constructed-response items can be found.

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The test items for each chapter have not been field tested. Every effort has been made to develop items that follow the guidelines for item writing and have only one correct response according to information in the text. On occasion, students may be able to make and support an argument for a response alternative that is not the keyed correct response. If items are disputed, return to the textbook as the authority to find evidence to support the response.

Useful materials for Chapters 8, 9, and 15 are located in the Appendix at the end of this resource manual.

Evaluation of Student Performance Grading practices vary among universities and colleges. You will certainly need to conform to standard practices in your department and institution. However, you may also wish to provide your students with a general rubric that describes the quality of the performance expected for each letter grade. The following rubric is a model that you may use.

High Level Performance High level performance deserving the grade of A implies excellence in thinking and performance with the course knowledge and skills, along with the development of critical insights acquired through the exercise of reasoning skills. A-level work is, on the whole, clear, precise, well-reasoned, and insightful. Basic terminology and concepts are used and applied correctly. The A-level student often raises important questions and issues, analyzes key questions and problems clearly and precisely, recognizes key questionable assumptions, clarifies key concepts effectively, frequently identifies relevant competing points of view, and demonstrates sensitivity to important implications and consequences. A-level products and assignments reflect accurate and precise application of the knowledge and skills learned in the course and the products meet the standards of excellence in the field and contain minimal flaws.

Competent Performance The grade of B implies sound thinking and performance with the course knowledge and skills. B-level work is, on the whole, clear, precise, and well-reasoned, but does not have depth of insight. Basic terminology and concepts are, for the most part, used correctly, but some flaws and minor misconceptions are evident. The B-level student often raises questions and issues, analyzes questions and problems clearly and precisely, recognizes some questionable assumptions, clarifies key concepts competently, sometimes identifies relevant competing points of view, and shows some sensitivity to important implications and consequences. B-level products and assignments reflect accurate application of the knowledge and skills learned in the course and meet the basic requirements of the product, although some flaws may be evident.

Minimal Performance The grade of C implies mixed thinking and performance with the course knowledge and skills. C-level work is inconsistently clear and lacks precision; moreover, it does not display depth of insight or consistent competence. Basic terminology and concepts are often used correctly, but important distinctions are misunderstood. Typically, the C-level student contributes little to group discussions. The C-level student sometimes raises questions and issues, sometimes analyzes questions and problems, recognizes some questionable assumptions, clarifies some concepts, sometimes identifies relevant competing points of view, 3 .

but does not demonstrate consistent sensitivity to important implications and consequences. Clevel products and assignments reflect several errors in the application of the knowledge and skills learned in the course and minimally meet the basic requirements of the product.

Substandard Performance The grade of D implies poor thinking and performance with the course knowledge and skills. On the whole, the student tries to get through the course by means of rote recall, attempting to acquire knowledge by memorization rather than through comprehension and deep understanding. Basic terminology and concepts are used in a way that indicates superficial understanding, misconceptions, and little, if any, ability to apply terminology and concepts in flexible or novel ways. D-level work represents thinking that is typically unclear, imprecise, and poorly reasoned. The D-level student rarely raises questions and issues, superficially analyzes questions and problems, does not recognize assumptions, only partially clarifies concepts, rarely identifies relevant competing points of view, and is insensitive to important implications and consequences. D-level products and assignments reflect several errors in the application of the knowledge and skills learned in the course and fail to meet the basic requirements of the product in some important ways.

Evaluating Projects and Performance Assessments In addition to communicating the grading methods you will use to determine course grades, it is important to apprise your students of the criteria used to evaluate assignments and projects.

Provide students with the following rubrics and require that they use the rubrics to self-evaluate their assignments at the time they turn them in by attaching a 3x5 card and identifying the score they would give their assignment on each of the rubrics. You should determine in advance which performance assessment projects you will use, calculate the total points possible for all projects, and announce how project scores will be factored into the final course grade.

Knowledge Rubric

4

3

2

1

Student demonstrates a thorough understanding of the course information, concepts, principles, and generalizations and integrates knowledge with prior knowledge or experience to produce new insights into some aspect of the information.

Student demonstrates accurate understanding of the course information, concepts, principles, and generalizations and integrates that information, although connections beyond the information are limited. Errors, if any, are minor.

Student demonstrates a partial understanding of the course information, concepts, principles, and generalizations. Student demonstrates evidence that information was learned in a superficial or rote manner. Errors or gaps in understanding reveal misconceptions.

Student demonstrates severe misconceptions about course information, concepts, principles, and generalizations.

4 .

Complex Skill Rubric

4

3

2

1

Student demonstrates complete understanding of the procedural skills needed to complete the task and uses the skills accurately and appropriately to complete the task or to produce a quality product. Skills are used flexibly to complete the task.

Student demonstrates accurate understanding of the procedural skills to complete the task. Minor errors may exist, but they do not affect the student’s ability to complete the task. Errors do not significantly affect the overall quality of the product. Student may require some direction or assistance to complete the task.

Student demonstrates partial understanding of the procedural skills needed to complete the task. Inappropriate or inaccurate use of procedures leads to errors that affect the completion of the task or the quality of the product. Student has limited strategies or uses procedural skills in a mechanistic way, which affects the ability to complete the task independently or to use the skills in novel situations.

Student demonstrates limited ability to select appropriate procedural skills for the specific task or to use skills correctly. There are many errors in the use of procedures, or the procedure may be attempted but not followed through to complete the task.

Quality Product Rubric

4

3

2

1

The product fully meets its purpose and is organized and presented in a way that meets the needs of the intended audience. The product meets or exceeds the conventional standards for a quality product as defined by experts in the field.

The product meets its purpose and is organized and presented in a way that meets the needs of the intended audience. The conventions and rules for the mode of communication are used in customary ways.

The product only partially meets its purpose because of errors. The organization and presentation show inconsistent awareness of the needs of the audience.

The product does not meet one or more conventional standards for a quality product as defined by experts in the field.

The product does not meet its purpose. The organization and presentation show little or no awareness of the needs of the audience. The product does not meet the majority of the conventional standards for a quality product as defined by experts in the field.

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Chapter 1–The Role of Assessment in Teaching and Learning Introduction The activities suggested for this chapter will help emphasize the key points of this chapter, regardless of whether or not the students have read the chapter. The activities help to set the stage for the purposes of assessment in general and classroom assessment in particular. The chapter will help students gain insights into the nature and purposes of classroom assessments and how assessment is an on-going process that takes on many different forms.

The learning outcomes for Chapter 1 are: 1.1 Understand the nature of classroom assessment, its purposes and characteristics, and how classroom assessment differs from other types of assessment.

1.2 Understand and be able to give examples of how classroom assessment of, for, and as learning can be integrated with instruction.

1.3 Know how different contextual factors, such as high-stakes accountability testing and theories of learning, influence teacher decision making about how classroom assessments are designed and implemented in a specific classroom.

Suggested Activities Activate Prior Knowledge This activity is to get students to think about assessment experiences in their lives and reflect on what made them either positive or negative.

•

Ask students to think of a time when they felt good about an assessment event in their own lives and write down a few ideas about what contributed to the positive experience.

•

Next, ask them to think of a time when they felt bad about an assessment event in their own lives and write down a few ideas about what contributed to the negative experience.

•

Have students share what they wrote with a partner. After a few minutes, request that some of the students share their thoughts with the whole class.

•

Make two charts: Factors Contributing to Positive Experiences and Factors Contributing to Negative Experiences. Ask students to summarize the two lists and then draw conclusions or generalizations about positive and negative factors.

Understanding the Content 6 .

As a result of the following card sort activity, students will gain an understanding of the various types of and purposes for assessment.

Provide students with sticky notes, 3x5 note cards, or small slips of paper and ask them to quickly write one way on each note or card to indicate the different ways they have been assessed as students (~1–2 minutes). Next ask them to quickly do the same for the different ways they have assessed students (~1–2 minutes).

Next, have students work together in small groups or as one large group to sort their cards into similar categories. Once the cards are sorted, divide students into as many groups as there are categories of cards. Give one category of cards to each group and have students come up with a label for their category. Allow students to re-categorize some of the cards.

On a chart, list the categories down the left side (rows) and make columns across the top listing the different users of the assessment information: teachers, parents, building administrators, central office administrators, school board, public, students. Ask the following questions: 1. Who is the primary user of the data or information from the assessment method?

2. Who makes decisions based on the information?

Place a checkmark in the appropriate cells of the table to indicate which audiences use the information. A question mark can be used to question whether the audience really uses the information or merely looks at the scores. When the chart is completed, have the students make inferences and draw conclusions based on the information in the chart.

Bldg. Admin.

Central Admin.

Supt/School Board

Public

√

√

√

√

√

√

Teacher-made tests

√

√

√

Observation

√

Oral questioning

√

Homework

√

√

?

Classwork

√

.

√

?

7

Others

Parents

Standardized tests

Students

Teachers

Sample Chart

Projects

√

√

?

Reports

√

√

?

Screening tests

√

√

√

√

Extend and Refine Understanding An important use of a table like this is to be able to generate new understandings by drawing conclusions. Ask students to examine the chart and draw conclusions about the different purposes of educational assessment.

A major insight students should have is that there are four primary purposes of educational assessment: 1 2 3 4

Diagnosis Grading Instruction Accountability

As noted in the text, it is important to think about classroom assessment as a process that supports and enhances student learning, not something that merely documents what students know, understand, and can do. Another insight is that students are rarely users of the information. Discuss whether and how students should be users of test information and how the information might be made meaningful to them.

Students can re-sort the cards according to whether the assessment method is used primarily before, during, or after instruction. After the cards are resorted, spread out the cards so that students can see all the cards in the group. Ask: •

Which assessment methods are most likely to be motivating to students?

•

Which assessment methods yield useful feedback to students?

•

Which assessments are likely to provide the teacher with new information about the student?

•

Which assessment methods provide the most direct information about a student’s performance without interference by confounding factors (e.g., guessing, emotions, or motivation)?

Ask students to draw conclusions about the primary purpose of each category of assessment (before, during, and after). Once students see that timing is related to purpose, ask them if they have ever experienced a time when timing and purpose were confused. For example, have they been graded on a paper or test that they thought was a pretest or strictly for the teacher to determine their current level of knowledge or skill?

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Summarize and Integrate Before leaving this chapter, have students review the assessment standards for teachers presented in the textbook. Then, have them review the list of factors that contribute to positive or negative assessment experiences and ask them to relate the list of factors to the card sort categories and the assessment standards for teachers. Students should find connections and draw conclusions. Ask: •

Which general categories of assessment are associated with positive experiences and which are more generally associated with negative experiences?

•

Which types of assessments are more likely to motivate students to perform their best?

•

Which assessment methods are appropriate for the instructional decisions made based on the assessment? For which assessments is there a disconnect?

9 .

Chapter 1 - Assessment Items Selected-Response Items Directions for multiple-choice items: Select the one correct answer for each item.

1. According to the textbook, which of the following is the term used for things that are configured so that they reinforce and support each other. a. Assessment b. Context c. Alignment 2. According to the textbook, should assessment enhance learning or should it document learning? a. They are equally important. b. Enhancing learning is most important. c. Documenting learning is most important.

3. Which of the following terms is used to describe the type of educational system that uses commonly accepted objectives for student learning? a. Curriculum-based b. Standards-based c. Mastery-based 4. By which school year did all states test reading and mathematics annually in grades 3– 11? a. 2002–2003 b. 2005–2006 c. 2008–2009 5. In which year was the Race to the Top initiative launched? a. 2003 b. 2006 c. 2009 6. According to the textbook, which of the following three types of classroom assessment occurs during instruction? a. Contextual-based assessment b. Teacher-made quizzes and tests c. Embedded formative assessment 7. According to the textbook, which of the following three types of classroom assessment is primarily used to document what students know, understand, and can do? a. Summative assessment b. Accumulative assessment c. Formative assessment 8. In a backwards design approach to planning, when does the planning for assessment happen? a. Before instruction b. During instruction 10 .

c. After instruction 9. Which of the following is the term used to describe a belief in being able to be successful? a. Transference b. Self-efficacy c. Scaffolding 10. Which of the following is usually true about the effectiveness of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation? a. They are equally effective. b. Intrinsic is more effective than extrinsic. c. Extrinsic is more effective than intrinsic.

11. According to the textbook, "What response is best to student inattention or disruption?" is a question a teacher might ask during which type of assessment? a. Pre-assessment b. Embedded formative assessment c. Summative assessment 12. According to the textbook, which of the following types of assessment often uses normative scoring guidelines? a. Pre-assessment b. Embedded formative assessment c. Summative assessment 13. According to the textbook, which of the following types of assessment is typically used to report to parents? a. Pre-assessment b. Embedded formative assessment c. Summative assessment 14. According to the textbook, which of the following types of assessment is typically used to give feedback to students? a. Pre-assessment b. Embedded formative assessment c. Summative assessment 15. According to the textbook, which type of assessment tends to produce good motivation and effort? a. Somewhat easy b. Moderately challenging c. More challenging 16. According to research by Dweck (2008), which of the following is true about students who are praised for their ability to do well? a. They are less likely to persist. b. They are more likely to persist. c. They are neither more nor less likely to persist.

17. According to the textbook, which of the following is the term used to describe a relatively stable emotion, motivational disposition, or other personality dimension that lies within a student? a. Mastery characteristic 11 .

b. State characteristic c. Trait characteristic Chapter 1 Constructed-Response Items Directions for constructed-response items: Write detailed answers in complete sentences, with examples where appropriate.

1. Name four of the 21st century-knowledge, skills, and dispositions that are considered essential for students, according to the textbook.

2. Name three of the significant factors that influence classroom assessment, according to the textbook.

3. What is differentiation and what are three of its implications for classroom assessment?

4. What is goal setting theory and what are three of its implications for classroom assessment?

5. Name three of the aspects that affect teacher decision-making, according to the textbook.

6. What is backward design as it relates to assessment?

7. Describe at least three of the ways classroom assessment supports teacher decisionmaking besides documenting student learning and assigning grades.

8. Describe three aspects of instruction that are informed by embedded formative assessment.

9. Give an example of how teachers can use assessment to diagnose individual or group strengths, weaknesses, or needs.

10. Describe two major uses of classroom assessment with examples of each.

11. Give three reasons why knowing the purpose for an assessment is crucial, according to the textbook.

12. Give three detailed examples of alternative assessments.

13. Describe how self-assessment can facilitate student motivation and achievement.

14. Describe at least three differences between assessment of learning, assessment for learning, and assessment as learning.

15. Describe the tension between the two sources of influence (i.e., internal and external to the teacher) on teacher grading practices.

16. Describe and give an example of a trait characteristic.

17. Describe and give an example of a state characteristic.

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Chapter 2–Standards and Cognitive Learning Targets Introduction Teachers are familiar with instructional objectives or very vague curriculum objectives, however, categorizing learning targets as knowledge, reasoning, skill, product, or affective is typically unfamiliar. Furthermore, developing the skill of identifying learning targets is complicated by teachers’ familiarity with instructional issues, concerns, methods, and activities, all of which cloud and confuse the task at hand.

One way to become skilled at identifying targets and accurate at categorizing them by type is repeated practice with appropriate, corrective feedback. As an instructor, it will be important for you to provide experiences to your students for categorizing lists of targets, analyzing learning tasks for the targets, analyzing a product or performance for the requisite targets, and generating a target analysis for a complete instructional unit. Accurate, corrective feedback is critical. Your students may blur or confuse target areas and often need help learning how to restate targets to clearly fit a target type.

Using a nonacademic, interesting, engaging, and personally meaningful example to introduce the concept of learning targets and performance standards can be very effective. You can use the example of making chocolate cake to teach the concepts. It is good to provide students with a written recipe to use for this activity to help structure the activity for those who do not have prior experience with baking.

The learning outcomes for Chapter 2 are: 2.1 Understand the differences between goals, objectives, standards, and learning targets, and be able to identify when it is appropriate to use each type of outcome.

2.2 Distinguish between different types of standards and know how different sources of standards can be helpful in stating outcomes that are appropriate for your teaching.

2.3 Be able to write learning targets that include appropriate types of cognitive skills and some indication of criteria for evaluating student performance.

2.4 Demonstrate a clear understanding of differences between knowledge, deep understanding, and reasoning.

Suggested Activities Engage in an Experience Have students brainstorm a list of knowledge and skills that are necessary for making a chocolate cake (or identify them in the written recipe) and then sort the items according to type of target: knowledge, reasoning, skill, product, and affective. Below is a typical list that results.

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Note: It may be necessary to clarify that knowledge can be of two types: declarative (know what) and procedural (know how). For example, knowing how to use measuring tools is procedural knowledge. The category of skills should be reserved for more complex, integrated behaviors such as reading and operating equipment. The appropriate category is indicated in parentheses.

The baker must know: •

How to measure ingredients (procedural knowledge)

•

How to set and use an oven (procedural knowledge)

•

The meaning of terms, e.g., stir, whip, beat, blend, etc. (declarative knowledge)

•

What the ingredients are (declarative knowledge)

•

How to prepare the baking pans (procedural knowledge)

•

What the different ingredients contribute to the final product (declarative knowledge)

•

The different kinds of chocolate and how they are different (declarative knowledge)

•

How to operate a mixer, food processor, or other kitchen equipment safely & correctly (procedural knowledge & skill)

•

What ingredients can be omitted or substituted (reasoning—analysis)

•

How to adjust quantities of ingredients if necessary (reasoning—analysis)

•

How to read (skill)

•

How to follow directions (skill)

•

How to troubleshoot and correct errors in following the directions (reasoning)

•

How to check cake for doneness (procedural knowledge)

•

How to assemble the parts of the cake (skill)

In addition, the baker must: •

Have a concept or vision of what the final product will look or taste like by reading the ingredients and directions (reasoning—inference)

•

Enjoy baking or cooking (or eating) in order to want to bake a cake (affective)

•

Have an appreciation for the aesthetic qualities of a cake (appearance, aroma, taste, texture) in order to select a recipe and follow it for a really good chocolate cake (affective)

Extend and Refine Understanding When students have defined the learning targets necessary to make a cake, ask them to define the quality standards by which to judge the finished cake (a product). Have them describe “excellent chocolate cake” and then determine whether the characteristic is truly a quality standard (e.g., even, consistent texture; level rising; rich, chocolate aroma) or just a personal preference 14 .

(e.g., warm with a glass of cold milk or no nuts). If possible, define categories of quality standards (e.g., taste, texture, appearance, and aroma). To test whether true quality standards have been defined, ask whether the standard is objective and universal. That is, the quality standards should hold regardless of the type of recipe used. For example, some recipes call for bittersweet chocolate rather than semisweet or milk chocolate, which will affect the kind of adjectives used when describing quality standards for chocolate flavor.

It is important for students to understand very clearly the purpose for and benefits of having clearly defined targets. Ask the following questions and have the students make inferences and draw conclusions.

Implications for instruction: 1. How can targets guide instruction?

2. How can clear targets help lesson planning?

3. How can clear targets help the teacher make choices about the types of assessment tools to use?

4. How can clear targets help the teacher diagnose and monitor students’ acquisition of knowledge and skills?

5. How can clear targets help guide the teacher in giving students feedback about their performance?

6. How can clear targets guide the teacher in determining the need for and type of remedial intervention?

These questions can be put into the context of the chocolate cake activity to help the students understand the diagnostic power of clear targets. What if the cake turned out lumpy and dense instead of rising evenly and having a smooth, consistent texture? What inferences would the teacher be able to make about the baker’s knowledge, reasoning, or skills? How could the teacher go about determining more precisely if the problem with the quality of the product arose from lack of knowledge, poor or faulty reasoning, lack of or poor execution of skills, or oven failure? If the cake were being graded, how would the teacher know whether to hold the baker or the oven accountable for the poor quality cake?

