Career Development Interventions, 5th edition Spencer G. Niles Solution Manual

Type:

Solution Manual

Resource:

Career Development Interventions

Edition:

5th Edition

Author(s):

Spencer G. Niles Joann Harris-Bowlsbey

Instructor’s Resource Manual for

Career Development Interventions Fifth Edition Spencer G. Niles Pennsylvania State University

JoAnn E. Harris-Bowlsbey Loyola College Maryland

Prepared by Jennifer Del Corso Old Dominion University

Table of Contents Chapter 1: Introduction to Career Development Interventions…………………………………..1 Chapter 2: Understanding and Applying Theories of Career Development……………………14 Chapter 3: Understanding and Applying Recent Theories of Career Development……………34 Chapter 4: Providing Culturally Competent Career Development Interventions………………51 Chapter 5: Assessment and Career Planning…………………………………………………... 67 Chapter 6: Career Information and Resources………………………………………………….79 Chapter 7: Using Technology to Support Career Counseling and Planning……………………88 Chapter 8: Career Counseling Strategies and Techniques for the 21st Century………………..102 Chapter 9: Designing, Implementing, and Evaluating Career Development Programs and Services...............................................................................................................116 Chapter 10: Career Development Interventions in the Elementary Schools…………………...120 Chapter 11: Career Development Interventions in Middle Schools………………................... 133 Chapter 12: Career Development Interventions in High Schools ……………………………..142 Chapter 13: Career Development Interventions in Higher Education ………………...............151 Chapter 14: Career Development Interventions in Community Settings ……………..............166 Chapter 15: Ethical Issues in Career Development Interventions……………………………..177 Answer Key…………………………………………………………………………………….188

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MyCounselingLab Help your students bridge the gap between theory and practice with MyCounselingLab. MyCounselingLab connects your course content to video- and case-based real world scenarios, and provides: • Assignments and Activities assess students’ understanding of key concepts and skill development.

• Building Counseling Skills Exercises offer opportunities for students to develop and practice skills critical to their success as professional helpers. Suggested responses are available to instructors, making grading easy.

• Multiple-Choice Quizzes help students gauge their understanding of important topics and prepare for success on licensure examinations.

• A Video and Resource Library containing over 400 video clips, including 8 NEW clips: o 21st Century Application of Career Construction Theory with a College Student: Dr. Mark Savickas o 21st Century Application of Career Construction Theory with a College Student 2: Dr. Mark Savickas o 21st Century Career Construction Theory: A Dialogue between Dr. Mark Savickas and Dr. Spencer Niles o 21st Century Application of Holland’s Theory with a College Student: Dr. Janet Lenz o 21st Century Career Assessment Interpretation with a College Student: Dr. David Reile o 21st Century Career Development Interventions in the School: An Interview with Dr. Carol Dahir o 21st Century Counseling with an Unemployed Adult: Dr. Barbara Suddarth o 21st Century Job-Seeking Intervention with an Unemployed Adult: Dr. Michael Hall Access to MyCounselingLab can be packaged with this textbook or purchased standalone. To find out how to package student access to this website and gain access as an instructor, go to www.MyCounselingLab.com, emails us at counseling@pearson.com, or contact your Pearson sales representative.

If you have already adopted MyCounselingLab, please note that the first printing of the 4th edition of Career Development Interventions in the 21st Century contain errors in reference to MyCounselingLab topics. Please see page v of this manual for a corrected correlation, and know that we regret these errors.

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Chapter 1 Introduction to Career Development Interventions The first chapter introduces students to the importance of career development interventions in the 21st century to help individuals adapt to complex career concerns of today’s workers. Competent career practitioners must possess knowledge and skills required for providing effective career assistance that encompasses and transcends those required for general counseling. Preparing students to address career counseling needs with their clients, means helping them see the connection between mental health, wellness, and career. Career counseling is not delegated to administering and interpreting occupational assessments, but is inextricably tied to counseling whereby clients can more clearly articulate their identity and what matters to them. Career counselors and practitioners seek to empower people to derive meaning from their life experiences and to translate that meaning into rewarding occupational choices. Specifically, this chapter (1) traces the meaning of work across time (2) highlights the link between work and worth (3) provides an overview of systematic career development intervention while defining specific career related terms (4) highlights important events in the history of career development interventions, as well as the significant impact of Frank Parsons, (6) identifies specific career counseling competencies and performance indicators, and (7) discusses future trends in career development interventions The Meaning of Work Across Time • The way in which individuals viewed work has greatly differed throughout history • One’s occupation or career often used a primary means for self-identification and social status • There is substantial evidence that the meaning of work is changing throughout the world in the 21st century • Initially work was viewed as a means to serve God and evolved in the 19th century as a means of determining one’s status. Work has the same root as the Greek word: “sorrow”.

• Reformation and influence of Martin Luther and John Calvin tied hard work (“Protestant work ethic”) to an emerging value that all persons need to work • Shift occurred at the beginning of the 20th century as individuals as individuals embraced a new work ethic called, “Career” ethic by which individuals “find their fit and don’t quit” (Maccoby and Terzi, 1981).

• Now in the 21st century (due to downsizing and a global economy) many organizations are flattening and leaving workers feeling betrayed, anxious and insecure about the future (Savickas, 1993).

• The elimination of vertical hierarchies challenges the definition of a “successful” career • As a result, the meaning of work has expanded to encompass the totality of work/life roles throughout the course of one’s life.

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Linking Work with Worth • Research supports the importance and centrality of work within individuals’ lives • If a person has a “successful career”, we tend to attribution positive qualities to the person regardless of whether we know him or her • Work provides social interactions, fulfillment of social and personal needs and a sense of personal identity and meaning (Doherty, 2009).

• Self-worth is substantially dependent upon how individuals feel about their work contributions • Problems in self-esteem (or self-worth) occur when individuals develop unrealistic expectations for work, have not explored a variety of career options, feel that their skills are underutilized, or feel unable to manage numerous career transitions and tasks.

• High levels of career uncertainty and occupational dissatisfaction correlate with high levels of psychological and physiological distress such as increased rates in chemical dependency, interpersonal violence, suicide criminal activity, and admission into psychiatric facilities Providing Systematic Career Development Interventions • Career development interventions need to be provided in a developmental and multicultural systematic fashion.

• This process includes helping children, adolescents and adults: (1) learn how to use both rational and intuitive approaches in career decision making, (2) become clear about the importance and values they seek to express through participating in various life roles, (3) cope with ambiguity and change, (4) develop and maintain selfawareness, (5) develop and maintain occupational and career awareness, (6) maintain relevant skills and knowledge, (7) engage in lifelong learning, (8) search for jobs effectively, (9) provide and receive career mentoring, and (10) develop and maintain skills in multicultural awareness and communication.

• Key terms include career, career development, career development interventions, career counseling, career education, career development programs, and career development practitioners.

Important Events in the History of Career Development Interventions • Frank Parsons is a central figure in the history of career development interventions.

• He delineated a systematic approach to career decision making that became known as the Parsonian approach which consisted of three steps: 1) gain self-knowledge, 2) gain occupational knowledge and 3) use “true reasoning” to decide which occupation to pursue .

• Parsons three requirements formed the basis of what evolved into the matching model and trait and factor approach to career development interventions.

• E. G. Williamson helped the advancement of trait-and-factor interventions by outlining a six-step process to guide trait-and-factor career counseling: analysis, synthesis, diagnosis, prognosis, counseling and follow-up.

• In classic trait-and-factor approaches, the counselor is active and directive while the 2

• • • • • • • • • •

client is relatively passive The Theory of Work Adjustment proposed by Dawis and Lofquist stresses how the person and environment must continually attempt to maintain correspondence with one another so that the needs and requirements of each are satisfied Dawis (2002) describes a more generalized TWA in his Person-Environment Correspondence (PEC) theory Personnel testing and placement activities as a result of World War II significantly contributed to the advancement of utilizing assessments to help place individuals into specific occupations.

Donald Super significantly influenced the field of career development by placing career behavior in the context of human development.

1940’s and 1950’s saw emergence of professional organizations focused on career development interventions Primary organization for professional counselors has been the National Career Development Association (NCDA) Computer assisted career guidance programs and information-delivery systems in the 1970’s led to an emphasis on career education.

Within recent years, career development interventions have been developed to addressed the needs of diverse clients (gender, race, class, sexual orientation) Currently advocacy for clients’ career concerns are necessary due to external factors such as large-scale downsizing, wage, stagnation, and salary inequities Today the use of social media and social networks are significantly affecting careers

Future Trends in Career Development Interventions • New or revised career development interventions are needed to help individuals adapt to the rapid changes occurring in the world of work due to technological developments, the emergence of a global economy, and a diversified workforce.

• Rising trend towards part-time work and rising unemployment • Highlight the importance of helping clients articulate and become aware of their values and how they impact their career choices.

• Seek to go beyond objective assessments to try to capture stories behind the scores in a way that individuals’ life experiences are taken into consideration • Embrace counseling based career assistance in order to help clients articulate their experiences and construct their lives.

• Continue to emphasize the importance of multicultural career development theories and interventions such as economic hardship, ethnic minorities, immigrants, personals with disabilities and persons who are gay, lesbian, bisexual or transgendered.

• Focus on helping individual develop and continue to express themselves in multiple life roles • Seek to incorporate social justice and advocacy into career development interventions

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Classroom Activities 1. Divide the class into small groups. If you have multiple counseling specialties present, divide the groups by the population with which they intend to work (e.g. elementary school, higher education, community). Ask each group to identify a list of career development concerns clients might bring up in their counseling sessions.

2. Ask students to draw their lifeline and identify the important factors in their lives that have influenced their career development. As a larger group, create an aggregate lifeline including important factors volunteered from the class participants. Discuss themes that arise.

3. Show a movie or television show that depicts a variety of career problems. Break students up into group and have them note what types of mental health concerns emerge as a result of the presenting career problem.

4. Show Mark Savickas 2013 NCDA Closing Address (on YouTube) that provides an extensive history of career counseling throughout the last century Class Discussion Questions 1. What myths about career counseling have you heard? Where do you think they come from? Are they (myths identified) justified?

2. What career development concerns might you encounter in session during your future work as a counselor?

3. How is a career important to an individual? What value might it add to their life? How might it affect their self-concept?

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Test Bank – Chapter 1 Essay Questions 1. Describe the Parsonian approach to career decision making and its contribution to the career counseling profession.

2. How has a global economy and corporate downsizing impacted today’s worker?

3. How can a client’s well-being be negatively impacted by linking work with self-worth?

4. Identify and describe at least one future trend in career development interventions.

5. What career interventions can career counselors use to help individuals manage their career development effectively in the 21st century?

Multiple Choice 1. Today’s, career development practitioners help individuals manage their career development by helping them do all of the following EXCEPT: A. cope with ambiguity and change B. use rational and intuitive approaches in career decision making C. help them maintain relevant and up to date skills D. land the right job and keep it.

2. By definition, _____________ refers to the lifelong psychological and behavioral processes as well as contextual influences shaping a person’s career over the lifespan.

A. career education B. the Parsonian approach C. career development D. career counseling 3. The idea that feelings in one area of life affect feelings in another area of living is know as A. true reasoning.

B. trait-and-factor approach.

C. values-based decisions.

D. spillover hypothesis.

4. Those adhering to a self-fulfilling work ethic are seeking a career that allows them to be A. free-spirited, allowing things to unfold over time, laissez-faire.

B. involved in family, community, leisure, and/or other life roles.

C. caring for others while maintaining one’s own needs and interests as well.

D. conservative, managing risk, and making sure one’s own opinion is heard.

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5. Entrepreneurial and career work ethics have been replaced by the A. wish-fulfillment ethic.

B. altruistic ethic.

C. self-fulfillment ethic.

D. self-containment ethic.

6. Career uncertainty and occupational dissatisfaction may cause A. both psychological and physical stress.

B. psychological stress.

C. physical stress.

D. none of the above.

7. A systematic process for occupational decision-making, labeled true reasoning, was developed by A. Parsons.

B. Super.

C. Herr.

D. Strong.

8. Forty years ago the prevailing term for one’s career was A. avocation.

B. vocation.

C. guidance.

D. career path.

9. The work of James Cattell, Alfred Binet, and Walter Bingham contributed extensively to the emphasis of ________ in career counseling.

A. decision-making B. group work C. psychoanalysis D. testing 10. Parsons’ tripartite model for vocational direction developed into the approach to career development interventions known as A. trait-and-factor.

B. developmental stage model.

C. cognitive behavioral.

D. values-based career decision making.

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11. The goal of the trait-and-factor approach to career counseling is to A. find a job for a person.

B. identify areas of one’s life that have affected the success or failure on a previous job and not make the same mistake again.

C. seek support and possibly refer an individual to a more skilled professional or an employment agency.

D. identify the degree of fit between the person and the occupation.

12. Which of the following statements is true?

A. Vocational psychologists are masters level career practitioners.

B. Career Development Facilitators do not have any formal training.

C. Licensed Professional Counselors are qualified to conduct career counseling.

D. Career consultants are masters level trained career practitioners.

13. Which of the following was the first to shift the focus of career development interventions to that of an ongoing process?

A. Frank Parsons B. Carl Rogers C. Mark Savickas D. Donald Super 14. The main organization for professional career counselors is the A. National Career Development Association.

B. National Vocational Guidance Association.

C. National Association of Guidance Supervisors and Counselor Trainers.

D. American Association for Career Specialists in Group Work.

15. According to Savickas, the competencies which will become the main areas of focus for career counselors are A. job placement and performance.

B. job skills and competency.

C. critical thinking, self-affirmation, and commitment to community.

D. time of working and retirement.

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Text for PowerPoint Presentation (available on web site) Defining Key Terms • Career • Career Development • Career Development Interventions • Career Counseling • Career Education • Career Development Programs • Career Development Practitioners Career • View career as lifestyle rather than limiting the definition of career to work • Super (1976) defines career as the course of events Career is the total constellation of roles played over the course of a lifetime (Herr, Cramer, & Niles, 2004) Career Development • The lifelong psychological and behavioral processes and contextual influences shaping one’s career over the life span • A person’s creation of a career pattern, decision-making style, integration of life roles, expression of values, and life-role self-concepts Career Development Interventions Activities provided in a variety of formats (i.e. individual, group, programs, education, or computer delivery systems) that empower people to cope effectively with career development tasks-• development of self-awareness • development of occupational awareness • learning decision-making skills • acquiring job search skills • adjusting to choices after their implementation • coping with job stress Career Counseling A formal relationship in which a professional counselor assists a client or group of clients to cope more effectively with career concerns through • establishing rapport.

• assessing client concerns.

• establishing goals.

• intervening in effective ways.

• evaluating client progress.

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Career Education The systematic attempt to influence the career development of students and adults through various types of educational strategies – including: • providing occupational information.

• infusion of career concepts into the academic curriculum.

• offering of worksite-based experiences.

• offering career planning courses.

Career Development Program A systematic program of counselor-coordinated information and experiences designed to facilitate individual career development (Herr & Kramer, 1996) These programs typically contain goals, objectives, activities, and methods for evaluating the effectiveness of the activities in achieving the goals.

Career Development Practitioners • Vocational or Career psychologists (Doctoral Degree)- work in private practice, university counseling centers, corporate settings, and community-based agencies; • Licensed Professional Counselors (Masters or Doctoral Degree)- work in similar settings to psychologists but also work in schools • Career Development Facilitators (Completed 120 hours of training with an approved provider)- work primarily in employment centers, schools, and postsecondary settings offering career education and assistance in resume writing, interview skills, and networking Misconceptions about Career Counseling • Focuses on occupational information and test administration • Requires different and less sophisticated skills • Requires the counselor to be directive or a career expert • Is separate from mental health counseling Career Development Interventions • The skills and techniques required encompass and extend those required in more general counseling.

• The focus of counseling is to increase life satisfaction.

• Clients need a high level of self-awareness to translate their experiences into meaningful career choices.

Career Development Interventions, continued • People often need help in clarifying their values, life-role salience, interests, and motivation as they attempt to make career choices.

• Many clients come to career counseling with psychological distress, low self-esteem, weak self-efficacy, and little hope that the future can be more satisfying than the past.

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Skills, Behaviors, and Attitudes People Need to Manage Careers • Learn new skills, cope with change, and tolerate ambiguity • Acquire general and specific occupational information • Interact with diverse co-workers • Adjust to changing work demands • Use technology Characteristics of Effective Interventions • Holistic, comprehensive, and systematic o Address all life and work roles o Address mental health o Address relationships with others • Provided developmentally across the life span Providing System Career Development Interventions Effective career interventions help children, adolescents and adults: • (1) learn how to use both rational and intuitive approaches in career decision making, • (2) become clear about the importance and values they seek to express through participating in various life roles, • (3) cope with ambiguity and change, • (4) develop and maintain self-awareness, Providing System Career Development Interventions (cont.)

• (5) develop and maintain occupational and career awareness, • (6) maintain relevant skills and knowledge, • (7) engage in lifelong learning, • (8) search for jobs effectively, • (9) provide and receive career mentoring, • (10) develop and maintain skills in multicultural awareness and communication.

Meaning of Work Across Time • Way in which individuals have viewed differs throughout history • Survival (primitive societies) • Opportunity to share with others (early Christians) • Means of spiritual purification (Middle Ages) • Way to serve God (Protestant Reformation) Meaning of Work Across Time (continued) • Opportunity for self-sufficiency and self-discipline (19th century) • Challenge to find a fitting long-term career (20th century) • Means to self-fulfillment (21st century)

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Linking Work with Worth • Research supports importance and centrality of work • Work provides social interactions, fulfillment of social/personal needs; and a sense of personal identity/meaning • Self-worth is dependent upon how individuals feeling about their work contributions Problems with Linking Work with Worth Occurs when individuals: • develop unrealistic expectations for work • have not explored a variety of career options • feel that their skills are underutilized • feel unable to manage numerous career transitions/tasks Providing Systematic Career Development Interventions • Need to be developmental (children, adolescents, adults) and multicultural • Use both rational and intuitive approaches in career decision making • Help individuals cope with ambiguity and change • Help develop and maintain self-awareness • Help develop and maintain occupational and career awareness Providing Systematic Career Development Interventions (cont.)

• Maintain relevant skills and knowledge • Engage in lifelong learning • Help individuals search for jobs effectively • Provide and receive career mentoring • Help individuals develop and maintain skills in multicultural awareness and communication Important Events in the History of Career Development Interventions Highlights • Career development interventions began with Frank Parsons (Parsonian approach) • Parson's approach became the foundation for the trait and factor approach • WWII necessitated personnel testing and placement activities to match individuals to occupations • Donald Super then influenced the field by emphasizing the developmental aspects of career • Career Guidance systems in the 1970's led to an emphasis on career education • Career development interventions today address the needs of diverse clients and incorporate technology Beginning with the Parsonian Approach • Introduced by Frank Parsons • Step 1: Develop a clear understanding of yourself -- aptitudes, abilities, interests, 11

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resources, limitations, and other qualities.

Step 2: Develop knowledge of the requirements and conditions of success, advantages and disadvantages, pay, opportunities, and prospects of jobs.

Step 3: Use “true reasoning” to relate these two groups of facts.

Basic Assumptions of Trait-and-Factor Theory • Because of one’s psychological characteristics, each worker is best fitted for a specific type of work.

• Workers in different occupations have different psychological characteristics.

• Occupational choice is a single, point-in-time event.

Basic Assumptions of Trait-and-Factor Theory, continued • Career development is mostly a cognitive process relying on rational decision making.

• Occupational adjustment depends on the degree of agreement between worker characteristics and work demands.

Later Developments • Testing movement (early 20th century) • Formation of NVGA (1913) • Formation of Department of Labor (1913) • Vocational Rehabilitation Act (1918) • Formation of United States Employment Service (1933) • First edition of Dictionary of Occupational Titles (1939) Later Developments, continued • Increased personnel testing and placement (World War II) • Carl Roger’s book Counseling and Psychotherapy (1942) • Formation of APA Division 17 (1947) • Formation of APGA (1951) • Theory development (1960’s) Later Developments, continued • Increase in number of career assessments (1960’s) • Development of computer-assisted career planning systems (late 1960’s) • Career education as a national priority (1970’s) • Attention to the career development of diverse populations (1990’s) Factors Influencing 21st Century Career Development • Global unemployment • Corporate downsizing • Rising trend towards part-time work • Dual careers • Work from home 12

• • • •

Intertwining of work and family roles Many job shifts Need for lifelong learning Social media

Ways to Construct Responsive Interventions in the 21st Century • View career decisions as values-based decisions • Offer counseling-based career assistance (move beyond assessment) • Provide multicultural career interventions for specific populations such as immigrants, persons with disabilities, GLBT, and other ethnic minorities • Focus on multiple life roles • Seek to incorporate social justice and advocacy

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Chapter 2 Understanding and Applying Theories of Career Development The second chapter introduces theories that have longstanding prominence in the field of career development, specifically those developed by Super, Roe, Gottfredson, Holland, and Krumboltz. Studying a variety of approaches to career theory is important because no single theory can sufficiently explain the whole of individual or group career behavior. Each career development theory is explained, a discussion on how to apply the theory is offered, and finally the theory is evaluated based on current research studies, Career Development Theories • Savickas (2002) notes that career theories emphasize either “individual differences” related to occupations (viewed as describing how people can find their fit within the occupational structure) or “individual development” related to careers (viewed as how people express career behavior across time) • Six key questions are provided for evaluating career theories.

Super’s Life-Space, Life Span Theory • Super’s life-span, life space theory asserts that career choice is a developmental process (rather than a single decisions) that spans across the life span • Super’s life span, life-space theory is segmented into three elements: life span, life space, and self-concept • Super conceptualized career as “the life course of a person encountering series of developmental tasks and attempting to handle them in such a way as to become the kind of person he or she wants to become” (Super, 1990, pp.225-226).

• The key terms career maturity and career adaptability are defined.

• Life span addresses the longitudinal expression of career behavior and includes the stages of growth, exploration, establishment, maintenance, and disengagement. Each stage contains an age range and developmental tasks.

• The life space segment of Super’s theory acknowledges that people differ in the degree of importance they attach to work as it is expressed via different life roles (home, school, workplace, community).

• Work may be central for some, but on the periphery for others. Important values can be expressed multiple ways through multiple roles. Understanding the life role salience of each client is an important beginning step in the career counseling process.

• One’s occupational choice reflects the implementation of one’s self-concept in an occupational role.

• Helping people clarify and articulate their self-concepts usually requires providing objective and subjective career development interventions.

• Self-concepts continue to develop over time; therefore, the process of adjusting one’s career choices signify a lifelong career task.

Applying Super’s Theory • The Career Development Assessment and Counseling Model (C-DAC) represents 14

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Super’s translation of theory into practice through the systematic application of career assessment instruments.

Other career assessments utilize Super’s theory: o The Adult Career Concerns Inventory (ACCI) (Super, Thompson & Lindeman, 1988) measures planfulness or concerns for the developmental tasks of the four career stages of exploration, establishment, maintenance, and disengagement posited in the life-span, life-space theory. o The Career Development Inventory (CDI) (Super, Thompson & Lindeman, 1988) assesses whether high school and college students are ready to make career decisions o Salience Inventory (Super & Nevill, 1986) measures the relative importance of five life roles (student, worker, citizen, homemaker, and leisurite) on three dimensions, one behavioral and two affective.

Contextual Factors Influencing Life-Role Salience • Life role self-concepts are shaped by the dominant culture and the culture of one’s origin • Important to examine one’s life-role participation holistically and can be clarified by using two different methods: actuarial method and the developmental method Evaluating Super’s Theory • Super’s theory continues to be studied today and results indicate that while there is still need for more research related to Super’s propositions and career stage model, his framework has been “generally supported” from the research (Fitzgerald, 1996).

• Other authors (Salmone, 1996; Borgen, 1991; Brown, 1996) each assert that Super’s theory has withstood the test of time over the past 40 years.

Anne Roe’s Personality Theory of Career Choice • Anne Roe (1904-1991), a clinical psychologist, considered the impact of children’s early child-rearing environments on their later career choice • Drawing upon Maslow’s (1954) needs theory, Roe suggests that unmet needs become important motivators in the occupational choices people make • Roe identified three primary modes of child rearing environments: emotional concentration (overprotection-overdemanding), avoidance (neglecting needs), and acceptance (physical and psychological needs are met) • Roe suggests individuals choose occupation fields based on their need structures. For example, that individuals in service fields are people oriented and likely had accepting or overprotected childhood environments; whereas individuals in scientific occupation fields not oriented towards people, likely experienced rejecting or avoidant childhood environments Evaluating Roe’s Theory • Researchers have been challenged to validate Roe’s theoretical assumptions due to the variability of parenting style and early life environments by members of same 15

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occupation Little empirical support for this theory given the inherent challenge of longitudinal causality studies

Linda Gottfredson’s Theory of Circumscription, Compromise, and Self-Creation • Gottfredson’s theory of circumscription, compromise, and self-creation answers the question, “Why do children seem to re-create the social inequalities of their elders long before they themselves experience any barriers to pursuing their dreams?”