Apply Knowledge and Skills Have students review the section on Learning Targets in the textbook. Emphasize that an adequate learning target includes both a statement of what the student is to know and/or do as a result of instruction and the criteria for evaluating performance. Students should practice writing learning target statements for the chocolate cake baking activity. Examples of learning targets for this activity might include the following: •

Students will demonstrate their ability to measure liquid and dry ingredients, using appropriate measuring tools with precision.

15 .

•

Students will be able to explain the contribution of recipe ingredients to the final product by answering orally and in writing questions about the purpose of and interaction of ingredients.

•

Students will demonstrate their skill at testing a cake for doneness by performing the skill and identifying evidence of the cake being done or under or over cooked.

This activity helps to clarify the need for a clear understanding of the targets and behaviors that would provide clear and convincing evidence that the student has mastered the learning targets.

To ensure that students understand, apply the process to real academic content. Perhaps first identify and classify the targets of this chapter (as a common experience) before students work with the targets of a content area of personal interest.

Summarize Listed below are options for summarizing the content in the chapter. These activities can be done individually, in small groups, as a whole class, or all three in succession.

•

Provide a listing of behavioral objectives, instructional goals, content standards (knowledge, reasoning, skill, product, and affective) and performance standards and have the students classify them (do not provide the categories). Ask students to provide a category label and explain the rules for membership in each category.

•

Have students analyze a lesson, series of lessons, chapter, or unit that they have taught (or studied in another course) and create a chart specifying the learning targets. If students are pre-service teachers and have not taught in a classroom, they may analyze learning how to do something which occurs outside the classroom (completing a tax return, playing chess, playing an instrument in an ensemble, etc.).

•

Have students take an instructional objective in a textbook (such as “students will understand the relationship between topography and climate, natural resources, and living conditions”) and analyze the knowledge and reasoning targets which must be mastered in order to “understand.” Also, specify a product or performance that will provide clear and convincing evidence that the student has mastered the knowledge and skills. Identify the complex skills needed to produce the product or performance. If certain knowledge and skills must be inferred from the product or performance, the students should identify how else the teacher might gather clear and convincing evidence of mastery of the targets.

16 .

Chapter 2 - Assessment Items Selected-Response Items Directions for multiple-choice items: Select the one correct answer for each item.

1. According to the textbook, what is true about behavioral objectives? a. They are so specific that they can be overwhelming. b. They are based on Skinner's Taxonomy of Objectives. c. They are similar to the Common Core State Standards.

2. Which of the following is an illustrative verb used in the first level in Bloom's Taxonomy? a. Matches b. Explains c. Concludes 3. According to the textbook, which of the following is developed in students if teachers encourage student self-assessment? a. Thinking skills b. Self-regulation skills c. Collaboration skills 4. According to the textbook, which of the following terms is synonymous with “general (longterm) objectives”? a. Standards b. Goals c. Targets 5. According to the textbook, which of the following is the most abstract and hard to measure? a. Standards b. Goals c. Targets 6. Which type of standard is described as sequences of growth and change over time? a. Performance b. Developmental c. Grade-level 7. In what year was Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives I: Cognitive Domain introduced? a. 1936 b. 1956 c. 1986 8. According to the textbook, what is the term used for articulated and public descriptions of the dimensions of student performance that are used for judging the level of achievement? a. Criteria b. Outcomes c. Anchors

17 .

9. According to the textbook, what is the term used for examples of finished student products or performances? a. Criteria b. Outcomes c. Anchors 10. According to the textbook, knowing how to divide fractions is considered which of the following types of knowledge? a. Declarative b. Procedural c. Generalizable Directions for TRUE/FALSE items: Determine whether the statements below are true or false then circle TRUE or FALSE in front of each statement. If you determine a statement is FALSE, below the statement provide a rationale for your decision.

TRUE FALSE

11. Good classroom assessment begins with the right outcomes.

TRUE FALSE

12. Educational goals cover in broad terms what will be emphasized typically over a year or more.

TRUE FALSE

13. One very important point about state standards is that they often express “maximum” levels of competency.

TRUE FALSE

14. Learning targets contain both a description of what students should know, understand, and be able to do at the end of instruction and the criteria for judging the level of performance demonstrated.

TRUE FALSE

15. Goals are not necessary to determine what should be taught and assessed.

TRUE FALSE

16. Today the focus is less on “goals” and much more on 21st-century learning, skills, and dispositions.

TRUE FALSE

17. Few major subject-matter associations have standards.

TRUE FALSE

18. Accountability testing is based on state standards.

TRUE FALSE

19. The Common Core State Standards are evidence-based.

TRUE FALSE

20. Few states have signed on to use the Common Core State Standards.

18 .

Directions for matching Items: On the line next to each definition in Column A, place the letter next to the term in Column B that best matches the definition. Each term in Column B may be used once, more than once, or not at all.

Column A

Column B

___ 21.

General statements about student outcomes which cover in broad terms what will be emphasized typically over a year or more

A.

Cognitive Tasks

___ 22.

Statements about what students should know and be able to do in major content areas at different grade levels for a particular course, or curriculum

B.

Teaching Objectives

___23.

Statements of student performance that should be demonstrated at the end of an instructional unit

C.

Educational Goals

___ 24.

Activities students will engage in and what needs to be done to ensure that the activities occur as planned

D.

Standards

___ 25.

Statements of student performance for a relatively restricted type of learning outcome to be achieved in a single lesson or a few days

E.

Learning Targets

F.

Educational Objectives

Blank Blank

Chapter 2 Constructed-Response Items Directions for constructed-response items: Write detailed answers in complete sentences, with examples where appropriate.

1. Describe what the author means by good classroom assessment begins with appropriate standards and learning targets.

2. According to the textbook, what are the larger purposes of schooling?

3. Give an example of a content standard.

4. Give an example of a performance standard.

19 .

5. Give an example of a developmental standard.

6. Give an example of a grade-level standard.

7. According to the textbook, what is the main purpose of the Common Core State Standards?

8. Give examples of how an educational objective can be either too specific or too broad by writing an educational objective in three different ways that could be described as 1) too specific, 2) about right and 3) too broad.

9. Describe the main difference between the original Bloom's Taxonomy and the Bloom's Revised Taxonomy.

10. Describe in detail Marzano and Kendall’s New Taxonomy.

11. What is a learning target and how does it differ from other educational outcomes?

12. According to the textbook, why should teachers summarize the dimensions of student performance?

13. According to the textbook, what are the three major categories for cognitive targets?

14. Give a detailed example that illustrates how knowledge moves from rote memorization to generalized understanding and usage.

15. Describe the main differences between knowledge and deep understanding.

16. Describe the main differences between deep understanding and reasoning.

17. According to the textbook, why shouldn’t a teacher start each day by stating the learning targets?

18. Reread the introductory case study and describe in detail three of Eli’s misconceptions regarding learning targets and their link to assessment. In addition, tell one piece of advice his mentor can give him in regard to developing future learning targets.

19. Reread the introductory case study and describe Eli’s errors in his assessment practices.

20 .

Chapter 3–High-Quality Classroom Assessment Introduction Traditional courses in measurement and research methods are chock-full of highly theoretical and technical discussions of the issues discussed in this chapter. Many teachers and administrators have developed negative attitudes toward these topics because they do not see the applicability to what they do on a day-to-day basis. People seem to remember something about these topics years later, but usually they associate these topics with standardized, norm-referenced published tests and not classroom assessments. They see these topics as something that concerns psychometricians and not classroom teachers. Perhaps the way these topics have been taught has failed to convey how important they are to classroom assessment as well.

The instructional activities that follow are designed to create a felt need for the importance of the concepts and issues presented in this chapter. While students can read the chapter and study the tables to understand the concepts and logic of matching methods to targets, it is worth the time to dig deeply into the information, organize it, and connect it to real-world contexts. Students, however, will still need to become familiar with the terminology in order to engage in a dialogue.

The learning outcomes for Chapter 3 are: 3.1 Know how different types of assessment match with different types of learning targets, understanding that some assessment methods are best for measuring knowledge and understanding and other types for measuring reasoning skills.

3.2 Understand the nature of evidence for validity and reliability/precision as characteristics of obtained scores—how they are different and why they are important for obtaining credible assessment data.

3.3 Know what is needed for fair assessment, including how to avoid bias and make assessment appropriate to special student populations.

3.4 Understand what makes assessment practical and efficient and why this is an important consideration in determining how to measure student outcomes.

Suggested Activities Engage in an Experience Now that your students have read about the different types of assessments, have them do a card sort using the cards that were created earlier when discussing Chapter 1. First, have students select out just those cards that list teacher-made types of assessments or classroom activities and sort the cards into the following seven categories: 1. Selected-response 21 .

2. Constructed-response 3. Performance 4. Essay 5. Oral 6. Observation 7. Self-assessment Encourage divergent thinking to generate a list of the many different classroom activities, tasks, situations, projects, and assessments that can be classified under these categories. New cards may be added to the collection.

Learn the Information Divide the class into seven groups and assign one of the assessment types to each group (e.g., selected-response to one group, constructed-response to a second group, performance to the third group, etc.). Have each group consider the strengths and limitations of the assessment type using the questions below and present the information to the class. Have students create a data retrieval chart, like the one on the following page, to record the information each group shares.

The questions each group should consider are the following: •

Which types of targets represent a good match with the assessment format? Does the method directly sample behaviors that provide clear and convincing evidence of mastery of the target, or does the teacher need to make inferences about the target from the student’s response?

•

Is the assessment relatively easy or difficult to (a) create, (b) administer, and (c) score?

•

What sources of error are associated with each type of assessment? That is, what kinds of things can go wrong in either assessment development, administration, or scoring that would confound or pollute the results and make it difficult for the teacher to make confident generalizations or conclusions about student performance?

•

How does the assessment format influence instruction in either intended or unintended ways?

•

How are students likely to perceive the assessment and be influenced by it? What are some desirable or undesirable effects of the assessment format on students?

Sample Data Retrieval Chart

Self-Assess

Observation

Oral

Essay

Performance

ConstructedResponse

SelectedResponse

Target Types

22 .

Strengths

Limitations Easy to Create?

Easy to Administer?

Easy to Score?

Sources of Error

Extend and Refine Understanding After the small groups share their information, lead the class in discussions of validity and reliability issues (both reliability over time and inter-rater reliability). Ask questions that will lead students to draw conclusions and make inferences about which types of target-method matches have greater content validity and what influence sources of measurement error has on reliability. Some key points that should be explored include: Validity: •

Validity is established through evidence. Evidence can be content-, criterion-, or constructrelated.

•

An assessment cannot be judged as valid, or not. Validity refers to the appropriate inference or use of that result from the assessment. Inferences and decisions are valid or invalid—not tests.

•

Validity is enhanced by selecting an appropriate method for the target being assessed.

Reliability: •

Reliably assessing a single student’s performance requires a collection of methods that samples from the entire range of relevant targets.

•

The observed score is a function of the true score plus internal and external error.

•

Inter-rater reliability improves when different raters clearly understand the behaviors that indicate mastery of the target.

•

Reliability is enhanced when there are different ways to score or record information about students’ performance in a consistent, systematic way.

Fairness: 23 .

•

To minimize scorer bias, scorers should focus on observing the behaviors that indicate competence on the target and not by their attitudes toward or perceptions of students.

•

Unfair penalization can be avoided if students are informed ahead of time of the behaviors that the teacher is looking for or that they should demonstrate on a test.

Internalizing the Importance of Providing Exemplars to Students Engage students in a brief discussion to help them understand the importance of teachers providing exemplars to their students. Start by asking them what they would do if they were asked to write a professional business letter. Would they know without looking at a sample where to put the date? Would they know how many line spaces to put between the sender's name and address and the receiver's? Are the paragraphs in professional business letters usually indented?

Analyzing Existing Assessment Questions or Exercises Have students select a chapter out of a college, elementary-school, or secondary-school textbook that has assessment questions or exercises at the end of the chapter. In small groups, have students analyze the assessment questions or exercises by addressing each of the following: •

Identify the chapter’s learning targets and determine whether the assessment questions or exercises are an appropriate match to the targets. Explain why or why not.

•

Identify the strengths and limitations of the assessment questions or exercises with respect to whether the targets are directly or indirectly measured.

•

Determine whether the information from the assessment questions or exercises would probably provide valid and reliable evidence of a student’s mastery of the chapter’s learning targets.

•

Identify any possible sources of bias or measurement error in either the design, administration, or scoring of the assessments.

24 .

Chapter 3 - Assessment Items Selected-Response Items Directions for multiple-choice items: Select the one correct answer for each item.

1. According to the textbook, an essay test could be which of the following types of assessment format? a. Restricted-response b. Performance-based c. Explanatory-response 2. According to the textbook, which of the following types of assessment methods do an excellent job measuring student knowledge and simple understanding, but can be difficult and time consuming to prepare if done well? a. Selected-response b. Performance-based c. Essay 3. According to the textbook, which of the following types of assessment methods do an excellent job measuring student reasoning and deep understanding? a. Selected-response b. Performance-based c. Essay 4. According to the textbook, which of the following types of assessment methods is the preferred method to determine systematically whether a student has mastered a skill? a. Selected-response b. Performance-based c. Essay 5. According to the textbook, which of the following sources of evidence is used to examine the extent to which the assessment is representative of the domain of interest? a. Content-related b. Criterion-related c. Consequential evidence 6. According to the textbook, which kind of assessment contributes less scoring error to reliability? a. Selected-response b. Performance-based c. Essay Directions for TRUE/FALSE items: Determine whether the statements below are true or false then circle TRUE or FALSE in front of each statement. If you determine a statement is FALSE, below the statement provide a rationale for your decision.

25 .

TRUE FALSE

7. A key determinant of quality in classroom assessment is how the information influences students.

TRUE FALSE

8. Reasoning and deep understanding skills are best assessed in essays and performance assessments.

TRUE FALSE

9. Oral questioning is an efficient assessment of all students at the end of a unit.

TRUE FALSE

10. Validity is determined primarily by professional judgment.

TRUE FALSE

11. Reliability is a matter of all or none.

TRUE FALSE

12. Well-intentioned, excellent teachers do not differ in their professional judgments about student learning.

Chapter 3 Constructed-Response Items Directions for constructed-response items: Write detailed answers in complete sentences, with examples where appropriate.

1. Describe in detail three of the criteria the textbook provides for ensuring high quality assessments.

2. Describe one strength and one limitation of the selected-response format of assessment, according to the textbook.

3. Describe one strength and one limitation of the essay format of assessment, according to the textbook.

4. Provide an example to explain what is meant by the phrase “signal and noise” as it is used in the textbook.

5. Describe three ways teachers can enhance the validity of their classroom assessments, according to the textbook.

6. Give three examples of internal error and three examples of external error, according to the textbook.

7. Describe three ways teachers can enhance the reliability of their classroom assessments, according to the textbook.

8. Give three ways classroom assessments can have positive effects on student motivation, according to the textbook.

9. Give three ways classroom assessments can have negative effects for student motivation, according to the textbook.

26 .

Chapter 4–Embedded Formative Assessment Introduction It is important for teachers to recognize that there are many sources of information available about students and that there are many methods of collecting relevant information about students prior to and during instruction. Teachers should not rely upon past achievement test results, report cards, courses completed, or previous teachers’ comments. This information is helpful as a starting point, but what these sources of information fail to reveal is often more important and helpful than what they reveal.

The term formative assessment has taken on many meanings so it is important to engage students in activities that examine the different ways it is described and implemented. Research has shown that formative assessment that is used correctly can have positive benefits on student learning and motivation. Not all of the assessment activities that are described as formative, however, may be effective or at least as effective as they could be. The activities presented below are designed to help students understand the kind of formative assessment they may already be using and how to use it more effectively.

Students who have had experience as teachers will have an easier time with the brainstorming activities than those who have not taught. Students who have not had teaching experience should be encouraged to recall and reflect upon their own experiences as students in elementary and secondary school and in college courses. They can offer insight into what they wished the instructor knew or understood about them as learners and as individuals in order to teach them effectively.

The learning outcomes for Chapter 4 are: 4.1 Know the key components of formative assessment; understand the differences between embedded and summative-based formative assessment; and distinguish low-level formative assessment from high-level formative assessment.

4.2 Understand how observation of student behavior, vocal cues, nonverbal cues, facial and bodily gestures, and eye contact can be used to interpret student engagement and understanding.

Know the limitations of observation and how it should be combined with other sources of information to verify conclusions about student understanding.

4.2 Understand how observation of student behavior can be used to interpret student engagement and understanding. Know the limitations of observation and how it should be combined with other sources of information to verify conclusions about student understanding.

4.3 Be able to ask questions that effectively elicit appropriate student responses to engage students and show understanding.

4.4 Know and understand how to apply feedback to students during embedded formative assessment periods. Be able to give examples of different types of feedback. Know the differences between effective and ineffective feedback practices.

27 .

Suggested Activities Activate Prior Knowledge Divide the class into small groups and ask them to brainstorm what they think of when they hear the term formative assessment and write a working definition. Give each group a large sheet of paper and ask them to write their definition on the paper. When the groups are ready, post the definitions for all to see. Examine the definitions that the students have written to look for important qualities of each.

Share with the students the definition for formative assessment provided by the textbook (p. 109).

Re-examine the working definitions that were written by the groups and ask if there are any changes they would like to make. If the answer is yes, allow students time to modify their definitions.

Next, as a class, use the group-written working definitions, and the textbook definition to write a class definition that encompasses all of the qualities that are emphasized by the textbook, namely: •

It’s a package deal, i.e., it’s not just about how and when evidence of student learning is gathered, but also how it forms instruction and learning experiences.

•

It’s a purposeful process.

•

The evidence gathered relates to identified learning targets.

•

The information is used for teacher decision making.

•

The information is used to give feedback to students.

•

The information is used to make instructional adjustments.

•

Formative assessment is not complete unless the results are used to improve student learning and motivation.

Finally, using Table 4.2 (p. 113) discuss the differences between embedded formative assessment as presented in this chapter and summative-based formative assessment as presented in Chapter 5.

Understanding the Content Teacher Observation In small groups, ask students to think about the following questions and take notes for sharing their ideas with the class: Just through observation…

1. How can teachers tell their students are interested?

28 .

2. How can teachers tell their students are learning?

3. How can teachers tell a student might be feeling anxiety about the material being covered or task required?

4. How can teachers tell their students are confused by the material being taught?

Have the groups share their notes with the whole class, then, as a class, make a list of all the factors of student learning and motivation that can be determined through teacher observation.

Use the checklist on page 115 to guide this activity.

Finally, engage students in a discussion of the limitations of observation and what teachers can do to verify their conclusions about student learning.

Effective Oral Questioning To help students understand the different ways students can effectively use oral questioning, divide students into small groups to discuss ways they might use questions to do the following: •

Efficiently grab students’ attention

•

Signal to students that they are hearing important content

•

Control student behavior

•

Determine whether students are understanding the material

After the groups have shared their ideas with the class, ask them why it isn’t appropriate for teacher to always select the student who raises his or her hand? What are some different methods that can be used to elicit responses from all students?

Extend and Refine Understanding To help students understand the characteristics of effective questioning, have them discuss how they would do each of the recommendations from the Do column in Table 4.7. For example, the first statement is “State questions clearly and succinctly.” How could a teacher make sure the questions they ask are clear and succinct? (e.g., perhaps by writing out potential questions before a lesson or posting the questions for students to see as well as hear) Ask students who already have teaching experience to share the methods they use. This activity could be done in small groups or as a whole class. If the activity is done in small groups, provide time for whole class discussion afterwards.

In the interest of time, you could have students focus on the following recommendations from the textbook rather than all of them: •

Involve the entire class

•

Allow sufficient wait time 29 .

•

Give appropriate responses to answers

•

Use probes to extend initial answers

Next, take time to discuss as a class the statements in the Don’t column in Table 4.7. Ask students to share examples of each of the types of questions that should be avoided (e.g., closed, tugging, or leading). Ask students to explain why each type of question is not effective.

Summarize Before leaving the chapter, as a class revisit the class definition that was written during the activity above. Ask students to summarize the key components of formative assessment.

Next, have students discuss, in small groups or with a partner, the following questions: 1. What are some of the limitations of teacher observation?

2. What are some of the differences between effective and ineffective feedback practices?

Conclude by having students share their answers with the class.

30 .

Chapter 4 - Assessment Items Selected-Response Items Directions for multiple-choice items: Select the one correct answer for each item.

1. According to the textbook, which of the following is the type of formative assessment that is characterized by close monitoring? a. Embedded b. Summative-based c. Process-oriented 2. According to the textbook, which of the following is the type of formative assessment that is characterized by answers to oral questions? a. Embedded b. Summative-based c. Process-oriented 3. According to the textbook, which of the following is the most informative aspect of the face? a. The forehead b. The eyes c. The mouth 4. According to the textbook, which of the following is the term used to describe the source of error that occurs when students act differently because they know the teacher is watching? a. Primacy effect b. Halo effect c. Hawthorn effect Directions for TRUE/FALSE items: Determine whether the statements below are true or false then circle TRUE or FALSE in front of each statement. If you determine a statement is FALSE, below the statement provide a rationale for your decision.

TRUE FALSE

5. The mainstays of embedded formative assessment are teacher observation and questioning.

TRUE FALSE

6. According to the textbook, as much as 50% of the emotion conveyed in a message is communicated by nonverbal factors.

TRUE FALSE

7. Generally, research shows that teachers use too much praise.

31 .

TRUE FALSE

8. To improve the quality of student responses, it has been shown that teachers need to wait at least ten seconds before calling on students to answer questions.

Chapter 4 Constructed-Response Items Directions for constructed-response items: Write detailed answers in complete sentences, with examples where appropriate.

1. According to the textbook, in what ways is formative assessment a “package deal”?

2. Explain the circular process of formative assessment, according to the textbook.

3. Give an example of a high-level formative assessment, according to the textbook.

4. Describe three characteristics of an embedded formative assessment, according to the textbook.

5. Describe three ways a summative-based formative assessment differs from an embedded formative assessment, according to the textbook.

6. Describe, in detail, three factors that teachers can assess through observation of student non-verbal behavior, according to the textbook.

7. Why are nonverbal cues often more important than what is said, according to the textbook?

8. Why is the face the most important source of nonverbal information, according to the textbook?

9. Give an example of each of the following types of questions: 1) tugging, 2) guessing, and 3) leading.

10. Describe and provide examples of three techniques for eliciting student understanding and skills, according to the textbook.

11. Explain how differently students usually respond to feedback that is directed toward goal orientation compared to how they usually respond to feedback directed toward performance orientation, according to the textbook.

12. Describe two characteristics of effective praise, according to the textbook.

32 .

Chapter 5–Summative-Based Formative Assessment Introduction To some, the term summative-based formative assessment can seem to have contradictory elements. Although the term summative seems to imply assessments that are given at the end of a unit, it is important for teachers to realize that assessments that are designed as summative assessments can also serve formative purposes. And, although pretests happen before instruction, they are considered summative-based because they are planned, structured, and serve to summarize what students know before instruction begins in order to guide instruction.

The activities below are designed to emphasize all the different types of summative-based assessments that teachers can use to identify gaps in student knowledge and help students achieve learning targets.

The purpose of the final activity is to review the dos and don’ts for effective use of homework, inclass assignments, and quizzes as formative assessments.

The learning outcomes for Chapter 5 are: 5.1 Understand and be able to explain how pre-assessments (structured exercises and pretests), homework, and seatwork are used for gathering information about what students know and can do prior to determining appropriate instruction.

5.2 Identify advantages and disadvantages to using different types of summative-based assessments to provide results that will be used formatively, including tests, quizzes, interim and year-end large-scale assessments.

5.3 Distinguish effective from ineffective student feedback that can be provided to students from tests, quizzes, and other forms of summative-based formative assessments.

5.4 Identify and be able to show how to apply different instructional adjustments that follow feedback in the formative assessment cycle.

Suggested Activities Activate Prior Knowledge Divide the class into small groups and ask them to brainstorm what they think might be the important characteristics of an embedded summative assessment, a summative-based assessment, and a summative assessment and how they might differ from one another. One person should take notes for the group. After ~5–10 minutes, ask the groups to share their ideas with the whole class. Make a chart like the one below to organize the ideas. At this point, it is not important to leave off any of the ideas. Later, you can revisit the chart to see if students want to make any changes.

33 .

Sample Chart Embedded Summative Assessment

Summative-based Assessment

Summative Assessment

Understanding the Content To help students understand the different types of pre-assessment, break them into small groups and give each of them a large sheet of poster paper. Assign each group one of the following types of pre-assessment: • • • •

Structured Activity Pretest Homework Seatwork

Ask the groups to complete the following task: Make a list of different examples of the type of pre-assessment. (The examples in the textbook can be used to start the list, but the groups should be encouraged to come up with as many original ideas as they can.)

Provide students with ~5–10 minutes for this part of the activity then ask them to choose one of the examples to describe more fully. The following questions can be used as a guide for completing the task: 1. For what age range and/or subjects might the assessment be appropriate?

2. What is the pre-assessment attempting to discover?

3. How will the pre-assessment help to motivate students?

4. What are some of the limitations of the example?

5. How can the activity be designed so that it is nonthreatening to students?

Give the groups ~5–10 minutes to complete this part of the task then have them share with the whole class.

Extend and Refine Understanding Digital Tools 34 .

To give time for students to briefly explore freely available digital tools that can be used as formative assessments, have the students visit the following site to explore the available options: https://www.nwea.org/blog/?s=digital+tools. Assign or ask students to select different links on the webpage to explore (i.e., don’t have everyone start with the first link). After students have had time to explore the various opportunities, ask them to share with the class what they found that might be useful.

For-Profit Year-End Large-Scale Assessments Provide students time online to briefly explore the for-profit assessments offered by Smarter Balanced Assessment Consortium and the Partnership for Assessment of Readiness for College and Career (PARCC). Guide a discussion about the assessments after the exploration. The following questions can be used to stimulate discussion: 1. Where are the assessments being used?

2. What is the cost of the assessments?

3. What are some of the concerns being raised by users of the assessments?

4. What are some of the stated benefits by users of the assessments?

5. Do you agree with the author of the textbook that “large-scale summative assessments, at least those administered at the end of the school year, are not effective summative-based formative assessments”?

Summarize Using a chart like the one below, ask students to summarize the advantages and disadvantages of using different types of summative-based assessments to provide results that will be used formatively. Have students share their ideas with a neighbor before sharing with the class.

Sample Chart

Advantages and Disadvantages or Summative-Based Assessments Summative-based Assessments Type Advantages Quizzes Unit Tests Digital Tools Common Assessments Interim Assessments

35 .

Disadvantages

Year-End Large-Scale Assessments

As a culminating activity, in small groups, have students describe the do's and don'ts for effective use of homework, in-class assignments, and quizzes to be effective formative assessments.

Together as a class, complete a chart like the one below.

Sample Chart Do's and Don'ts for Effective Formative Assessment Type Do

Don't

Homework

In-Class Assignments

Quizzes

36 .

Chapter 5 - Assessment Items Selected-Response Items Directions for multiple-choice items: Select the one correct answer for each item.

1. According to the textbook, which type of formative assessment helps teachers avoid redundancy and/or moving students ahead too quickly? a. Pretests b. Homework c. Seatwork 2. According to the textbook, which type of formative assessment allows teachers to provide immediate, specific feedback? a. Pretests b. Homework c. Seatwork 3. According to the textbook, tests that are prepared by a team of teachers in a school or district and are used to assess student growth are referred to as which of the following? a. Pre-assessments b. Common assessments c. Targeted assessments 4. According to the textbook, which of the following is designed to determine student progress toward meeting standards to be assessed on the end-of-the-year high-stakes tests? a. Standards-based assessments b. Interim assessments c. Targeted assessments 5. According to the textbook, which of the following typically are responsible for preparing common assessments? a. A team of teachers b. A single teacher c. A testing company Directions for TRUE/FALSE items: Determine whether the statements below are true or false then circle TRUE or FALSE in front of each statement. If you determine a statement is FALSE, below the statement provide a rationale for your decision.

TRUE FALSE

6. Quizzes should include many items.

TRUE FALSE

7. Differentiated instruction is organized yet flexible.

TRUE FALSE

8. Interim tests are usually designed to provide diagnostic information.

37 .

TRUE FALSE

9. Feedback is the heart and soul of formative assessment.

TRUE FALSE

10. Many digital tools provide immediate feedback to students but most are expensive.

TRUE FALSE

11. Assessments following instruction can provide information to determine the best instructional adjustments for each student.

TRUE FALSE

12. Learning progressions are not able to provide more detailed understanding than a standard for how learning should progress.

Chapter 5 Constructed-Response Items Directions for constructed-response items: Write detailed answers in complete sentences, with examples where appropriate.

1. Give three key differences between embedded formative assessments and summativebased formative assessments, according to the textbook.

2. Name three qualities of an effective pretest, according to the textbook.

3. Describe two limitations of homework and how teachers can design it so that it provides good diagnostic information, according to the textbook.

4. Describe the key difference between embedded formative assessment and seatwork, according to the textbook.

5. Describe two disadvantages and two advantages to using pretests as formative assessments, according to the textbook.

6. Describe two disadvantages and two advantages to using homework as formative assessments, according to the textbook.

7. Describe two disadvantages and two advantages to using seatwork as formative assessments, according to the textbook.

8. Give three qualities of interim tests that allow them to be used formatively, according to the textbook.

9. Give three qualities of year-end, large-scale assessments that make them difficult to use formatively even though results are now reported immediately, according to the textbook.

10. Describe and give an example of each of the following types of summative-based formative assessment feedback and modes of delivery: 1) verification and 2) scaffolded.

11. According to the textbook, what are the five elements of differentiated instruction?

12. Describe response to intervention (RTI).

38 .

Chapter 6–Summative Assessment I: Planning and Implementing Classroom Tests Introduction There are many uses for summative assessments. Summative assessments are used to: •

Document student performance

•

Monitor and record student proficiency

•

Give students grades

•

Report to parents

•

Select students into special programs

•

Determine who will receive honors

•

Establish a record of performance for colleges and employers

•

Hold teachers accountable

Examples of summative assessments include chapter and unit tests, semester tests, common tests, final papers, reports, and presentations.

The learning outcomes for Chapter 6 are: 6.1 Be able to apply the essential elements of planning sound classroom summative assessments, including sampling of content, constructing items, and determining appropriate test length.

6.2 Understand the appropriate test-taking skills students need to use, as well as how excessive test anxiety can be minimized.

6.3 Know what is needed for good summative test directions, item arrangement, and physical layout, as well as principles of appropriate test administration.

Suggested Activities Activate Prior Knowledge As a whole class, make a list of all the uses and examples of summative assessments (See above).

Next, ask students to discuss in small groups their experiences with summative assessments using the following questions to guide the discussions: 1. What are some of the good experiences you have had with summative assessments?

2. What are some of the bad experiences you have had with summative assessments?

39 .

After the small group discussions, ask students to share some of what was discussed in their small groups with the whole class. Use this discussion to help students understand the importance of developing good summative assessments, the topic of this chapter.

Understanding the Content Compare and Contrast Summative Assessment Types Provide, or ask students to bring to class, examples of summative assessments. The examples should include both test-like assessments (e.g., chapter or unit tests) and “non-test” summative assessments (e.g., final papers, reports or presentations). Adequate examples of each type of summative assessment (test-like and non-test type) need to be available if students are to complete the first task.

Ask students to compare and contrast the test-like summative assessments to the non-test type.

After a few minutes, ask them to help you complete a chart like the one below.

Sample Chart Compare and Contrast Types of Summative Assessment–Test-like and Non-test Like Type Advantages Disadvantages Test-like Summative Assessment

Non-test Summative Assessment

Collect the test-like summative assessments to use for a follow-up activity which could be completed on a different day.

Follow-up activity–Examine Test-like Summative Assessments Write numbers on each of the test-like summative assessments (for ease of discussion) and distribute them to the groups. Each group should examine the test-like summative assessments for several minutes, taking notes about their qualities, then trade their examples with a different group. If possible, rotate the examples through the groups so that each group has a chance to examine each of the examples. Put a chart like the one below on the board, or chart paper, and tell students they should use it to guide their evaluation of the summative assessments. After adequate time has passed, ask students to share their evaluations with the whole class. Use the chart to organize the evaluations. Lead a discussion about the differences and similarities of the examples and the characteristics that may make them effective or ineffective.

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Sample Chart Evaluation of Test-like Summative Assessments Number 1 2 3 4 5 6 . . .

Directions

Arrangement of items

Ease of scoring

Length

Other

Summarize This culminating activity should be done after the content of the chapter has been covered. The activity can be done individually, in small groups, as a whole class, or all three in succession. Ask students to summarize the chapter by writing the answers to the following questions in their own words.

1. What are some of the purposes of summative assessment?

2. What should teachers consider when choosing to use items that are prepared by a publishing company?

3. What are some of the ways that teachers can help students develop testwiseness?

4. What are some of the ways teachers can establish an appropriate physical environment for their students to reduce anxiety and prevent cheating?

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Chapter 6 - Assessment Items Selected-Response Items Directions for TRUE/FALSE items: Determine whether the statements below are true or false then circle TRUE or FALSE in front of each statement. If you determine a statement is FALSE, below the statement provide a rationale for your decision.

TRUE FALSE

1. Summative assessments can be used by teachers to plan instruction.

TRUE FALSE

2. The primary difference between summative and formative assessment is in the use of the evidence.

TRUE FALSE

3. Normally, sampling will be purposeful so that a good cross section of difficulty is selected.

TRUE FALSE

4. A single long assessment can provide the same, if not better, information than many short assessments.

TRUE FALSE

5. Teachers should wait until the end of a unit to begin constructing the assessment.

TRUE FALSE

6. Test company items are probably of higher quality than items prepared by textbook publishers.

TRUE FALSE

7. Teachers should make sure their students have adequate test-taking skills.

TRUE FALSE

8. One type of test item is usually all that is needed to accurately record student proficiency.

TRUE FALSE

9. Constructed-response items are often the best kind of assessment for detecting errors.

TRUE FALSE

10. According to the textbook, students are usually able to perform just as well on a test even when the class has a substitute as when the teacher is present.

TRUE FALSE

11. If you think your students gain confidence by answering the easiest items first, it’s fine to order the items by increasing difficulty.

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TRUE FALSE

12. Arranging items by level of difficulty (e.g., easy items first, then difficult ones) has little effect on the results.

TRUE FALSE

13. Best practice is to arrange questions by item type.

TRUE FALSE

14. Research indicates that few students cheat or know others who cheat.

Chapter 6 Constructed-Response Items Directions for constructed-response items: Write detailed answers in complete sentences, with examples where appropriate.

1. Provide five of the uses of summative assessments given by the textbook.

2. Provide five examples of summative assessments given by the textbook.

3. According to the textbook, what are the three factors teachers should consider when determining the length and number of assessments?

4. According to the textbook, what are three key points that teachers should consider when deciding to use ready-made test items?

5. According to the textbook, what are four of the simple steps teachers can take to prepare their students so that they will be able to best demonstrate what they know, understand, and can do?

6. According to the textbook, what are four testwiseness skills that students can use to get an answer correct when answering poorly constructed test items? (Hint: They also tell teachers what to avoid in writing test questions.)

7. Describe five procedures that can mitigate test anxiety, according to the textbook.

8. According to the textbook, what are four ways that cheating can be prevented?

9. According to the textbook, what should a teacher do to reduce the chances that students will plagiarize?

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Chapter 7–Summative Assessment II: Using Large-Scale Standards-Based and Standardized Tests Introduction Instruction and the activities described below will be enhanced if real or sample test score reports are used in addition to the samples in the chapter. Sample reports can be obtained from directors of testing for a local school system, test publishing companies, or students in the class (either their own reports or those of their children). Publishing companies continually update their tests and redesign score reports to reflect current trends and legislative requirements and are usually eager to provide samples. If score reports for real students are used, make sure that all identifying district, school, and student information is removed or redacted.

Here are two options for you to consider using during your Chapter 7 lectures to keep students engaged. 1) Have students write their names on slips of paper and place the slips in a bowl, bag, or hat. At the end of the lecture several names will be drawn and those students will be asked to summarize the main points of the lecture. 2) Write about five higher-order reasoning questions about the lecture information on 3x5 cards. Place each card in an envelope and seal it. Pass out the envelopes randomly. Tell students that periodically during the lecture, they will be asked to pass the envelopes to someone else. Whoever has the envelope at the end of the lecture will open the envelope and answer the question. ‘ The learning outcomes for Chapter 7 are: 7.1 Understand the essential characteristics of large-scale standards-based and standardized tests, and how they differ from classroom assessments.

7.2 Know how to use scores from standards-based and standardized tests both formatively and summatively.

7.3 Understand how to interpret standards-based and standardized test scores, including provisions for score errors, for informing parents, for making instructional adjustments, and for conclusions about student proficiency.

7.4 Know how to appropriately prepare students to take standards-based and standardized tests, and to create the best environment for testing.

Suggested Activities Activate Prior Knowledge Briefly, in small groups or with a partner, ask students to brainstorm the knowledge or skills teachers need in order to interpret and explain test scores for parents. Make a list of students’ ideas on the board or chart paper.

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Understanding the Content To draw attention to critical pieces of information related to each of the terms used in this chapter, use the 10–2 method, i.e., lecture for ~10 minutes then stop for ~2 minutes to allow students to catch up or fill in gaps in their notes, draw pictures to symbolize new concepts, summarize to a partner, or ask questions for clarification. Again, to keep students focused, during each 2 minute pause you could draw a name out of the bowl and have the student whose name is drawn quickly summarize a key point.

Apply Knowledge and Skills To help students apply the information in Chapter 7 about how teachers should prepare students for taking standardized tests, ask students to give examples of each of the Do’s and Don’ts from Figure 7.7. This can be done first in small groups, or with a partner, then as a whole class.

To engage students in an activity that requires them to develop suggestions for instructional adjustments from a test score report, provide them with an individual, class, or school score report and have them suggest specific instructional changes that might be appropriate to help the student or group of students improve.

The following activity will help students practice their communication skills with parents. A similar version is also listed as an individual constructed-response item in the Assessment section below however it is presented here as you might prefer to use it instead as a class activity.

Group students with a partner and ask them to revise the letter in the introductory case study on pages 188 and 189 to include the elements that were missing from the original letter.

The revised letter should be written in language that is clear and easy to understand and should include the important elements in the original letter and additional information that would improve on it, i.e., the revised letter should include the following: •

The purpose of the benchmark test

•

Information about how teacher prepared students for the test

•

Information about the conclusions that could be made from students’ scores

•

The difference between an achievement and an ability test

•

Information needed to interpret the percentage score, i.e., its relationship to proficiency

•

Information about how teachers might adjust their instruction

When completed, have the groups pass their letters to another group to be evaluated using a rubric like the one below.

Sample Rubric

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Place a checkmark next to each characteristic below to indicate if the revised letter includes it.