(Gottfredson, 2002, p. 85).

• Gottfredson’s theory is a developmental and sociological view of career development that emphasizes that people attempt to place themselves in the broader social order through their career choices.

• A person’s conclusion as to where they fit into the broader social order constitutes their “social space” or “zone of acceptable occupational alternatives”.

• Circumscription involves the process of eliminating unacceptable occupational alternatives based primarily on gender and social class.

• Compromise involves the process of modifying career choices because of limiting factors such as the availability of jobs.

Applying Gottfredson’s Theory to Practice • Gottfredson proposes four stages of cognitive development to describe the circumscription process: o Stage 1: orientation to size and power, o Stage 2: orientation to sex roles, o Stage 3: orientation to social valuation, o Stage 4: orientation to the internal and unique self.

Evaluating Gottfredson’s Theory • Overall, research related to Gottfredson’s theory has not been extensive and existing research results have been equivocal.

• One research study, however (Cochran, Wnage, Stevenson, Johnson, & Crews, in press) did find that occupational aspirations, ability, and gender were significantly related to career achievement in later life and that adolescent girls achieved less career success in mid-life than adolescent boys.

John Holland’s Theory of Types and Person-Environment Interactions • Holland’s theory has been described as structural-interactive because it provides an explicit link between various personality characteristics and corresponding job titles and because it organizes massive data about people and jobs (Weinrach, 1984, p. 63).

• Holland’s theory contains four key assumptions: (1) individuals can be categorized as one of six types; (2) the six types are realistic, investigative, artistic, social, enterprising, and conventional; (3) people search for environments that will let them exercise their skills and abilities and express their attitudes and values; (4) a person’s behavior is determined by interaction between their personality and environment 16

• • •

•

• •

The more a person resembles any particular personality type, the more likely it is that the person will manifest the behaviors and traits associated with that type.

Environments can be described using the same six types.

A key construct in Holland’s theory in congruence. Congruence describes the degree of fit between an individual’s personality types and current or prospective work environments. The better the fit, or the higher the congruence, the more likely it is that the person will find the occupation to be satisfying and rewarding. The opposite is also true (i.e., lower congruence results in less satisfaction).

Differentiation describes the degree to which persons -- and environments --resemble the six types. For example, some people are highly differentiated (i.e., they primarily resemble one or a few of the types, and they clearly do not resemble the remaining types). Undifferentiated people resemble multiple types equally and, thus, may have greater difficulty making occupational decisions. Lack of differentiation can result from multipotentiality, poor decision-making skills, or lack of exposure to multiple environments.

Consistency describes the degree of relatedness among the types. Holland used a hexagon to portray the degree to which the types are related to each other.

Vocational identity is defined as the possession of a clear and stable picture of one’s goals, interests, and talent (Holland, 1985, p. 5).

Applying Holland’s Theory • The Self-Directed Search, Vocational Preference Inventory, Position Classification Inventory, and My Vocational Situation are measures used in applying Holland’s theory.

Evaluating Holland’s Theory • Holland’s theory has been subjected to more empirical tests than any other career theory (Spokane & Cruza-Guet, 2005).

• Overall there is considerable support for his theory: personality types remain stable over time (Miller, 2002), interests are significant predictors of occupational choices (Lent, Brown, Nota, and Soresi, 2003); and the RIASEC model was related to better career decision making outcomes among college student (Tracey, 2008).

• Behrens and Nauta (2014) examined the effects of using the SDS as a stand-alone intervention and found it is not effective for increasing career exploration in college students • Sverko, Babarovic, and Medugorac (2014) validated that the Pictorial and Descriptive Interest Inventory (PDII) is a reliable measure of RIASEC types John Krumboltz’s Learning Theory of Career Counseling • Krumboltz offers a learning theory of career counseling based largely on Bandura’s (1977, 1986) social learning theory.

• Krumboltz and his colleagues developed the Social Learning Theory of Career Decision Making. In this theory, four factors influence career decisions: genetic endowment and special abilities, environmental conditions and events, learning 17

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experiences, and task approach skills.

These four factors lead to four outcomes: self-observation generalizations, worldview generalizations, task approach skills, and actions.

Social Learning Theory of Career Decision Making • Krumboltz describes a Learning Theory of Career Counseling that is based on four career-related trends identified by Mitchell and Krumboltz (1996): (1) people need to expand their capabilities and interests, (2) people need to prepare for changing work tasks, (3) people need to be empowered to take action, and (4) career counselor need to play a major role in dealing with all career problems, not just career selection • Krumboltz divides career development interventions into two categories: developmental/preventive and targeted/remedial.

• The Career Beliefs Inventory (Krumboltz, 1988) helps counselors and clients identify problematic beliefs and assumptions that might be impeding the client’s career development progress.

• Krumboltz recommends that career counselors evaluate the success of career development intervention by whether their clients experience a reduction in career indecision and whether career development interventions have stimulated their clients to engage in new learning activities.

Learning Theory of Career Counseling • The strength of SLTCDM is that it provides a description of factors influencing career decision making and identifies their outcomes • LTCC presume counselor readiness to help with career related trends: 1. Helping people expand their capabilities and interests; 2. Helping people prepare for changing work tasks and understand that occupations will not remain stable; 3. Empower people to take action; 4. Helping people deal with all career challenges such as burnout, underemployment, low self-efficacy, conflicts with coworkers, and family members’ reactions to career choices Applying LTCC • Krumboltz (1996) divides career development in two categories: developmental/preventative and targeted/remedial • Application of LTCC entails: goal clarification cognitive restructuring, cognitive rehearsal, narrative analysis, role playing, desensitization, paradoxical intention, and humor • Career Beliefs Inventory is primary assessment used in LTCC Evaluating LTCC •

While LTCC is relatively new and untested, there is extensive research supporting the general social learning theory from which the LTCC is derived.

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Activities 1. Ask students to divide a circle into segments representing their current pie of life representing the different roles they play and the amount of time and energy devoted to each. Discuss how the slices of their pie might represent the different life roles they play.

Ask students to then draw their preferred pie of life. Discuss the comparison of the two and how this comparison might be used in career counseling.

2. Provide students with a printout of a blank career rainbow and colored pencils. Give them time to draw their own career rainbow while depicting their life roles for the past, present, and projected future. Break students into small groups to discuss their career rainbows and the utility of this exercise.

3. Play the party game! Tape the six different Holland Types on the walls of the classroom to create six distinct gathering spots that represent the six points on the Holland Hexagon.

Tell the class that a party is going on, they are all invited, and they get to chose which area of the party they are most drawn to (represented by the Holland code they are most drawn to). After each has gone to their first choice, have the small groups discuss two questions: 1) Why did you chose this Holland code? And 2) What careers or work environments might best fit those who gather here? Students are then asked to congregate at their second and third choice codes as well. OPTION – if the hexagon is accurately represented in the room, this is a wonderful opportunity to demonstrate consistency.

4. Ask students to draw a personal lifeline and identify the important events in their career development. Ask students to consider whether these events were internally or externally generated (i.e., things they initiated or things there were “done to them”). Break the students into small groups and ask them to discuss these events from the perspective of the developmental theory they are studying. OPTION - create a worksheet (to be used in Activity 5) so that they can keep notes on each theory.

5. Divide the class into small groups. Using the worksheet from Activity 4, ask groups to complete a case study using two of the four theories covered thus far. Identify how the conceptualization differs based on their use of each theory. In the larger group, discuss how theoretical perspective impacts case conceptualization.

Discussion 1. Should career development theories address life roles other than work? Why? 2. Identify at least one unique contribution from each of the four career development theories discussed in this chapter?

3. Which career development theory offers the best link to your future counseling practice/ population?

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4. How well do the career development theories discussed in this chapter address persons from diverse backgrounds?

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Test Bank – Chapter 2 Essay Questions 1. You have a career counseling client whose Holland type is RIA. She is working in an environment that is classified as SEC. With regard to this client, what can you say about consistency and congruence?

2. List and briefly describe Super’s 5 Life Span Stages.

3. List and briefly describe the four stages of cognitive development described by Gottfredson.

4. Describe worldview generalizations and how, according to Krumboltz, they impact career decision-making.

5. In the 21st century, individuals’ personalities, abilities, behaviors, attitudes, are conceptualized as embedded within a specific context, to what degree does this challenge some of the assumptions of previous career developments? In what ways do those theories still remain relevant today?

Multiple Choice 1. The theory that focuses on the career development process as it relates to the types of compromises people make in forming their occupational aspirations was presented by A. Krumboltz.

B. Holland.

C. Gottfredson.

D. Super.

2.

The three parts of Super’s segmental theory are life span, life space, and A. life time.

B. life concept.

C. life skills.

D. self-concept.

3.

In Super’s theory, adolescents’ readiness for career decision making is known as A. career adaptability.

B. career maturity.

C. social learning.

D. decisiveness.

4.

Self-concepts developed through comparison of the self with others are known as A. cognitive.

B. developmental.

C. subjective.

D. objective.

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5.

One factor that influences life role salience is A. genetics.

B. circumscription.

C. educational aspirations.

D. the dominant culture.

6.

According to Gottfredson, the ____ represents a person’s conclusions as to their fit in society.

A. occupational choice.

B. compromise.

C. self-creation.

D. social space.

7.

According to Super, methods used to guide and clarify vocational identities for clients are A. cognitive behavioral.

B. developmental.

C. both of the above.

D. neither of the above.

8.

In Gottfredson’s model, the process of eliminating unacceptable occupational alternatives based primarily on gender and social class is labeled A. circumscription.

B. compromise.

C. congruence.

D. salience.

9.

According to Anne Roe’s personality theory of career choice, people choose occupational fields based on their ______________, which were influenced by the childhood environments that they experienced.

A. interests B. parent’s occupation C. need structures D. attachment to their parental figure

10. In terms of Holland’s theory, congruence describes the degree of fit between an individual’s personality type and that of his or her A. parents.

B. current boss.

C. current or prospective work environment.

D. siblings.

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11. In Holland’s model, the degree of relatedness within types, such that similar types are located next to each other and have more in common, is a concept called A. congruence.

B. circumscription.

C. adaptability.

D. consistency.

12.

Social learning theory identifies four factors that influence decision making, including all of the following except A. genetic endowment and special abilities.

B. environmental conditions and events.

C. instrumental and associative learning experiences.

D. self-observation generalizations.

13. According to Krumboltz, career concerns are least likely to arise from A. the absence of a goal (career indecision).

B. expressed feelings of concern about high aspirations (unrealism).

C. conflict between equally appropriate alternatives (multipotentiality).

D. a presence of too many goals (indecisiveness).

14. Krumboltz proposes to use indecision in the counseling process as A. a desirable quality that motivates clients to seek alternative jobs elsewhere.

B. a negative quality that motivates clients to engage in new learning experiences.

C. a desirable quality that motivates clients to engage in new learning experiences.

D. a negative quality that motivates clients to stick to their present situation .

15. The theory that has generated more research than any other seems to be that of A. Super.

B. Krumboltz.

C. Holland.

D. Gottfredson.

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Text for PowerPoint Presentation (available on website) Questions to Ask About Theories • How well does the theory o describe the career development process for diverse populations? o describe the career development process generally? o identify the factors involved in career choice?

Questions to Ask About Theories, continued • How well does the theory o inform practice? o provide documentation of empirical support? o cover all aspects of career development?

Super’s Life-Span, Life-Space Theory • A differential-developmental-social-phenomenological career theory (Super, 1969) • Super conceptualized career as “the life course of a person encountering series of developmental tasks and attempting to handle them in such a way as to become the kind of person he or she wants to become” (Super, 1990, pp.225-226).

• Asserts that career choice is a developmental process (rather than a single decisions) that spans across the life span • Super’s life span, life-space theory is segmented into three elements: life span, life space, and self-concept Life Span • The Life span component of Super’s Life Span, Life-space theory addresses the longitudinal expression of career behavior and includes the stages of growth, exploration, establishment, maintenance, and disengagement.

• Each stage contains an age range and developmental tasks.

• Career maturity- the career decision-making readiness of children and adolescence • Career adaptability- the career decision making readiness of adults Life Span • Growth (Childhood) - fantasy, interests, capacities • Exploration (Adolescence) - crystallizing, specifying, implementing • Establishment (Early Adulthood) - stabilizing, consolidating, advancing • Maintenance (Middle Adulthood) - holding, updating, innovating • Disengagement (Late Adulthood) - decelerating, retirement planning, retirement living Life Space • The life space segment of Super’s theory acknowledges that people differ in the degree of importance they attach to work as it is expressed via different life roles (home, school, workplace, community).

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•

The simultaneous combination of life roles we play constitutes the life style; their sequential combination structures the life space and constitutes the life cycle; the total structure is the career pattern. (Super)

Life Space, continued • The salience people attach to the constellation of life roles they play defines life structure.

• The life space segment of the theory acknowledges that people differ in the degree of importance they attach to work.

Life Roles • People tend to play some or all of nine major roles: o Son or daughter o Student o Leisurite o Worker o Spouse (Partner) o Homemaker o Parent o Pensioner Life Roles • The theaters for these life roles are the: o home, o school, o workplace, and o community.

Self-Concept • Career decisions reflect our attempts at translating our self-understanding into career terms (Super, 1984) • Self-concepts contain both objective and subjective elements.

• Self-concepts continue to develop over time, making career choices and adjusting to them lifelong tasks.

Career Development and Assessment (C-DAC Model) • Super and his colleagues translated the three segments of the theory into the C-DAC Model.

• Assessments used in the model include o Career Development Inventory o Adult Career Concerns Inventory o Salience Inventory o Values Scale o Self-Directed Search 25

Contextual Factors Influencing Life-Role Salience • Life role self-concepts are shaped by: o the dominant culture o the culture of one’s origin • Important to examine one’s life-role participation holistically and can be clarified by using two different methods: o actuarial method o developmental method Evaluating Super’s Theory • Super’s framework has been “generally supported” from the research (Fitzgerald, 1996).

• Other authors (Salmone, 1996; Borgen, 1991; Brown, 1996) each assert that Super’s theory has withstood the test of time over the past 40 years.

Anne Roe’s Personality Theory of Career Choice • Anne Roe (1904-1991), a clinical psychologist, considered the impact of children’s early child-rearing environments on their later career choice • Drawing upon Maslow’s (1954) needs theory, Roe suggests that unmet needs become important motivators in the occupational choices people make Roe’s Theory of Career Choice (cont.)

• Roe identified three primary modes of child rearing environments: o emotional concentration (overprotection-overdemanding), o avoidance (neglecting needs) o acceptance (physical and psychological needs are met) • Roe suggests individuals choose occupation fields based on their need structures.

Evaluating Roe’s Theory • Researchers have been challenged to validate Roe’s theoretical assumptions due to the variability of parenting style and early life environments by members of same occupation • Little empirical support for this theory given the inherent challenge of longitudinal causality studies Linda Gottfredson’s Theory of Circumscription, Compromise, and Self-Creation • Offers a developmental, sociological perspective of career development • Gottfredson’s theory answers the question, “Why do children seem to re-create the social inequalities of their elders long before they themselves experience any barriers to pursuing their dreams?

Gottfredson’s Theory, continued • Circumscription - the process of eliminating unacceptable occupational alternatives based primarily on gender and social class • Compromise - the process of modifying career choices due to limiting factors, such as availability of jobs 26

Circumscription: Stages of Development • Stage 1: Orientation to size and power • Stage 2: Orientation to sex roles • Stage 3: Orientation to social valuation • Stage 4: Orientation to the internal, unique self Applying Gottfredson’s Theory to Practice • Programs should o be sensitive to the mental capabilities of the age group. o introduce students to the full breadth of options o display for youngsters their circumscription of alternatives o be sensitive to the dimensions of self and occupations along which circumscriptions and compromise take place so that their role can be explored Gottfredson’s Criteria for Determining a Counselee’s Restriction of Options • Able to name one or more occupational options • Possesses interests and abilities adequate for the occupation(s) chosen • Satisfied with the alternatives identified • Has not unnecessarily restricted alternatives • Is aware of opportunities and realistic about obstacles Evaluating Gottfredson’s Theory • Overall, research related to Gottfredson’s theory has not been extensive and existing research results have been equivocal.

• One research study did find that occupational aspirations, ability, and gender were significantly related to career achievement in later life and that adolescent girls achieved less career success in mid-life than adolescent boys.

John Holland’s Theory of Types and Person-Environment Interactions • Holland’s theory has been described as structural-interactive because it provides an explicit link between various personality characteristics and corresponding job titles and because it organizes massive data about people and jobs (Weinrach, 1984, p. 63).

Theoretical Assumptions of Holland’s Theory • Individuals can be categorized as one of six types (investigative, artistic, social, enterprising, and conventional) • People search for environments that will let them exercise their skills and abilities and express their attitudes and values; • The more a person resembles any particular personality type, the more likely it is that the person will manifest the behaviors and traits associated with that type.

• Goal is to match a person’s vocational personal type to a matching environment

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Holland’s Theory of Person-Environment Interactions Most persons can be categorized as one of six types: • Realistic • Investigative • Artistic • Social • Enterprising • Conventional Holland’s Theory, continued There are six environments: • Realistic • Investigative • Artistic • Social • Enterprising • Conventional The Realistic Type • Conforming • Humble • Frank • Materialistic • Persistent • Genuine • Practical • Hardheaded • Shy • Honest • Thrifty The Investigative Type • Analytical • Independent • Cautious • Intellectual • Pessimistic • Introverted • Precise • Critical • Rational • Curious • Reserved 28

The Artistic Type • Imaginative • Original • Disorderly • Impractical • Intuitive • Emotional • Impulsive • Nonconforming • Expressive • Open The Social Type • Idealistic • Helpful • Cooperative • Kind • Sympathetic • Friendly • Patient • Tactful • Generous • Responsible • Understanding The Enterprising Type • Domineering • Optimistic • Adventurous • Energetic • Pleasure-seeking • Extroverted • Ambitious • Impulsive • Self-confident • Sociable • Popular The Conventional Type • Conforming • Inhibited 29

• • • • • • • • •

Persistent Conscientious Obedient Practical Careful Orderly Thrifty Efficient Unimaginative

The Realistic Environment • Requires explicit, ordered, or systematic manipulation of objects, tools, machines, or animals • Encourages people to view themselves as having mechanical ability • Rewards people for displaying conventional values and encourages them to see the world in simple, tangible, and traditional terms The Investigative Environment • Requires the symbolic, systematic, and creative investigation of physical, biological or cultural phenomena • Encourages scientific competencies and achievements and seeing the world in complex and unconventional ways • Rewards people for displaying scientific values The Artistic Environment • Requires participation in ambiguous, free, and unsystematized activities to create art forms or products • Encourages people to view themselves as having artistic abilities and to see themselves as expressive, nonconforming, independent, and intuitive • Rewards people for the display of artistic values The Social Environment • Requires participation in activities that inform, train, develop, cure, or enlighten • Requires people to see themselves as liking to help others, as being understanding of others, and of seeing the world in flexible ways • Rewards people for the display of social values The Enterprising Environment • Requires participation in activities that involve the manipulation of others to attain organizational and self-interest goals • Requires people to view themselves as aggressive, popular, self-confident, and sociable • Encourages people to view the world in terms of power and status • Rewards people for displaying enterprising goals and values 30

The Conventional Environment • Requires participation in activities that involve the explicit, ordered, or systematic manipulation of data • Requires people to view themselves as conforming, orderly, non-artistic, and as having clerical competencies • Rewards people for viewing the world in stereotyped and conventional ways Key Terms • Differentiation - the degree of difference between a person’s resemblance to one type and to other types; the shape of a profile of interests • Congruence - the degree of fit between an individual’s personality type and current or prospective work environment Key Terms, continued • Consistency - degree of relatedness between types • Vocational identity - possession of a clear and stable picture of one’s goals, interests, and talent Applying Holland’s Theory • Relies on assessment instruments used to measure congruence, differentiation, consistency, and vocational identity o Self-Directed Search o Vocational Preference Inventory o My Vocational Situation o Position Classification Inventory Applying Holland’s Theory • Code can be used to identify occupations, jobs, majors, and leisure activities • Types can be used to organize curriculum, career fairs, and information about occupations, jobs, and majors Evaluating Holland’s Theory • Holland’s theory has been subjected to more empirical tests than any other career theory.

• Overall there is considerable support for his theory: personality types remain stable over time, interests are significant predictors of occupational choices; and the RIASEC model was related to better career decision making outcomes among college student.

• Using the SDS as a stand-alone intervention and found it is not effective for increasing career exploration in college students • Sverko, Babarovic, and Medugorac (2014) validated that the Pictorial and Descriptive Interest Inventory (PDII) is a reliable measure of RIASEC types Krumboltz’ Learning Theory: Influential Factors • Genetic endowment and special abilities - sex, race, physical appearance, intelligence, 31

• • •

abilities, and talents Environmental conditions and events - cultural, social, political, and economic forces beyond our control Instrumental and associative learning experiences Task-approach skills

Outcomes of the Factors Influencing Career Decision Making • Self-observation generalizations • World-view generalizations • Task approach skills • Actions Reasons Why People Prefer a Particular Occupation • They succeed at tasks they believe are like those performed in that occupation.

• They have observed a valued model being reinforced for activities like those performed by members of that occupation.

• A valued friend or relative stressed its advantages to them; they observed positive words and images associated with it.

The Learning Theory of Career Counseling (Mitchell & Krumboltz) • Counselors must be prepared to help clients cope with career concerns in four ways: o Expand their capabilities and interests o Prepare them for changing work tasks o Empower them to take action o Play a major role in dealing with all career problems Ways Career Counselors Need to Help Clients • Correct faulty assumptions.

• Learn new skills and interests.

• Identify effective strategies for addressing issues emanating from interactions between work and other life roles.

• Learn skills for coping with changing work tasks.

Applying Learning Theory of Career Counseling (LTCC) • Krumboltz (1996) divides career development in two categories: developmental/preventative and targeted/remedial • Application of LTCC entails: goal clarification cognitive restructuring, cognitive rehearsal, narrative analysis, role playing, desensitization, paradoxical intention, and humor • Career Beliefs Inventory is primary assessment used in LTCC Evaluating LTCC • While LTCC is relatively new and untested, there is extensive research supporting the 32

• • •

general social learning theory from which the LTCC is derived.

A strength of LTCC is that it addresses both environmental and intra-individual variables in career development.

LTCC also can be used as a framework for understanding the development of interests leading to one’s personal modal orientation as described by Holland’s theory The development of the CBI and subsequent application of strategies such as cognitive restructuring and reframing provide useful applications of the theory

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Chapter 3 Understanding and Applying Recent Theories of Career Development The third chapter introduces career theories that have evolved to address cognitive and meaning-making processes that people use to manage their careers effectively within a global and mobile society. These theories help workers manage multiple job changes across their work lives without losing their sense of self and social identity. These are referred to as “postmodern” approaches and emphasize the client’s subjective experiences, rather than trying to objectively categorize an individual in order to find the best work environment “fit”. These emerging theories are supported by research, address the developmental experiences of diverse populations, and represent two emerging trends: 1) increased development of cognitive theories in career counseling, and 2) the advent of the client as an active agent in constructing their own career process. Content covered in the chapter includes an overview, application, and evaluation of the following theories: • • • • •

Lent, Brown, and Hackett’s Social Cognitive Career Theory (1996, 2002) Cognitive Information Processing Approach(Sampson et al,, 2004)) Savickas’s Career Construction Theory (Savickas, 2005 2009, 2013) Hansen’s Integrative Life Planning model (Hansen, 1997) Chaos Theory of Careers (Pryor and Bright, 2011)

Recent Theories • Recent theories tend to be more explicitly attuned to diverse populations and to the complexity involved in career decision making • Recent theories also have evolved to address cognitive and meaning-making processes that people use to manage their career effectively within a global and mobile society • Recent theories seek to help works manage multiple job changes across their work lives without losing their sense of self and social identity • “Postmodern” approaches to career development address the client’s subjective experience.

Lent, Brown, and Hackett’s Social Cognitive Career Theory • The social cognitive career theory (SCCT) provides a conceptual framework for understanding how people develop career-related interests, make and remake occupational choices, and achieve career success and stability. SCCT builds on the assumption that cognitive factors play an important role in career development and decision making. It is particularly useful in addressing performance attainment and persistence in overcoming obstacles.