The purpose of the benchmark test Information about how teacher prepared students for the test Information about the conclusions that could be made from students’ scores The difference between an achievement and an ability test Information needed to interpret the percentage score, i.e., its relationship to proficiency Information about how teachers might adjust their instruction

Extend Understanding Provide sample individual score reports (either those in the chapter or obtained from other sources) to students and ask them to role-play teacher-parent conferences. Remind students to follow the suggestions in the chapter regarding which information to include when discussing test scores with a parent (pp. 205–206). Review these guidelines as a whole group or have pairs of students review the guidelines before engaging in the role playing activity. When the “teacher” is done conducting the conference, have the “parent” give the “teacher” feedback on the following: 1. Accuracy of score interpretation 2. Using easily understandable language and avoiding the use of jargon 3. Comparing test results to classroom performance 4. Identifying areas of relative strength and weakness 5. Comparing the student’s performance to the norm group 6. Discussing appropriate limitations and cautions in interpreting scores Summarize and Integrate To summarize, use the important points listed at the end of the chapter on pages 212–213 to engage students in a summary of the key points in the chapter. The important points are also listed on the final slides from the PowerPoint presentation for this chapter. Divide students into small groups and ask them to use chart paper or role play to illustrate the important point. After students have sufficient time to prepare (~5–10 minutes), have them share their work with the whole class.

An alternative way to summarize is to use the word SCORE (or some other appropriate term) as an acronym and have five groups of students come up with a statement that begins with the letter in the word that summarizes some aspect of the information. That is, a summary statement that begins with ‘S,’ one that begins with ‘C,’ and so on. If you have a large class and need to create smaller groups (of 3 or 4), use a longer word, such as TEST SCORE, or use several key terms related to the information in this chapter.

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Chapter 7 - Assessment Items Selected-Response Items Directions for multiple-choice items: Select the one correct answer for each item.

1. According to the textbook, the primary purpose of which of the following types of assessment is to compare individuals? a. Norm-referenced b. Standards-based c. Classroom 2. According to the textbook, which of the following type of assessment is most aligned with student learning and motivation? a. Norm-referenced b. Standards-based c. Classroom 3. According to the textbook, which of the following is the most common type of large-scale assessment used in schools? a. Norm-referenced b. Standards-based c. Classroom 4. Aptitude tests are also used for determining expected learning by examining any discrepancy between which of the following? a. Ability and achievement b. Norms and standards c. Achievement and growth 5. Which of the following is the term used to refer to the estimate of the degree of error that is probable, given the reliability estimate of a test? a. Standard error of measurement b. Pearson correlation coefficient c. Cronbach’s alpha Directions for TRUE/FALSE items: Determine whether the statements below are true or false then circle TRUE or FALSE in front of each statement. If you determine a statement is FALSE, below the statement provide a rationale for your decision.

TRUE FALSE

6. Standards-based tests are the most common type of largescale assessment used in schools.

TRUE FALSE

7. On standards-based tests there is sampling of all the standards, which introduces some degree of unreliability.

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TRUE FALSE

8. At the state level, standards-based tests are developed and approved by classroom teachers.

TRUE FALSE

9. Computer adaptive tests are not effective in subjects such as math, where there is a clear sequence of increasingly difficult skills.

TRUE FALSE

10. Many state standards-based tests are developed in partnership with large testing companies.

TRUE FALSE

11. Benchmark assessments are also called interim assessments.

TRUE FALSE

12. There is very little variation from one norm-referenced achievement test to another norm-referenced achievement test.

TRUE FALSE

13. There are many different special group norms derived from subgroups of the national sample.

TRUE FALSE

14. Standardized aptitude tests provide a measure of an innate capacity that does not change.

TRUE FALSE

15. Readiness tests both predict achievement and diagnose weaknesses.

TRUE FALSE

16. Readiness tests should be used as only one of the criteria for determining whether a child has the skills and knowledge to begin kindergarten or first grade.

TRUE FALSE

17. Reliability indices only reflect error within a test, not other sources of error that may have influenced a student’s score.

Directions for matching Items: On the line next to each definition in Column A, place the letter next to the type of test in Column B that best matches the definition. Each type of test in Column B may be used once, more than once, or not at all.

Column A

Column B

___ 18.

Assessments designed to determine whether students have attained targeted knowledge, understanding, and skills identified by policy makers as important

A.

Benchmark tests

___ 19.

Assessments that measure a student’s cognitive ability, potential, or capacity to learn that are not specifically tied to what is taught in school

B.

Norm-referenced tests

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___ 20.

Assessments that are aligned to standards that are assessed by the end-of-year accountability tests, given every 6 to 9 weeks

___ 21.

Assessments that allow comparisons of different areas of achievement to discern strengths and weaknesses using D. national samples of students

Readiness tests

___ 22.

Assessments that can be used diagnostically to determine the skills students need to improve if they are to be successful in school

E.

Standards-based tests

F.

Summative tests

C.

Aptitude tests

Blank Blank

Chapter 7 Constructed-Response Items Directions for constructed-response items: Write detailed answers in complete sentences, with examples where appropriate.

1. Provide three key differences between classroom assessments and large-scale standardized assessments, according to the textbook.

2. Describe two differences between norm-referenced tests and standards-based tests.

3. Describe three interactive items that require students to apply their knowledge and skills using computer-enhanced items, according to the textbook.

4. Describe three ways teachers can use aptitude test scores for making instructional adjustments, according to the textbook.

5. Explain why the overall competence of the group is critical in determining relative position when comparing an individual’s performance to the norm group.

6. Describe why teachers should use different approaches with a class that has below average aptitude scores than one with above average scores.

7. Describe the following test-taking skills and strategies: Know and Go, Be Back, Set the Pace.

8. Describe five things that teachers can do to prepare students for taking standardized tests.

9. Describe four characteristics of a classroom environment that best supports students during standards-based and standardized testing, according to the textbook.

49 .

10. Using language that is clear and easy to understand, revise the letter in the introductory case study on pages 188 and 189 to include the elements that were missing from the original letter. Be sure your revised letter includes the important elements in the original letter and additional information that would improve on it, i.e., the letter includes the following: a. The purpose of the benchmark test b. Information about how teacher prepared students for the test c. Information about the conclusions that could be made from students’ scores d. The difference between an achievement and an ability test e. Information needed to interpret the percentage score, i.e., its relationship to proficiency f. Information about how teachers might adjust their instruction

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Chapter 8–Selected-Response Assessment: Multiple-Choice, Binary-Choice, and Matching Items Introduction While the concepts and information in this chapter seem self-evident, sensible, and easy to put into practice, writing high-quality test items to assess knowledge and simple understanding is, in fact, very difficult. Training in writing test items is often lacking in preservice teacher education programs. Novice item writers will review the guidelines for writing items and think to themselves, “Yes, this makes sense. I’ve taken a thousand multiple-choice tests. It’s easy to write test items.”

Because of personal familiarity with these types of tests, novice item writers will disregard the rules.

Guaranteed! Even when you tell them this and remind them to keep the rules in front of them and to refer to them often, they will disregard the rules. Writing these types of test items is extremely difficult and requires careful guidance and feedback from an experienced item writer.

While it is not necessarily the goal of this chapter to produce experienced item writers, an important point to make with your students is that item writing is more difficult than it appears, and it can even be considered an art form. Reassure the students that writing top-quality items requires extensive practice and careful attention to detail. It is common for students, especially practicing teachers, to feel overwhelmed or distressed after studying the guidelines for item writing. They may feel annoyed at not having been taught the rules before or embarrassed about violating the rules when writing test items in the past. Reassure them that their feelings are to be expected and that their feelings indicate that they are growing in their assessment knowledge and skills. Repeated practice will help them replace those feelings of discomfort with confidence that comes from competence.

Another word of caution is warranted. While the differences among factual, conceptual, and procedural knowledge also seem to be straightforward, students need repeated encounters with the concepts before the ability to distinguish among the types of knowledge becomes second nature.

The learning outcomes for Chapter 8 are: 8.1 Recognize the advantages and disadvantages of using different selected-response type items, including multiple-choice, binary-choice, and matching.

8.2 Identify best practices in the construction of selected-response items.

8.3 Be able to construct sound selected-response items that match the nature of the learning target that is assessed.

8.4 Understand the nature of interpretive exercises and technology-enhanced items.

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Suggested Activities Activate Prior Knowledge Because people tend to have such rich and varied prior experiences with selected-response item tests of knowledge and simple understanding, they believe that they are very knowledgeable about the content of this chapter. Their prior knowledge leads them astray and interferes with learning correct information and techniques.

Begin by having students share information or anecdotes about their experiences with selectedresponse type tests. After a few minutes of discussion, have students make a KTW by dividing a piece of paper into three columns labeled as shown below.

Individually, have students jot down a few ideas in each column before sharing with the whole group. Many will recognize the KTW as a variation of a KWL (What I Know, What I Want to Know, What I Learned). The difference is that all three columns are filled in prior to instruction. This is important because many misconceptions may be revealed and corrected in the process of comparing prior knowledge and beliefs to information learned through reading the chapter and the lectures.

Sample Chart What I Know

What I Think I Know

What I Want to Know

Learn the Information The following activity is designed to have students experiment with the concepts in order to reinforce their understanding and to clarify any misconceptions.

Ask students to think about the knowledge and skills that are required to drive a car safely. Have them brainstorm a list. Some ideas which may come up include: •

Know the rules of the road 52 .

•

Parallel park

•

Enter and exit a highway

•

Change lanes

•

Drive in reverse

•

Change gears (manual transmission)

•

Maintain a safe following distance

•

Adjust speed to suit weather or traffic conditions

•

Make a 3-point turn

•

Slow before entering a curve

Select one example that is factual knowledge (e.g., the rules of the road) and have students identify another which is similar to it in some way (e.g., safe following distance). After a few are correctly categorized, identify an example that belongs in another category (procedural) (e.g., parallel park) and have students identify other examples of the category. When all examples are correctly categorized, have students state the rule which distinguishes one category from the other. Help them clarify that declarative knowledge is propositional (“know what”) and can be stated as a fact.

Conceptual knowledge requires integrating factual knowledge to function together as a theory, principle, or in an application. Procedural knowledge is “know how” and can be stated as steps in a process. They will notice that there is often a declarative aspect of procedural knowledge (e.g., what is parallel parking versus how to parallel park). Together, the factual, conceptual, and procedural knowledge combine to make the prerequisite knowledge for a safe, skilled driver.

Extend and Refine Understanding Have students make a list of knowledge taught in a unit of study they teach or knowledge they need to do a hobby or activity that they enjoy. Have them get into groups of three or four to share their lists and help each other to categorize the statements as declarative or procedural.

Present the list of the types of knowledge that are most common from the Appendix in this resource manual. Have students revisit the lists they just created and identify whether their statements indicate knowledge of terminology, categories, facts, etc. If necessary, they may refine their statements to more precisely fit a category.

Apply Knowledge and Skills To review the guidelines for writing high-quality, selected-response items, divide students into small groups of at least three (one for each type: multiple-choice, binary-choice and matching items). Each person in the group should review the guidelines from Chapter 8 that cover one of the types of selected-response items then share the information with the group. As the individual students share the guidelines for their type, ask students in the group to discuss the similarities and differences in the guidelines for each type.

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Next have students as a group come up with an easy way to remember the guidelines for one of the types, making sure that all three types are represented. For example, for the binary-choice guidelines the students can come up with a shorter version of the guidelines such as: 1. Be consistent and logical 2. Cover only single facts 3. Be brief 4. Cover significant info 5. Don’t use negatives 6. Don’t give clues 7. No Tricks 8. Don't be Vague Finally, have each group write their method for remembering the guidelines on a chart to share with the whole class.

Summarize and Integrate Have students revisit what they wrote on their KTW at the beginning of the lesson and share their observations about whether it was easier or more difficult than they thought to write quality selected-response items. Have them discuss the usefulness of the item writing guidelines and rules for assembling a test and the relevance of the information in this chapter to their own teaching or when they take tests.

Actually using the rules for writing items is an essential skill to learn in this chapter. The suggested tasks require that students apply their knowledge and skills. Students can complete the tasks independently or in small groups. For some of the tasks below, you can provide students with the Item Writing Guidelines from the Appendix in this resource manual or they may use the checklists in the textbook.

1. Select a chapter from a textbook which has a chapter review quiz or a publisher-made chapter test from a teacher’s edition. Choose from the following activities: •

Identify whether each item assesses knowledge or reasoning. If the item measures knowledge, identify specifically what type of knowledge is assessed.

•

Analyze whether each selected-response item follows the rules for writing the type of item.

If any item is flawed, identify which rule was violated and rewrite it to correct the flaw.

•

Write a variety of new items covering the same content. Try to write several items of each type: multiple-choice, binary-choice, and matching using the Item Writing Guidelines or the checklists in the textbook.

2. Select a topic upon which to base an assessment. An appropriate source for a topic can be: 54 .

•

A nonfiction article from a popular magazine (preferably something that includes graphs, charts, tables, or diagrams)

•

A major concept from a unit of instruction

•

A chapter from a textbook (elementary, secondary, or college).

Write a 20-item test that includes a mix of multiple-choice, binary-choice, and matching items to assess declarative knowledge following the guidelines for writing each type of item. Use the Item Writing Guidelines or the checklists in the textbook.

55 .

Chapter 8 - Assessment Items Selected-Response Items Directions for TRUE/FALSE items: Determine whether the statements below are true or false then circle TRUE or FALSE in front of each statement. If you determine a statement is FALSE, below the statement provide a rationale for your decision.

TRUE FALSE

1. Multiple-choice items do not provide an efficient method for direct assessment of many types of learning targets.

TRUE FALSE

2. Binary-choice items are the primary type of item used in accountability and other standardized tests.

TRUE FALSE

3. Multiple-choice items usually provide more complete information about student understanding than constructed-response items.

TRUE FALSE

4. In multiple-choice items, each alternative may have some correct aspect, but one answer is clearly better than the others.

TRUE FALSE

5. When writing multiple-choice items, teachers should use the same language or wording in textbooks or handouts as the correct response.

TRUE FALSE

6. When writing multiple-choice items, distractors should be plausible.

TRUE FALSE

7. Research has shown that using two distractors produces about the same results as three.

TRUE FALSE

8. Application items should present situations students have previously encountered.

TRUE FALSE

9. Reasoning can be measured by selected-response items.

TRUE FALSE

10. Knowledge can be evaluated in student essays or performance products.

TRUE FALSE

11. Trick items provide more valid measures of knowledge.

Directions for MORE/LESS items: Circle the word (“MORE” or “LESS”) in front of each statement to indicate which word makes the statement correct based on the information provided in the textbook.

56 .

MORE LESS

12. Binary-choice items are typically more or less reliable than multiple-choice items.

MORE LESS

13. Multiple-choice items are more or less prone to guessing than binary-choice items.

MORE LESS

14. Multiple-choice items have more or less diagnostic power than binary-choice items.

MORE LESS

15. It is more or less difficult to select a correct answer by guessing on multiple-choice items than on binary-choice items.

Directions for Matching Items: On the line next to each definition in Column A, place the letter next to the term in Column B that best matches the definition. Each term in Column B may be used once, more than once, or not at all.

Column A

Column B

___ 16.

The first part of a multiple-choice item that is in the form of a question or incomplete statement

A.

Alternative

___ 17.

An incorrect choice in a multiple-choice item

B.

Distractor

___18.

In matching items, the term used for the items on the left which are usually statements or definitions

C.

Premise

D.

Response

E.

Stem

Chapter 8 Constructed-Response Items Directions for constructed-response items: Write detailed answers in complete sentences, with examples where appropriate.

1. Describe three advantages and three disadvantages to using multiple-choice items to assess student knowledge, according to the textbook.

2. Describe four of the guidelines for writing high quality multiple-choice items, according to the textbook.

57 .

3. Give two reasons why teachers should avoid using phrases such as “all of the above” or “none of the above” when writing multiple-choice items, according to the textbook.

4. When writing test items, how can a teacher easily change test items that assess knowledge to assess comprehension, according to the textbook?

5. Describe two ways teachers can use a single multiple-choice item to assess reasoning, according to the textbook.

6. Describe three advantages and one disadvantage to using binary-choice items to assess student knowledge, according to the textbook.

7. Describe four of the guidelines for writing high-quality binary-choice items, according to the textbook.

8. Describe two ways binary-choice items can be used to assess reasoning, according to the textbook.

9. Describe four of the guidelines for writing high-quality matching items, according to the textbook.

10. Describe three advantages and one disadvantage to using technology-enhanced items to assess student knowledge, according to the textbook.

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Chapter 9–Constructed-Response Assessment: Completion, Short-Answer, and Essay Items Introduction Teachers often want students to reason well but do not teach them how to reason. Students are asked to analyze and compare characters or historical figures or events, but are not taught how to do so effectively and efficiently. These skills can and should be taught.

To design assessments that tap into reasoning skills well, the assessor must deeply understand the various reasoning skills, what they feel like to perform, and how they differ from one another.

Some of the instructional activities suggested for this chapter focus on investigating reasoning skills. While this is a digression from focusing on designing and creating assessment tools, the payoff will be assessment items and tasks that more nearly fit the intended reasoning target.

Often inexperienced item writers do not write items that measure the intended reasoning skill.

Simply because a word such as analyze or compare is in the item stem does not mean that the examinee actually engages in that reasoning skill to generate the intended response. Consider the example below: Compare the characteristics of mammals to the characteristics of reptiles.

This comparison is so common in the study of animals and their habitats that this information is taught explicitly. Students must simply search their memory for the characteristics of each. In essence, to say “compare the characteristics,” is a misnomer because the examinee did not need to use the steps in the process of comparing to arrive at a response. Make sure the students in your class understand this distinction. Once a particular reasoning task has been taught with particular content, the information becomes declarative knowledge; to place an item on an assessment that was posed during instruction requires recall, not reasoning.

It is helpful to provide students with copies of the Item Writing Guidelines for ConstructedResponse Items, the Item Stems for Recall Knowledge, and the Possible Formats for Writing Items to Measure Reasoning and Deep Understanding from the Appendix in this resource manual. These lists will prove useful when writing test items for the suggested activities described below, but also to use as a reference in the future.

The learning outcomes for this chapter are: 9.1 Know the guidelines for writing and/or selecting effective completion, short-answer, and essay-type items.

59 .

9.2 Understand the advantages and disadvantages of using different types of constructedresponse items.

9.3 Understand how to score constructed-response items.

9.4 Be able to construct effective completion, short-answer, and essay-type items, and scoring criteria.

Suggested Activities Engage in an Experience This first activity will lead students through a reasoning process and teach them how to reflect upon and analyze the mental steps used in the reasoning process. First, have students jot down the titles of at least three movies (either favorite movies or ones recently seen) in which they are able to recall the details. Ask them to share the movie titles with the class while you list them on the board or on chart paper. Next, narrow the list to three to five movies with which most everybody is familiar.

Together as a class, generate details about each movie from the narrowed list. Record the details in note form. Ask students to discuss how the movies are similar or different. (Do not participate in the discussion; just observe the comparison process the students use.) After ~3–5 minutes of discussion, ask the students to draw some conclusions about the movies based on the comparisons.

Process the experience by asking the students to recall the steps they went through to compare the movies; record the steps in order. It may be necessary to prompt with questions such as, “What did you do just before you did that?” The list should look something like the following: 1. Generate a pool of things to compare (movies in the example).

2. Select a few specific things to compare (Note: comparisons often involve more than two items).

3. Identify the characteristics of each thing.

4. Select a common dimension on which to compare the things (e.g., theme, plot, character development, acting quality, cinematography).

5. Identify similarities and differences.

6. Repeat steps 3–5 as needed.

7. Draw a conclusion or form a new insight as a result of the comparisons.

Next, reduce, condense, or eliminate implicitly understood steps to come up with a clean, highlydistilled set of three to five steps that can be easily and clearly communicated or taught (e.g., remove #1 because the items to compare are often provided, not brainstormed).

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Point out that these are the generic steps that are followed in any comparison task. Emphasize that people who are good at comparison focus on the basis for comparison (a distinguishing characteristic or dimension) and maintain a consistent basis for comparison rather than simply creating a list of characteristics. For example, a good comparison might focus on theme and discuss all the similarities and differences related to theme before moving on to another dimension, such as character development. Unskilled comparisons jump from item to item and scan the list of characteristics for each item to find a match (e.g., character A is from a foreign country and character B doesn’t have any friends).

Apply Knowledge and Skills The goal of this activity is to give students practice writing each of the different types of constructedresponse items in a fast-paced, round-robin format. Place students in groups of two or three and hand each group a sheet of paper with one of the types of constructed-response item (completion, short-answer, or essay) written across the top. The type of item assigned to each group is just to get them started on one type and ensure that the group task applies to each type of item. Give each group ~5 minutes to write items that match the type of constructed-response items at the top of their paper. Students should use the appropriate checklist in the chapter or the Item Writing Guidelines for Constructed-Response Items from the Appendix in this resource manual to write the items. One person in each group can act as the scribe. After ~3–5 minutes, have students pass their sheet to another group to add to the items already on the sheet. Continue this for several turns until about 10 questions are written for each type. Conclude the activity by having the groups critique the items on one of the sheets and having the students share some of their items (either good or bad) with the whole class.

To give students practice writing items that measure reasoning and deep understanding, have them make groups of two or three arranged around a topic (e.g., history, literature, math, or science). There can be more than one group covering a topic. Ask students to use the Possible Formats for Writing Items to Measure Reasoning and Deep Understanding from the Appendix in this resource manual to write items on their topic. Provide a few examples to get the students started. After ~5–10 minutes, have students share their questions with the class. This can provide an opportunity for you or others in the class to critique the items also.

Summarize To summarize the content from each learning outcome for Chapter 9, place students in groups of three or four (depending on the size of the class) and hand each group a piece of chart paper.

Assign each group a learning outcome. Each group should use the chart paper to illustrate in some way the ideas that were covered by the outcome. Tell students how long they will have to complete their task (e.g., ~10 minutes). For example, students who were given outcome #9.2 “Understand the advantages and disadvantages of using different types of constructed-response items” could make a chart comparing and contrasting the different types of constructed-response items. After ~10 minutes, ask the groups to share their products with the class.

The following activity can be done in small groups or as a whole class. To provide students with 61 .

practice evaluating essay items, hand the students sample essay items and ask them to analyze the purpose and quality of the assessment items by responding to the following: •

What reasoning skill or skills are being measured?

•

Did the item writer follow the rules for writing essays or interpretive exercises?

•

Will the assessor be able to gain insights into the examinee’s ability to reason effectively?

•

Will the assessor be able to gain insights into the steps in the reasoning process that the examinee went through to provide a response?

•

What modifications, if any, could improve the essay or interpretive exercise?

If the activity is done in small groups, allow students time to discuss their findings with the whole class.

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Chapter 9 - Assessment Items Selected-Response Items Directions for multiple-choice items: Select the one correct answer for each item.

1. According to the textbook, which of the following types of constructed-response items are best for measuring simple understanding? a. Completion b. Essay c. Short-answer 2. According to the textbook, which of the following types of constructed-response items offers the least freedom of student response? a. Completion b. Essay c. Short-answer 3. According to the textbook, for which of the following types of constructed-response items is grading the least subjective? a. Extended-response essay type b. Completion-response essay type c. Restricted-response essay type Directions for TRUE/FALSE items: Determine whether the statements below are true or false then circle TRUE or FALSE in front of each statement. If you determine a statement is FALSE, below the statement provide a rationale for your decision.

TRUE FALSE

4. Completion items should not be used to measure how students can recall facts, according to the textbook.

TRUE FALSE

5. Completion items provide more valid results than a test with an equal number of selected-response items, according to the textbook.

TRUE FALSE

6. According to the textbook, when writing completion items, teachers should lift sentences verbatim from material students have studied and replace a word or two with blanks.

TRUE FALSE

7. According to the textbook, for completion items there is typically only one correct answer.

TRUE FALSE

8. According to the textbook, placement of the blanks in a completion item can make it more difficult for students.

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TRUE FALSE

9. According to the textbook, completion items are generally preferred over short-answer type items for assessing learning targets.

TRUE FALSE

10. According to the textbook, it’s best not to phrase shortanswer items as questions.

TRUE FALSE

11. Short-answer items can assess reasoning when students are required to use targeted thinking skills to answer the item.

TRUE FALSE

12. Research indicates students study differently for essay tests, according to the textbook.

TRUE FALSE

13. Extended-response items tend to have many different appropriate correct answers, according to the textbook.

TRUE FALSE

14. According to the textbook, teachers should not indicate to students how much time they should spend on answering an essay item.

TRUE FALSE

15. According to the textbook, teachers should not let students choose which essay questions they should answer.

TRUE FALSE

16. According to the textbook, teachers should wait to create the scoring key for an essay test until they begin scoring so the first answers that are scored can be used as a guide.

Constructed-Response Items Directions for constructed-response items: Write detailed answers in complete sentences, with examples where appropriate.

1. What are the three considerations that should guide teachers in their decision about which type of constructed-response questions to use, according to the textbook?

2. Describe four advantages to using completion items, according to the textbook.

3. Restate the five guidelines given in the textbook for writing completion items in your own words.

4. Describe four advantages to using short-answer items, according to the textbook.

5. Restate the five guidelines given in the textbook for writing short-answer items in your own words.

6. Describe four advantages to using essay-type items, according to the textbook.

7. Restate the four guidelines given in the textbook for writing essay items in your own words.

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Chapter 10–Performance Assessment Introduction The task of developing performance assessments can be challenging. Developers of such assessments must understand deeply the behaviors a competent performer should exhibit or the characteristics a quality product must have. The criteria used to judge the performance or product should focus not on extraneous factors, but on the behaviors or characteristics that are the indicators of competent performance. For example, a piece of writing based on its coherence, organizing structure, voice and style, or its effectiveness at achieving its purpose should not be judged by length, margins, or number of references cited. Creating good performance assessments takes time and experience.

The learning outcomes for this chapter are: 10.1 Identify the essential characteristics of performance assessments and under what circumstances it would be appropriate to use a performance assessment to measure student proficiency. Know the strengths and limitations of performance assessments.

10.2 Write both restricted and extended performance tasks that are consistent with needed elements of effective tasks.

10.3 Understand the differences between checklists, rating scales, and rubrics; know when it is best to use each type, and be able to identify effective an ineffective rubrics.

10.4 Know the steps that are needed to develop effective rubrics; generate an example of how each step was utilized in a novel rubric.

Suggested Activities Activate Prior Knowledge Most students in your class will have taken a driver’s test. Ask them to discuss the essential characteristics of the test. How do examinees prepare for the test? What are some of the strengths of the test? What are some of its limitations? Next, ask students to help you create a list of other real-life performance assessments as you write them on the board or chart paper. Examples might include: •

Auditions—music, acting, sports

•

Competitions

•

Typing test

•

Pilot training

Place students in small groups and ask them to try to answer the following questions for each performance assessment on the list. To help ensure good coverage of the items on the list, you can assign half of the groups to start at the bottom of the list.

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1. Are the criteria for assessment known to the examinee in advance?

2. How do examinees prepare for the assessment?

3. What are the strengths and limitations of the performance assessment?

4. What type of instrument is used to score the performance assessment (e.g., checklist, rating scale, or rubric)?

After ~5–10 minutes ask students to share with the class what was discussed in the small groups.

Where possible, relate the discussion to issues of reliability, sampling, measurement error, and validity.

Learn the Information The activity in this section can help students specify the criteria for a performance task by splitting the task into what the examinee does before, during, and after the task.

Place students in small groups and ask each group to choose one of the following complex activities: •

Reading aloud to a group

•

Solving word problems on a math test

•

Speaking to an audience

•

Performing in a play or sport

Students should think of a scenario for the complex activity they chose (e.g., a 10th grade student is giving a five minute speech about Abraham Lincoln to his history class). Ask students to organize the behaviors needed to accomplish the task into what the examinee does before, during, and after the activity then use the behaviors to identify some of the criteria for evaluating the performance.

After ~5–10 minutes ask some of the groups to share what they discussed and ask them to tell how organizing the behaviors needed to accomplish the task into before, during, and after could help identify the criteria for evaluation.

Apply Knowledge and Skills This activity will promote an understanding of the differences between a restricted-type and extended-type performance assessment and provide students an opportunity to create a task description (Step 2, pp. 279–280).

On index cards, write the examples of restricted- and extended-type performance assessment tasks from Table 10.4. (You will need at least one index card per student in your class.) Place students in small groups and hand each person in the group one of the index cards. Students should take turns sharing with their group what is on their card and together decide whether the task on the card is an extended-type or restricted-type. Next students should come up with a task 67 .

description for each example. This is not the actual performance task prompt or question, but rather a blueprint of the specifics which will be used to write the prompt or question. The task description or blueprint should include the following: •

Content and skill targets to be assessed

•

Description of student activities

•

Group or individual

•

Help allowed

•

Resources needed

•

Teacher role

•

Administrative process

•

Scoring procedures

To provide students with an opportunity to prepare a performance task question or prompt with others, ask them to choose one of the task descriptions from the previous activity to write an actual question, problem, or prompt. Students can use the examples and guidelines on pp. 280–285. The performance task question, problem, or prompt needs to be stated so that it does the following: •

Identifies what the final performance/product will be

•

Outlines what the students are allowed and encouraged to do

•

Explains the criteria used to judge the performance/product

After ~10 minutes, ask students to share what they have written so far. Guide a class discussion to emphasize the thoroughness required to write a quality performance task.

Extend and Refine Understanding This activity is designed to help students understand the process of developing a scoring tool, such as a rating scale or rubric. Tell students that they will create a scoring rubric to evaluate the quality of a cake. Determine if a holistic or analytic scale should be used. As a class, describe the characteristics of “excellent” chocolate cake. Review the criteria generated and make sure the criteria focus on important aspects of the performance. (This will be the “4” on the rubric.)

Divide the class into three groups. One group will describe the characteristics of “pretty good” chocolate cake. Another group will identify the characteristics of “fair” chocolate cake (edible, but probably not worth the calories). The third group will identify the characteristics of “poor” chocolate cake. Each group should link their characteristics to those defined for “excellent” cake. Each group should write their characteristics on a piece of chart paper.

Post the charts in order: 4=Excellent, 3=Pretty Good, 2=Fair, 1=Poor. As a class, review each chart and make sure that the criteria are directly observable and do not represent personal preferences 68 .

or value judgments. Refine the criteria so that they are clear and specific.

Next, serve chocolate cake to the students. The cake can be homemade or store bought. You might want to enlist one or two volunteers to bring cake to class. Students should observe the characteristics of the cake, using all their senses. They should describe what they observe and taste and then determine which score point on the rubric most nearly matches their observations.

If more than one cake is sampled, the cakes should be compared to the scoring criteria, not to each other. By a show of hands, or standing up, have students reveal the score they gave the cake, or each cake, and explain why. Point out the value of having a rubric to obtain inter-rater reliability.

Refine the rubric criteria as needed, based on the actual examples of chocolate cake. If raters were more than one point different in their ratings, determine if the rubric needs to be refined or if the scorer needs to be “retrained” in using the rubric.

Discuss how this activity can be extended to creating a scoring rubric for an assessment they created or how pupils they teach (or will teach) might benefit from doing this same activity. Relate the process of creating a rubric to defining learning targets and scoring criteria. Note: Your students could use this activity with their own students to introduce them to the process of making and using scoring rubrics for writing, story retellings, projects, speeches, or other types of performances and products.

Summarize and Integrate A good summary technique to use that acknowledges both students’ questions and learning successes is the Triangle, Square, and Circle Summary. Have students draw a triangle, a square, and a circle (each 3–4 inches in size) in their notebook. Give them the following instructions: • • •

In the triangle, write 3 important points to remember about this chapter.

In the square, write something that is squared away in your mind “squared” (something that you understand well away or fits with your beliefs).

In the circle, write a question you may still have.

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3 points

Something "squared" away

A question

Students can share their summaries with a partner or as a class before you collect them.

Assessment Items The content of this chapter does not lend itself to assessment using selected- or constructedresponse type items. Instead choose one of the assessment tasks described below.

A good performance assessment of these skills is to have students independently complete this same process of analysis with another example of an extended task or to design one of their own.

If they design one of their own, make sure that they are designing an assessment, not an instructional activity. You can use or modify the following prompt: Design a performance assessment that you can use with your own students. This assessment has three parts following the three steps in the textbook on pp. 277–285 for Constructing Performance Tasks. You should: 1) Identify the performance task as extended- or restricted-type.

2) Write the task description or blueprint. This should include: a. Content and skill targets to be assessed b. Description of student activities c. Group or individual d. Help allowed e. Resources needed f. Teacher role g. Administrative process 70 .

h. Scoring procedures 3) Write the performance task question or prompt using the guidelines for writing performance tasks in Figure 10.3 on p. 281.

Your product for this assessment will be evaluated by how well you addressed each of the three steps described above.

Alternatively, you can ask students to analyze and modify examples of performance assessments that they find on the Internet. There are many assessment tasks on the Internet that are called “performance” assessments but which fall short of the criteria discussed in this chapter. Students should identify the learning targets being assessed and suggest ways to revise or modify the assessment to improve it. Finally, students should evaluate the assessment or their revision using the checklist provided in Figure 10.3 on p. 281. You can use or modify the following prompt: Search on the Internet for a performance assessment that you could use with your own students. This assessment has three parts following the three steps in the textbook on pp.

277–285 for Constructing Performance Tasks, however, you will not be creating a performance task from scratch, but rather you will be evaluating and modifying a performance task to suit your needs. Follow the steps below to complete your assessment task: 1) Identify the performance task as extended- or restricted-type.

2) Answer the questions below to indicate how the performance assessment addresses each of the following questions: a. What content and skill targets are assessed by the performance task? b. Is the task a group or individual task? c. Can the students get help to complete the task? d. What resources are needed to complete the task? e. What will your role be in preparing students to complete the task? f. How will you administer the task? g. Is a scoring procedure specified already? If so, specify the type and explain why it suits your purposes or needs to be modified. If not, which type do you think would be most appropriate and why?

3) Answer the following questions to evaluate the performance task. a. What are the learning targets that are addressed by the performance task? b. In what ways is the task authentic? c. In what ways is the task challenging?

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d. In what ways is the task engaging? e. Were criteria for scoring shared with the task? If so, how will the task be scored? If not, describe the criteria you will use to score the task. f. Were conditions for completing the task included? If so, what are the conditions? If not, what conditions do you think would be most appropriate? g. How might the task be biased for some students?

Your product for this assessment will be evaluated by how well you addressed all of the questions above.

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Chapter 11–Portfolios: Paper and Digital Introduction It’s important for students to understand that portfolios are not a distinctly different method of assessing students. Portfolios are a microenvironment of quality classroom assessment. The teacher must determine the purpose that the portfolio is to serve, whether to document growth and progress or to showcase best work. The instructional targets must be selected, and the types of individual assessments or pieces that will be available must be carefully selected to reveal the targets. And, the targets must be known to the students, and students must be provided with the criteria by which their work will be judged. The only distinct difference from other forms of classroom assessment is that some degree of control is turned over to the student because the student is a more active participant in the assessment process by selecting pieces, conferencing, and setting goals.

In working with teachers to develop portfolio systems that work for them in their classroom, there are some questions that often arise: •

What if students don’t select the pieces that I would select as their best or typical work?

•

What if students don’t focus on important characteristics when they self-evaluate?

•

Will parents accept this way of assessing students?

•

If every student has different samples in their portfolio, how will I be able to monitor the progress of the class as a whole?

Instruction for this chapter will prepare teachers to answer these questions themselves. Portfolios do require some additional planning and preparation, but by understanding the relationship between assessment purpose, targets, and methods, the answers to these questions should be clear.

When teaching this chapter, please emphasize that there is no one correct method of doing portfolios. There are guiding principles or characteristics of portfolios that should be explored in depth. As long as the guidelines are used the choices are virtually endless.

The learning outcomes for this chapter are: 11.1 List the essential characteristics of an effective portfolio and what steps are needed to implement portfolio assessment.

11.2 Identify the advantages and disadvantages of using portfolios and determine if portfolios would be useful in your teaching.

11.3 Distinguish among different types of documentation portfolios and contrast with growth portfolios. Know when it is appropriate to use each type and align with learning targets.

11.4 Recognize the advantages of using digital rather than paper portfolios; be able to identify a possible digital platform that could be used for your grade level and subject.

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Suggested Activities Activate Prior Knowledge Most people have some prior knowledge and conceptions about portfolios. It’s a good idea to start the instruction for this chapter by having your students list the things they already know about portfolios and what they want to know. After instruction on the chapter, students should review the list of things they wanted to know and make a list of what they learned. Most practicing teachers have questions that focus more on management issues and how to win over parents than with the concept of portfolios and what goes into a portfolio.

Begin by having a few students share with the class their knowledge and experience with portfolios.

After a few minutes of discussion, as a class fill in the first two columns in a chart like the one below. Post the chart for students to see as you teach the content of the chapter and, if there are any incorrect statements in the What I Know column, address these and write correct statements in the What I Learned column. As topics in the second column are covered, add these also to the What I Learned column.

What I Know

What I Want to Know

What I Learned

Learn the Information To help students focus on the characteristics of portfolio assessments, divide the class into five groups and assign each group one of the following characteristics: • • • • •

Purpose Documentation Student participation Clear criteria Self-evaluation

Have each group use the textbook to extract important information about their characteristic as it relates to portfolio assessment. Ask students to use the knowledge about assessment from previous chapters to expand their understanding of the characteristic.

Have students share their information with the class and discuss the importance of the characteristic to the portfolio assessment process.

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Link Methods to Purpose This activity is designed to help students understand that the specific assessment methods used to build the portfolio must be linked with the overarching purpose for the portfolio. In a class discussion, review the different purposes of educational assessment (sort and select, monitor student progress, accountability and program evaluation) and the three major purposes of classroom assessment (diagnose, monitor and provide corrective feedback, accountability).

Compare these purposes with the different purposes of portfolios (document status and growth, showcase best work, accountability). Ask students to describe the kinds of pieces that must be in a portfolio if it is to show progress over time (e.g., same kinds of sample, such as writing samples, collected at different points in time or works in progress) or if it is to show best work (e.g., samples from different categories of work, such as persuasive writing or samples that demonstrate a variety of skills or knowledge). Help students understand that portfolios are purposeful and systematic (i.e., the purpose drives the nature of the pieces that go into a portfolio).

Link Selection of Pieces to Targets A common question is, “What if students don’t pick what I think is important?” To address this question, explain how some pieces should be selected to represent progress or achievement of the identified learning targets. If the portfolio is a writing portfolio, then there could be representative pieces of writing that demonstrate students ability to write for a variety of purposes (e.g., entertain or inform), write for a variety of audiences (e.g., familiar or persons in positions of authority), write in a variety of modes of discourse (e.g., narration, description, or exposition), use a variety of forms (e.g., journal, letter, or essay), and use the writing process (e.g., planning, revision, or final copy).

Help your students understand that the teacher sets the parameters on the choices students make.

It follows, then, that if the student is to select from these types of pieces, then these types of pieces must be generated during instruction. If most of the instructional and assessment activities that students do involve worksheets, then the collection of work from which to choose will be limited.

Have students form small groups based on shared topics of teaching (e.g., writing, reading, social studies, science, or math). In their groups, students should make a list of the potential parameters they might place on their students’ choices. After ~5–10 minutes, have each group share with their list with the class.