• SCCT is closely linked to Krumboltz’ learning theory of career counseling or LTCC and draws heavily from Albert Bandura’s (1986) social cognitive theory.

• SCCT highlights self-efficacy beliefs, outcome expectations, and personal goals • Self-efficacy beliefs provide answers to questions pertaining to whether an individual can perform specific tasks 34

• •

• • •

•

• •

• •

Four sources shape self-efficacy beliefs: (a) personal performance accomplishments, (b) vicarious learning, (c) social persuasion, and (d) physiological states and reactions.

SCCT is based on Bandura’s (1986) triadic reciprocal model which describe how personal attributes (e.g. predisposition, gender, race) interact with contextual factors (e.g., culture, geography, family, gender-role socialization) and learning experiences to influence one’s self-efficacy beliefs and outcome expectations.

Self-efficacy beliefs and outcome expectations shape our interests, goals, actions, and attainments (Lent, 2013) SCCT is particularly useful in addressing two areas of career concern: performance attainment and persistence at overcoming obstacles.

Problems in career development emerge when individuals prematurely foreclose on occupational option due to inaccurate self-efficacy, beliefs, outcome expectations, or both (Lent, 2013)To examine premature foreclosure on occupational options, Brown and Lent (1996) recommend that counselors encourage their clients to discuss those options that they have eliminated from further consideration.

One application of SCCT is to use a card sort exercise in which clients sort occupations according to (a) those they would choose, (b) those they would not choose, and (c) those they question. Occupations placed in the first two categories (relating to self-efficacy beliefs and outcome expectations) are then examined for accuracy in skill and outcome perceptions.

Clients can be helped to modify their self-efficacy beliefs by exposing them to personally relevant vicarious learning opportunities Lent et al. (1996) noted support for the following theory-related conclusions: (1) domain-specific measures of self-efficacy are predictive of career-related interests, choice, achievement, persistence, indecision, and career exploratory behavior; (2) intervention, experimental, and path-analytic studies have supported certain hypothesized causal relations between measures of self-efficacy, performance, and interests; and (3) gender differences in academic and career self-efficacy frequently help explain male-female differences in occupational consideration (p. 397).

Choi, Park, Yang, Lee, and Lee (2012) found that career decision-making selfefficacy correlated significantly with self-esteem, vocational identity, and outcome expectations Overall SCCT has generated substantial research supporting the efficacy of SCCTbased interventions for specific diverse populations

The Cognitive Information Processing Approach • The cognitive information processing (CIP) approach extends the three-factor Parsonian model for making career choices (i.e., self-understanding, occupational knowledge, and bringing self-understanding and occupational knowledge together to make a choice) by incorporating cognitive information processing. .

• There are four assumptions underlying the theory. The first assumption is that career decision making involves the interaction between cognitive and affective process.

Second, the capacity for career problem solving depends on the availability of 35

•

• •

• • • • • • •

cognitive operations and knowledge. Third, career development is ongoing and knowledge structures continually evolve. And fourth, enhancing information processing skills is the goal of career counseling (Peterson et al., 2002).

The CIP approach to career intervention includes several dimensions: (1) the pyramid of information processing, (2) CASVE cycle of decision-making skills, and (3) the executive processing domain. o (1) Information Processing: The first three levels of the pyramid reflect domains that are traditionally included in career theories: self-knowledge (values, interests, skills), occupational knowledge (understanding specific occupations and educational/training opportunities), and decision-making skills (understanding how one typically makes decisions). The fourth domain and top of the pyramid is metacognitions and includes self-talk, self-awareness, and the monitoring and control of cognitions (Sampson, Peterson, Lenz, & Reardon, 1992) o (2) CASVE cycle of decision-making skills:. These skills are (a) communication, (b) analysis, (c) synthesis, (d) valuing, and (e) execution (CASVE) o (3) Executive processing domain: This domain involves metacognitive skills such as self-talk, self-awareness, and control. When applying the CIP approach, the CASVE cycle can be used to teach decision-making skills, and the executive processing domain can provide clients with a framework for exploring dysfunctional metacognitions The CIP approach uses the Career Thoughts Inventory (CTI) (Sampson, Peterson, Lenz, Reardon, & Saunders, 1996) to identify clients with dysfunctional career thoughts Process: o Step 1- Understand context of client’s career problem; o Step 2- Preliminary assessment to determine the client’s readiness for career decision making; o Step 3- Analyze causes of the problem; o Step 4- Formulate goals o Step 5- Develop a plan o Step 6- Execute the plan o Conduct summative review and generalize new learning to future career problems Although research investigating CIP theory is not extensive, the numbers of studies based on CIP theory is growing Clear process Successful use with military families coping with transitions to new jobs Increased career decidedness, career planning, career exploration, and vocational identity Higher levels of trauma in college students relate to dysfunctional career thoughts, vocational identity, and development work personality Students with disabilities have more negative thoughts than nondisabled counterparts The CIP research team (i.e., Peterson, Reardon, Lenz, and Sampson) built their theory upon a solid foundation of research in cognitive psychology and are committed to translating theory into practice 36

Savickas’ Career Construction Theory • Career construction theory incorporates three perspectives: vocational personality, career adaptability, life themes correlates to the “what, how, and why” aspects of career development • Individuals construct their careers by imposing meaning on their vocational behavior and occupational experiences, therefore, “career” is a socially constructed term that describe the patterns of an individual’s work life (Savickas, 2005) • Views self from three perspectives: self as actor, agent, and author (Savickas, 2013) • Career adaptability (the abilities needed to adapt- attitudes, beliefs, competencies) involves: (a) being concerned about the future, (b) increasing personal control over the future, (c) displaying curiosity about exploring future scenarios and possible selves, and (d) developing confidence to pursue identified aspirations (concern, control, curiosity, and confidence) • Deconstruct client’s career story and then co-construct (with the counselor) a new chapter • CCT draws heavily from narrative therapy • Career constructional counseling utilizes the Career Construction Interview (CCI), formerly known as the Career Style/Story Interview (CSI) which helps clients clarify and articulate the private meaning they attach to their career behavior by exploring their (a) three earliest role models – which depict the client’s ideal self-concept), (b) various preferences (magazines, TV shows, favorite school subjects) in order to examine their vocational personality and what work environment they prefer to work in, (c) favorite story- reveals the narrative of the current career struggle, (d) favorite saying/motto- client’s advice to themselves and (e) earliest childhood memorieswhich indicate the past pain or preoccupation• Individuals seek to actively master what they passively have suffered (Savickas, 2005) • Research studies reveal that counselors perceive the CCI to be helpful; and participants have a positive experience with the CCI • More treatment outcome data and research studies directed toward theory validation are needed- especially with regard to diverse client populations.

Hansen’s Integrative Life Planning • Hansen’s Integrative Life Planning (ILP) model emphasizes integrating the mind, body, and spirit.

• Career counselors are seen as change agents, helping clients to achieve more holistic lives (Hansen, 2002).

• Four broad assumptions guide ILP: o (1) Changes in the nature of knowledge support the addition of new ways of knowing to career development theory, research, and practice. o (2) Career professionals need to help students, clients, and employees develop skills of integrative thinking—seeing connections in their lives and in their local and global communities.

37

o (3) Broader kinds of self-knowledge (beyond interests, abilities, and values) and

•

•

• • •

societal knowledge (beyond occupational and educational information) are critical to an expanded view of career, including multiple roles, identities, and critical life tasks in diverse cultures. o (4) Career counseling needs to focus on career professionals as change agents, helping clients to achieve more holistic lives and becoming advocates and agents for positive societal change through the choices they have and decisions they make.

Hansen (1997) defines six career development tasks. Individuals must: (Task 1): find work where they can contribute to a positive change for social and environment; (Task 2): weave their lives into a “meaningful whole”; (Task 3): negotiate work and family roles/balance; (Task 4): celebrate their diversity and develop multicultural competencies; (Task 5): manage personal transitions and organizational change; and (Task 6): explore spirituality and their life’s purpose.

Hansen, Hage, and Kachgal (1999) developed the Integrative Life Planning Inventory to help clients identify where they are in relation to integrative thinking and planning.

The ILP seems most useful as a framework for teaching an approach to life planning that emphasizes connectedness, wholeness, and community.

ILP approach joins Miller-Tiedeman’s 1997 Lifecareer Theory and the work of Bloch and Richmond (1998) –addressing topic of spirituality in career development ILP appears to be a useful framework from which counselors can encourage clients to consider important life issues with respect to their career decisions More research of ILP is needed in terms of the mode’s concepts as well as the ways in which the model can be applied effectively in career development interventions.

Postmodern Approaches • The label postmodern has been used to refer to those approaches (e.g., narrative, contextual, constructivist) that emphasize the importance of understanding our careers as they are lived or, to put it another way, our subjective experience of career development.

• Postmodernism embraces multicultural perspectives and emphasizes the belief that there is no fixed truth but rather we each construct our own realities and truths.

• These approaches also stress personal agency in the career construction process; the aim of career counseling is to enhance agency regarding career.

Creating Narratives • Career counseling from the narrative approach emphasizes understanding and articulating the main character to be lived out in a specific career plot • Cochran (1997) explains that narratives help people make meaning out of their life experiences and provide a sense of personal continuity over time • Career counseling from a narrative approach defines career problems as a gap between one’s current career situation and a desired career future • Narrative techniques include: constructing a lifeline, identifying early life-role models, identifying early life recollections, guided fantasy exercises and the life 38

chapters exercise Constructivist Career Counseling • Kelly (1955) developed his theory of personal constructs whereby individuals construct meaning through the decisions and actions they make.

• Peavy (1992) outlines constructivist career counseling as four factors: relationship, agency, meaning making, and negotiation • Techniques include the laddering technique, the vocational retest, and vocational card sorts • Outcome measures for constructivist interventions are based on “fruitfulness” • Career development interventions are framed as “experiments” that are directed towards helping clients, think, feel, and act more productively in relation to their career concerns Chaos Theory of Careers • According to Pryor and Bright (2011) the complexity of factors influencing career development highlights the need to avoid traditional approaches that attempt to explain career behavior in terms of one factor influencing another factor • Seventy percent of research participants reported that their career development was influenced by unplanned events • Chaos theory of careers highlights nonlinearity in career development and suggest it is more important to examine patterns across time • Chaos theory identifies four types of “attractors” that influence career behavior: point, pendulum, torus, and strange.

• Chaos theory of careers is an emerging theory that has tremendous potential for addressing career context in ten 21st century; however, more theory validation research is needed.

Activities 1. Have students break up into pairs and share with each other three role models (people or characters they admired) from childhood and why? How do these role models reflect their ideal self-concept, who they wish to be in the world, and how it impacts their choice to pursue the career they are currently in?

2. Divide the class into two groups, those who prefer to follow the seven step sequence for delivering career interventions outlined by Peterson, Sampson, & Reardon AND those who would prefer not to follow the sequence. Assign each group the task of identifying the strengths of their preferred approach. OPTION – each group can present their list of strengths or the two sides can hold a debate.

3. Have students construct a timeline of their life as a homework assignment. Have students mark down different life chapters with titles. Divide the class into triads and have each member share their life chapters for five minutes about the attitudes, beliefs, and skills they possessed that help them adapt over time. The other two members of each triad will 39

help the author to identify and discuss themes from the chapters of their life.

4. To illustrate uncertainty and unplanned events- hold up a bouncing ball and ask students where they predict it will land if you drop it. Then ask if there were one another variable (such as a dog), now where would that predict the ball lands? The ball is like a person’s career (according to Chaos Theory of Careers). Show episodes of RoadTrip nation that highlight people’s stories on how they acquired their position. Note the role of happenstance.

Discussion 1. How might you develop your own personal theoretical orientation of career counseling?

What factors might you consider?

2. Which activities practiced in class thus far can you see yourself using in your counseling practice? How does that fit in with your theoretical orientation?

3. What types of attitudes, behaviors, and beliefs are necessary in today’s environment to help people adapt?

5. How well do the career development theories discussed in this chapter address persons from diverse backgrounds? What are some strengths and weaknesses that stand out?

6. How do theories today address the reality that many individuals will change jobs numerous times throughout their lifetime?

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Test Bank – Chapter 3 Essay Questions 1. Identify and discuss the two trends of emerging theories including an example of each trend.

2. Identify and give examples of two of the four forces that shape self-efficacy beliefs.

3. What are the three components are Career Construction Theory that address the “what, how, and why: aspects of career development?

4. Draw and describe the pyramid of information-processing domains outlined in the CIP Approach.

5. How would you describe Hansen’s Integrative Life Planning Approach to a client?

6. Give two examples of narrative counseling interventions.

Multiple Choice 1. According to the authors, the emerging theories of career counseling tend to do all of the following except: A. help individuals manage multiple job chances across their work lives without losing their sense of self and social identity B. be explicitly attuned to diverse populations C. address the complexity of career decision making D. focus on objective scores rather than the client’s subjective experience.

2. The sources that shape self-efficacy beliefs include A. external learning and physiological states and reactions.

B. personal performance accomplishments and internal learning.

C. internal learning and social persuasion.

D. vicarious learning and social persuasion.

3. Social cognitive theory focuses closely on A. addressing performance attainments and persistence in overcoming obstacles.

B. career advancement and persistence in overcoming obstacles.

C. career flexibility and persistence in the job search.

D. performance related evaluation and persistence in overcoming external constraints.

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4. In the cognitive information-processing pyramid, A. decision-making skills and metacognitions form the foundation; knowledge of self and occupations build upon it.

B. knowledge of self and others form the foundation; decision-making skills and cognitions build upon it.

C. knowledge of self and occupations form the foundation; decision-making skills and metacognitions build upon it.

D. knowledge of self and occupations form the foundation; job-hunting and interviewing build upon it.

5. In the executive processing domain of the CASVE model, control and monitoring are essential for deciphering the information needed A. to resolve a family problem.

B. for a job search .

C. to resolve a career problem and determine when to move to the next phase.

D. to make an executive decision.

6. The function of the executive processing domain in the cognitive information processing approach is to A. streamline storage of information and make it more efficient.

B. initiate, coordinate, and monitor the storage and retrieval of information.

C. monitor the retrieval of information.

D. expand the storage of information.

7. According to Savickas’ Career Construction Theory, career adaptability is comprised of all of the following except: A. skills B. attitudes C. beliefs D. competencies 8. There are three parts to Career Construction Theory. Which of the following is not one part: A. vocational Personality B. career Adaptability C. career Goals D. life Themes 9. In accordance with Chaos theory of careers, which of the following is not an “attractor” that influences career behavior?

A. chance B. point C. pendulum D. strange

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10. Chaos Theory of Careers is based on all of the following assumptions except A. career development is non-linear B. career development is influenced by unplanned events C. there is nothing a person can do that can influence their career because there are too many variables D. traditional approaches to career development are not effective 11. The tasks of the ILP model include all of the following except A. finding work that needs doing in changing global contexts.

B. weaving our lives into a meaningful whole.

C. connecting family and work.

D. making the most money with the least effort.

12. The three post-modern approaches include all of the following elements except A. narrative.

B. contextual.

C. constructivist.

D. subtextual.

13. Constructivism is a concept that accepts that people A. are active organizers of their own experiences.

B. are passively receiving information about their own experiences.

C. construct meaning through the actions of others.

D. rarely revise their perceptions based on life experience.

14. Chaos Theory of Careers stresses that that career development is: A. a planned goal-directed process B. linear C. influenced by unplanned events D. predictable 15. In constructivist terminology, fruitfulness refers to the assumption that A. counselors should always provide fruit to a client because it helps stimulate thoughts about change.

B. counseling should result in a changed outlook or new perspective on some aspect of life.

C. counseling should result in a complete transformation of ideas from a seed to a fruit.

D. counseling should result in higher salaries for clients.

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Text of PowerPoint Presentation (available on website) Characteristics of Emerging Theories • Have evolved to address cognitive and meaning-making processes that people use to manage their career effectively within a global and mobile society • Attempt to address the career development needs of diverse client populations • Reflect a “postmodern” approach which stresses the client’s subjective experience (stories rather than scores) Lent, Brown, & Hackett’s Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT) • Builds on the assumption that cognitive factors play an important role in career development and decision making • Is closely linked to Krumboltz’ learning theory of career counseling • Incorporates Bandura’s triadic reciprocal model of causality Self-Efficacy (Bandura) • Defined as people’s judgments of their capabilities to organize and execute courses of action required to attain designated types of performances Forces Shaping Self-Efficacy Beliefs (Bandura) • Personal performance accomplishments • Vicarious learning • Social persuasion • Physiological states and reactions Triadic Reciprocal Model • The relationship among goals, self-efficacy, and outcome expectations is complex • This occurs within the framework of reciprocal causality comprised of o personal attributes (e.g. predisposition, gender, race) o external environmental factors (e.g., culture, geography, family, gender-role socialization) o learning experiences.

SCCT Career Development Interventions • Directed toward o self-efficacy beliefs o outcome expectations Applying SCCT • Card sort exercise in which clients sort occupations according to: o (a) those they would choose, o (b) those they would not choose, and o (c) those they question.

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• •

Occupations placed in the first two categories (relating to self-efficacy beliefs and outcome expectations) are then examined for accuracy in skill and outcome perceptions.

Clients can be helped to modify their self-efficacy beliefs by exposing them to personally relevant vicarious learning opportunities

Evaluating SCCT • Overall SCCT has generated substantial research supporting the efficacy of SCCT-based interventions for specific diverse populations • Choi, Park, Yang, Lee, and Lee (2012) found that career decision-making self-efficacy correlated significantly with self-esteem, vocational identity, and outcome expectations Four Assumptions of the Cognitive Information Processing Approach (CIP) • Career decision making involves the interaction between cognitive and affective processes • The capacity for career problem solving depends on the availability of cognitive operations and knowledge.

• Career development is ongoing and knowledge structures continually evolve.

• Enhancing information processing skills is the goal of career counseling

CIP Approach • The CIP approach to career intervention includes several dimensions: o The pyramid of information processing, o CASVE cycle of decision-making skills, and o The executive processing domain.

Information Processing • Uses a pyramid to describe the domains of cognition involved in a career choice o self-knowledge o occupational knowledge o decision-making skills • The fourth domain is metacognitions and includes o self-talk o self-awareness o monitoring and control of cognitions CASVE Cycle • This is the second dimension of the CIP approach and represents a generic model of information processing.

• Skills included are o C-communication o A-analysis o S-synthesis o V=valuing 45

o E-execution Executive Processing Domain • This domain involves metacognitive skills such as self-talk, self-awareness, and control.

Applying the CIP Approach • The CIP approach uses the Career Thoughts Inventory (CTI) (Sampson, Peterson, Lenz, Reardon, & Saunders, 1996) to identify clients with dysfunctional career thoughts • The pyramid model can be used as a framework for providing career development.

• The five steps of the CASVE cycle can be used to teach decision-making skills.

• The executive processing domain provides a framework for exploring and challenging.

Sequence for Delivering Career Interventions (Peterson, Sampson, & Reardon) • Step 1 - Conduct initial interview with client.

• Step 2 - Do a preliminary assessment to determine the client’s readiness.

• Step 3 - Work with client to define the career problem(s) and analyze causes.

• Step 4 - Collaborate with client to formulate achievable problem-solving and decisionmaking goals.

Sequence for Delivering Career Interventions (Peterson, Sampson, & Reardon) • Step 5 - Provide clients with a list of activities and resources they need (individual learning plans).

• Step 6 - Require clients to execute their individual learning plans.

• Step 7 - Conduct a summative review of client progress and generalize new learning to other career problems.

Evaluating CIP • Although research investigating CIP theory is not extensive, the numbers of studies based on CIP theory is growing • Successful use with military families coping with transitions to new jobs • Increased career decidedness, career planning, career exploration, and vocational identity • Higher levels of trauma in college students relate to dysfunctional career thoughts, vocational identity, and development work personality • Students with disabilities have more negative thoughts than nondisabled counterparts Savickas’ Career Construction Theory • Comprehensive career theory (explains what, how, why) • Career is socially constructed as individuals implement their ideal self-concept as the protagonist within their life story Career Construction Theory • Vocational Personality (Self as Actor) • Career Adaptability (Self as Agent) 46

•

Life Themes (Self as Author)

Vocational Personality • Values, Abilities, Traits reflect how a person’s narrates what stage they would like to perform on, what they believe they have the ability to do, and what interests they have formed • Holland’s Typology RIASEC re-conceptualized as preferences and possibilities, not predictions Career Adaptability • Incorporates Super’s work • Address the attitudes, beliefs, competences (ABC’s) individuals need as they face career transitions, work traumas, career decisions- both anticipated and unanticipated Career Adaptability (cont.)

• Concern • Control • Curiosity • Confidence Life Themes • Reoccurring themes throughout individuals lives and work roles (e.g. helping others) • Draws on narrative and how individuals construct their experience • Individuals are believed to “actively master what they have passively suffered” (Savickas, 2005) Career Construction Counseling • Helps clients clarify and articulate the private meanings they attach to their career behavior- how they are striving towards self-completion • Utilizes the Career Construction Interview (CCI) formerly known as the Career Style Interview Career Construction Interview • Who did you admire growing up? (Name three, not parents- fictional or non-fictional) How were you like him/her? How were you different?

• What are your favorite magazines or websites? What do you like about them?

• What are your favorite TV shows? What do you like about them? Who is your favorite character, actor, actress in the show? What is it you like about them?

• What are three of your favorite school subjects? What are your least favorite?

• What is your one of your favorite stories?

• What is a saying or motto you live by?

• Name 3 of your earliest memories. How did you feel? Who was present? How you title your memory? (e.g. Girl scared of losing) 47

Career Construction Interpretation • Early Role Models- together make up the client’s ideal self - who they wish to be/construct in the world and how they seek to overcome their insecurities, pain, or struggles • Early Memories: Reflect core problem in childhood, reveal Adlerian strivings, are connected to current career problem (narrative), pain one has passive suffered • Motto: Advice currently to oneself • Favorite Story: Reflects theme in current struggle • TV shows, websites, books, school subjects- Reveal vocational personality- interests and perceived abilities Evaluating Career Construction Theory • Research studies reveal that counselors perceive the CCI to be helpful; and participants have a positive experience with the CCI • More treatment outcome data and research studies directed toward theory validation are needed- especially with regard to diverse client populations.

• Many people overcome painful life experiences by creating meaning to their suffering through work (e.g. Mike Walsh- tracks down killers after son Adam was murdered) Hansen’s Integrative Life Planning (ILP) • ILP is a worldview for addressing career development rather than a theory that can be translated into individual counseling.

• The integrative aspect of ILP relates to the emphasis on integrating the mind, body, and spirit.

• The life planning concept acknowledges that multiple aspects of life are interrelated.

Assumptions of ILP • Changes in the nature of knowledge support new ways of knowing related to career development.

• Career professionals need to help students, clients, and employees develop skills of integrative thinking • Broader kinds of self-knowledge and societal knowledge are critical to an expanded view of career.

• Career counseling needs to focus on career professionals as change agents.

Six Career Development Tasks Confronting Adults • Finding work that needs doing in changing global contexts • Weaving their lives into a meaningful whole • Connecting family and work • Valuing pluralism and inclusivity • Managing personal transitions and organizational change • Exploring spirituality and life purpose 48

Applying ILP • Career counselors can utilizing the Integrative Life Planning Inventory • Career counselors should help their clients o understand these six tasks. o see the interrelatedness of the tasks. o help clients prioritize the tasks according to their needs Evaluating ILP • ILP appears to be a useful framework from which counselors can encourage clients to consider important life issues with respect to their career decisions • More research of ILP is needed in terms of the mode’s concepts as well as the ways in which the model can be applied effectively in career development interventions Post-Modern Approaches • Emphasize the subjective experience of career development.

• Embrace multicultural perspectives and emphasize the belief that there is no fixed truththat reality is socially constructed • Stress personal agency Creating Narratives • Career counseling from the narrative approach emphasizes understanding and articulating the main character to be lived out in a specific career plot.

• This articulation uses the process of composing a narrative as the primary vehicle for defining character and plot.

• People tell stories that infuse parts of their lives with great meaning and de-emphasize other parts.

Ways in Which Narratives Help Clients (Cochran) • A narrative is a temporal organization with a beginning, middle, and end.

• A story is a synthetic structure that organizes many pieces into a whole.

• The plot of a narrative specifies what has been accomplished.

• The structure of a narrative communicates a problem, attempts at resolving it, and a resolution.

Ways to Use a Narrative Approach in Career Counseling • Elaborate a career problem.

• Compose a life history.

• Build a future narrative.

• Construct reality.

• Change a life structure.

• Enact a role.

• Crystallize a decision.

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Contextualizing Career Development • Acts are viewed as purposive and as being directed toward specific goals.

• Acts are embedded in their context.

• Change plays a dominant role in career development.

• Contextualism rejects a theory of truth based on the correspondence between mental representations and objective reality.

Constructivist Career Counseling • How can I form a cooperative alliance with this client? (Relationship factor) • How can I encourage the self-helpfulness of this client? (Agency factor) • How can I help this client to elaborate and evaluate his/her constructions germane to this decision? (Meaning-making factor) • How can I help this client to reconstruct and negotiate personally meaningful and socially supportable realities? (Negotiation factor) Constructivist Career Interventions • Techniques include the laddering technique, the vocational re-test, and vocational card sorts • Outcome measures for constructivist interventions are based on “fruitfulness” • Career development interventions are framed as “experiments” that are directed towards helping clients, think, feel, and act more productively in relation to their career concerns Chaos Theory of Careers • Seventy percent of research participants reported that their career development was influenced by unplanned events • Chaos theory of careers highlights nonlinearity in career development and suggest it is more important to examine patterns across time Attractors • Chaos theory identifies four types of “attractors” that influence career behavior: o Point: Tendency of a system to move towards one fixed or single point o Pendulum: Systems regular swing between two places, points, or outcomes o Torus: Tendency to engage in repetitive behavior over time o Strange: Tendency for systems to repeats themselves, and yet never exactly repeat

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Chapter 4 Providing Culturally Competent Career Development Interventions The fourth chapter provides an overview of important issues to consider in providing culturally sensitive career development interventions. It reviews topics such as ethnocentrism, acculturation, individualism, collectivism, and identity development models; it also discusses issues pertaining to culturally sensitive assessment strategies. Content covered in the chapter includes: • • •

Changing demographics, multiple worldviews, and cultural plurality influence the career development intervention process.

Some changing demographics in the workplace include an aging workforce, more women entering the workforce, and immigrants and members of racial minorities comprising a large share of new entrants into the labor force.

Evidence suggests that women, people of color, persons with disabilities, gay men, lesbian women, and transgendered persons continue to encounter tremendous obstacles in their career development

Traditional Assumptions of Career Theories in the United States • Historically, traditional career development theories and interventions in the United States have emphasized a psychological perspective highlighting the role intraindividual variables (e.g. motivation, internal locus of control, perseverance, ability) play in shaping one’s career.

• Career development interventions in the US tend to favor five tenets reflecting a European American perspective: a) individualism and autonomy, b) affluence, c ) structure of opportunity open to all, d) centrality of work in people’s lives, and e) the linearity, progressiveness, and rationality of the career development process • Stead (2004) and Young, Marshall, and Valach (2007) argue that most extant career theories are deficient because of their ethnocentrism.

• Gysbers, Heppner, and Johnston (2003) point out that career development interventions in the United States have typically been based on five tenets: individualism and autonomy, affluence, structure of opportunity to all, the centrality of work in people’s lives, and the linearity of the career development process.

Universal versus Cultural-Specific Models • Many statements pertaining to multicultural career development interventions reflect the tension between etic (i.e., universal) and emic (i.e., culturally specific) approaches.

• Etic perspectives contend that current career theories and techniques are robust enough to have universal applicability.

• Emic perspectives highlight the importance of designing career development interventions that are specific to the client’s culture.

• Several authors resole the tension between etic and emic approaches by incorporating useful elements of both perspectives into multicultural career development theory and 51

•

practice Fischer, Jome, and Atkinson (1998) propose a “common factors” perspective in multicultural counseling. The common factors that appear to be the universal elements of healing are as follows: the therapeutic relationship, shared worldview, client expectations, and ritual or intervention.

Ethnocentrism • When counselors assume that one value system (their own) is superior and preferable to another, they engage in ethnocentric behavior that is insensitive to their clients’ worldviews.

• Ethnocentrism can easily occur when counselors assume that individualistic and selfsufficient actions are preferable to collectivistic actions reflecting interdependence and group loyalty.

• Instruments, such as the Career-in-Culture Interview and the Person-in-Culture Interview are examples of useful assessments for exploring worldview constructs Acculturation • An important variable to assess in providing culturally sensitive career development interventions is the client’s level of acculturation.

• Early models of acculturation had an either/or perspective (i.e., one either accepted the “new” culture and rejected the “old” or rejected the “new” culture and accepted the “old”).

• A marginalized person is someone who is psychologically captured between two cultures • More recent models of acculturation reflect a bicultural perspective. Such models embrace the notion that one can be highly acculturated to multiple cultures (a sort of both/and approach).

• Nguyen and Benet-Martinez (2013) found a strong, significant, and positive relationship between biculturalment and adjustment (both psychological and sociocultural) • A bicultural person is someone who feels committed to both cultures and selectively embraces the positive aspects of each culture.

Racial Identity Models • Racial identity models help counselors understand that the status of racial identity (for counselors and clients) can influence the career development intervention process • Atkinson, Morten, and Sue (1993) describe a five-stage model of racial identity development. The stages are conformity, dissonance, resistance and immersion, introspection, and synergy.

• Cross’s Nigrescence theory also contains five stages: pre-encounter, encounter, immersion-emersion, internalization, and internalization-commitment.

• Cross and Strauss (1998) identified three cultural identity statuses that can help African Americans adapt to their environment: bonding, buffering, and bridging.

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Gender Identity Models • Gender relates to differences in masculinity and femininity with respect to individual and societal expectations • Sex-role socialization exerts a powerful influence on girls and boys early in life (Gottfredson, 1981, 2002; Hageman & Gladding, 1983) • Differential socialization of the sexes has led to their unequal representation within occupations.

• Greater than 90% of workers employed as secretaries, dental hygienists, preschool and elementary teachers, and speech therapists are women (BLS, 2010).

• Consistent finding that women place greater importance on the home and family than men do • Differential socialization of the sexes has led to unequal representation within occupations • To help achieve goal of integrating gender in the career development intervention process Gysbers et al. (2009) recommend using gender-related identity development models • Downing and Roush (1985) propose a feminist identity model that is useful in providing career development interventions to women. Their model includes the following stages: passive acceptance, revelation, embeddedness-emancipation, synthesis, and active commitment.

• Cook, Heppner, and O’Brien (2002) propose using an ecological perspective to help illuminate the dynamic interaction between the person and environment.

• The Downing and Roush model can also be applied to men.

• Understanding the identity development status of men can help career development practitioners provide appropriate interventions.

• Cook, Heppner and O’Brien (2002) propose an ecological perspective to help illuminate the dynamic interaction between person and environment Lesbian/Gay/Bisexual/Transgendered/Questioning Identity Models • There is little research investigating the career development of gay, lesbian, bisexual, transgendered, and questioning people (LGBTQ).

• According to Cass (1979), LGBTQ persons encounter six stages of identity development: (a) confusion, (b) comparison, (c) tolerance, (d) acceptance, (e) pride, and (f) synthesis.

• Sophie (1986) proposes a four-stage model of lesbian identity development that includes self-awareness of lesbian feelings, testing and exploration of emerging lesbian identity, identity acceptance, and identity integration.

• Chung’s (2001) work discrimination and coping strategy models for sexual minorities describes discrimination using three dimensions: (a) formal versus informal, (b) perceived versus real, and (c) potential versus encountered.

• Chung, Williams, and Dispenza (2009, p. 168) recommend career counselors working with sexual minorities: (1) understand discrimination can be formal or informal, (2) help clients achieve realistic and accurate perceptions regarding discrimination, (3) explore various options for coping with workplace discrimination, and (4) remain 53

•

•

•

sensitive to the client’s pace of identity development and cultural context.

Datti (2009) apples social learning theory and suggests career counselors help LGBTQ clients consider topics such a perceived importance of separating person and professional role, their comfort in working with a variety of individuals, their interest in working for organization that have tolerance and discrimination policies, their comfort level with disclosure of their sexual orientation, and whether they have developed a social support network.

Pope and Barret (2002) stress the importance of client focused career interventions that help LGBTQ clients deal effectively with issues such as “coming out”, dealing with workplace discrimination, negotiating dual-career couples’ concerns, and the selection/use of assessment instruments.

Pope and Barrett stress importance of career counselors engaging in advocacy or social action interventions with this population

Persons with Disabilities • Individuals with disabilities lag behind those without disabilities in virtually every indicator of economic activity (Ettinger, 1996, p. 239).

• Little attention is paid to career experiences for a person with disabilities citing December 2014 The Career Development Quarterly in which authors reviewed literature and found more often than not, little attention is given • A person with disabilities is defined by Herr et al. (2004) as “one who is usually considered to be different from a normal person- physiologically, neurologically, or psychologically-because of accident, disease, birth, or developmental problems” (p.280).

• The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 stipulates that employers can consider only essential job functions when hiring or promoting employees.

• Employers must provide reasonable accommodations to qualified individuals with disabilities to enable them to do the essential functions of a job, unless the change imposes an undue hardship on the employers • Zunker (2006) identifies the following career development issues as ones that confront persons with disabilities: adjusting to disabilities, confronting attitudinal barriers, overcoming generalizations, having a lack of role models and norm groups, coping with issues associated with the age of onset of disability, developing social skills, developing a positive self-concept, and developing social/interpersonal skills, developing a positive self-concept, an developing skills for independent living.

Exposure to employed individuals with similar disabilities can help increase selfefficacy • Those having difficulty adjusting to disability due to physical trauma may need assistance coping • Experiencing a disability at an early age may require assistance developing assertiveness and independence • Important to assess persons with disabilities; Zunker (2006) suggests vocational evaluations • Most of the career literature related to persons with disabilities focuses on persons 54

•

• • •

• •

with physical disabilities and little towards those with learning disabilities Common challenges with learning disabilities include: failure to understand how personal characteristics relate to career choice, low self-esteem, an inability to engage in self-advocacy, difficulties in establishing routines, difficulties in accurately observing and effectively imitating the work habits of role models, challenges related to information processing, and a tendency towards passive learning styles Transitional planning is needed for students with learning disabilities who are moving from high school to postsecondary education Empowering persons with learning disabilities to engage in self-advocacy is essential Career practitioners need the following information when working with those with a learning disability: o Federal and state legislation, guidelines, and policies applicable to persons with disabilities o Types of disability classifications, diagnostic tools or processes, and their limitations o Informal assessment procedures for assessing interests, values, goals o Characteristics of different types of disabilities, their causes, and their effects on behavior o Opportunities available in the local labor market for persons with different types of skills and different types of challenges o The meaning of functional limitation and its use in counseling o The effects of social labeling, and stereotyping on the self-concept of persons with disabilities o Essential employability skills, the availability of training programs, and occupational and educational opportunities o Ways to work effectively with other specialists to facilitate a comprehensive approach to career exploration, career preparation, and career placement of persons with disabilities o Examples of job redesign that employers use to accommodate the capabilities and/or functional limitations for persons with various types of disability o Methods of developing individual employment plans and individualized educational plans o Fears, concerns, and needs of parents or partners of persons with disabilities, and ways to work systemically to foster the career development of persons with disabilities o Models of developing daily living, mobility, job search, and work skills o Strategies for teaching self-advocacy skills related to accessing disability-related services Persons with disabilities encounter specific obstacles in their career development that are often due to the lack of awareness and sensitivity on the part of their employers, educational institutions, and the general public Evidence exists that suggests hiring discrimination is most often directed toward persons with physical or sensory impairments (McMahon, Roessler, Rumrill, West, Chan & Carlson, 2008).

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Assessment • Fouad (1993) notes that career counselors must be mindful that the client’s culture plays a significant role throughout all phases of the assessment process.

• When selecting a career assessment instrument, counselors must ensure that the instrument is valid, reliable, and appropriate for the client’s cultural and linguistic context.

• Fouad (1993) notes that career counselors must be sure that assessment instruments are functionally and conceptually equivalent for the client with whom the assessment will be used and aware of any systematic bias within the assessment • It is important for career counselors to conduct culturally competent career assessments by gathering information formally and informally that is culturally encompassing (Flores, Spanieman, and Obasi, 2003).

• The “career-in-culture” (CiCl) interview can be used to understand the client from various spheres of career development influence: (1) culture, (2) family and religion, (3) community and larger society, (4) self-view and self-efficacy, (5) barriers and oppression; and (6) narrative and relationship (Ponterotto, Riversa, and Sueyoshi, 2000).

• Scholl (1999) devised the “Career Path Tournament” as a group intervention for middle school through university levels to help student consider the effects of sociological influences on their career development.

• Leong, Hardin, and Gupta (2007) proposed A Cultural Formation Approach to Career Assessment and Career Counseling (CF) whereby counselors are encouraged to attend five dimensions: (a) cultural identity, (b) cultural conception of career problems, (c) cultural context and psychosocial environment, (d) cultural dynamics in the therapeutic relationship and (e) an overall cultural assessment.

• A special issue of Journal of Career Development (Leong, 2010) illustrates application of Cultural Formation Approach using five career counseling case studies involving African American, Latina/Latino American, American Indian, and international student clients.

Recommendations for Culturally Effective Career Counseling • Career counselors should possess multicultural competencies • Career counselors should be aware of their own attitudes and values • Career counselors should be aware of their client’s cultural context • Career counselors should empower clients who experience discrimination • Career counselors must be sure they understand how experiences with racist, sexist, homophobic, classist, ageist, and discriminatory practices towards persons who are disabled influence their clients’ career development • Career counselors should engage in proactive programming to provide experiential opportunities, information resources, mentoring opportunities, and psychoeducational activities that are relevant to persons from diverse groups.

• Career counselors must engage in social action and advocacy to address systemic discrimination 56

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Career counselors should engage in programmatic research efforts to develop and advance theories of career development that apply to diverse groups

Activities 1. Divide the class into small groups. Give each group the homework assignment of finding one newspaper article from the past week that addresses some aspect of both career development and diversity. Each group will lead a class discussion/activity using their article as the basis for the lesson. Aspects from the chapter can be included in the criteria for the assignment including the incorporation of an identity model, concepts of emic/etic perspectives, or other criteria.

2. Provide the class with a generic case study containing no information related to culture/ethnicity. Break the class into small groups and instruct students to begin discussing the case. Ask students to consider how they conceptualize the “client” and how they might work with the client if they were the client’s career counselor. After several minutes, stop the discussion and add a cultural variable to the case (e.g., ethnicity, gender, socioeconomic status). Then, ask the groups to resume their discussion. Repeat this “interruption” several additional times, each time adding a new variable to the case.

Then, ask the groups to discuss whether the additional variables made a difference in how they conceptualized the case and how they would work with the case as a career counselor.

3. Ask students to list three things they are good at and then reflect upon how their own cultural background influenced these skills or abilities. Ask for volunteers to share and then discuss the cultural influences that might encourage or discourage the development of these skills and/or abilities.

Discussion 1. How does culture and degree of acculturation impact career development for children, adolescents, and adults? Is there a generational difference? Consider technology and social media within the career planning process.

2. How might culture affect the efficacy of the career intervention strategies you chose?

3. Encourage the class to share instances in which they feel as though they have experienced bias and stereotyping in their career development.

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Test Bank – Chapter 4 Essay Questions 1. Choose one of the identity development models outlined in Chapter 4. Describe the stages and how a person’s career development might be impacted during one of the stages.

2. Describe some of the challenges individuals with disabilities and GLBTQ individuals face in the workplace.

3. What are the implications of increasing heterogeneity in the workforce for career competencies that will be required of workers in the future?

4. Develop a case scenario that highlights the impact that acculturation can have a career development.

5. Discuss three challenges individuals with disabilities face in today’s work environment.

Multiple Choice 1. A person who feels committed to multiple cultures would be called a A. ethnocentric person.

B. individualistic person.

C. fully formed person.

D. bicultural person.

2. Which of the following best describes “one’s beliefs, awareness, values, subjective experience, sense of purpose and mission, and an attempt to reach toward something greater than oneself”.

A. denomination.

B. religion.

C. spirituality D. sexual orientation.

3. According to the textbook, career counselors working with sexual minorities should do all of the following except: A. encourage them to keep their sexual preferences private B. help clients prepare emotionally for potential discrimination C. be sensitive to the client’s pace of sexual identity development D. engage in advocacy with this population 4. When counselors assume that one value system (their own) is superior and preferable to another it is known as A. acculturation B. cultural pluralism C. ethnocentrism D. superiority 58

5. The process of adopting the traits or social patterns of another group is known as A. ethnocentrism.

B. cultural pluralism.

C. acculturation.

D. externalization.

6. The stages of racial identity development include all of the following except A. conformity.

B. dissonance.

C. introspection.

D. externalization.

7. The Nigrescence theory of black identity includes all of the following stages except A. pre-encounter.

B. encounter.

C. immersion-emersion.

D. introspection.

8. Stereotypically, sex role socialization has exerted influence over the early development of girls by reinforcing A. competition and skill mastery.

B. job hunting and career skills.

C. relationships and connectedness.

D. home-making skills.

9. Stereotypes of oppressive environmental influences of women are perpetuated pervasively in: A. centers for women and women’s shelters.

B. the home, school, community, and workplace.

C. many counseling centers that support women.

D. television and movies.

10. Integrating gender into the career development intervention process is important for men because they are often A. socialized to value power, competition action, strength, logic, and achievement.

B. subject to oppressive environmental influences in the workplace.

C. focused strongly on family and relationship needs.

D. restricted in levels of competitive and physical behavior.

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11. Developmental issues that typically confront persons with disabilities include all of the following except A. confronting attitudinal barriers.

B. overcoming generalizations.

C. developing skills for independent living.

D. narrowing social outlets.

12. Typical domains for vocational assessments for persons with disabilities include A. psychological.

B. social.

C. educational/academic.

D. all of the above.

13. Chang, Williams, and Dispenza (2009) recommend counselors that work with sexual minorities should: A. push clients to embrace their orientation.

B. teach clients assertiveness strategies to use in the workplace.

C. confront all forms of discrimination D. remain sensitive to the client’s pace of identity development.

14. According to Pope and Barret (2002), counselors can best work with gay and lesbian clients by: A. examining their own subtle or unconscious biases.

B. help clients effectively cope with “coming out” C. attend workshops and additional training to work with sexual minorities.

D. all of the above.

15. Whether the scales of a test measure the same constructs across cultures is an indicator of A. functional equivalence.

B. metric equivalence.

C. conceptual equivalence.

D. linguistic equivalence.

16. Individuals with disabilities are confronted with all of the challenges except: A. altitudinal barriers related to being labeled “handicapped” B. lack of role models and norm groups C. affordable housing D. developing social/interpersonal skills

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Text for PowerPoint Presentation (available on website) Definition of Multicultural Counseling • A helping process that places the emphasis for counseling theory and practice equally on the cultural impression of both the counselor and the client (Axelson, 1985)

Some Basic Facts • Whites are expected to make up a decreasing share of the labor force, while Blacks, Asians, and other groups will increase • By the year 2060, it is predicted that people of color will represent the numerical majority in the U.S. • According to U.S. Census (2015), the influx of new immigrants into U.S. will continue in large numbers.

• According to Pew Research Center (2014), the number of U.S. born Hispanic children ages 5 to 17 in the U.S. doubled between 1997 and 2013.

• Women earn 78 cents on a dollar for every dollar a man earns in a year (Arons, 2008) • Some Basic Facts, continued • According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics (2015), 16.1% of African Americans and 11.8% of Latinos were unemployed in April 2011 compared to 8% of Whites being unemployed.

• Nearly 25% of all teenagers were also unemployed in April 2011.

• Only 23% of African American and 15% of Hispanic persons are employed as executives, administrators, salespersons, and managers (compared to 32% for Whites).

• Employment rate for American Indians reached 24.2% in 20010.

• Men are 18.7 times as likely to be in higher prestige occupations in science, math, or technology as women.

• Americans with disabilities experienced an unemployment rate of 14.5% in 2011 American Assumptions • Individualism and autonomy • Affluence • Opportunity open to all • Centrality of work in people’s lives • Linearity and rationality of the career development process Universal or Culture-Specific Models?

• Etic perspectives - maintain that career interventions for members of minority groups should be the same as those used for the majority.

• Emic perspectives - highlight the importance of offering career development interventions that are specific to the client’s culture.

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Universal Elements of Healing in All Cultures (Fischer, et al.)

• The therapeutic relationship • Shared world view • Client expectations • Ritual or intervention Ethnocentrism • When counselors assume that one value system (their own) is superior and preferable to another, they engage in ethnocentric behavior that is insensitive to their clients’ worldviews.

• Ethnocentrism can easily occur when counselors assume that individualistic and selfsufficient actions are preferable to collectivistic actions reflecting interdependence and group loyalty.

• Instruments, such as the Career-in-Culture Interview and the Person-in-Culture Interview are examples of useful assessments for exploring worldview constructs Acculturation • The process of adopting the cultural traits or social patterns of another group (Stein,1975) • Language familiarity and usage, cultural heritage, ethnicity, ethnic pride and identity, interethnic interactions, and interethnic distance influence acculturation (Padilla, 1980) • Persons may be marginal (not accepting either culture fully) or bicultural (accepting both fully)Nguyen and Benet-Martinez (2013) found a strong, significant, and positive relationship between biculturalment and adjustment (both psychological and sociocultural) Identity Development Models • Racial Identity Models • Gender Identity Models • Lesbian/Gay/Bisexual/Transgendered/Questioning Identity Models Five Stages of Racial Identity Development (Atkinson, Morten, & Sue) • Conformity • Dissonance • Resistance and immersion • Introspection • Synergy Cross Model • Pre-encounter • Encounter • Immersion-Emersion • Internalization 62

•

Internalization-Commitment

Gender Differences in Socialization • Stereotypically reinforces competition and skill mastery in boys, relationships and connectedness in girls • Affects initial selection of occupation and opportunities for mentoring and promotion Feminist Identity Model (Gysbers, Heppner, & Johnson) • Stage 1: Passive Acceptance • Stage 2: Revelation • Stage 3: Embeddedness-Emancipation • Stage 4: Synthesis • Stage 5: Active Commitment Special Needs of Women (Cook, Heppner, & O’Brien) • Dealing with attending to the needs of others • Learning to negotiate in the workplace • Accessing quality child care • Handling sexual harassment in the workplace • Accessing mentors Special Needs of Men • Understanding how socialization has influenced their career behaviors • Learning to express feelings • Learning how to manage and reduce stress • Identifying strategies to participate more fully in life roles other than work Six-Stage Model of Identity Development for Gay Men and Lesbian Women (Cass, 1979) • Confusion • Comparison • Tolerance • Acceptance • Pride • Synthesis Four-Stage Model of Lesbian Identity Development (Sophie) • Stage 1: Awareness of homosexual feelings without disclosing these to others • Stage 2: Testing and exploration of emerging homosexual identity with limited disclosure to heterosexuals • Stage 3: Identity acceptance and preference for gay social interactions • Stage 4: Identify integration with movement from a dichotomous (homosexual, 63

heterosexual) worldview to integrated Career Counselor Recommendations for Working with Sexual Minorities • Understand discrimination can be formal or informal • Help clients achieve realistic and accurate perceptions regarding discrimination • Explore various options for coping with workplace discrimination • Remain sensitive to the client’s pace of identity development and cultural context.

Definition of Persons with Disabilities • One who is usually considered to be different from a normal person -- physically, physiologically, neurologically, or psychologically -- because of accident, disease, birth defect, or developmental problem (Herr & Cramer, 1996) Another Definition • A person who has physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more major life activities, or has a record of such impairment, or is regarded as having such an impairment (Americans with Disabilities Act, 1990) Americans with Disabilities Act • Employers can only consider essential job functions when hiring or promoting.

• Employers must make reasonable accommodations in the workplace.

Career Development Issues of Persons with Disabilities (Zunker, 2006) • Adjusting to disability • Confronting attitudinal barriers • Overcoming generalizations • Lack of role models and norm groups • Coping with issues associated with age of onset of disability • Developing social skills • Developing a positive self-concept • Developing skills for independent living Competencies for Working with Persons with Disabilities • Exposure to employed individuals with similar disabilities can help increase self-efficacy • Interpret and advise about legislation, policy, guidelines, and rights • Use diagnostic and informal assessment • Assess functional limitations and adapt methods of occupational exploration • Apply theory to assist with analysis of self-concept or developmental tasks deficits Competencies for Working with Persons with Disabilities, continued • Engage in effective individual and group counseling • Team with other specialists for career planning and placement • Work with employers to develop or restructure jobs 64

•

Plan and implement skill-building workshops or experiences

Components of Culturally-Sensitive Career Interventions (Herr & Kramer) • Possession of knowledge and skills appropriate in any helping relationship • Recognition of personal attitudes and values • Knowledge of cultural context from which clients come • Ability to identify special needs Components of Culturally-Sensitive Career Interventions, continued • Ability to assist culturally different clients understand that they do have choices, some of which include consequences.