The Importance of Clear Criteria A question that will often arise is whether individual pieces should be “graded” or evaluated prior to selection in the portfolio. To help students understand the complexity of this question, divide the class into two groups to brainstorm reasons why students should select from graded pieces or pieces that have not been graded or reviewed by the teacher. Look at the issue from the perspective of the teacher (group 1) and the student (group 2). Have each group list and present their arguments and debate the issue. There is no one correct response to this question; a combination of graded and ungraded pieces is probably best. Experience tells me, however, that if all work is graded by the teacher before the student selects pieces for the portfolio, then the 75 .

student will equate “quality” or “best” work with what the teacher determined to be good.

Lead your students to an understanding of the purpose of clear criteria to judge portfolio pieces.

Have students recall their prior knowledge of what criteria are and why they are important to classroom assessment. It is a very short leap to apply criteria to portfolios. With time and practice, students can learn to use the teacher’s criteria to judge what is “good” work rather than individual criteria, such as “This is my best piece because I used neat handwriting.”

The discussion of the importance of clear criteria for evaluating pieces in the portfolio or the portfolio as a whole should naturally lead to a discussion of the role of student self-evaluation and the role of conferences and goal setting. Help your students to see that these characteristics of portfolios form a logical and internally consistent system and that if one or more of these components will be lacking, the rationale for doing portfolios and the benefits derived from portfolios diminish.

Extend and Refine Understanding To help students understand the role of some of the essential characteristics of effective portfolios, either as a whole class, or in small groups, ask them to discuss what they think would happen if one of the components listed below was missing from the portfolio process: • • • • • •

Clear purpose Clear targets Clear criteria Student self-evaluation Student-teacher conferences Individual goal setting

Summarize After instruction on the chapter, revisit the chart that was made at the beginning of the unit during the Activate Prior Knowledge activity. Students should examine the list of things they wanted to know to see if any questions remain unanswered. If so, decide how to address them, perhaps by asking individual students to investigate further. Also, first in small groups, and then as a class, add to the list of What I Learned.

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Chapter 11 - Assessment Items The content of this chapter does not lend itself to assessment using selected-response type items, however, the constructed-response items below can be used to measure students understanding of the important concepts covered in this chapter Constructed-Response Items Directions for constructed-response items: Write detailed answers in complete sentences, with examples where appropriate.

1. Describe in detail the three types of documentation portfolios given in the textbook and give an example of each type.

2. Describe five essential characteristics of an effective portfolio, according to the textbook.

3. Describe five advantages of using portfolio assessment, according to the textbook.

4. Describe five disadvantages of using portfolio assessment, according to the textbook.

5. Describe four uses of portfolios given by the textbook and give an example of each.

6. Use the flow diagram in Figure 11.5 to describe a scenario in which you plan and implement a portfolio assessment for your own students. Be sure to address how you would specifically address all nine of the steps in the figure.

7. Describe how teachers can use portfolios to demonstrate growth, according to the chapter.

8. Describe five essential questions that need to be answered when implementing and using portfolios, according to the textbook.

9. Give three ways students can be taught self-reflection, according to the textbook.

10. According to the textbook, describe five advantages that digital portfolios have when compared to paper portfolios.

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Chapter 12–Assessing “Noncognitive” Dispositions and Skills Introduction The content of this chapter must be dealt with forthrightly as well as with caution. It is also a good time to review the distinction between assessment (the gathering of data) and evaluation (making judgments based on the data) and grading (assigning a value or symbol to the judgment).

When addressing this chapter, it is important that students clearly understand the cautions and the suggestions for making sure that affective traits and dispositions and the assessments thereof are clearly connected to academic performance. You cannot overemphasize the point that vague, global, or overly general descriptions of attitudes, self-concept, or self-esteem is not only not helpful, but using such terms and measures can be professionally dangerous.

On the other hand, personal experience as learners tells us that our attitudes and perceptions are very important determinants of our motivation to engage in academic tasks or our perceptions of the value or worth of learning information or skills. An examination of the differences between good and poor learners reveals that negative affect and attitudes is a key characteristic of poor learners.

These differences can be explored as a way to open discussion of the role of affect and attitudes.

The chapter offers a thorough treatment of the assessment options. While there are procedural skills that can be developed by having students practice the steps in developing an affective assessment tool or writing different types of survey or self-report items, the declarative knowledge in this chapter is typically more important at this stage of your students’ training as teachers and assessors. Focus on the declarative knowledge by discussing the pros and cons of assessing affective traits and dispositions, the advantages and disadvantages of the different assessment options, and the importance of repeated observations and using a variety of assessment methods when collecting data about affective traits and dispositions.

The learning outcomes for Chapter 12 are: 12.1 Understand the nature of noncognitive dispositions and trait targets, including definitions of different attributes such as attitudes, self-concept, values, and student self-assessment.

12.2 Identify what is needed for effective assessment of noncognitive dispositions and traits.

Specifically, know what is what is needed to assure reliable and valid scores.

12.3 Be able to design questions for student self-reports of noncognitive dispositions and traits, including question stems and response scales for both selected- and constructed-response formats, that are appropriate for a specified grade level.

12.4 Understand how student self-assessment is a key element to learning. Identify how to address the improvement of self-assessment before, during, and after instruction, and what strategies can be used to measure self-assessment.

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Suggested Activities Activate Prior Knowledge As usual, it is often valuable to start by recalling prior knowledge about the topic or personal experiences. Have students recall a time when they had an intense, negative feeling or attitude toward a teacher or a learning experience and jot down a few notes about the experience. Have them contrast this with a time when they felt positive and highly motivated. In partners, discuss how positive or negative feelings and attitudes affected motivation to learn, interest in the topic, engagement in the learning activity, the quality of learning that occurred, or long-term effects of the experience. Finally, lead a class discussion about why assessing affect (observing and collecting data) might be important.

Learn the Information This chapter is a time when direct instruction, rather than discovery is appropriate. It is appropriate to use a series of mini-lectures to address each of the types of affective traits and learning targets: attitudes, values, motivation, self-concept, social relationships, and classroom environment. An alternative to lecturing would be to divide the students into seven small groups and have each group study and discuss one of the affective traits and targets and present to the whole class. If you use mini-lectures, lecture ~10 minutes and then have students process, summarize, or clarify for several minutes with a partner and as a class to check for understanding. Or, after each minilesson allow ~3–5 minutes for students do the following three steps: 1. Summarize. Quickly summarize the key points about the type of affective target.

2. Identify interesting aspects of the information.

3. Identify any confusion and try to clarify. Any questions that cannot be cleared up in the group are referred to the whole group or to the teacher.

Extend and Refine Understanding To help students clarify the guidelines or general principles for assessing affective targets have them break into groups to do the following: 1. Differentiate affective targets by academic subject or task (e.g., attitudes toward reading or motivation to do problem solving) and determine how the affective trait or target relates to or affects an academic target. For example, how do attitudes toward reading affect reading achievement?

2. Be specific about the observable behaviors that are indicators of the affective target rather than make inferences (e.g., “listens to and restates another’s point of view,” or “uses strategies for reaching consensus,” as opposed to “appreciates diversity,” or “values consensus”). Brainstorm a list of approach and avoidance behaviors that students with positive or negative attitudes do.

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3. Use the list of behaviors to practice documenting observations (as opposed to making inferences). Then modify the list of behaviors and create the desired tool, such as structured or unstructured observation forms or rating forms, student surveys, constructed-response or incomplete sentence formats, Likert scales, and so on.

In addition, it might be helpful to model or briefly walk through these steps with something that is common to all the students—such as attitudes toward reading, math, or assessment; selfperceptions of one’s ability to read, do math, or assess students; or perceptions of the value of reading, mathematics, or knowledge of assessment issues and methods.

Summarize and Integrate An effective way to summarize the key points in this chapter is to have each student write a onesentence summary of the following sections: 1. Are “Noncognitive” Disposition and Skill Targets Important?

2. Attitude Targets 3. Value Targets 4. Motivation targets 5. Self-Concept Targets 6. Self-Efficacy Targets 7. Interpersonal Skill Learning Targets 8. Unstructured Teacher Observation 9. Structured Teacher Observation 10. Teacher Interviews 11. Student Self-Report Questionnaires and Surveys 12. Student Self-Assessment Ask students to share their one-sentence summaries and make a class list of summary statements for each section. Finally, have students write a paragraph summarizing the chapter, incorporating as many of the summary statements as possible.

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Chapter 12 - Assessment Items Selected-Response Items Directions for multiple-choice items: Choose whether each statement or question below is best used to measure one of the following traits: attitude, motivation, self-efficacy, or value.

1. I am a good writer. a. Attitude b. Motivation c. Self-efficacy d. Value 2. School is very boring to me. a. Attitude b. Motivation c. Self-efficacy d. Value 3. I like it to be quiet when I read. a. Attitude b. Motivation c. Self-efficacy d. Value 4. I am good at putting my ideas down on paper. a. Attitude b. Motivation c. Self-efficacy d. Value 5. Do you choose to write during “free choice” time? a. Attitude b. Motivation c. Self-efficacy d. Value 6. My teacher is willing to help me if I don’t understand something. a. Attitude b. Motivation c. Self-efficacy d. Value 7. I have friends in my classroom. a. Attitude b. Motivation c. Self-efficacy d. Value 8. I can usually figure things out if I try hard enough. a. Attitude 81 .

b. Motivation c. Self-efficacy d. Value 9. My teachers care about me. a. Attitude b. Motivation c. Self-efficacy d. Value 10. Getting good grades is important to me. a. Attitude b. Motivation c. Self-efficacy d. Value Directions for TRUE/FALSE items: Determine whether the statements below are true or false then write TRUE or FALSE on the blank in front of each statement. If you determine a statement is FALSE, below the statement provide a rationale for your decision.

TRUE FALSE

11. The affective component of attitudes consists of the emotion or feeling associated with an object or a person while the cognitive component is an evaluative belief.

TRUE FALSE

12. Academic self-concept is how students feel about themselves.

TRUE FALSE

13. Students who have a performance orientation are more likely to attribute failure to lack of effort than students who have a mastery orientation.

TRUE FALSE

14. Self-efficacy is task-specific, pertaining to different domains of functioning.

TRUE FALSE

15. When identifying interpersonal skill targets it is necessary to be very general about what is emphasized.

TRUE FALSE

16. Likert scales are best for measuring the behavioral and cognitive components of attitudes.

Chapter 12 Constructed-Response Items Directions for constructed-response items: Write detailed answers in complete sentences, with examples where appropriate.

1. Describe three reasons given by the textbook for why noncognitive traits are not usually systematically assessed in schools.

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2. Describe four advantages given by the textbook for measuring noncognitive traits.

3. Describe the differences between attitudes and self-efficacy and provide an example of each type of trait.

4. Describe the differences between values and motivation and provide an example of each type of trait.

5. Describe five noncontroversial values given by the textbook and give an example of each.

6. According to the textbook, what are the three considerations teachers should keep in mind whenever they are accessing noncognitive targets?

7. What are the three methods for accessing students’ noncognitive dispositions and skills given by the textbook? Describe an example of each of the three methods.

8. What are two advantages to using an unstructured interview instead of a structured interview when assessing noncognitive skills, according to the textbook?

9. What are two advantages to using a selected-response format when measuring noncognitive traits in a student survey instead of using a constructed-response format, according to the textbook?

10. Give three reasons why self-assessment is an excellent strategy for formative assessment, according to the textbook.

11. Describe three positive benefits of successful student self-assessment given by the textbook.

12. Describe how a teacher can teach students to develop self-reflective habits and skills, according to the textbook.

13. Describe three self-assessment strategies students can do before instruction.

14. Describe three self-assessment strategies students can do during instruction.

15. Describe three self-assessment strategies students can do after instruction.

16. According to the textbook what are two limitations to student self-assessment?

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Chapter 13–Assessment for Students with Exceptional Needs Introduction The need for clearly defined targets and the selection of appropriate assessment methods is especially critical when assessing students with disabilities. The likelihood of measurement errors creeping into the assessment process is very real. Preconceptions, expectations, and all sorts of biases can influence teachers’ assessments and judgments. The process of selecting or creating assessments remains the same, but the targets for students with disabilities, the expectations for how well they are achieved, or the length of time it takes to achieve them may be different than for other students.

Because specific procedures for how students with disabilities are assessed and how findings are documented may vary by state and locality, the degree and depth to which this topic is explored is limited. This is an area that requires highly specialized training. Your students’ experiences with the nature of disabilities may vary widely making it very difficult for students to assimilate the information in this chapter and to construct meaning.

Test questions are not included with this chapter because this chapter should be taught for awareness rather than mastery.

An important understanding for students to gain from this chapter is to determine when the targets for students with disabilities differ from the targets set for nondisabled students and when the targets are the same but expectations for the degree or level of performance on the targets differ.

This is closely related to the nature and severity of the disability. Once this distinction is made, the next decision is how to modify assessment procedures to minimize or remove barriers that get in the way of obtaining an accurate assessment because of the disability.

The learning outcomes for Chapter 13 are: 13.1 Understand the essential legal mandates for educating students with special needs and how those mandates influence assessment.

13.2 Understand the basic elements of identification for special needs students, the sequence of steps taken, and the role of the classroom teacher in that process.

13.3 Understand why assessment accommodations are needed to ensure fair and accurate assessment, as well as grading and reporting, for students with learning difficulties as well as gifted and talented students.

13.4 Know assessment difficulties for students with special needs, and be able to identify assessment accommodations that are needed for each difficulty.

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Suggested Activities Activate Prior Knowledge Starting with a KWL will help you identify your students’ level of prior knowledge about disabilities and assessing students with disabilities who are mainstreamed in the regular classroom. Have them jot down what they already Know about the topic and what they Want to know. At the end of the lesson you can complete the KWL by identifying what they Learned.

Learn the Information Divide students into seven groups and assign each group one of the following categories of exceptional disabilities: 1. Intellectual Disability 2. Sensory impairments 3. Speech and Language Disorders 4. Physical and Health Impairments 5. Specific Learning Disability 6. Emotional and Behavioral Disorders 7. Autism Have each group read the relevant section about their category in the chapter and use their prior knowledge to answer the following questions: 1. For these students, is it necessary to identify achievement targets that are distinctly different from the targets for students without disabilities?

2. If the targets are not different, would you expect students to require more time to achieve the same targets and the same performance standards (level of accomplishment)? Would it be necessary to have somewhat lower performance expectations?

3. What accommodations in the assessment tool or assessment process might be necessary to get around the disability to assess the student’s knowledge and skills or accomplishment of the targets?

4. Which types of assessment methods (objective, constructed-response, performance, portfolio, or personal communication) might be most affected by the disability? Which types of assessment methods might be most effective?

Have each group share the answers with the class and create a chart to record them. Use the information on the chart to clarify confusions or to delve into specific issues and implications.

As part of the lesson and discussion, address students’ particular interests and concerns. Some of your students will not have a personal need for this information at this time, but when they are 85 .

ready for the information they should reference the information in the textbook.

Summarize and Integrate Complete the KWL by asking students what they Learned by reading and discussing the chapter.

Then, in small groups, have students do the following: 1. Summarize key points of the chapter, specifically regarding the following: a. Adaptations in test directions b. Adaptations in test construction c. Adaptations in test format d. Grading and reporting accommodations 2. Describe several different ways the information in the chapter might be useful to them as classroom teachers.

Have the groups share what they discussed with the class.

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Chapter 14–Assessment for Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Students Introduction The number and percentage of culturally and linguistically diverse (CLD) students in U.S. classrooms is growing rapidly. The purpose of this chapter is to introduce teachers to the assessment adaptations that are needed to accommodate these students in inclusive settings. Of course all of the suggestions made in other chapters apply to these students, but teachers need to keep some additional considerations in mind. In general, it is important that teachers are aware of the characteristics of CLD students and understand that they may differ in their level of acculturation. Teachers are on the front line. They must ensure that a student’s native culture or language limitations do not unfairly influence performance on tests and other types of assessments.

Teachers are faced with a host of issues related to the assessment of CLD students. Most assessments are heavily language dependent and language integrated, making the distinction between content and language difficult. Formative assessment strategies, in particular, can be used on a daily basis to incorporate CLD student characteristics and perspectives so that student verbal and nonverbal behavior is appropriately understood and feedback individualized.

Assessment modifications for CLD students include providing extra time; simplifying and clarifying test language; and providing and allowing students the use of visual aids, models, examples, prompts and glossaries of terms, graphic organizers, and outlines.

An important goal of this chapter is to provide discussion of topics related to the assessment of CLD students. Instruction to CLD students is more effective when it is placed in the context of cultural and linguistic differences and level of acculturation.

Test questions are not included with this chapter because this chapter should be taught for awareness rather than mastery.

The learning outcomes for Chapter 14 are: 14.1 Understand the characteristics of CLD students, as well as the potential impact these characteristics could have on both the nature of classroom assessments and interpretations of student work.

14.2 Know the steps involved in acculturation and how acculturation is an important influence on CLD student assessment.

14.3 Know how assessment should be modified to accommodate CLD student cultural, language, educational, and socioeconomic differences.

14.4 Be able to give examples of formative and summative assessments that have been modified to accommodate CLD students.

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14.5 Know the key features of effective assessment of CLD students.

Suggested Activities Activate Prior Knowledge Place students in small groups and ask them to discuss issues they have faced related to students who are culturally or linguistically diverse. Post the following questions to guide their discussion: 1. Have you seen a change in the diversity of the student population in your school?

2. Have you had any challenges related to instructing students who are culturally or linguistically diverse?

3. What strategies have you used with these students?

After ~5 minutes have students share some of their discussions with the whole class. Use this discussion as an opportunity to focus your students’ attention to the need for accommodating CLD students to ensure their knowledge and skills are measured accurately and so that they might be successful.

Developing Understanding To guide students to internalize the need for developing an awareness and appreciation for the cultural differences of their students, lead them in a class discussion about how teachers can use cultural competence to help students be more effective by reading the following examples: 1. In some cultures, all that is needed to get children's attention is a facial expression or by turning the lights out, however, in some cultures the norm is to get children's attention by shouting.

2. In some cultures, children are taught to look down when an adult is speaking to them.

Ask students to share other differences in cultures that might impact the performance of culturally and linguistically diverse students in the classroom. Ask them to share how they as a teacher might adapt to make their instruction more effective. Some examples of differences in cultures are: •

Awaking early enough to go to school

•

Being prompt for meetings or class

•

Gestures in one country may mean something quite different in the US (Doing a peace sign backwards in England is the same as giving the middle finger in the US)

•

Handing or taking something in the left hand is avoided (It's your potty hand)

•

In some countries, students are taught there are only five continents

•

Lunchtime is later and is the big family meal in some cultures

•

In some countries, there is a long break for relaxing after lunch 88 .

•

In some cultures, the student-teacher relationship is very formal

•

In some cultures, the role of women is strictly defined

Refining Understanding Ask your students to bring in examples of in class assignments, homework, and tests. Have students examine the examples for difficulties they might pose for CLD students. Depending on the number of examples, students can work in small groups or with a partner. Have the groups pass their examples to another group every few minutes. Reconvene as a class and ask students to share some of the issues they observed in the examples.

Summarize To summarize key points in the chapter, divide students into groups of two or three and give each group some chart paper. Assign each group one or more of the following questions to answer using pictures or words for the purpose of sharing with the class: 1. What are five factors that influence CLD students’ performance on assessments? Describe them in detail and provide examples, if possible.

2. What are five formative assessment modifications that can be used effectively with CLD students? Describe them in detail and provide examples, if possible.

3. What are five summative assessment modifications that are appropriate for CLD students?

Describe them in detail and provide examples, if possible.

4. What are some strategies that teachers can use to grade CLD students more effectively?

Describe them in detail and provide examples, if possible.