• Skill to assist culturally different individuals to deal effectively with discrimination when it does occur • Skill to discern between client deficits that result from socioeconomic class and those from membership in a racial or ethnic group Using Assessments • Must assure that assessment is valid, reliable, and appropriate for the client’s cultural and linguistic context.

• Must assure that the test does not have cultural bias. Counselors are encouraged to attend to cultural identity, cultural conception of career problems, cultural context, cultural dynamics in the therapeutic relationship and overall cultural assessment (Leong, Hardin, and Gupta, 2007) Career in Culture (CiCl) Interview • This interview can be used to understand the client from various spheres of career development influence: o (1) culture, o (2) family and religion, o (3) community and larger society, o (4) self-view and self-efficacy, o (5) barriers and oppression; and o (6) narrative and relationship Recommendations for Culturally Effective Career Counseling • Career counselors should possess multicultural competencies • Career counselors should be aware of their own attitudes and values • Career counselors should be aware of their client’s cultural context • Career counselors should empower clients who experience discrimination • Career counselors must be sure they understand how experiences with racist, sexist, homophobic, classist, ageist, and discriminatory practices towards persons who are disabled influence their clients’ career development

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Recommendations for Culturally Effective Career Counseling (Cont.)

• Career counselors should engage in proactive programming to provide experiential opportunities, information resources, mentoring opportunities, and psychoeducational activities that are relevant to persons from diverse groups.

• Career counselors must engage in social action and advocacy to address systemic discrimination • Career counselors should engage in programmatic research efforts to develop and advance theories of career development that apply to diverse groups

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Chapter 5 Assessment and Career Planning The fifth chapter provides a detailed introduction to assessment and its importance in career planning. Assessment plays multiple roles in helping clients learn about themselves in ways that inform the career planning process. Counselors must have a myriad of knowledge and skills to competently (and ethically) administer assessments in career counseling. These are detailed throughout the chapter. Content covered in the chapter includes the relationship of assessment to the career planning process, the purposes of assessing clients, how to ethically utilize assessments, and knowledge of formal and informal assessments.

• • • • • • •

Assessment is defined in this chapter as the use of any formal or informal technique or instrument to collect data about a client.

Assessment was used extensively in the 20th century as a method to assist individuals to learn more about themselves and then translate that self-knowledge into occupational alternatives.

Traditionally the assessment process relied heavily on the trait-and-factor approach In the 21st century, assessment is seen as one piece of data that the client and counselor can use in connection with other sources of data in order to provide a holistic approach to career counseling.

In the 21st century, occupations are readily changing; therefore, assessments should be used less for prediction and more for identifying new options.

The client should be more involved in making the decision about whether to use assessment and for what purposes.

The changing demographics of the United States necessitate the need for even more preparation when selecting and using assessments in counseling.

The Relationship of Assessment to the Career Planning Process • The career planning process can be described as a seven-step cyclical process.

• Assessment can be used as an intervention at most steps: o At Step 1 (Become aware of need to make career decisions), a counselor may use instruments that measure career maturity, irrational beliefs, or readiness to make career choices. o At Step 2 (Learn about or reevaluate vocational self-concept), inventories of interests, abilities, skills, values, and/or personality type are commonly used. o At Step 3 (Identify occupational alternatives), the score report that follows use of assessment at Step 2 will likely suggest a list of occupational alternatives. o At Step 4 (Obtain information about identified alternatives), assessment is not likely to be used. o At Step 5 (Make tentative choices from among available occupations), inventories of work-related values may be used to assist a client to reduce the number of options. o At Step 6 (Make educational choices), tests that attempt to predict success in college or measure achievement in specific subject matter areas may be 67

administered. o At Step 7 (Implement a vocational choice), tests that measure skills for a specific occupation or inventories that measure personality type may be used.

Purposes of Assessment • Assessments should not be used unless there is a specific reason for doing so • Counselors typically rely on assessment for data gathering in order to alleviate time and knowledge demands • There are three predominant reasons for using assessment: o Counselors can learn more about the needs of students or clients. o Counselors can learn more about the characteristics of clients (interests, abilities, skills, values), and clients can learn more about themselves. o Counselors can measure the progress of an individual or a group in matters related to career planning.

Responsibilities and Competencies of the Counselor • Ethics, related to assessment, is described in a document called the Code of Fair Testing Practices, developed by three professional associations (Joint Committee on Testing Practices, 2004). This document lists six specific ways in which counselors need to be prepared for using assessment. Counselors must o possess a base of general knowledge about assessment, including information about statistics used in tests, types of instruments, score reporting procedures, standardization and norms, reliability, and validity. o have detailed knowledge about the specific instruments they use. o Evaluate the instrument for usefulness with diverse populations o know how to prepare clients/students for taking assessment. o administer instruments properly. o interpret instruments properly. o follow through with clients appropriately after assessment.

• Old model of the trait-and-factor approach (often called the “test-‘em and tell-‘em” approach) should be replaced with a view of assessment that a) respects assessment is just one of the tools available to assist clients, b) should be administered with the person’s full understanding of its purpose, c) prepares the client, administers the instrument corrects, treats the results in the confidential manner, and interprets the results in a knowledgeable way • Given the dynamic population change in our country, and our clients, any instruments utilized in counseling practice must be evaluated for use with diverse populations relating to age, reading and comprehension level, race, ethnicity, gender, and disability among other aspects of diversity.

Informal Assessments • Common types of informal assessments include the following: o checklists o games 68

o career fantasies o forced-choice activities o card sorts o structured interviews • • • • • •

Characteristics of informal assessment include the following: These instruments have not been subjected to scientific study; thus, properties such as reliability and validity are unknown.

They are not supported by any data that allow a person to compare his or her results with those of other people.

There are no documents that facilitate a connection between the choices made by the client and specific occupations.

There is no standard linkage between the results of an informal assessment and occupational options.

The advantage of informal assessments is they are low cost or free, do not require one to order materials, may not require as much time as a formal assessment, and may be less anxiety-producing for the client.

Formal Assessments • Formal assessments may be timed, standardized tests or non-timed, standardized inventories.

• Tests have right or wrong answers; they are usually timed, though not necessarily.

• Inventories do not have right or wrong answers; they are not timed.

• The word standardized means that there is a prescribed way to administer and interpret the instrument.

• The hallmark of formal assessments is that they have been subjected to scientific rigor • Formal assessments have the following characteristics: • Known validity (evidence that the instrument measures what it claims to measure).

• Known reliability (evidence that a given person will respond to items in a very similar fashion if the inventory is taken again) • Test-retest reliability (defined as the correlation between two measurements obtained in the same manner) • Fairness related to diversity (evidence that the instrument has been studied with a population as diverse as the one to which it will be administered; or a statement that its application may be limited because it was not studied with a diverse population).

• One or more measures of comparison, either rank-ordering the attributes it measures for the examinee or comparing these attributes with those of others judged to be similar to the examinee.

Types of Formal Assessments (examples are listed throughout the chapter) • Purpose 1: to identify the needs of clients • Purpose 2: to learn more about clients interests, skills, aptitudes, abilities, personality 69

•

type, and values Purpose 3: to measure progress or change

Ways in which Assessment Instruments may be Administered • Print form, with scoring manually or by optical scanning machines • Computer-delivered and computer-scored, non-secure sites • Computer-delivered and computer-scored, secure sites • Internet-delivered and scored Types of Reports • Results from a test or inventory typically come to a client in print form typically from the web site, or computer from which the assessment was taken • Raw scores -- individuals know the rank order and difference between their own scores but cannot compare their scores with those of others (idiosyncratic).

• Percentile scores -- individuals can compare their own scores to those of other groups (norm groups).

• Stanines – a way to divide percentiles into 9 ranges • Standard score – a way to indicate how far (in standard deviations) an individual’s score is from the middle (50th percentile) of a distribution of scores • Band of confidence – a range within which an individual score falls Selection of Instruments • Determine the purpose(s) for giving an instrument.

• Consider the characteristics of the person or group to determine if there are special considerations in selection of an instrument.

• Find out about the norm group for the instrument and how it compares with the population you have in mind.

• Find out about the reliability and validity of the instrument.

• Read critical reviews, and talk to other professionals about the instrument.

• Acquire a sample copy, take it yourself, and read the publisher’s materials.

• Administer it to a few individuals, practicing administration and interpretation.

• Determine cost and options for administration and scoring.

Activities 1. Well in advance of the course, contact National Career Assessment Services, Inc. or Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc. to request free administrations of the Kuder Career Planning System ™ and/or Self-Directed Search ™. Instruct students to complete the instrument of choice as a homework assignment and print out the results for class.

Provide a short group tutorial on interpreting the reports. Break the class in dyads and have them role play interpreting the results with a client in session.

2. Break up students into small groups. Assign each group two assessments at a time from each category of assessments (i.e. interests, skills, values, abilities). Have them look up 70

on their cell phones and laptops where they can find the assessment, a brief summary, and how much it costs. Then share the information with the class. (Faculty uses A Counselor’s Guide to Career Assessment Instruments to guide this process).

3. Lead the class through a career fantasy exercise, card sort, career game, or Career construction interview.

4. Set up a series of work stations with examples of informal assessments including checklists, games, forced-choice, and card sorts. Divide the class into the appropriate number of teams (equal to the number of stations) and give each team 10 minutes to practice at each station. Discuss.

Discussion 1. How can assessment be used when working with middle school students? high school students? college-age students? adults?

2. What are some of the dangers or pitfalls of giving assessment?

3. What are some advantages of informal assessment?

4. How does assessment fit into the career decision-making process?

5. How could assessment be used to design different types of career interventions for students or clients from diverse populations?

6. How can assessment be used to evaluate the progress of an individual client or a group of clients?

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Test Bank – Chapter 5 Essay Questions 1. List the steps of the career planning process, and describe how assessment might be used as an intervention in at least two of the seven steps.

2. Imagine that you work with (specify a population) and that your supervisor asks you to select formal assessment instruments for use with these students (clients). Describe the process you would use to select instruments.

3. A student receives the following score report after taking the Kuder Career Search™: Scale Score Profile Business Detail 93 XXXXXXXXX Sales & Management 77 XXXXXXX Social & Personal Services 65 XXXXXX Arts & Communication 44 XXXX Science & Technical 25 XX Outdoor & Mechanical 12 X What do the numbers under the second column, labeled Score, mean?

4. Choose one of the informal assessments discussed in this chapter. Describe in detail how you would introduce, use, and evaluate this assessment with a client.

5. How have changes in the demographics of the United States population impacted the use of assessment in counseling?

Multiple Choice 1. Assessment is defined as A. a standardized test.

B. any formal or informal technique used to collect data about a client.

C. an informal method of acquiring information.

D. an evaluative measure.

2. Though assessment may be used in several steps of the career planning process, its greatest usefulness is likely to be at Step A. 1.

B. 2.

C. 4.

D. 7.

3. All of the following are reasons to administer assessment except so that the A. counselor can learn more about the needs of the client.

B. counselor can determine the progress of an individual or group.

C. client can learn more about himself or herself.

D. counselor can prescribe the best course of action for the client.

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4. Which of the following have “right and wrong answers”?

A. assessments B. informal activities C. measures D. tests 5. A forced-choice activity is a/an A. formal assessment instrument.

B. informal assessment instrument.

C. type of career fantasy.

D. way of measuring abilities.

6. All of the following are true of formal assessments except that they A. have no standard method of interpretation.

B. have no standard way to compare one person’s scores with those of others.

C. have known reliability.

D. are usually free of charge.

7. A raw score indicates A. how some characteristic of one individual compares with that of others.

B. whether a person’s scores are in the top quartile.

C. how many standard deviations a score is from the middle of the distribution.

D. the total number of responses related to some category.

8. The Career Maturity Inventory (Crites and Savickas) is an example of an instrument that can be used to measure A. interests.

B. readiness to make career decisions.

C. work skills.

D. values.

9. Any of the following could be used to measure interests except A. The Self-Directed Search.

B. The Kuder Career Search.

C. WorkKeys.

D. Campbell Interest and Skill Survey 10. One good reason to suggest that clients take assessment via the Internet rather than in print form is that A. score reports are available immediately.

B. instruments administered in this mode have been thoroughly researched.

C. instruments are always free of charge.

D. scores are more reliable.

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11. When planning to administer an assessment instrument to a student/client, it is important to tell the person all of the following except A. the purpose of giving the assessment.

B. the history of the development of the instrument.

C. what the items in the instrument are like.

D. who will see the results and for what purpose.

12. When interpreting an inventory, all of the following are important except A. checking to see if the client/student agrees with the results.

B. indicating that the results of the inventory are the best sources of information.

C. asking about school work and experience that may confirm the results of the inventory.

D. suggesting what the student/client may do next in order to continue with planning.

13. A primary characteristic of informal assessment is that A. the results are norm-referenced.

B. the techniques used have high reliability.

C. it can be interesting and stimulate good discussion.

D. its results are standardly interpreted by all counselors.

14. An acceptable test-retest reliability coefficient is A. 3.5.

B. 4.0.

C. 6.0.

D. 8.0.

15. If, on the Kuder Career Search interest inventory, for example, a person has a score at the 88th percentile on the scale called Outdoor, it means that A. the person got 88% of the items right.

B. 10% of those in a norm group scored higher on Outdoor than this person.

C. the person has low interest in Outdoor activities.

D. the person’s interest in Outdoor activities is higher than 88% of those in a norm group.

True-False Items 1. A band of confidence is the same as a standard deviation.

2. A student whose score on a scale on an interest inventory is in the 1st stanine has very high interest in that area.

3. A norm group is the group of individuals whose scores on an instrument are the benchmark for assigning percentile scores to others who take it.

4. A checklist is one type of informal assessment.

5. If a test is valid, there is evidence that it measures what its publishers claim that it will measure.

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Text for PowerPoint Presentation (available on the website) Introduction • Assessment is the use of any formal or informal technique to collect data about a client.

• It is a tool of the trait-and-factor approach, which had its beginning with the three-step career choice process introduced by Frank Parsons.

Guidelines for Use of Trait-and-Factor Approach in 21st Century • Test data o are only one piece of a much larger puzzle. o should be used less for prediction and more for identifying new options.

• The client should be more involved in making the decision about whether to use assessment and for what purposes.

• The changing demographics of the United States necessitate the need for even more preparation when selecting and using assessments in counseling Assessment and the Career Planning Process • Step 1 - Become Aware of the Need to Make Career Decisions • Step 2 - Learn About or Reevaluate Vocational Self-Concept Assessment and the Career Planning Process • Step 3 - Identify Occupational Alternatives • Step 4 - Obtain Information About Identified Alternatives • Step 5 - Make Tentative Choices from Among Available Occupations Assessment and the Career Planning Process • Step 6 - Make Educational Choices • Step 7 - Implement a Vocational Choice Purposes of Assessment • Counselors can learn more about the needs of students or clients.

• Counselors can learn more about the characteristics of clients (interests, abilities, skills, values), and clients can learn more about themselves.

• Counselors can measure the progress of an individual or a group in matters related to career planning.

Counselor Responsibilities • Follow ethical guidelines provided by professional associations • Possess knowledge o basic principles of assessment o details of specific instruments to be used o evaluate the instrument for usefulness with diverse populations 75

o o o o

how to prepare clients/students how to administer properly how to interpret properly follow through with clients appropriately after the assessment

Clients’ Rights in Assessments • Old model of the trait-and-factor approach (often called the “test-‘em and tell-‘em” approach) should be replaced with a view of assessment that: o a) respects assessment is just one of the tools available to assist clients, o b) should be administered with the person’s full understanding of its purpose, o c) prepares the client, administers the instrument corrects, o d) treats the results in the confidential manner, and o e) interprets the results in a knowledgeable way Characteristics of Informal Assessment • Instruments not subjected to scientific study • Results for one person cannot be compared with those of others • No standard linkage between results and occupational choices • No standard way to interpret results • Low cost or free materials Types of Informal Assessment • Checklists • Games • Career fantasies • Forced-choice activities • Card sorts • Structured interviews Characteristics of Formal Assessment • May be timed, standardized tests or non-timed, standardized inventories.

• Standardized way to administer and interpret the instrument • Known validity (instrument measures what it claims to measure) • Known reliability (results of a later administration will be highly similar to those of first administration) • Test-retest reliability (defined as the correlation between two measurements obtained in the same manner) Characteristics of Formal Assessment • Fairness related to diversity (instrument adequately researched with kinds of individuals who will later take the instrument) • Measures of comparison (compares the scores of one individual with those of others) 76

Common Interest Inventories • Career Assessment Inventory (CAI) • Career Occupational Preference Survey (COPS) • Career Quest • Harrington-O’Shea Career Decision-Making System (CDMS) Common Interest Inventories, continued • Interest Determination, Exploration, and Assessment System (IDEAS) • Interest Explorer • Jackson Vocational Interest Survey (JVIS) • Kuder Career Search with Person Match • O*Net Interest Profiler Common Interest Inventories, continued • Self-Directed Search (SDS) • Strong Interest Inventory (SII) • Unisex Edition of the ACT Interest Inventory (UNIACT) • Vocational Interest Inventory Common Instruments to Measure Skills and Abilities • Campbell Interest and Skill Survey (CISS) • SkillScan • WorkKeys • Passion Revealer • The Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB) • Career Planning Survey • O*Net Ability Profiler Other Inventories • Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) - measures personality type • O*Net Work Importance Profiler - measures the importance of six work values • Super’s Work Values Inventory - measures the importance of 12 work values Steps of the Assessment Process • Prepare students/clients for assessment • Administer instrument(s) properly • Interpret instrument(s) properly • Follow through to assist students/clients to use results for action planning Ways to Administer and Interpret Assessment • Print form - manual or optical scoring; counselor interpretation • Computer (standalone or networked) - administration and scoring; counselor or computer interpretation 77

•

Internet - administration, scoring, and interpretation

Advantages of Internet Delivery • Can be taken from anywhere 24/7 • Immediate scoring and feedback • Standard interpretation, though customized • Capability to share report with others electronically No-Fee Assessment Websites • University of Waterloo Career Services - www.cdm.uwaterloo.ca/steps.asp • CareerKey - www.ncsu.edu/careerkey • University of Missouri Career Center - http://career.missouri.edu (Select Career Interests Game) • Motivational Assessment of Personal Potential - www.assessment.com For-Fee Assessment Websites • DISCOVER – www.act.org • Kuder Career Planning System - www.kuder.com • Self-Directed Search - www.self-directed-search.com Assessment Results • Results typically come in print form from the website or computer from which the assessment was taken • Raw scores - provide a tally of responses in a specific category; examinee cannot compare personal scores with those of others • Percentile scores - compare the scores of one person with those of a selected norm group • Stanines – a way to divide percentiles into 9 ranges • Standard score – a way to indicate how far (in standard deviations) an individual’s score is from the middle (50th percentile) of a distribution of scores • Band of confidence – a range within which an individual score fall Steps in Selection of Instruments • Determine purpose of assessment.

• Consider characteristics of those to be assessed.

• Determine if norm group for instrument includes characteristics of persons to be tested.

• Investigate the reliability and validity of the instrument.

Steps in Selection of Instruments • Read critical reviews and talk to other professionals.

• Acquire a sample copy, take it, and read publisher’s materials.

• Administer instrument to a few individuals and practice interpretation.

• Determine cost and options for administration and scoring.

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Chapter 6 Career Information and Resources The sixth chapter provides a framework for understanding and organizing the overwhelming amount of career information available. Career information is defined as career data that can be used by counselors and clients as part of the career planning process. Included in the chapter are dozens of up-to-date career resources, both print and electronic. Content covered in the chapter includes: • • • •

The counselor’s role in providing data and the client’s role in receiving data The types of data needed by clients.

Methods on how to collect data print sources, computer-assisted career guidance systems, websites, or people) How to help clients turn data into useful career information

The Counselor’s Role in Providing Data • The role of counselors is to assist clients to turn data into information (that is, cause it to inform one’s decision making) and includes the responsibility to o select sources of high quality. o make sources of data known to clients in a user-friendly way. o assist the client process the data they acquired.

• Clients may have barriers to receiving data related to physical, mental, or intellectual deficits.

• Clients have different decision-making styles, and this fact affects their ability to process and use data effectively. Decision styles are as follows: o Planful o Agonizing o Impulsive o Intuitive o Compliant o Delaying o Fatalistic o Paralytic • Clients may bring a myriad of diversity related issues to career counseling requiring flexibility on the part of the counselor to provide appropriate resources or accommodation.

Client Information and Diversity • Some students of clients who seek career information may need assistance in the form of (but not limited to): o One on one assistance o Special software or hardware o Language translation o Assistance reading (reading disability) 79

o Screen readers or related software (visual impaired) The Clients’ Roles in Receiving Data • Complete the data-gathering “homework” given by counselors.

• Work with the counselor to process that data Assume responsibility for their own decision making.

Types of Data Needed by Clients • Descriptions of programs of study (post-secondary majors) • Military programs • Apprenticeships and internships • Occupations • Schools o Private (proprietary) vocational-technical schools o Public Community colleges o Four-year colleges and universities o Graduate schools • Financial aid • Jobs Other Methods of Collecting Data • Career days • Mentoring • Internships • Job Shadowing • Part-time jobs Organizing Occupations • Holland’s system • ACT’s World-of-Work Map • O*Net Classification system • U.S. Department of Education clusters The Career Center • A career center houses all the resources (videos, journals, books, assessment instruments, and a variety of software programs) in one physical place • The career center should: o be centrally located. o be user-friendly. o contain computers for use of software and websites. o have equipment for viewing videos. o be staffed with trained persons such as Career Development Facilitators (CDF) o have materials organized by type, content, career planning step, or life role.

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• • •

The Internet offers the possibility for online, virtual career centers. It Includes linkages to websites that provide data resources. may be supported by cybercounseling or assistance.

Helping Clients Turn Data into Information • •

The most difficult and most essential role of the counselor is to assists students and clients as they make sense of all the data An example of Chris and Clarice are provided in the text on how counselors can help clients process the information they have received

Activities 1. Have students research one occupation by use of at least three standard sources of occupational information: a) The Occupational Outlook Handbook (print or online at www.bls.gov/oco), b) CareerInfoNet (www.acinet.org), and c) O*Net (http://online.onetcenter.org/). You may fold this assignment into a case study in which they have to help a student research an occupation, using these three resources.

2. Have students use one of the college search websites (CollegeNet, GoCollege, Peterson’s, etc.) listed in the chapter. As above, you may fold this assignment into a case study in which a student states several important characteristics for a college, and the counselor helps him or her identify college options.

3. Have students design an ideal career center, complete with physical layout, list of resources, and staffing. This activity can be done as an homework assignment by having students develop a website with all pertinent career information.

4. Have students think of as many practical ways as possible that ACT’s World-ofWork Map could be used to assist with a career guidance program at the high school level.

Discussion 1. By what criteria can a counselor judge the quality of a career database or resource?

2. What is the relationship between an individual’s decision-making style and his or her ability to use data effectively? How does this vary across decision-making styles?

3. Describe the sources of occupational information provided by the United States Department of Labor.

4. What are some ways a counselor can help a client turn data into meaningful information?

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Test Bank – Chapter 6 Essay Questions 1. Identify and describe three of the eight decision-making styles outlined in the textbook (Dinklage, 1968).

2. Name one resource you explored in this course that you will use with your clients in the future. Provide a detailed description of the strengths and weaknesses of this resource.

Write a one paragraph description of how you might introduce this resource to a client.

3. Identify and describe three types of data clients might need to help them make a career decision.

Multiple Choice 1. At Step 4 of the career decision-making process, students or clients are most likely to need information about A. financial aid.

B. occupations.

C. colleges.

D. majors and programs of study.

2. A counselor has the responsibility to A. make good career choices for students.

B. assist students to turn data into information that helps with decision making.

C. develop standards of quality for occupational information.

D. read and summarize information for students.

3. The website called O*Net is a replacement for the former Department of Labor publication A. The Occupational Outlook Handbook.

B. The Guide to Occupational Exploration.

C. The Dictionary of Occupational Titles.

D. The Classification of Instructional Programs.

4. Which of the following is NOT a source of occupational information provided by the U.S. Department of Labor?

A. O*Net B. CareerOneStop C. America’s Job Bank.

D. Occupational Outlook Handbook 5. Holland’s typology is very useful in career guidance programs because A. occupations can be organized by the six types.