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Chapter 15–Grading and Reporting Student Performance Introduction Without a doubt, the issue of how to grade students’ work and how to report their progress or academic standing is a contentious one. At some time in their academic experiences, nearly everyone has been the victim of unfair grading practices. Consider a few scenarios: •

A 10th grade student’s English grades for each grading quarter showed a pattern of Q1=B, Q2=A, Q3=D, Q4=B. The “D” grade was the result of a series of poetry assignments that were graded on neatness and artwork.

•

The first day of school the teacher asked students to write a 3–5 page creative essay on a topic of their choice. When the papers were returned each had been assigned a letter grade with no explanation of how the grade was determined and no feedback.

•

Homeroom teachers at a middle school were told to enter a zero in their grade book each day that a student was late in returning the completed federal card used for determining the allocation of federal impact aid money to school districts.

•

A high school math teacher assigned homework on a topic before providing instruction on it. Each day he walked around to check to see who had completed all of the problems and entered a check mark in his grade book. A bonus point was awarded for having the correct answer to one of the problems. Homework and the number of bonus points were averaged into the course grade.

The main point of this chapter is to provide students with an opportunity to explore their attitudes about grading and reporting, their beliefs about different grading practices, and to discuss the issues. It is unlikely that issues will be resolved because grading and reporting practices are often governed by school district and school policies. In addition, people often have strong opinions about grading practices.

This chapter has a great deal of information and suggestions that require discussion; however, the information may not be as effective with students who have limited experience with grading issues.

The suggested activities are designed to allow students with opportunities to explore—not resolve—the many issues and dilemmas related to grading.

The learning outcomes for Chapter 15 are: 15.1 Understand that while the goal of grading is to provide an objective recording of student achievement, teacher professional judgment is essential to the process. Being clear and explicit about such judgment will enhance the validity of grades.

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15.2 Know how to use different approaches to grading, including letter grades, percentage correct, rubrics, and standards.

15.3 Understand that grading is a process of comparison, either with prior achievement (showing progress), other students, or standards.

15.4 Know the functions of grading, including the impact of grades on student motivation and how grades communicate important information to parents.

15.5 Be able to construct a grading plan that includes factors other than achievement, such as effort, attendance, and improvement, and devise a strategy for combining individually graded products into an appropriately weighted composite score.

15.6 Know the essential best practices for communicating with parents about students’ grades.

Suggested Activities Engage in an Experience An activity to use to help students understand the implications of differences in test difficulty on grading practices, give the 10-item Test from the Appendix in this resource manual. The test items are based on information in The Dictionary of Cultural Literacy by E. D. Hirsch, et al (Houghton Mifflin).

Notice that there are two forms of this test (Test 1 and Test 2). The item stem and the correct answer are exactly the same on both forms; only the distractors differ. On the “easy” form of the test, the correct answer jumps out because of the poor quality of the distractors. On the “difficult” form of the test, the distractors are more plausible. Do the following activity: •

Distribute a copy of one of the forms of the test to each person and have students record their response to each item. Have the copies of both forms mixed up and do not tell students that there are different forms.

•

When students are finished taking the test, write the answer key on the board and have students self-correct their tests. Ask students to grade themselves honestly. Tell them not to be concerned with missing items on this test as they may not have been taught the material.

•

Write all possible score points, ten to zero, vertically on the board. Create a frequency distribution of the students’ total scores. An easy way to do this is to pass out small Post-it notes on which to have students record their total score. To reduce embarrassment, you can collect the Post-it notes without looking at them and place them on the frequency chart yourself.

•

Ask students which total scores should receive a grade of A, B, C, etc.

Have students review the test items and their answers to determine which items they answered correctly simply because they guessed or eliminated response choices and then guessed.

If your students have not yet noticed that there are different forms of the test, bring this to their attention and provide them a copy of the alternate form.

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Discuss the implications of differences in test construction and test difficulty for grading. What are the implications of the differing degrees of difficulty on the tests? How might a similar situation play out with different teachers within a building? Across buildings in a district?

Examine Personal Beliefs In order for students to understand that there is very little that is “objective” about grades and that professional judgment plays a large role in grading practices, have students discuss when and if the following factors should sometimes be considered in assigning grades on a report card: •

Research skills using the content

•

Written and oral communication skills

•

Classroom participation

•

Completing and turning in homework

•

Accuracy of homework

•

Completing assignments on time

•

Work habits: neatness, on-task, cooperation

•

Classroom behavior

Pass out copies of the Activity Sheet below and ask students to determine how much weight each factor on the list should have in determining a final course grade. This can be done as a “preassessment” of students’ beliefs prior to instruction and discussion of this chapter and then done again as a “post-assessment” to examine changes in beliefs.

Examine Personal Beliefs about Grading Activity Sheet

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Directions: Determine how much weight in percent the following factors should have in determining a final course grade. The total must equal 100%. There are 8 factors in the list.

Homework ____% Final/semester exam ___% In-class assignments ____% Projects/papers ____% Quizzes ____% Class participation ____% Chapter/unit tests ____% Number of times tardy ____%

Write the factors on the board or chart paper and ask students to share their determinations.

Discuss the similarities and differences in opinions regarding what to consider when grading and what importance to assign to the various pieces of evidence. Discuss the implications of having such varying opinions on grading practices and policies. And, most importantly, what effect do all these differences have on students?

To help students explore the effect of different grades on students, make a chart of letter grades (A, B, C, D, and F) and lead a class discussion about for which types of students each grade is motivating and for which types each grade is a disincentive. Students should be encouraged to share personal experiences.

To help students understand the pros and cons of grading factors other than performance on the learning targets, assign small groups to investigate other factors (i.e., effort, attendance, attitudes, and group work). Have the groups read the relevant section in the text book to pull out the arguments for and against “grading” these factors or taking them into consideration when assigning grades. Encourage students to add their own ideas or arguments to the information in the textbook.

Record the information on a class data retrieval chart like the one below. Discuss what might be reasonable grading practices with respect to each factor.

Sample Chart Factor Effort

For

Against

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Attendance

Attitude

Group work

Learn the Information In this activity students engage in a debate of the options for the basis of comparison. Divide the class into three groups; assign each group one of the three types of comparison listed below. Ask each group to present a three-minute argument in favor of using that basis of comparison. Allow ~10 minutes for the groups to prepare their arguments in support of the comparison using the information in the textbook and their own opinions and personal examples. Use the following three types of comparison: •

Comparison between student performance and an individual’s prior performance or aptitude (individual student-referenced)

•

Comparison between student performance and the performance of other students (normreferenced),

•

Comparison between student performance and predetermined standards (standardsbased)

Discuss which methods are defensible using criteria learned in this course, such as reliability, validity, fairness, and generalizability to the entire content domain.

To provide an opportunity for students to explore any changes in beliefs that may have occurred as a result of reading and discussing this chapter, have students revisit their responses on the Examine Personal Beliefs about Grading Practices Activity Sheet. Ask them to determine how they would weight each factor on the list now and compare their responses to their earlier determinations. Discuss any changes in attitudes and beliefs that may have occurred.

Summarize and integrate There are many issues related to grading that deserve examination and debate. This chapter and the instructional activities suggested just begin to scratch the surface. If time permits, further discussion could be beneficial. To summarize the learning that the students have acquired, bring the lesson to a close with a 3-2-1 summary: •

Three ideas or suggestions that will help you establish fair and reliable grading practices 94 .

•

Two things that are still unclear in your mind

•

One idea in this chapter that made the biggest impact on your way of thinking about grading

Alternately, you could use the Triangle, Square, Circle Summary Activity described in Chapter 10 of this manual.

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Chapter 15 - Assessment Items Selected-Response Items Directions for multiple-choice items: Identify whether the statement is an example of an individual student-referenced, a norm-referenced, or a standards-based comparison. Select the one correct answer for each item.

1. The student showed one year’s growth between pretest and posttest scores. a. Individual student-referenced b. Norm-referenced c. Standards-based 2. Fewer students in grade 8 are below grade level than the number of 7th grade students below grade level. a. Individual student-referenced b. Norm-referenced c. Standards-based 3. The student scored at the 73rd percentile in reading comprehension. a. Individual student-referenced b. Norm-referenced c. Standards-base 4. The students successfully used the problem solving process. a. Individual student-referenced b. Norm-referenced c. Standards-based 5. The student’s computation speed and accuracy has remained stable. a. Individual student-referenced b. Norm-referenced c. Standards-based 6. Most students in the class got A's and B's. a. Individual student-referenced b. Norm-referenced c. Standards-based 7. John is able to introduce a topic or text clearly and state an opinion. a. Individual student-referenced b. Norm-referenced c. Standards-based Directions for TRUE/FALSE items: Determine whether the statements below are true or false then circle TRUE or FALSE in front of each statement. If you determine a statement is FALSE, below the statement provide a rationale for your decision.

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TRUE FALSE

8. Classroom teachers use their judgment to interpret the guidelines for grading that are established by their school or school district.

TRUE FALSE

9. There is no single correct procedure or set of rules that standardize professional decision making about grades.

TRUE FALSE

10. Giving a grade by comparing achievement to other students is referred to as student-referenced.

TRUE FALSE

11. It has been shown that giving feedback that is very general can have positive effects on student achievement.

TRUE FALSE

12. When giving semester grades, it is appropriate to take attitude into account for students who are on the borderline between grades.

TRUE FALSE

13. Standards-based grading typically does not lead students to take ownership for their own performance.

TRUE FALSE

14. One of the strengths of making norm-referenced comparisons is that it can result in more difficult assessments that challenge students.

TRUE FALSE

15. Using standards-based comparisons when grading fosters a growth mindset rather than a fixed mindset.

TRUE FALSE

16. Percentile rank is a characteristic of an individual studentreferenced comparison.

TRUE FALSE

17. Standards-based grading provides meaningful feedback to students and parents.

TRUE FALSE

18. Norm-referenced grading emphasizes an absolute, established level of performance in a carefully defined domain.

TRUE FALSE

19. The language in an individual standard indicates what the student should be able to do.

TRUE FALSE

20. Standards-based grades are referred to as "omnibus" grades because they provide a single indicator of student performance in each academic area.

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Constructed-Response Items Directions for constructed-response items: Write detailed answers in complete sentences, with examples where appropriate.

1. Describe three important uses of grades given by the textbook.

2. Describe the three forms of comparisons that influence grading decisions according to the textbook and provide an example of each form.

3. Describe three problems related to the idea of grading in comparison to an individual's aptitude, according to the textbook.

4. What is norm-referenced grading? Describe three disadvantages to grading students' achievement using this form of comparison, according to the textbook.

5. Describe and give examples of how grading practices can 1) enhance student motivation and 2) lessen student motivation, according to the textbook.

6. Describe three difficulties that can occur if teachers include effort as a factor in determining grades, according to the textbook.

7. Give three arguments for including effort as a factor in determining grades, according to the textbook.

8. Describe three limitations to using the percentage correct in marking and grading, according to the textbook.

9. Give one argument for and one argument against including participation in class as a factor in determining the final grade.

10. What are the four characteristics of the assessments that are most important and should therefore be given the most weight, according to the textbook?

11. Describe the weighted categories method for combining grades and computing totals and give one argument for and one argument against the method.

12. Describe the eyeball method for combining grades and computing totals and give one argument for and one argument against the method.

13. The author of the textbook argues that teachers should be willing to change grades. Give two justifications for when teachers might change a grade.

14. Describe four ways to communicate with parents about student academic achievement.

15. Give three reasons that student-led conferences are beneficial for students, according to the textbook.

References Haladyna, T. M., & Rodriguez, M. C. (2013). Developing and validating test items. New York, NY: Routledge.

Linn, R. L. & Gronlund, N. E. (2000). Measurement and assessment in teaching (8th ed.). Des Moines, IA: Prentice-Hall.

Nitko, A. J., (2001). Educational assessment of students. Des Moines, IA: Prentice-Hall.

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Appendix Types of Knowledge Categories of Knowledge Knowledge of Terms

Sub-categories Vocabulary Scientific terms Definitions

Categories and Attributes

Groups or categories Classification systems Rules for membership

Facts

Dates, names, places, events Names Places Events

Sequences

Steps in a process Stages Series of events

Conventions

Correct form or usage Use of notations or symbols

Symbols

Meaning of symbols (e.g., maps) Meaning of notation (musical, scientific, mathematical) Proper use of symbols and notation

Components

Parts of Elements of Principles of a theory Functions or roles of parts

Trends and Research Findings

Main findings Major conclusions Examples of trends

Rules, Laws, and Techniques

Rules which apply in a given situation Examples of rules, laws, techniques Applications of rules, laws, techniques

Criteria

Criteria to use when judging

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Item Writing Guidelines Selected-Response Items Multiple-Choice Items • State the stem clearly, directly, and simply.

• State the central idea in the stem, not in the options.

• Keep options short. Avoid complex options.

• Avoid the use of negatives.

• Make sure there is only one correct or best answer.

• Keep the grammatical structure, length, and complexity of all options the same.

• Avoid irrelevant clues.

• Place options in logical order.

• Make distractors plausible yet wrong.

• Avoid none-of-the-above or all-of-the-above.

• Do not use the same wording as in the textbook or handouts.

• Spread correct answers equally among all the options.

Binary-Choice Items • Write each statement so it contains a single proposition or idea.

• Write statements so a binary-choice answer is logically consistent.

• Write statements so they are succinct.

• State the item positively.

• Balance the number of true and false statements.

• Avoid patterns in the answers.

• Use only unequivocal terms.

• Do not write tricky items.

• Avoid words such as frequent, sometimes, occasionally, typically, and usually.

• Don't test trivial content or terms.

Matching Items • Make the directions clear to how and where students should answer.

• Make it clear if each response should be used once, more than once, or not at all.

• Make sure there is only one correct feasible answer.

• Avoid putting content of multiple types in the same section.

• Use only four to eight premises.

• Keep responses short and ordered logically.

• Avoid grammatical clues to the correct answers.

• Keep premises and response options on the same page.

• Use more response options than premises.

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Item Writing Guidelines Constructed-Response Items Completion Items • Use only for assessing simple declarative or procedural knowledge.

• Give clear directions.

• Make the correct response obvious to those who possess the correct knowledge.

• Do not lift sentences verbatim from materials students have studied.

• Word the sentence so that only a single answer is correct.

• Make the blanks represent key words or concepts.

• Keep blanks consistent in length.

• Place blanks at the end of the sentence if possible.

• Don’t use more than two blanks in a single sentence.

• Specify the numerical units if the answer is in numerical units.

• Avoid clues to the correct answer.

• Account for all possible correct responses in the scoring key.

Short-Answer Items • Make sure the directions are clear as to what is expected.

• State the item in the form of a question, if possible.

• State the item so that only one answer is correct.

• Write items so that brief answers are required.

• Do not write questions verbatim from materials students have studied.

• Specify the numerical units if the answer is in numerical units.

• State the item clearly and succinctly with words students understand.

Essay Items • Prior to writing the item, determine if it will be scored holistically or analytically.

• Develop a scoring rubric early in development and share it with students, if possible.

• Word the question so that it measures the intended skill in the learning target.

• Word the question clearly so students know exactly what is expected.

• Indicate to students about how long they are expected to spend on each item.

• Do not give students the choice as to which questions to answer.

• Clarify ahead of time what role mechanics will play in determining the grade.

• Score only one item at a time.

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Item Stems for Recall Knowledge Knowledge of Terms What is the meaning of the term _____?

What is the best definition of _____?

What does _____ refer to?

What term is usually used to refer to _____?

What is the scientific (Latin, Spanish, etc.) term for _____?

Knowledge of Categories and Attributes To what category do _____, _____, and _____ belong?

What type of _____ is _____?

Which of the following groups contains only _____?

Which of the following are members of the _____ group (species, etc.)?

What are the main characteristics of _____?

Knowledge of Facts, Dates, Events, Persons, Places Which of the following dates/people/terms/events is associated with _____?

Approximately when did _____ (event) occur?

Who/what is known for _____?

Knowledge of Sequence of Events What is the correct order of (sequence of) _____?

Which _____ comes immediately after/before _____?

Which of the following lists the stages of (events of) _____ in the correct order?

Knowledge of Conventions What is the correct form of _____?

Which of the following illustrates the correct use of _____?

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Which of the following is an example of an error in the use of_____?

In which of the following situations is the expression _____ used appropriately?

In which situation would the notation (symbol, equation) be used appropriately (correctly)?

Knowledge of Symbols What is the meaning of the symbol _____?

What is the meaning of the symbol _____ in the following situation (sentence, example, equation, etc.)?

What does the symbol _____ mean in this _____ (graph, map, picture, etc.)?

Which symbol is used to represent the expression _____?

Knowledge of Components Which of the following is a part/element of _____?

Which statement is an important principle of the theory of _____?

Which procedure is a component of the _____ method?

Which component (part) has the function _____?

Knowledge of Trends and Research Findings Which of the following is a current trend in _____?

Which of the following was a major finding of the _____ study?

Which of the following was a finding of the _____ study?

Which study demonstrated (established) that _____?

Which statement is best supported by the findings of research on _____?

Knowledge of Rules, Laws, Techniques Which of the following conclusions is supported by _____?

Which rule (law, theory, technique) applies in the situation described below?

In which of the following situations does _____ apply?

103 .

Which technique should be used in the situation below?

Which rule (law, principle, theory) states_____?

Which theory (rule, law) explains (says that) _____?

Which of the following illustrates the application of the _____ rule (law, principle, theory, technique)?

To solve the equation _____, a student wrote: _____.

Which method was the student using to solve the equation?

Knowledge of Criteria and Characteristics Which of the following correctly identifies the criteria for judging _____?

What are the distinguishing characteristics of _____? _____ (a description of a situation). Which criteria are most important in this situation for determining (deciding, etc.) _____?

Which of the following factors is most important in determining _____?

104 .

Possible Formats for Writing Items to Measure Reasoning and Deep Understanding Comparing How are _____ and _____ alike (similar, different)? _____ and _____ are similar because they both …

Which statement best explains how _____ and _____ are similar?

Is _____ the same (different) before and after _____?

How does _____ differ from _____?

Classifying _____ has the following characteristics: _____. To which group (species) does _____ belong?

If _____ belongs in _____ group, then which of the following characteristics does it have?

What do the items in this group have in common?

Which statement best expresses the rule for membership in this group?

Which diagram below shows how the group can be put into smaller groups?

Analyzing Errors Which of the following statements contains an error in logic?

Which claim in the article needs to be supported with facts or evidence?

Which of the following statements from the article is an example of the type of logical fallacy called _____?

Look at the math problem below. In which step is there an error?

Look at the list of steps below. Which step was omitted?

Read the scenario below. What should be done to correct the error?

What source of information could be consulted to verify the facts in this article?

Constructing Support

105 .

What evidence does _____ provide to support the claim that _____?

Is the position that _____ takes based on facts, opinions, or emotions? Explain.

Does _____ provide a logical explanation for his (her) position? Explain.

Analyzing Perspective How does _____’s position differ from ______’s position on the issue?

How did ______ use information about ______ to support his (her) position?

Which of the following persuasive techniques are used in the article/advertisement/speech?

Drawing Conclusions Which statement (details, information) from ____ supports the conclusion (idea) that _______?

Based on the study _____, the researcher concluded that _____. Which data (findings) support this conclusion?

Which statement should be considered opinion?

Which statement needs to be supported with evidence?

Which of the following qualifying statements is needed in this situation?

If _____, then what would be an accurate conclusion?

Given that _____, which of the following must be true?

Predicting & Hypothesizing The principle of _____ says _____. Determine if the scenario below is an example of this principle. If it is, then what can you predict?

If _____ happened, which of the following is a reasonable prediction based on this observation?

What will most likely occur (next, later) because _____?

Read the following situation, and then answer the question. What can be predicted in this situation based on the theory that _____?

A student observes the following: _____. What will most likely happen?