B. individuals can find out their personal types by taking assessment.

C. majors and programs of study can be organized by the six types.

D. all of the above are true.

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6

Students or adults with visual disabilities will need the support of special equipment to obtain career information. Equipment and technology include using: A. an avatar B. complementary audio files C. screen readers D. all of the above

7. Which of the following is not a type of service typically provided by career centers?

A. online assessments B. resume critiques C. career planning/counseling D. financial aid 8. ACT’s World-of-Work Map A. organizes occupations based on work with three dimensions -- data, people, and . things.

B. shows 26 families of occupations (career areas).

C. is based on Holland’s typology.

D. is an integral part of CAREERCHOICE, a computer-based system.

9. All of the following are true regarding resources for effective career centers except that they need to A. have computers, software, and Internet connections.

B. be located in a central, easy-to-find place.

C. be organized in some meaningful way.

D. have computers staffed by a certified counselor.

10. A person who habitually makes decisions by doing what others suggest is called a/an A. compliant decider.

B. intuitive decider.

C. planful decider.

D. fatalistic decider.

11. Of the various types of deciders described by Dinklage, the type most likely to have the easiest time making a vocational choice is the A. paralytic.

B. fatalistic.

C. planful.

D. painful.

12. The purpose in following a planful process of decision making is to A. assure that the consequences are good.

B. increase the probability of achieving good outcomes..

C. get to a choice more quickly.

D. give someone else the responsibility for your decisions.

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13. Several websites that are particularly useful for career planning and information have been developed by the A. Bush administration.

B. Department of Education.

C. Department of Labor.

D. Department of Human Services.

14. The most difficult part of helping people make a vocational choice or change is A. interpreting the assessment you give them.

B. finding good sources of career information.

C. helping them process the data and make a choice.

D. dealing with their lack of motivation.

15. When choosing a system for organizing occupations, it is better for guidance purposes if A. the system includes all 13,000 occupations.

B. occupations are divided by industries.

C. occupations are divided by level of job demand.

D. there is a way to link what the person knows about self to occupational options.

True - False 1. Unlike its impact on other areas, the Internet has little to offer in the way of career information.

2. One way of assuring that clients/students will make a satisfying career decision is to make multiple information sources available to them.

3.

There is a high relationship between an individual’s decision-making style and his or her ability to make good use of data sources.

4. The most definitive source of occupational information is the U. S. Department of Labor.

5. It is possible to get training for civilian occupations while in the military.

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Text for PowerPoint Presentation (available on the website) Relationship between Data and Decision Making • Having reliable data is essential to career decision making.

• Data may be acquired from print sources, computer-assisted career guidance systems, websites, and/or people.

• The counselor’s role is to assist clients/students to turn data into information.

Types of Data Needed by Clients • Descriptions of programs of study (post-secondary) • Military programs • Apprenticeships and internships • Occupations • Schools o Private (proprietary) vocational-technical schools o Public Community colleges • Four-year colleges and universities • Graduate schools • Financial aid • Jobs Barriers and Decision Styles • Clients/students may have difficulty dealing with data because of physical, mental, or emotional deficits and because of their usual decision-making style. o Planful . Compliant o Agonizing . Delaying o Impulsive . Fatalistic o Intuitive . Paralytic Client Information and Diversity • Clients may bring a myriad of diversity related issues to career counseling requiring flexibility on the part of the counselor to provide appropriate resources or accommodation.

Assistance Obtaining Data for those with Disabilities • Some students of clients who seek career information may need assistance in the form of (but not limited to): o One on one assistance o Special software or hardware o Avatars o Language translation o Assistance reading (reading disability) o Screen readers or related software (visual impaired) 85

Client Roles • Complete the data-gathering homework given by counselors.

• Apply data collected to personal career choices and engage in activities, aided by the counselor.

• Assume responsibility for their own decision making.

Counselor Roles • Select sources for data that are of high quality.

• Make sources of data known to clients and assist them to know how to use them.

• Assist clients to make meaningful use of data.

Other Methods of Collecting Data • Career days • Mentoring • Internships • Job Shadowing • Part-time jobs Ways to Organize Occupations • Holland’s system (R, I, A, S, E, C) • ACT’s World-of-Work Map clusters and job families • O*Net Classification system • U.S. Department of Education clusters Career Centers • A career center houses all the resources (videos, journals, books, assessment instruments, and a variety of software programs) in one physical place • The career center should: o be centrally located. o be user-friendly. o contain computers for use of software and websites. o have equipment for viewing videos. o be staffed with trained persons such as Career Development Facilitators (CDF) o have materials organized by type, content, career planning step, or life role.

Virtual Career Center • May include o Assessment o linkages to websites that provide data resources o cybercounseling assistance

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Helping Clients Turn Data into Information • The most difficult and most essential role of the counselor is to assists students and clients as they make sense of all the data • Career data and assessment results should not be interpreted as “right/wrong” • Trained career counselors should help students process the information they receive following NCDA Ethical Guidelines

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Chapter 7 Using Technology to Support Career Counseling and Planning The seventh chapter addresses the impact of technology on the career counseling and planning process. Various kinds of technology have affected the field over the course of its history, but no technology has had more impact than the computer, including the Internet. The results of a significant number of students have provided evidence that use of career guidance systems deliver desirable outcomes. Content covered in the chapter includes: • • • • • •

Information and Communication Technologies: Trends of the 21st Century The internet as the deliverer of career guidance Counselor Responsibilities Related to ICT-Supported Career Guidance and Counseling Add High Touch to High Tech: Counselor Competencies and Types of Support Issues and Concerns Related to Use of ICT The Promise of ICT

Information and Communication Technologies: Trends of the 21st Century • Almost all systems and applications are Web based rather than installed on individual computers or networks • Ever-expanding use of graphics, audio, and streaming video • Multiple linkages to other Web sites • E-portfolios • Differentiated information targeted to specific audiences (i.e. students in grades 5-6, grades 7-8m, high school, postsecondary; adult workers; parents; administrators and counselors) • Increased capability to store documents such as certificates, resumes, cover letters • Trend towards no-fee Websites funded by departments of education, labor, economic development, and/or commerce at the state, national, and international level • Increased trend to incorporate communication via social media • Using social media to network and job search • Trend to provide career planning tools via tablets and smartphones The Internet as the Deliverer of Career Guidance • Advantages of using the internet include: o System is available 24/7 o Potential to serve a larger audience o E-portfolio can be developed and maintained (i.e. certificates, resumes, transcripts) o Databases can be updated more frequently o Can seamlessly integrate Internet resources and e-mail communication o Counselors can communicate with system users while they are online • Web-based services via computers, tablets, and smartphone are common practice 88

worldwide Stand-alone Web Sites • There are hundreds, if not thousands, of single-purpose Web sites that address some part of the career planning process Integrated Career Planning Systems • Integrated career planning systems are developed to integrate various content topics into one system (e.g. an interest inventory, searchable occupational database, searchable national postsecondary school database, a resume writer, and a database of job opening) • Users can use parts of the integrated career planning system independently or together depending on their specific needs • Most of the systems are mentioned in Chapters 5 or 6 Virtual Career Centers • A virtual career centers is a type of integrated planning system • Virtual career centers are websites that bring together various websites into an organized fashion • Advantage is they are often free or low cost and are not subject to the licensing agreements of other integrated career planning systems • Disadvantage is that the: o lack the capability to guide a user from one activity to the next o are unable to store assessment info, choices, made or notes that can be accessed later by the user o do not collect data about users and their progress o do not allow counselors to communicate with the users via email, cell phone or notes posted on their portfolios Mobile Phone Applications • Smart phones are now delivering career planning information and support worldwide • Due to the screen size on the phones, career guidance systems must be delivered in small packages • Instead of receiving formal reports, assessment results can be sent via text.

Social Networking • Newest phenomenon related to the use of technology • Web-based social networking sites allow users to create a profile and provide as much personal and professional information as possible from which they can socially connect or network with other individuals (e.g. Facebook, LinkedIn, MySpace) • Public profiles are used by employers to search job applicants, therefore information posted on one’s “wall” or profile page should be examined to safeguard one’s image

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Two Types of Social Media Sites • Type 1: Social Networking sites to connect with others such as Facebook and MySpace • Type 2: Professional social networking sites such as LinkedIn which allows companies to post jobs and allows users to post resume information • Strategies for Using Social Media: o Search yourself on Google to see the links associated with your name and upload documents that would expand your Internet image (or “brand”) o Upload professional resumes or profiles- consider using a video resume o Make sure postings are consistent in content o Get as many connections and endorsements on LinkedIn as possible o Focus on specific employers and jobs; do your research prior to interview o Attempt to gain direct electronic contact with hiring manager at company to cultivate the relationship o Consider creating Web Logs (called “blogs”) in which you can journal professional topics Distance Counseling • Provides counseling to a client by a qualified professional via the Internet • Experience and research are insufficient at this time to allow an evaluation of its effectiveness • Uses video conferences or email • Ethical guidelines for distance counseling has been developed by NBCC Counselor Responsibilities Related to ICT-Supported Career Guidance and Counseling Know and Abide by Ethical Guidelines • Four professional organizations have developed ethical guidelines for the use of ICT in career counseling and guidance: o American Counseling Association (ACA) o International Association for Educational and Vocational Guidance (IAEVG) o National Board for Certified Counselors (NBCC) o National Career Development Association (NCDA) Select Web Sites and Integrated Career Planning Systems • When comparing systems and making a selection, use the following criteria: o theoretical base of the system, if any o presence of online inventories and/or capability to take assessment inventories online and/or enter the results of an assessment taken in print form o quality and comprehensiveness of databases o ease of searches o comprehensiveness of system content o user-friendliness and appeal 90

o multimedia capabilities o quality and track record of vendor Adding High Touch to High Tech • Computer programs alone cannot effectively serve the career planning needs of students/clients because o they may have needs that are masked under the rubric of career concerns. o some individuals do not profit from services provided by computer because of their learning or personality style. o Some clients are not ready to receive information because of lack of readiness to process it effectively o research indicates that the most effective career intervention is a combination of computer and counselor.

• Counselor responsibilities and capabilities, used in conjunction with computer interventions, include o determining the readiness of the client to receive information from a computer and use it effectively. o expanding on the interpretation of tests and inventories administered and interpreted by the computer. o assisting the client to identify personal values that will assist in reducing the long list of options provided by the computer. o providing motivation and emotional support for continued work and exploration. o suggesting creative alternatives beyond the computer’s “knowledge.”

Counselor Competencies and Types of Support • Counselor competencies include o detailed knowledge of the content of the computer-assisted system or websites. o capability to diagnose a client’s needs to determine if technology-based intervention is appropriate. o capability to motivate the client to invest the time. o capability to help the client to process the data into meaningful information. o capability to move the client beyond information to an action plan.

• Counselor-computer models include o one-to-one counseling plus use of technology. o group guidance or classroom plus technology. o group counseling plus technology. o Cybercounseling.

Issues and Concerns Related to Use of ICT • Environment – lack of face-to-face contact and warm counseling environment • Presenting problems – need to discern which problems can be dealt with in this mode • Clients – need to discern which clients can profit from service in this mode • Security – concerns related to the fact that the Internet is an insecure environment 91

• •

Training – need to identify competencies crucial to cybercounselors and develop appropriate pre- and inservice training Supportive services – need to discern when clients need additional supportive services and know how to provide them

The Promise of ICT • Countries from around the world are utilizing ICT • Prediction that the use of ICT for career guidance purposes will continue at a rapid pace • Services are offered online websites, smart phones, email, tweeting (via Twitter), etc.

• Most past technology-driven services have been based on a Parsonian (trait and factor theory) model; however newer services are incorporating post modern career theories such as Career Construction Theory – i.e. selecting YouTube videos that clients like and asking them what attracts them to the videos to identify themes • Technology is able to reach an infinite number of people on a 24/7 basis in a quality controlled standardized way

Activities 1. Divide the class into four teams. Teams will be asked to prepare a presentation to an appropriate panel for the class’s counseling specialty (school board, board of trustees, community government). Teams will be divided into the following groups: online counseling (pro and con) and e-portfolio/video resume (pro and con). Highlight the fact that the panel they are presenting to is making difficult budgetary decisions therefore their arguments must address both client service and cost/benefit ratio. Have students utilize the ACA’s ethical guidelines for online counseling OPTION – asking outside guests (community members, faculty, or doctoral students) to play the part of the panel adds an element of importance to the occasion.

2. Ask each student to critique several LinkedIn profiles. Provide a grading rubric so that they have specific criteria to meet. Ask students which profiles stand out and why.

3. Break up into groups and ask students to locate smart phone apps and ICT programs using their laptop, tablet, or phone. Encourage them to look both in the U.S. and globally.

Have them report back to the class what they have found.

Discussion 1. What groups or populations might experience technology as a barrier to accessing career planning resources? How might technology be a barrier? What are potential solutions?

2. Can you see yourself conducting online counseling? Why or why not?

3. What are the advantages and disadvantages to individuals heavily relying on the internet and other technology to find a job?

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4. How can social media be used to network for jobs?

5. What does it mean to monitor and help create your “brand” online? What are some proactive strategies to doing this?

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Test Bank – Chapter 7 Essay Questions 1. Describe five ethical concerns related to cybercounseling.

2. How would you describe computer-assisted career guidance systems of the 21st century compared to earlier versions?

3. Describe the advantages and disadvantages of using the internet to deliverer of career guidance.

4. Describe three competencies that counselors who use technology-based systems must develop.

5. Discuss how social media, smart phones, tablets, and streaming video have changed career counseling and the career planning process.

Multiple Choice 1. Which of the following statements about career guidance and information websites and systems of the 21st century is true?

A. almost all systems and applications are Web based rather than installed on individual computers or networks B. eportofolios and resumes stored online cannot be updated once they are submitted C. states tend to charge money for integrated Websites provided by the departments of education, labor, economic development and/or commerce D. social media sites are not yet up to speed to share career information and network 2. Computer-based career planning systems delivered on the Internet generally store all of the following except A. a resumes B. cover letters C. drivers license/photo ID D. transcripts 3. DISCOVER is a good example of a A. career information system.

B. career planning system.

C. virtual career center.

D. system supported by cybercounseling.

4. Career information systems that include state-specific data were encouraged by A. the U.S. Department of Education.

B. NOICC. C. the United States Department of Labor.

D. the University of Oregon.

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5. All of the following are strong assets of a computer-based system except the capability to A. provide instruction.

B. identify whether the user can profit from its use.

C. administer and interpret inventories and tests.

D. keep a record of use.

6. Research about the use of computer-based systems indicates that A. there is no need for counselor assistance in addition to computer use.

B. the use of computer-based systems is actually harmful to clients.

C. the best gains are made by a client when technology and counselor support are combined.

D. they are much more effective with males than with females.

7. One of the primary ethical issues with cybercounseling is A. security of communication.

B. its cost.

C. that it can take place 24/7.

D. lack of eye contact.

8. The primary player(s) in setting ethical guidelines for cybercounseling is/are the A. American Counseling Association.

B. National Career Development Association.

C. National Board for Certified Counselors.

D. the three organizations above.

9. Which of the following describes a social media site dedicated solely for users to put their resume online, connect with other users (1st, 2nd, 3rd degree), list job skills, find jobs, have employers contact users, celebrate work anniversaries, and form groups based on current employer, past employer or alumni of specific universities?

A. LinkedIn B. Twitter C. Facebook D. MySpace 10. A good strategy for using social networking to find a job, according to the textbook, includes all of the following except: A. google yourself to see links that are associated with your name B. get as many connections and endorsements on LinkedIn as possible.

C. have a standard cover letter prepared to send every employer D. make sure posting are consistent in content

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11. All of the following are characteristics of career information systems except that they typically A. offer multiple, extensive databases.

B. provide labor market information.

C. store a user record.

D. are not theory-based.

12. One way in which high touch can be added to high tech while serving multiple students is A. group counseling.

B. one-to-one counseling.

C. assignment of websites.

D. classroom instruction.

13. Disadvantages to use of the Internet to provide career planning assistance include all of the following except that A. access and operation can be slow.

B. bandwidth and other technical concerns diminish the effectiveness of audio and video C. databases can be updated more frequently.

D. the Internet is not a secure environment.

14. All of the following are characteristics of career planning systems except that they typically include A. online assessment or entry of scores from offline assessment.

B. monitoring of the user’s progress through the system.

C. a strong theory base.

D. no searchable databases.

15. When selecting a computer-based system, counselors and their administrators should consider the A. theoretical base, if any, of the system.

B. quality and comprehensiveness of the databases.

C. presence of online inventories.

D. all of the above.

True-False 1. When students or clients say they need help with career planning, there may be other needs or concerns present that a computer cannot discern.

2. Mobile phone applications can be used to assist the job-search process.

3. The practice of cybercounseling is so new that there are no guidelines or ethical standards yet.

4. It is likely that the use of technology to support or deliver career counseling will decline in the future.

5. None of the state career information delivery systems (CIDS) have been placed on the Internet yet.

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Text for PowerPoint Presentation (available on website) Information and Communication Technologies (ICT): Current Trends • Almost all systems and applications are Web based rather than installed on individual computers or networks • Ever-expanding use of graphics, audio, and streaming video • Multiple linkages to other Web sites • Use of e-portfolios • Increased capability to store documents such as certificates, resumes, cover letters Information and Communication Technologies (ICT): Current Trends (cont.)

• Differentiated information targeted to specific audiences (i.e. students in grades 5-6, grades 7-8m, high school, postsecondary; adult workers; parents; administrators and counselors) • Trend towards no-fee Websites funded by departments of education, labor, economic development, and/or commerce at the state, national, and international level Information and Communication Technologies (ICT): Current Trends (cont.)

• Increased trend to incorporate communication via social media • Using social media to network and job search • Trend to provide career planning tools via tablets and smartphones Advantages of Using the Internet for Career Guidance • System is available 24/7 • Potential to serve a larger audience • E-portfolio can be developed and maintained (i.e. certificates, resumes, transcripts) • Databases can be updated more frequently Advantages of Using the Internet for Career Guidance (cont.)

• Can seamlessly integrate Internet resources and e-mail communication • Counselors can communicate with system users while they are online • Web-based services via computers, tablets, and smartphone are common practice worldwide Types of Career Sources Online • Stand-alone Web Sites • Integrated Career Planning Systems • Virtual Career Centers • Mobile Phone Applications • Social Networking/Social Media • Distance Counseling 97

Stand-Alone Web Sites • There are hundreds, if not thousands, of single-purpose Web sites that address some part of the career planning process Integrated Career Planning Systems • Integrated career planning systems are developed to integrate various content topics into one system (e.g. an interest inventory, searchable occupational database, searchable national postsecondary school database, a resume writer, and a database of job opening) • Users can use parts of the integrated career planning system independently or together depending on their specific needs Examples of Integrated Career Planning Systems • ACT Profile – act.org • Career Information System- intocareers.com • FOCUS 2- focuscareer2.com • Hobson’s- hobsons.com • Kuder Career Planning Systems- kuder.com • Valpar International Corporation- valparint.com • Xap Corporation- xap.com Virtual Career Centers • A virtual career centers is a type of integrated planning system • Virtual career centers are websites that bring together various websites into an organized fashion Virtual Career Centers- Advantages • Free or low cost and are not subject to the licensing agreements of other integrated career planning systems Virtual Career Centers- Disadvantages • Lack the capability to guide a user from one activity to the next • Are unable to store assessment info, choices, made or notes that can be accessed later by the user,, • Do not collect data about users and their progress • Do not allow counselors to communicate with the users via email, cell phone or notes posted on their portfolios Mobile Phone Applications • Smart phones are now delivering career planning information and support worldwide • Due to the screen size on the phones, career guidance systems must be delivered in small packages • Instead of receiving formal reports, assessment results can be sent via text.

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Social Networking • Newest phenomenon related to the use of technology • Web-based social networking sites allow users to create a profile and provide as much personal and professional information as possible from which they can socially connect or network with other individuals (e.g. Facebook, LinkedIn, MySpace) • Public profiles are used by employers to search job applicants, therefore information posted on one’s “wall” or profile page should be examined to safeguard one’s image Two Types of Social Media Sites • Type 1: Social Networking sites to connect with others such as Facebook and MySpace • Type 2: Professional social networking sites such as LinkedIn which allows companies to post jobs and allows users to post resume information Strategies for Using Social Media: • Search yourself on Google to see the links associated with your name and upload documents that would expand your Internet image (or “brand”) • Upload professional resumes or profiles- consider using a video resume • Make sure postings are consistent in content • Get as many connections and endorsements on LinkedIn as possible Strategies for Using Social Media (cont.)

• Focus on specific employers and jobs; do your research prior to interview • Attempt to gain direct electronic contact with hiring manager at company to cultivate the relationship • Consider creating Web Logs (called “blogs”) in which you can journal professional topics Distance Counseling • Provides counseling to a client by a qualified professional via the Internet • Experience and research are insufficient at this time to allow an evaluation of its effectiveness • Uses video conferences or email • Ethical guidelines for distance counseling has been developed by NBCC Ethical Guidelines for ICT • Four professional organizations have developed ethical guidelines for the use of ICT in career counseling and guidance: o American Counseling Association (ACA) o International Association for Educational and Vocational Guidance (IAEVG) o National Board for Certified Counselors (NBCC) o National Career Development Association (NCDA) How to Select Web Sites and Integrated Career Planning Systems • theoretical base of the system, if any 99

•

presence of online inventories and/or capability to take assessment inventories online and/or enter the results of an assessment taken in print form quality and comprehensiveness of databases ease of searches

• • • How to Select Web Sites and Integrated Career Planning Systems (cont.)

• comprehensiveness of system content • user-friendliness and appeal • multimedia capabilities • quality and track record of vendor

Adding High Touch to High Tech • Computer programs alone cannot effectively serve the career planning needs of students/clients because they may have needs that are masked under the rubric of career concerns.

• Some individuals do not profit from services provided by computer because of their learning or personality style.

• Some clients are not ready to receive information because of lack of readiness to process it effectively • Research indicates that the most effective career intervention is a combination of computer and counselor.

Counselor Competencies Needed • Detailed knowledge of the system or site • Capability to diagnose the user’s needs and capability to profit from use of technology • Capability to motivate user to invest time • Capability to help the client process the data into meaningful information • Capability to move user beyond information to an action plan Counselor Responsibilities • Determine readiness of the client to use a computer system effectively • Expand on the interpretation of assessment • Assist individuals to identify values that guide decision making • Provide motivation and emotional support • Suggest creative alternatives Counselor-Computer Models • One-to-one counseling plus use of technology • Group guidance or classroom plus technology.

• Group counseling plus technology • Cybercounseling

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Issues Related to Use of ICT • Environment - lack of face-to-face contact and warm counseling environment • Presenting Problems - need to discern which can be dealt with in this mode • Clients - need to discern who can profit from service in this mode Issues Related to Use of ICT continued • Security - need to protect confidentiality • Counselor Training - need to identify competencies and train for them • Supportive services - need to discern when to refer

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Chapter 8 Career Counseling Strategies and Techniques for the 21st Century This chapter introduces basic information about conducting individual and group career counseling, emphasizing strategies appropriate for the 21st century. It includes topics such as providing counseling-based career assistance, providing support in career counseling, and attending to life structure issues. It also introduces a framework for conducting career counseling. Content covered in the chapter includes: • • •

The need to expand the limited view of career counseling The importance of designing career counseling strategies that are applicable for the 21st century.

A framework for addressing career concerns- individual, group, and/or professional service providers

Expanding the Limited View of Career Counseling • Career counseling has traditionally emphasized helping individuals find the “best occupational fit”, however there is a substantial body of evidence that suggested this limited view has “less than desirable outcomes” • A limited view of career counseling has led individuals to overemphasize testing • Counselors in the 21st century recognize that one’s life and career are not separate; and that mental health and work are interwoven Career Counseling in the 21st Century • The 2016 Standards for CACREP continue to identify career development as a core area of counseling competence; thus, career counselors are professional counselors or psychologists with specialized training in the delivery of career development interventions • Career counseling can be classified within the general category of counseling because of the overlap in skills required to conduct general and career counseling • Career counselors need to provide counseling-based career assistance, offer support in career counseling (emotional, informational, and appraisal support), and attend to life structure issues in the career counseling process.

• Niles and Anderson (1995) examined the content of more than 250 career counseling sessions and found no pattern for the presentation of career and noncareer concerns in career counseling • Important to view career counseling as a type of psychological intervention that, at times throughout the course of career counseling, may require the counselor and client to focus on noncareer concerns.

Designing Career Counseling Strategies •

Career counseling issues “must keep pace with our society’s movement to the postmodern era” (Savickas, 1993, p. 205).