Which statement predicts what will happen when _____?

106 .

Inferring Rules & Principles What can be concluded based on the information in the chart/graph/scenario below?

Look at the _____ (chart, graph, scenario, etc.) below. What general rule or principle explains the information?

Which of the following statements is an accurate generalization about _____?

Inferring Cause-Effect If _____ happened, then what is the most likely cause?

What is the most likely reason why _____ happened?

Based on _____, what will most likely happen next?

Which of the following will most likely result because of _____?

What is the most likely cause of _____?

Abstracting In which of the following situations does _____ apply?

Which of the following is a more general way of stating _____?

Which of the following has the same relationship as ____ and ____?

Evaluating It is difficult, though not impossible, to write good multiple-choice items which require the use of evaluation because evaluation requires the application of a standard and an explanation of how the standard was met. Evaluation items are best done as constructed-response or essay-type items. Response options will generally be of the form “_______ because _______.” It is important to require a conclusion and an explanation in order to measure evaluation. If there are many potentially correct or reasonable solutions or conclusions, it is best to use a constructed-response item format.

What procedure should be used in the situation below in order to ensure that the _____ (safety, ethical, etc.) criteria are met?

What standard (criteria, principle, theory, etc.) should be applied in this situation?

Use the established criteria for _____ to determine whether _____ meets the criteria.

107 .

Look at the list of _____ below. If the criteria for _____ were used to judge _____, which of the following is the correct ranking of the items in order of _____ (importance, quality, safety, etc.)?

Weigh the advantages and disadvantages of _____ using the criteria for _____. Explain how you did your analysis and justify your conclusions.

Which of the following is a reasonable conclusion if the criteria for _____ are used to judge _____?

Does _____ meet the characteristics of (criteria for) _____? Explain why or why not.

108 .

Test 1 1. Which French political philosopher defended the principle of separation of powers?

A Charles, Baron de Montesquieu B Michel de Montaigne C Marquis de Sade D Jean Jacques Rousseau 2. Which battle was the final, decisive defeat for Napoleon Bonaparte?

A The Battle of Eylau B The Battle of Waterloo C The Battle of Jena D The Battle of Trafalgar 3. Who established the Mason-Dixon Line?

A American cartographers in the 1760s B Pennsylvania and Maryland colonial governors C English astronomer-surveyors of the 18th century D Delegates of the First Continental Congress 4. Which U.S. Supreme Court judge wrote the majority opinion in 1919 of “clear and present danger” that provided a rationale for the limitation of free speech?

A Oliver Wendell Holmes B Warren Burger C John Marshall D William Rehnquist 5. What year was the abolitionist John Brown captured at Harpers Ferry?

A 1855 B 1857 C 1859 D 1861 6. Which document declares a policy of noninterference with European colonies or with governments in Europe?

A Marshall Plan B Treaty of Versailles C Yalta Agreement D Monroe Doctrine 7. Which of the following is the term used for the ability to walk steadily on the deck of a boat or ship?

A Amphibious B Sea worthy 109 .

C Sea legs D Shipwise 8. Which American musician/ composer put elements of jazz into the forms of classical music?

A George Gershwin B Louis Armstrong C Duke Ellington D Benny Goodman 9. Which Greek mathematician was the founder of the study of geometry?

A Aeschylus B Pythagorus C Archimedes D Euclid 10. Who formed the United States Steel Corporation?

A Andrew Carnegie B J. Pierpont Morgan C Cornelius Vanderbilt D John D. Rockefeller

110 .

Test 2 1. Which French political philosopher defended the principle of the separation of powers?

A Charles, Baron de Montesquieu B Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn C Mahatma Gandhi D Friedrich Nietzsche 2. Which battle was the final, decisive defeat for Napoleon Bonaparte?

A The Battle of Midway Island B The Battle of Waterloo C The Battle of the Bulge D The Battle Hymn of the Republic 3. Who established the Mason-Dixon Line?

A Chairman Mao B Christopher Columbus C Charles Mason and Jeremiah Dixon D No one really knows—or cares 4. Which U.S. Supreme Court judge wrote the majority opinion in 1919 of “clear and present danger” that provided a rationale for the limitation of free speech?

A Oliver Wendell Holmes B Ruth Bader Ginsburg C Sandra Day O’Connor D Antonin Scalia 5. What year was the abolitionist John Brown captured at Harpers Ferry?

A 1359 B 1559 C 1859 D 1959

111 .

6. Which document declares a policy of noninterference with European colonies or with governments in Europe?

A Mayflower Compact B Federalist Papers C Declaration of Independence D Monroe Doctrine 7. Which of the following is the term used for the ability to walk steadily on the deck of a boat or ship?

A Lizard-like B Flat-footed C Sea legs D Barrel-chested 8. Which American musician/ composer put elements of jazz into the forms of classical music?

A George Gershwin B Francis Scott Key C Bob Dylan D Joan Baez 9. Which Greek mathematician was the founder of the study of geometry?

A Homer B Einstein C Oppenheimer D Euclid 10. Who formed the United States Steel Corporation?

A Benjamin Franklin B J. Pierpont Morgan C Henry Ford D Ralph Nader

112 .

Answer Key Chapter 1 Selected-Response Answers Multiple-choice answers 1. c. Alignment (p. 4) 2. a. They are equally important. (p. 7) 3. b. Standards-based (p. 7) 4. b. 2005–2006 (p. 9) 5. c. 2009 (p. 9) 6. c. Embedded formative assessment (pp. 14–16) 7. a. Summative assessment (pp. 14–16) 8. a. Before instruction (p. 17) 9. b. Self-efficacy (p. 6) 10. b. Intrinsic is more effective than extrinsic. (p. 6) 11. a. Embedded formative assessment (p. 15) 12. c. Summative assessment (p. 16) 13. c. Summative assessment (p. 16) 14. b. Embedded formative assessment(p. 16) 15. b. Moderately challenging (p. 29) 16. a. They are less likely to persist. (p. 27) 17. c. Trait characteristic (p. 26) Constructed-Response Answers (Reference pages) 1. p. 4 2. Figure 1.1, p. 5 3. Table 1.1, p. 8 4. Table 1.1, p. 8 5. pp. 13–14 6. p. 16 7. p. 14 8. pp. 14–16 9. p. 20 10. pp. 19–20 11. p. 18 12. p. 20 13. p. 20 14. p. 22 15. pp. 24–26 16. p. 26 113 .

17. p. 26 Chapter 2 Selected-Response Answers Answers to multiple-choice items 1. a. They are so specific that they can be overwhelming. (p. 58) 2. a. Matches (p. 52) 3. b. Self-regulation (p. 38) 4. a. Standards (pp. 40–41) 5. c. Goals (p. 40) 6. b. Developmental (p. 41, Table 2.1) 7. b.1956 (p. 51) 8. a. Criteria (p. 56) 9. c. Anchors (p. 57) 10. b. Procedural (p.62) Answers to TRUE/FALSE items 11. TRUE (p.36) 12. TRUE (pp. 39–40) 13. FALSE (p. 47) State standards express “minimum” levels of competency.

14. TRUE (p. 55) 15. FALSE (p. 40) Goals are a necessary beginning point to determine what should be taught and assessed.

16. TRUE (p. 40) 17. FALSE (p. 41) All major subject-matter associations have standards.

18. TRUE (p. 42) 19. TRUE (p. 46) 20. FALSE (p. 46) Most states have signed on to use the Common Core State Standards Answers to matching items 21. C. Educational Goals 22. D. Standards 23. F. Educational Objectives 24. B. Teaching Objectives 25. E. Learning Targets

114 .

Constructed-Response Answers (Reference pages) 1. p. 36 2. pp. 36–37 3. Table 2.1, p. 41 4. Table 2.1, p. 41 5. Table 2.1, p. 41 6. Table 2.1, p. 41 7. pp. 45–46 8. Table 2.3, p. 51 9. pp. 52–53 10. p. 54 11. p. 55 12. pp. 56–57 13. p. 58 14. pp. 61–62 15. pp. 58–65 16. pp. 58–65 17. p. 67 18. p.68 19. p.68 Chapter 3 Selected-Response Answers Answers to multiple-choice items 1. a. Restricted-response (p. 74) 2. a. Selected-response (p. 76) 3. c. Essay (p. 76) 4. b. Performance-based (p. 78) 5. a. Content-related (p. 82) 6. a. Selected-response (p. 103) Answers to TRUE/FALSE items 7. TRUE (p. 72) 8. TRUE (p. 77) 9. FALSE (p. 78) Oral questioning is an inefficient assessment of all students at the end of a unit.

10. TRUE (p. 81) 11. FALSE (p. 88) Reliability is not a matter of all or none.

12. FALSE (p. 90) Well-intentioned, excellent teachers can differ in their professional judgments about student learning.

115 .

Constructed-Response Answers (Reference pages) 1. pp. 76–79 2. pp. 76–79 3. pp. 79–80 4. pp. 82–85 5. p. 88–89 6. Figure 3.10, p. 91 7. p. 98 8. p. 98 9. p. 98 Chapter 4 Selected-Response Answers Answers to multiple-choice items 1. a. Embedded (p. 113) 2. a. Embedded (p. 113) 3. b. The eyes (p. 118) 4. c. Hawthorn effect (p. 123) Answers to TRUE/FALSE items 5. TRUE (p. 115) 6. FALSE (p. 116) According to the textbook, as much as 90% of the emotion conveyed in a message is communicated by nonverbal factors 7. TRUE (p. 139) 8. FALSE (p. 127) To improve the quality of student responses, it has been shown that teachers need to wait 3–5 seconds before calling on students to answer questions.

Constructed-Response Answers (Reference pages) 1. pp. 109–110 2. pp. 110–111 3. pp. 111–112 4. pp. 112–113 5. pp. 111–113 6. pp. 115–116 7. p. 116 8. p. 117 9. p. 129 10. p. 131 11. p. 134 116 .

12. p. 140 Chapter 5 Selected-Response Answers Answers to multiple-choice items 1. a. Pre-tests (p. 145) 2. c. Seatwork (p. 148) 3. b. Common assessments (p.147) 4. b. Interim assessments (p. 151) 5. a. A team of teachers (p. 151) Answers to TRUE/FALSE items 6. FALSE. (p. 149) Quizzes should include just a few items.

7. TRUE (p. 161) 8. FALSE (p. 151) Interim tests rarely provide diagnostic information.

9. TRUE (p. 153) 10. FALSE (p. 150) Many digital tools provide immediate feedback to students and are free or very inexpensive.

11. TRUE (p. 161) 12. FALSE (p. 163) Learning progressions are able to provide more detailed understanding than a standard for how learning should progress.

Constructed-Response Answers (Reference pages) 1. p. 145 2. p. 147 3. p. 147 4. p. 148 5. Table 5.1, p. 148 6. Table 5.1, p. 148 7. Table 5.1, p. 148 8. p. 152 9. p. 153 10. Table 5.2, p. 155 11. pp. 160–161 12. p. 161 Chapter 6 Selected-Response Answers

117 .

Answers to TRUE/FALSE items 1. TRUE (p. 170) 2. TRUE (p. 170) 3. TRUE (p. 173) 4. FALSE (p. 173) Many short assessments provide the same, if not better, information than a single long assessment.

5. FALSE (p. 173) Teachers should not wait until the end of a unit to begin constructing the assessment 6. TRUE (p. 175) 7. TRUE (p. 176) 8. FALSE (p. 177) One type of test item rarely can accurately record student proficiency.

9. TRUE (p. 177) 10. FALSE (p. 177) According to the textbook, students are usually not able to perform just as well on a test when the class has a substitute as when the teacher is present.

11. TRUE (p. 181) 12. TRUE (p. 181) 13. TRUE (p. 181) 14. FALSE (p. 183) Research indicates that many students cheat or know others who cheat.

Constructed-Response Answers (Reference pages) 1. p. 170 2. p. 170 3. p. 172 4. p. 175 5. pp. 175–176 6. p. 177 7. p. 178 8. p. 184 9. p. 184 Chapter 7 Selected-Response Answers Answers to multiple-choice items 1. a. Norm-referenced (p. 191) 2. c. Classroom (Figure 7.4,p. 201) 3. b. Standards-based tests (p. 190) 4. a. Ability and achievement (p. 197) 5. a. Standard error of measurement (p. 199) Answers to TRUE/FALSE items 118 .

6. TRUE (p. 190) 7. TRUE (p. 190) 8. FALSE (p. 191) At the state level, standards-based tests are developed and approved by state officials.

9. FALSE (p. 192) Computer adaptive tests are most effective in subjects such as math, where there is a clear sequence of increasingly difficult skills.

10. TRUE (p. 192) 11. TRUE (p. 193) 12. FALSE (p. 195) There is variation from one norm-referenced achievement test to another norm-referenced achievement test (based on school cooperation and the cost of sampling) 13. TRUE (p. 196) 14. FALSE (p. 197) Standardized aptitude tests provide a measure of current developed ability, not an innate capacity that cannot change.

15. TRUE (p. 198) 16. TRUE (p. 198) 17. TRUE (p. 199) Answers to matching items 18. E. Standards-based tests (p. 190) 19. C. Aptitude tests (p. 197) 20. A. Benchmark tests (p. 193) 21. B. Norm-referenced tests (p. 195) 22. D. Readiness tests (p. 197)

Constructed-Response Answers (Reference pages) 1. pp. 189–190 2. pp. 190–195 3. p. 191 4. p. 197 5. p. 197 6. p. 197 7. pp .208–209 8. pp. 207–211 9. p. 209 10. p. 213

119 .

Chapter 8 Selected-Response Answers Answers to TRUE/FALSE items Determine whether the statements below are true or false then write TRUE or FALSE on the blank in front of each statement. If you determine a statement is FALSE, below the statement provide a rationale for your decision.

1. FALSE (p. 217) Multiple-choice items provide an efficient method for direct assessment of many types of learning targets.

2. FALSE (p. 217) Multiple-choice items are the primary type of item in accountability and other standardized tests.

3. FALSE (p. 218) Constructed-response items usually provide more complete information about student understanding than multiple-choice items.

4. TRUE (p. 218) 5. FALSE (p. 221) When writing multiple-choice items, teachers should not use the same language or wording in textbooks or handouts as the correct response.

6. TRUE (p. 221) 7. TRUE (p. 221) 8. FALSE (p. 223) Application items should present situations students have not previously encountered.

9. TRUE (pp. 225–226) 10. TRUE (pp. 225–226) 11. FALSE (p. 230) Trick items provide less valid measures of knowledge.

Answers to More or Less items (pp. 217–218) 12. LESS 13. LESS 14. MORE 15. MORE Answers to matching items 16. E. Stem (p. 218) 17. B. Distractor (p. 218) 18. C. Premise (p. 232) Constructed-Response Answers (Reference pages) 1. Table 8.1, p. 217 2. pp. 219–222 3. p. 222 120 .

4. p. 224 5. pp. 226–228 6. pp. 228–229 7. pp. 229–230 8. pp. 231–232 9. pp.232–233 10. pp. 239–240 Chapter 9 Selected-Response Answers Answers to multiple-choice items 1. a. Completion (p. 246) 2. a. Completion (p. 246) 3. c. Restricted-response essay-type (p. 245) Answers to TRUE/FALSE items 4. FALSE Completion items should be used to measure how well students can recall facts. (p. 246) 5. TRUE (p. 246) 6. FALSE (p. 246) When writing completion items, teachers should not lift sentences verbatim from material students have studies and replace a word or two with blanks.

7. TRUE (p. 246) 8. TRUE (p. 247) 9. FALSE (p. 248) According to the textbook, short-answer type items are generally preferred to completion items for assessing learning targets.

10. FALSE (p. 249) According to the textbook, it’s best to phrase short-answer items as questions.

11. TRUE (p. 251) 12. TRUE (p. 254) 13. TRUE (p. 254) 14. FALSE (p. 259) According to the textbook, teachers should indicate to students how much time they should spend on answering an essay item.

15. TRUE (p. 259) 16. FALSE (pp. 259– 260) According to the textbook, teachers should create the scoring key for an essay test before scoring begins.

Constructed-Response Answers (Reference pages) 1. p. 245 2. p. 246 3. pp. 246–248 121 .

4. pp. 248–249 5. pp. 249–251 6. p. 255 7. pp. 256–259 Chapter 10 The two prompts above can be scored subjectively using the information described in pp.

277–285 and by the extent to which the examinee completed each of the three parts of the assessment task.

Constructed-Response Answers (Reference pages) 1. p. 304 2. pp. 303–304 3. pp. 305–307 4. pp. 307–308 5. pp. 309–310 6. pp. 308–311 7. p. 310 8. p. 313 9. pp. 314–315 10. pp. 321–322 Chapter 12 Selected-Response Answers Answers to multiple-choice items The answers below reflect the best choice for the trait being measured by each statement or question (pp. 332–336).

1. c. Self-efficacy 2. a. Attitude 3. d. Value 4. c. Self-efficacy 5. d. Value 6. b. Motivation 7. b. Motivation 8. c. Self-efficacy 9. b. Motivation 10. d. Value Answers to TRUE/FALSE items 122 .

11. TRUE (p. 332) 12. FALSE Academic self-concept is the way students describe themselves as learners or Self-esteem is how students feel about themselves. (p. 333) 13. FALSE Students who have a mastery orientation are more likely to attribute failure to lack of effort than students who have a performance orientation. (pp. 334–335) 14. TRUE (p. 336) 15. FALSE When identifying interpersonal skill targets it is necessary to be very specific about what is emphasized. (p. 336) 16. TRUE (p. 350) Constructed-Response Answers (Reference pages) 1. p. 329 2. p. 330 3. pp. 331–336 4. pp. 331–336 5. p. 333 6. pp. 338–339 7. pp. 339–352 8. pp. 347–348 9. pp. 348–353 10. p. 355 11. pp. 355–356 12. pp. 357–358 13. p. 359 14. pp. 359–360 15. p. 360 16. p. 360 Chapter 15 Selected-Response Answers Answers to multiple-choice items 1. a. Individual student-referenced (p. 430) 2. b. Norm-referenced (p. 431) 3. b. Norm-referenced (p. 431) 4. c. Standards-based (p. 432) 5. a. Individual student-referenced (p. 430) 6. b. Norm-referenced (p. 431) 7. c. Norm-referenced (p. 431) Answers to TRUE/FALSE items 123 .

8. TRUE (p. 425) 9. TRUE (p. 427) 10. FALSE Giving a grade by comparing achievement to other students is referred to as normreferenced.(p. 431) 11. FALSE It has been shown that giving feedback that is very general can have negative effects on student achievement or It has been shown that giving feedback that is detailed/individualized can have positive effects on student achievement. (p. 429) 12. TRUE (p. 431) 13. FALSE Standards-based grading tends to lead students to take ownership for their own performance.(p. 436) 14. TRUE (p. 435) 15. TRUE (p. 435) 16. FALSE Percentile rank is a characteristic of a norm-referenced comparison. (p. 435) 17. TRUE (p. 445) 18. FALSE Standards-based grading emphasizes an absolute, established level of performance in a carefully defined domain. (p .446) 19. TRUE (p. 446) 20. FALSE (p. 448) Semester grades are referred to as "omnibus" grades because they provide a single indicator of student performance in each academic area.

Constructed-Response Answers (Reference pages) 1. p. 425 2. pp. 429–435 3. pp. 430–431 4. p. 431 5. p. 435 6. pp.438–439 7. p. 439 8. pp. 444-445 9. p. 449 10. pp. 450–451 11. p. 455 12. pp. 455–456 13. p. 457 14. pp. 458–459 15. p. 461 Answer Key for Tests 1 and 2 1.

A

2.

B

3.

C 124 .

4.

A

5.

C

6.

D

7.

C

8.

A

9.

D

10. B

125 .