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Hierarchical organizational pyramids have been flattened in corporations- therefore, career success is no longer defined by moving up the “corporate ladder” Career patterns now resemble roller coasters rather than gradual inclines Professional counselors and psychologists must now provide counseling-based career assistance in order to support their students and clients as they formulate career goals and engage in career decision making.

Providing Counseling-Based Career Assistance • Counseling-Based career assistance seeks to empower clients to articulate their experiences, clarify their self-concepts, and construct their own lives • Counselors are not seen as possessing the solution, rather they work collaboratively with the client to address their needs • Counselors must express multicultural sensitivity and be aware of how contextual factors impact clients’ careers • Counseling based assistance involves basic counseling skills: summarizing, reflecting, paraphrasing, indirect and/or open questions, expressing positive regard, and empathic responding • Counseling based assistance addresses resistance on behalf of the client to implement the career changes they express that they want • Gysbers, Heppner & Johnston (2014) stress that it is important to join with the clients and demonstrate that they are working with and for their clients Providing Support in Career Counseling • Career counseling involves facilitating “hope, confidence, and purpose” within clients • Counseling addresses hopelessness, anxiety, confusion, and/or depression related to career concerns • Support is offered in some of the following ways: o helping individuals cope with unemployment, o helping highly self-conscious clients who are having trouble making career decisions, o educating clients who have limited experience in coping with barriers they encounter o helping clients cope with challenges they encounter as they manage their career development • Career counseling involves providing emotional, informational, and assessment support Emotional Support in Career Counseling • Offering emotional support requires career counselors to understand their clients’ multiple perspectives and subjective experiences • To provide culturally appropriate career counseling assistance, Savickas (1993) recommends that career counselors move from acting experts to acting as “cultural workers” and to focus on life design rather than occupational choice • Providing emotional support to clients helps them feel as though they matter 103

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Counselors can use the acronym PLEASE as an aid for expressing mattering to their clients: o P-protecting-creating a safe space to share o L-listening- paying attention to the underlying feelings in their story o E-enquiring- expressing interest by asking question s o A-acknowledging- show you are noticing client by using verbal/nonverbal cues o S-supporting- expressing encouragement and praise o E-exchanging- sharing information about oneself –if appropriate

Informational Support in Career Counseling • Informational support empowers clients to help themselves • Involves teaching clients strategies for job searches and career decision making • Helps provide reading materials that are relevant to client’s career concern • Most important in the early phase of career counseling as it helps to establish a good working alliance • Assessment Support in Career Counseling • Provides clients with opportunities to acquire information that is useful in making accurate self-evaluations • Given the uncertainty related to career paths today, it should be clear that providing clients with information about themselves and the world-of-work through objective, standardized assessments is necessary, but often not sufficient, for empowering people to manage their careers effectively • Important to seek out how people create meaning to their suffering – as Savickas would say “actively master what we at one time passively suffered” • Quantitative assessments and qualitative assessments (like the Career Construction Interview) offer strategies for clients to identify role models, early recollections, favorite books, movies, subjects, magazines, in order to examine life themes • Life-designing involves helping clients construct their careers by identifying what matters to them (life themes- a thread that is woven through the client’s career story).

• A variety of questions are listed to help guide counselors through the assessment process

A Framework for Career Counseling • Gysbers et al. (2014) view the career counseling process as progressing through the following phases: opening, gathering information, working, and final (i.e., termination).

• Spokane (1991) proposes career counseling consists of three overlapping sequential phases: provide clients structure and uncovered conflicts, provide support via selfasessment data, and help the client implement/make a commitment to their career choice • Crites (1981) integrates multiple counseling theories and suggests that career counseling needs to start with an initial focus on collaboratively understanding the 104

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client’s career concerns, implementing interventions, and then examining outcomes Based on various theories, the chapter then covers the beginning, middle, ending phases of the career counseling process

Career Counseling Groups • Group career counseling interventions offer an approach that can be used in addition to, or instead of, individual career counseling, depending on the client and the client’s concern.

• Career counseling groups can be either process-oriented or structured.

• The skills required for providing group career counseling are the same as those required to provide any group counseling experience.

• Kivlighan (1990) expressed that career groups allow individuals to learn new information about themselves and other, receive emotional support from other group members, and learn from peers who are in similar situations • Sullivan and Mahalik (2000) found that groups help members increase their career self-efficacy and Mawson and Kahn (1993) found that the information-sharing aspects of the group process helped group members to identify stable career goals • Hansen and Cramer (1971) identify six criteria that contribute to successful group experiences.

Less-Structured Career Groups • Less structured groups tend to focus on intrapersonal and interpersonal concerns clients experience • They tend to be more affective oriented, tend to meet over a longer period of time • Pyle (2000) identifies four stages of group career counseling: opening, investigation, working, and decision/operational.

Career Counseling Professional Designations and Related Service Providers • Career service providers (such as career centers or career coaches) differ substantially in their training and areas of expertise, thus making the process of selecting a provider an overwhelming one for consumers • Career coaches can range from persons with professional counseling degrees and expertise in career development interventions to persons who are essentially paraprofessionals with very little professional training • Career coaches seek to help clients identify strategies for accomplishing their goals in their work lives • Career counselors in many states must be licensed professional counselors (CACREP) offers a master’s program specialty in career counseling and this training represents the gold standard for career counseling training at the master’s level.

• Career Development Facilitator is a person who has completed the Career Development Facilitator Training Program and works in a career development setting or who incorporates career development information or skills in his or her work • CDF’s must have 120 class/instructional hours provided by a nationally trained and 105

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qualified instructor (ncda.org) The NCDA offers a Master Career Counselor (MCC) designation to recognize counselors and psychologists who are licensed and have received supervised career counseling training

Activities 1. Distribute a career counseling case to students, divide them into triads, and assign one student the role of counselor, another the role of client, and the third student the role of observer. Conduct a career counseling “session” and ask the observer and client to provide feedback to the counselor. Rotate roles so that each student has the opportunity to be a counselor, client, and observer. OPTION – you may assign clients to conduct career counseling experience with a volunteer client 2. Conduct the Career Construction Interview (formerly known as the Career Style Interview) in class with a sample student or show Savickas’ Career Counseling (APA, 2006) in class.

3. Divide the class into small groups, and have each group member share any experience he or she feels comfortable sharing in the context of being a career counseling client. Have a recorder note the comments made without assigning them to a particular person.

Discuss in the large group any themes that emerge regarding the career counseling experience.

4. Break the class in to small groups, and have half the small groups perform a mock career counseling skit based upon a “test and tell/best occupational fit” model, while the others small groups demonstrate a more holistic career counseling approach. Then, as a class, discuss how each approach feels from the client and counselor’s perspective.

Discussion 1. Discuss the stereotypical assumptions people have pertaining to what career counseling “looks like.” Discuss whether this stereotype is accurate.

2. Discuss ways in which students think that career counseling strategies need to be revised to be more appropriate for today’s context.

3. Discuss the importance of groups in delivering career interventions. When are groups appropriate, and when are they not?

4. Discuss the importance of career counselors offering emotional support to clients.

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Test Bank – Chapter 8 Essay Questions 1. What are some things a career counselor can do to increase the likelihood of positive outcomes for their clients?

2. Discuss three types of support offered to clients seeking career counseling.

3. Amundson and his colleagues suggest the acronym PLEASE as an aid for expressing mattering to client. Please explain each aspect of this acronym.

4. Differentiate between the types of questions one would approach with subjective assessment versus objective assessment strategies.

5. Describe the four phases of career counseling as articulated by Gysbers et al (2014).

Multiple Choice 1. Historically, the counseling profession developed or emerged from all of the following except A. vocational/career guidance.

B. psychological measurement.

C. personality development.

D. Freudian psychoanalysis.

2. The practice of career counseling has a close theoretical and practical relationship with A. psychotherapy.

B. hypnosis.

C. psychoanalysis.

D. psychosomatic.

3. Crites contends that career counseling is described by all of the following except that it A. is more effective than psychotherapy.

B. should follow psychotherapy.

C. can be therapeutic.

D. is less difficult than psychotherapy.

4. Students of counseling and mental health practitioners often lack enthusiasm for the practice of career counseling because they view it as a process that A. is very directive and limited to test administration and interpretation.

B. has outlived its professional usefulness.

C. is limited to providing people with job hunting information only.

D. is too broad in scope and too difficult to master.

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5. Career counselors provide support to clients by all of the following except: A. telling the clients what the solution to their problem is B. facilitating hope, confidence, and purpose within clients C. addressing anxiety, confusion or depression related to career concerns D. helping clients cope with challenges they encounter as they manage their career development 6. Static definitions of career development and career counseling interventions are A. adequate because they treat the process as a one-time event.

B. inadequate because they treat substance, methods, and context as fairly constant.

C. inadequate because they assume very little change in how one defines work.

D. inadequate because they do not assume that substance, methods, and context as well as definitions for work are rapidly changing.

7. The basic skills career counselors need are A. resume writing and job interviewing.

B. the same as for any other counselor.

C. the same as those needed by economists.

D. psychoanalytic in nature.

8. Providing caring, trust, and empathy to clients is an example of the kind of support known as A. informational.

B. appraisal.

C. emotional.

D. psychoanalytic.

9. In order to help people make meaning out of their life experiences, career counselors pay attention to the client’s: A. abilities B. obstacles C. subjective experience D. interests 10. General phases of career counseling include all of the following except A. beginning or initial.

B. middle or working.

C. placement.

D. ending or termination.

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11. Regardless of the theoretical perspectives used by career counselors, broad topics addressed in the first phase include all of the following except the client’s A. view of self and the world.

B. potential employers.

C. family.

D. significant work and life experiences.

12. Goals in career counseling have all of the following attributes except A. specific.

B. observable.

C. time specific.

D. global.

13. The acronym PLEASE has been proposed as a guide to A. provide informational support.

B. meet the client’s expectations.

C. show clients that their views matter.

D. setting career goals.

14. A career style assessment model used as a strategy to help clients identify subjective themes that guide their career development has been developed by A. Carlsen.

B. Super.

C. Neimeyer.

D. Savickas.

15. The NCDA offers this type of certification to counselors who are licensed and have received supervised career counseling training A. Career Development Facilitator (CDF) B. Specialized Career Counselor (SCC) C. Certified Career Counselor (CCC) D. Licensed Career Counselor (LCC)

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Text for PowerPoint Presentation (available on the website) Expanding the Limited View of Career Counseling • Career counseling has traditionally emphasized helping individuals find the “best occupational fit”, however there is a substantial body of evidence that suggested this limited view has “less than desirable outcomes” • A limited view of career counseling has led individuals to overemphasize testing • Counselors in the 21st century recognize that one’s life and career are not separate; and that mental health and work are interwoven Career Counseling is Counseling • The 2016 Standards for CACREP continue to identify career development as a core area of counseling competence; thus, career counselors are professional counselors or psychologists with specialized training in the delivery of career development interventions • Career counseling can be classified within the general category of counseling because of the overlap in skills required to conduct general and career counseling Career Counseling and Mental Health Counseling • Niles and Anderson (1995) examined the content of more than 250 career counseling sessions and found no pattern for the presentation of career and non-career concerns in career counseling • Important to view career counseling as a type of psychological intervention that, at times throughout the course of career counseling, may require the counselor and client to focus on non-career concerns.

Crites’ View • The need for career counseling is greater than the need for psychotherapy.

• Career counseling o can be therapeutic. o should follow psychotherapy. o is more effective than psychotherapy. o is more difficult than psychotherapy.

Definition of Career Counseling (Brown and Brooks) • Career counseling is an interpersonal process designed to assist individuals with career development problems.

Designing Career Counseling Strategies for the 21st Century Career counselors must respond to • global unemployment • corporate downsizing • jobless economy 110

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global competition of small companies via information highway workerless factories

Designing Career Counseling Strategies for the 21st Century, continued • redefinition of social contract between employers and employees • increase in the number of companies offering daycare and parental leave • increase in the number of families with dual incomes • increase in the number of people working from home Designing Career Counseling Strategies • Career counseling issues “must keep pace with our society’s movement to the postmodern era” (Savickas, 1993, p. 205).

• Hierachical organizational pyramids have been flattened in corporations- therefore, career success is no longer defined by moving up the “corporate ladder” • Career patterns now resemble roller coasters rather than gradual inclines Providing Counseling-Based Career Assistance • Counseling-Based career assistance seeks to empower clients to articulate their experiences, clarify their self-concepts, and construct their own lives • Counselors are not seen as possessing the solution, rather they work collaboratively with the client to address their needs • Counselors must express multicultural sensitivity and be aware of how contextual factors impact clients’ careers Providing Counseling-Based Career Assistance (cont.)

• Counseling based assistance involves basic counseling skills • Counseling based assistance addresses resistance on behalf of the client • Counselors must join with their clients and demonstrate that they are working with and for their clients Providing Support in Career Counseling • Career counseling involves facilitating “hope, confidence, and purpose” within clients • Counseling addresses hopelessness, anxiety, confusion, and/or depression related to career concerns Providing Support • Helping individuals cope with unemployment, • Helping highly self-conscious clients who are having trouble making career decisions, • Educating clients who have limited experience in coping with barriers they encounter • Helping clients cope with challenges they encounter as they manage their career development

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Types of Support • Emotional support • Informational support • Assessment support Emotional Support in Career Counseling • Providing emotional support to clients helps them feel as though they matter • Counselors can use the acronym PLEASE as an aid for expressing mattering to their clients: o Protecting o Listening o Enquiring o Acknowledging o Supporting o Exchanging Informational Support in Career Counseling • Informational support empowers clients to help themselves • Involves teaching clients strategies for job searches and career decision making • Helps provide reading materials that are relevant to client’s career concern • Most important in the early phase of career counseling Assessment Support in Career Counseling • Provides clients with information about oneself • Standardized assessments alone do not empower people to manage their careers effectively Life Designing (Savickas) • Life-designing involves helping clients construct their careers by identifying what matters to them (life themes- a thread that is woven through the client’s career story).

• Use of subjective assessments such as Career Construction Interview to identify life themes Life Designing (Savickas) cont.

• Savickas’s life-design interventions are structured to: o (a) construct career through small stories, o (b) deconstruct these stories and reconstruct them into an identity narrative or life portrait, o (c) co-construct intentions that lead to the next action episode in the real world.

Types of Clients Who Benefit from Subjective Interventions • Indecisive clients • “Difficult cases” or clients who have received but not profited from counseling • Mid-career changers 112

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Culturally diverse clients

Strengths of Subjective Assessment • Help clients understand themselves at a deep level • Help clients consider the relevance of their life experiences to their career development • Help clients attach a sense of purpose to their activities • Are inexpensive to use • Actively engage clients in the counseling process • Results are clearly connected to client responses A Framework for Career Counseling • Getting started • Helping clients deal with change • Helping clients engage in self-assessment activities • Helping clients learn more about the world of work • Helping clients expand or narrow choices • Helping clients make plans Phases of the Career Counseling Process (Gysbers, et al, 2014)) • Opening phase • Phase of information-gathering • Working phase • Final phase Phases of the Career Counseling Process (Niles & Harris-Bowlsbey) • Beginning or Initial Phase o establish effective relationship o begin to gather information about the client o define preliminary goals for counseling • Middle or Working Phase o explore concerns and goals in depth o develop and implement a specific plan of action Phases of the Career Counseling Process (Niles & Harris-Bowlsbey), continued • Ending or Termination Phase o Connect the work done in the beginning and middle phases by assessing client’s current status o Relate current status to client’s goals for counseling Premature Closure in Career Counseling (Brown & Brooks) • Clients believe they have achieved their goal.

• The career counseling experience does not meet the client’s expectations.

• Clients fear what might be uncovered in career counseling.

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Clients lack commitment to counseling

Questions to Ask About Termination • Did I o review the content of what happened in counseling? o review the process of what happened in counseling? o reemphasize the client’s strengths that were evident in counseling? o evaluate what went well and what went poorly?

Questions to Ask About Termination, continued • Did I o explore things unsaid in counseling? o discuss feelings related to the ending of the counseling relationship? o provide clear and direct structure for the client’s next steps?

Career Counseling Groups • Group counseling offers a mode of service delivery that can be used instead of, or in addition to, individual counseling.

• Hansen and Cramer describe group counseling as an intervention for 5-15 members, with 5-8 members viewed as optimal.

Career Counseling Groups, continued • Structured career counseling groups address a specific issue that is a common concern.

• Structured career counseling groups typically meet for 3-7 sessions.

• Less structured career counseling groups focus on the intrapersonal and interpersonal concerns that clients have about career development.

Career Counseling Groups, continued • Less structured career counseling groups tend to be more affective-oriented than structured groups.

• Less structured groups meet over a longer period of time than structured groups.

Stages in Group Career Counseling (Pyle) • Opening stage • Investigation stage • Working stage • Decision/Operational stage Why Use Career Groups? (Kivlighan) • Members learn new information about themselves and others.

• Members receive social and emotional support from other group members.

• Members learn from peers who are in similar situations.

• Members can share resources and ideas.

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Criteria for Successful Groups • Members o are in open communication with each other. o share a common goal. o set norms that direct and guide their activities. o develop a set of roles to play within the group. o develop a network of interpersonal attraction. o work toward satisfaction of individual needs.

Career Counseling Professional Designations and Related Service Providers • Career service providers (such as career centers or career coaches) differ substantially in their training and areas of expertise Career Coaches • Career coaches can range from persons with professional counseling degrees and expertise in career development interventions to persons who are essentially paraprofessionals with very little professional training • Career coaches seek to help clients identify strategies for accomplishing their goals in their work lives Career Counselors • Career counseling, however, often leads to a deeper exploration of one’s problems/issues which requires professional training as a counselor and/or psychologist who is held accountable to the ethical guidelines put forth by a specific body such as licensing board .

• Career counselors in many states must be licensed professional counselors (LPC) Career Development Facilitators • Career Development Facilitator is a person who has completed the Career Development Facilitator Training Program and works in a career development setting or who incorporates career development information or skills in his or her work • CDF’s must have 120 class/instructional hours provided by a nationally trained and qualified instructor (ncda.org) Master Career Counselors • The NCDA offers a Master Career Counselor (MCC) designation to recognize counselors and psychologists who are licensed and have received supervised career counseling training

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Chapter 9 Designing, Implementing, and Evaluating Career Development Programs and Services The ninth chapter focuses on the process of designing career intervention programs and then delivering them to the students or clients for whom they are developed. The step-by-step process of design, development, delivery, and evaluation is described, and five sample programs are presented as examples. The evaluation of programs is given special consideration.

• • •

It is important for counselors to engage in program design because it is impossible for counselors in most settings to provide all needed career services cost-effectively to their clients on a one-on-one basis.

Program planning ensures that services are carefully thought out before delivery.

Counselors play multiple roles related to career development programs and services: o advocacy o coordination o participation o design and development

Steps for Designing and Implementing a Career Development Program • The planning process can be divided into ten steps. Specific examples of each step are provided for multiple counseling environments: o Step 1: Define the target population and its characteristics. o Step 2: Determine the needs of the target population. o Step 3: Write measurable objectives to meet needs. o Step 4: Determine how to deliver the services. o Step 5: Determine the content of the services. o Step 6: Determine the cost of the program. o Step 7: Begin to promote and explain your services. o Step 8: Deliver the services. o Step 9: Evaluate the services (whether measurable objectives were achieved).

Planning Evaluation • In planning evaluation it is necessary to follow several standard steps that will provide the structure for the implementation of the evaluation plan: o Step 1: Determine whether evaluation is formative, summative, or both. o Step 2: Determine what specific knowledge, skills, attitudes, or behaviors are to be evaluated. o Step 3: Determine what the source(s) of the evaluation data will be. o Step 4: Determine how the data will be collected. o Step 5: Determine how the data will be analyzed.

• Stakeholders are those receiving the services and who cares about them, profits from them, needs to be informed, and provides the approval and funding for their continuation.

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Types of Data Collected • Two categories or types of data collected for program evaluation are quantitative and qualitative. o Qualitative - measures the perceived value of the services and the extent to which measurable objectives have been reached - in ways other than numbers o Quantitative - collects and reports numbers Benchmarks for Evaluation • Evaluation data should be benchmarked, or compared, against some standard of expectation for program outcomes such as: o Goals of individual clients (one-to-one counseling) o Measurable objectives o National Career Development Guidelines o State or local guidelines o Theory Methods of Evaluation • Questionnaire or interview • Administration of more formal instruments – Utilize A Counselor’s Guide to Career Assessments, 6th edition (Wood & Hays,, 2013) • Follow-up study Using the Results of the Evaluation • Think about how various participants can use the results of the study Roadblocks to evaluation include: • Staff has fear of negative results and possible consequences.

• Guidance services are often non-systematic, not lending themselves to evaluation.

• Some counselors believe that their work cannot be quantified and evaluated.

• Time is always insufficient, so evaluation is given low priority.

Sample Programs • Six example programs are offered for a(n): elementary school, middle school, high school, university, corporation, and a community agency • Each program contains the following components: a) executive summary, b) needs, c) objectives, d) content, e) expected outcomes, f) resources needed, and g) methods of evaluation Activities 1. Break the class up into groups and have them design a “mock” career development program. This can be a class assignment that they present at the end of the semester, or simply an in-class activity. As an assignment, have students present one sample session to the class.

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2. Divide the class into groups and ask each to develop a ten-fifteen question career development needs assessment survey for their classmates. Once completed, ask each group to administer the survey to one of the other groups (so that each group is doing one designed by another). Upon completion of their surveys, each group should evaluate their results and write two career development objectives based on the needs assessment.

As a class, discuss the process and any career development themes that arise.

3. Keeping the same groups as activity 1, ask each group to write a 1-2 page memo to the administration of their agency outlining steps 4-7 of the planning process outline in the chapter. The purpose of this memo can be framed as a precursor to a meeting where they will request funds for the program.

4. Keeping the same groups as activity 1 and 2, ask each group to develop an evaluation plan for their program. The plan should include the five steps outlined in the chapter for planning evaluations.

Discussion 1. What are the potential pitfalls of not designing, implementing, and evaluating programs effectively?

2. Think of an event that you have attended that was implemented effectively. What were the characteristics of its planning that made it so? Now think of an event that you attended that was not effective. What were the characteristics of its planning that made it so?

3. Why is program planning for group career interventions so important?

4. What would you say to a busy counselor to convince them of the importance of program planning?

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Test Bank – Chapter 9 Essay Questions 1. Identify one career development need for your population of choice. Write three measurable objectives for meeting this need.

2. Define both quantitative and qualitative data. Include how you would use each in evaluating a career intervention and give one example of each.

3. Suppose that the career planning services provided in your community college had three objectives as follows: Students will be able to • define the primary area (out of six possible ones) of their interests.

• select a major in college related to that field of interest.

• identify jobs that can be classified into their primary area of interest.

In what ways could you, as director of the career planning program, evaluate whether these objectives have been met this year?

4. List and describe the 5 steps of the program evaluation process.

5. Describe two roadblocks to program evaluation and one way to overcome each.

Multiple Choice 1. In the role of advocacy, counselors A. design services.

B. deliver services.

C. evaluate services.

D. convince stakeholders of the importance of services.

2.

A target population is a group A. used as a focus group.

B. designated to receive services.

C. designated not to receive services.

D. that will serve as an advisory board.

3.

Purposes for writing measurable objectives include A. defining the benchmarks for evaluation.

B. requiring the program designer to specify desired outcomes.

C. determining the content of the program.

D. all of the above.

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4.

One of the most feasible ways to deliver career planning services at the high school level is A. a virtual website with cybercounseling.

B. one-to-one counseling.

C. group guidance.

D. a one-semester credit course.

5.

Evaluation of career planning services must be closely tied to A. budget B. methods of delivery.

C. measurable objectives.

D. target population.

6.

Where it is problematic in a school setting to get dedicated time to deliver career planning services, perhaps the best single approach is to A. infuse them into existing curriculum.

B. give students take-home self-help materials.

C. include after-school meetings with students.

D. schedule evening meetings with students and parents.

7.

Using a pre-post assessment for evaluation implies that you are expecting A. people to be more honest when they complete it the second time.

B. some change in a positive direction as a result of your services.

C. the results of the first assessment to be inaccurate.

D. some change in a negative direction as a result of your services.

8.

Of the following, the most easily measured objective is A. …will be able to understand how occupations are organized.

B. …will be able to explain how occupations are organized.

C. …given the titles of 18 occupations, will be able to sort them correctly into six clusters D. …will be able to apply organizational skills to sorting occupational titles.

9.

After completion of a first delivery of some career planning service, it is expected that A. there would be no need for revision of any aspect.

B. objectives, content, and/or methods of delivery might be revised.

C. no evaluation would be necessary.

D. no promotion efforts would be needed for the next delivery.

10.

Measurable objectives are used to A. indicate how the services should be delivered.

B. indicate how the services should be promoted.

C. determine the resources needed.

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D. clearly define the desired outcomes.

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11.

If the purpose of evaluation is to improve career planning services, you would choose the kind of evaluation known as A. formative.

B. summative.

C. formal.

D. informal.

12.

Stakeholders are persons who A. provide career planning services.

B. are affected in any way by services or programs.

C. are always positive about your services or programs.

D. collaborate in the delivery of career planning services.

13.

For a curriculum offered to students for career guidance purposes, evaluation would be guided by A. measurable objectives developed up front.

B. how students felt about the experience.

C. student success on quizzes.

D. long-term follow up of student decisions.

14.

The first step in planning an evaluation is to A. organize data in ways that will answer specific evaluative questions.

B. identify the best ways to measure outcomes.

C. determine the indicators of success in meeting objectives.

D. determine specific measurable objectives of the services.

15.

If some planners of the evaluation are pleased with results but others are not, it is probable that A. the evaluation design is flawed.

B. different stakeholders have different desired outcomes.

C. the data have been incorrectly reported.

D. objectives were not measured systematically.

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True-False 1.

Measurable objectives should begin with words similar to “At the end of this curriculum, students will be able to…”

2.

If there are three measurable objectives, there should always be three different evaluation instruments to measure their accomplishment.

3.

One reason that evaluation is important is to sustain administrative support for your program.

4.

One of the earliest steps in the program planning process is to design promotional activities.

5.

The National Career Development Guidelines can serve as a good skeleton for program development.

6.

Each stakeholder related to career services is likely to want different kinds of data from evaluation.

7.

When developing methods to collect data for use in evaluation, it is important to determine the indicators or behaviors that program participants should exhibit if desired outcomes have been reached.

8.

Qualitative data are not useful at all in evaluating career services.

9.

Often it is important to combine collection of data that could be used for both summative and formative evaluation.

10.

It is not possible to evaluate a program or service without having standards by which to compare it.

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Text for PowerPoint Presentation (available on the website) Reasons for Program Planning • Not possible to provide career planning services to all students on one-to-one basis - other approaches are needed.

• Cost-effective • Using a systematic development process improves the quality.

Counselor Roles in Program Planning • Advocacy - convincing other of the importance of career planning services • Coordination - working closely with other stakeholders -- department heads, teachers, employers, etc.

• Participation - helping to deliver services • Design and development - designing services by following the program planning process Step 1: Define the target population.

• Determine whom your program will serve- elementary to college; agency to job service office.

• Identify their characteristics -- such as gender, racial-ethnic mix, socioeconomic class, reading level.

Step 2: Determine the needs of the target population.

• Look at data that may already exist.

• Use a questionnaire or focus groups.

• Use knowledgeable consultants who can identify typical developmental needs.

• Review the needs of the environment.

Step 3: Write measurable objectives to meet needs.

• An objective is a clear statement of a desired outcome, often including how to determine whether the outcome is achieved.

• Writing objectives – forces counselors to specify what they want to accomplish.

– lays the basis for content and evaluation.

Format for Writing Objectives • By the end of this (curriculum, workshop, unit), participants will be able to –( ).

–( ).

–( ).

–( ).

– Remember that each of these endings must be measurable.

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Step 4: Determine how to deliver the career planning services.

• Offer special career planning courses or units within existing curriculum • Offer workshops • Create a virtual career center • Use a comprehensive Web-based career planning system described in Chapter 7 • Provide self-help materials Step 5: Determine the content of the program.

• Content flows from the objectives -- since it is the content that will produce the desired outcomes.

• Break content into units, then determine o time needed o whether curriculum or other resources can be acquired, or need to be developed Step 6: Determine the cost of the program.

• Staff time for designing and delivering program • Software, such as a Web-based career planning system • Equipment • Materials • Duplication costs • Facilities • Refreshments Step 7: Begin to promote and explain your services.

• Consider using an advisory committee that can help with promotion.

• Communicate clearly and often to supervisors so that there will be adequate administrative support.

• Promote to those who will receive the services and potentially their parents.

• Consider starting with a pilot test.

Step 8: Deliver the full-blown program.

• This step will be easy if the first seven steps have been completed.

• First impression for launching program is important • Energy spent on long planning cycle will result in a higher end product Step 9: Evaluate the program.

• Reasons to evaluate o Did program produce the outcomes stated in the objectives? o How can the program be improved the next time it is delivered? o What information should be provided to supervisors and other stakeholders?

Methods of Evaluation • Questionnaire

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Exit interview Pre-post questionnaire or test Follow-up study

Why Evaluation is Important • Determine if participants are reaching the predetermined objectives • Improve services • Provide accountability • Determine whether outcomes are worth expenditures Types of Evaluation • Formative - purpose is to improve an ongoing program • Summative - purpose is to determine whether to retain a program Steps in Planning Evaluation • Decide whether to do formative, summative, or both • Identify the specified attitudes or behaviors to be evaluated • Identify the sources of the evaluation data • Determine how and when to collect data • Determine how the data will be analyzed Stakeholders • A stakeholder is any person or entity who is affected by a program of services.

• Stakeholders must be considered when planning evaluation.

• Different stakeholders may desire different kinds of feedback (evaluative data).

Types of Data • Qualitative - measures the perceived value of the services and the extent to which measurable objectives have been reached - in ways other than numbers • Quantitative - collects and reports numbers Benchmarks for Evaluation • Outcomes must be compared to a desired standard, such as the following: o Goals of individual clients (one-to-one counseling) o Measurable objectives o National Career Development Guidelines o State or local guidelines o Theory Using the Results of Evaluation • To determine if services met the needs of the participants • To improve the services • To provide feedback to stakeholders • To determine if outcomes were worth the expenditures

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Roadblocks to Evaluation • Staff has fear of negative results and possible consequences.

• Guidance services are often non-systematic, not lending themselves to evaluation.

• Some counselors believe that their work cannot be quantified and evaluated.

• Time is always insufficient, so evaluation is given low priority.

Step 10: Revise the Program • No program is ever perfect at first delivery.

• Be sure to gather information from others involved in the program soon after its completion.

• Make notes about changes you want to make next time.

• Revise the program at next delivery.

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Chapter 10 Career Development Interventions in the Elementary Schools This chapter begins with an overview of career development interventions in the schools. It suggests strategies for systematic planning in career services delivery, emphasizing the identification of career development tasks for elementary school children. It offers goals for career development interventions at the elementary school level and proposes guidelines for elementary school students and interventions for addressing those guidelines.

Overview of Career Development Interventions in the Schools • The National Standards for School Counseling Programs (Campbell & Dahir, 1997) and the American School Counselor Association (ASCA) National Model for School Counseling (ASCA, 2014) identify career development as an essential element in effective school counseling programs (Dimmitt & Carey, 2007).

• Most recent standards are ASCA Mindsets and Behaviors for Student Success (ASCA, 2014)- organized into three domains: academic, career, and social/emotional development • National Standards (ASCA, 2012) were developed to address the growing need for standardization and accountability in school counseling programfour components: foundation, delivery system, management system, and accountability system) • National Standards (ASCA, 2012) highlights importance of students acquiring basic information about work and occupations, identify a beginning sense of self-awareness, and gain an understanding on how to make decisions effectively • The U.S. Department of Education’s Office of Vocational and Adult Education (OVAE) revised the National Career Development Guidelines (NCDG) so that they would align with the goals of No Child Left Behind.

• The NCDG framework addresses three domains: Personal Social Development (PS), Educational Achievement and Lifelong Learning (ED), and Career Management (CM).

• The NCDG framework can be used in various ways to inform the creation, implementation, and evaluation of career intervention programs • When constructing career development interventions, it is important for school counselors to be aware of how environmental constraints (e.g., sexism, discrimination) negatively affect students’ career development Important Considerations in Developing Career Development Interventions in the Schools • Several authors (e.g., Gysbers & Henderson, 2001; Lapan, 2004; Schmidt, 2003) advocate for making career development programs an integral part of the school curriculum rather than an ancillary service • Important to help teachers become aware of the research data that indicate positive correlation between career planning and school success (Herr, 120

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Cramer, & Niles, 2004) Many who question the relevance of career development interventions in the schools do not understand how careers evolve developmentally and/or have a political agenda that leads them to argue for resources being expended in different ways (because of their misconception that career interventions are not related to academic success).

Some argue against career interventions for elementary students because they view career decision making as events that occur later on in school (i.e.high school); yet these perspective lack an appreciation of the precursors to effective career decision making Many school districts do not provide career development programs in a systematic and coordinated fashion

Systematic and Coordinated Planning for Career Development Programs in the Schools • Herr et al. (2004) recommend a five-stage planning model for systematic career planning: o Step 1: develop a program rationale, o Step 2: state program goals and objectives, o Step 3: select program process, o Step 4: develop an evaluation design, and o Step 5: identify program milestones.

• Walz and Benjamin (1984) also provide recommendations for developing systematic career development intervention programs. Among other things, they recommend involving a team of professionals, parents, and community members in planning, using developmentally appropriate interventions, making sure program goals and objectives are clearly communicated to all involved in the program, basing programs on student needs, having an evaluation component to assess whether goals have been achieved, and making sure all those involved in program delivery are highly competent.

• Program planners must be sensitive to the political climate in which they operate.

• Take a team approach to program development and implementation.

• Counselors can help other school personnel and parents to understand the career development process and why interventions are relevant K-12.

• Career development programs across grades K-12 requires an understanding of the developmental tasks confronting students as they progress through school Career Development in the Elementary Schools • Children’s conceptions of career choice and attainment model (CCCA) developed by Howard and Walsh (2010, 2011).

• CCCA model organizes children’s concepts of career choice and attainment around three approaches: Association, Sequence and Interaction • CCCA Model: o Level 1 Association- career exists for the child 121

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o Level 2- - child can describe career but not method on how to attain o Level 3 - child can describe the skills they need to get a job Erickson’s stages of development provide indicators concerning important career development behaviors. For example, during elementary school, children encounter developmental stages related to developing initiative and industry. The successful achievement of these tasks provides a solid foundation for, and is closely linked with, career development.

Havighurst (1972) notes that during infancy and early childhood (ages 0 to 5), children encounter a series of critical developmental tasks. Havighurst also notes that to progress to subsequent stages of development, children must be successful in coping with these tasks.

Porfeli, Hartung, and Vondracek (2008) summarize the literature pertaining to career development in childhood: o Children know much more about world-of-work than many people believe o career aspirations of children are influenced by gender-based stereotypes, and these aspirations tend to be stable across elementary years (i.e. girls move away from math, science, technology, engineering and boys move away from female dominated fields (i.e. counseling, teaching, nursing) o children from economically challenged situations as well as Hispanic and African American children tend to identify less prestigious career aspiratioms than do their more affluent and Caucasian peers o children tend to seek more glamorous aspirations instead of realistic ones

Goals of Career Development Interventions at the Elementary School Level • An important goal of career development interventions in elementary school is to counteract environmental factors that pressure students to prematurely commit to educational and occupation options (Marcia, 1996) • Counselors can use the Inventory of Children’s Activities developed by Tracey and Caulum (2015) to help minimize gender bias when assesses Holland types in children • Programs should highlight nontraditional role models and expose students to a broad range of occupational environments • Elementary School Programs should provide an environment in which each student’s natural sense of curiosity can flourish (Super, 1990).

• As children move towards adolescence that must accomplish four major career development tasks: (a) become concerned about the future, (b) increase personal control over their lives, (c) convince themselves to achieve in school and at work, and (d) develop competent work habits and attitudes (Super, Savickas, & Super, 1996, p. 131).

• Career development goals for elementary school children should help children develop basic skills and awareness in the following areas: o self-knowledge, skills to interact with others o basic skills in educational and occupational exploration o awareness of the benefits of educational achievement o awareness of the relationship between work and learning o basic skills to understand and use career information 122

o awareness of the importance of personal responsibility and good study habits

o awareness of how work relates to the needs and functions of society o an understanding of how to make decisions o awareness of the interrelationship of life roles o awareness of different occupations and changing male/female roles o awareness of the career planning process Career Development Interventions in the Elementary Schools • The ASCA National Model and the NCDA Guidelines provide a framework for establishing career development goals and interventions.

• Self-awareness and self-knowledge is key in elementary schools in order to clarify student’s self-concept and learn about themselves • Activities such as a school wide career day, provide an opportunity to break down occupational stereotypes, involve parents/guardians as well as community and business representatives, and help students make positive connections between themselves and their future (Beale and Williams, 2000) • Beale (2000) describes how a well-conceived field trip can enhance career awareness in elementary school students • Other career interventions involve learning about what various workers do in different occupations such as reading biographies • Encourage students to read stories about people working in non-traditional occupations • Engage in activities that foster a sense of internal control to help them become concerned about the future and develop an attitude of personal competence or self-efficacy • Magnuson and Starr (2000) note that it is important to observe children and consider how the processing of a career development intervention is just as important as the intervention itself.

• Career development received the lowest score in a recent study by Perkins (2012) when inquiring about the value of school counselors engaging in career development of children; thus showing that not all schools receive support Parental Involvement • Parents have a substantial influence over the career development of their children • Young (1994) suggests that the influence parents exert on their career development process is most effective when it is planned, intentional, and goal-oriented • Herr,Cramer, and Niles (2004) identify eight ways parents can help their children advance in their career development. These strategies include: encouraging children to analyze important self-characteristics, communicating accurate information about various work environments, discussing the importance of work values in work behavior, explaining the relationship between work, pay, and the economic condition of the family, connecting children with information resources, avoiding stereotyping occupational 123

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alternatives and workers, , providing children with opportunities to work in the home and community, and providing children with the opportunities to learn and practice decision making skills.

Helping parents become aware of their own attitudes toward work and occupations, exposing children to work opportunities in the home and community, and providing support to children as they engage in career decision-making tasks are all ways to help children cope effectively with the career development process.

Activities 1.

Divide the class into three groups. Assign one group the task of supporting career development interventions in the elementary school, another group the task of arguing against such programs, and the third group to serve as the school board. The first two groups will prepare their argument keeping in mind both monetary and student development factors. The third group will prepare questions and criteria by which they will make their decision. Process the activity as a larger group after the mock meeting.

2.

Break the class into small groups. Assign each group the task of identifying strategies for involving parents/guardians in the career development process of their elementary age children. What information is important for parents to know? What strategies would you use to advocate for involving parents?

3.

Assign students the task of interviewing elementary school children about career development. Develop a list of questions to ask children and then report the responses to the class.

Discussion 1. Are career development programs needed in elementary schools? Why or why not?

2. What influences (outside of school) impact the career development of elementary age children?

3. What strategies do you think are useful for getting more support for career development programs in elementary schools?

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Test Bank – Chapter 10 Essay Questions 1. Consider yourself recently hired as an elementary school counselor. How would you go about instituting a new career development program in your school? What issues might you address?

2. Discuss the importance of systematic planning in developing and implementing a career development program.

3. What are the career development tasks confronting elementary age children?

4. Identify four out of the eight ways parents can help their children advance in their career development.

5. Identify and discuss two environmental constraints that may negatively impact an elementary age student’s career development.

Multiple Choice 1. In order to justify limiting career-related activities in schools, critics have cited A. time spent away from academic disciplines.

B. students’ right to be in charge of their career decisions.

C. neither of these.

D. both of these.

2. The Herr et al. (2004)five-stage planning model for facilitating the implementation of systematic career development intervention programs includes all of the following except A. developing a program rationale and philosophy.

B. stating program goals and behavioral objectives.

C. selecting program processes.

D. marketing the program.

3. Program planners in schools should be sensitive to the political climate in which they operate because A. funding of programs requires backing and support by school administrators and school boards.

B. school counselors’ jobs are in jeopardy.

C. seeking a raise for underpaid school counselors requires savvy maneuvering.

D. schools must be coaxed along to see the value of guidance counselors.

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4. When it comes to planning and disseminating information about career program delivery, counselors should collaborate with A. both teachers and parents.

B. both teachers and grandparents.

C. both parents and clergy.

D. teachers, parents, community leaders/employers.

5. Careers start to unfold and develop in A. adolescence.

B. adulthood.

C. infancy.

D. pre-school years.

6. According to Havighurst, when children aged 0-5 fail to navigate through developmental tasks, they may experience A. fear, lashing out, and delinquency.

B. unhappiness, disapproval of society, and difficulty with later tasks.

C. bed-wetting.

D. depression and anxiety resulting from their inability to live up to their potential.

7. According to Havighurst, activities involved during middle childhood (ages 6-11) include all of the following except A. develop self-monitoring skills.

B. learn appropriate language/communication practices.

C. seek appropriate guidance for a preliminary career decision.

D. develop academic skills in reading, writing, and mathematics.

8. Gottfredson’s perspective indicates that A. careers that are not deemed gender appropriate are eliminated first.

B. careers that are not socially prestigious are eliminated first.

C. only careers that are not gender appropriate are eliminated.

D. only careers that are not socially prestigious are eliminated.

9. Because elementary school aged children have not yet had the opportunity to explore career options fully, counselors should A. act quickly to present them with a career path.

B. urge them to develop a career path.

C. work toward counteracting environmental factors that pressure students to commit prematurely to occupational options.

D. not focus on the career needs of elementary aged children.

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10. Super, Savickas, and Super (1996) identified all of the following as major career development tasks that children should accomplish except A. become concerned about the future.

B. develop increased personal control over their lives.

C. adhere to gender and work roles fitting the dominant culture.

D. convince themselves to achieve in school and at work.

11. An important goal of career development interventions in elementary school is to: A. prepare students for college.

B. counteract environmental factors that pressure students to prematurely commit to a specific job or career path.

C. teach students how to search for jobs.

D. develop their resume writing skills.

12. Domains identified by ASCA National Model and NCDA Guidelines as appropriate career development competencies for elementary school children include all of the following except A. self-knowledge.

B. skill building.

C. educational and occupational exploration.

D. career planning.

13. Skills like being reliable, getting along with one’s co-workers, being trustworthy, and completing assignments on time are called A. job content.

B. functional.

C. interpersonal.

D. self-management.

14. Educational and occupational activities can be infused within a given curriculum by all of the following means except A. writing about careers in short story assignments.

B. drawing, painting, or photographing workers.

C. finding out about different work around the world for social studies or geography.

D. participating in gym or art class.

15. The greatest influence on the career development of children derives from A. community leaders.

B. parents.

C. peers.

D. grandparents.

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Text for PowerPoint Presentation (available on the website) Overview of Career Development Interventions in Schools • The National Standards for School Counseling Programs and the American School Counselor Association (ASCA) National Model for School Counseling (ASCA, 2014) identify career development as an essential element in effective school counseling programs • Most recent standards are ASCA Mindsets and Behaviors for Student Success (ASCA, 2014)- organized into three domains: academic, career, and social/emotional development National Standards for School Counseling Programs (ASCA, 2012) • The National Standards (ASCA, 2012), which were developed to address the growing need for standardization and accountability in school counseling programs, consist of four components: o foundation o delivery system o management system o accountability system National Career Development Guidelines • The U.S. Department of Education’s Office of Vocational and Adult Education (OVAE) revised the National Career Development Guidelines (NCDG) so that they would align with the goals of No Child Left Behind.

• The NCDG framework addresses three domains: Personal Social Development (PS), Educational Achievement and Lifelong Learning (ED), and Career Management (CM).

Criticisms of Career Education • Takes time away from core academic subjects • Pressures students to pursue work immediately after high school rather than postsecondary education • Topic not appropriate at elementary and secondary levels • Programs not systematic and coordinated Important Considerations in Developing Career Development Interventions in the Schools • Advocate for making career development programs an integral part of the school curriculum rather than an ancillary service • Help teachers become aware of the research data that indicate positive correlation between career planning and school success • Be aware of how environmental constraints (e.g., sexism, discrimination) negatively affect students’ career development

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Five-Stage Planning Model • Stage 1: Develop a program rationale and philosophy.

• Stage 2: State program goals and behavioral objectives.

• Stage 3: Select program processes.

• Stage 4: Develop an evaluation design.

• Stage 5: Identify program milestones.

How to Develop a Systematic Career Intervention • Involve knowledgeable professionals, parents, and representatives from the community in all phases of planning.

• Use developmentally appropriate interventions.

• Communicate program goals and objectives clearly to all stakeholders.

How to Develop a Systematic Career Intervention, continued • Assure that the program is based on student needs.

• Evaluate outcomes to determine the degree to which program goals and objectives were achieved.

• Assure the competence of those involved in program delivery.

Career Development in the Elementary School • Careers unfold and develop throughout the life span.

• For children and adolescents, school and leisure activities are their work.

Children’s Conceptions of Career Choice and Attainment Model (CCCA) • Developed by Howard and Walsh (2010, 2011).

• CCCA model organizes children’s concepts of career choice and attainment around three approaches: Association, Sequence and Interaction • CCCA Model: o Level 1 Association- career exists for the child o Level 2 Sequence - child can describe career but not method on how to attain o Level 3 Interaction - child can describe the skills they need to get a job Career Development Before Elementary School - Erikson • Children move through the first two of Erikson’s eight stages prior to entering elementary school.

• Those who coped successfully with these stages have developed trust and autonomy.

• When students do not develop trust and autonomy, they experience consequences of mistrust, doubt, and shame.

Developmental Tasks of Infancy and Early Childhood - Havighurst • From ages 0-5 children learn to o walk

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eat solid food talk control elimination of body wastes identify sex differences and behave with modesty relate emotionally to family members prepare to read identify the difference between right and wrong

Career Development During Elementary School (Erikson) • During elementary school years, students need to develop initiative (ages 4-6) and industry (ages 6-12).

• When these tasks are accomplished, they use curiosity to gather information about themselves and the world.

• These behaviors result in personal effectiveness that is rewarded by positive outcomes.

Middle Childhood Developmental Tasks (Havighurst) • Develop physical skills for participation in games • Build positive attitudes toward oneself • Develop interpersonal skills • Become more tolerant • Learn appropriate gender social roles Middle Childhood Developmental Tasks (Havighurst), continued • Develop academic skills in reading, writing, and mathematics • Achieve a greater sense of independence • Develop attitudes toward groups and institutions Career Development in Childhood (Porfeli, Hartung, and Vondracek, 2008) • Children know much more about world-of-work than many people believe • Career aspirations of children are influenced by gender-based stereotypes • Aspirations tend to be stable across elementary years (i.e. girls move away from math, science, technology, engineering and boys move away from female dominated fields (i.e. counseling, teaching, nursing) • Children from economically challenged situations as well as Hispanic and African American children tend to identify less prestigious career aspirations than do their more affluent and Caucasian peers • Children tend to seek more glamorous aspirations instead of realistic ones Goals of Career Interventions at Elementary School Level (Super & Savickas) • Encourage students to participate in activities related to their interests • Help children o become concerned about the future o increase personal control over their lives o convince themselves to achieve in school and at work

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o develop competent work habits and attitudes Career Interventions in Elementary School to Minimize Gender Bias • Help students from prematurely committing to educational and occupation options (Marcia, 1996) • Counselors can use the Inventory of Children’s Activities developed by Tracey and Caulum (2015) to help minimize gender bias when assesses Holland types in children • Programs should highlight nontraditional role models • Expose students to a broad range of occupational environments • Encourage students to read stories about people working in non-traditional occupations Career Development Goals for Elementary School Students • Career development goals for elementary school children should help children develop basic skills and awareness in the following areas: • self-knowledge, skills to interact with others • basic skills in educational and occupational exploration • awareness of the benefits of educational achievement • awareness of the relationship between work and learning • basic skills to understand and use career information • awareness of the importance of personal responsibility and good study habits Career Development Goals for Elementary School Students (cont.)

• awareness of how work relates to the needs and functions of society • an understanding of how to make decisions • awareness of the interrelationship of life roles • awareness of different occupations and changing male/female roles • awareness of the career planning process Considerations in Planning Career Development Interventions • Become a constant observer of children. o Notice how they approach tasks. o Notice the activities they choose. o Encourage initiative. o Notice the thematic patterns that emerge.

Considerations in Planning Career Development Interventions, continued • Consider the processing of an activity as important as the activity itself. o Focus feedback on the specifics of a child’s efforts to develop a sense of industry rather than inferiority. o Provide opportunities for children to express their beliefs about themselves in relation to various occupations.

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Examples of Activities • School Wide Career Day • Field Trips • Reading Biographies of various workers Parental Involvement • Parents have substantial influence over the career development of their children. o They provide greatest amount of direct and indirect exposure to work. o Their influence is most effective when it is planned, intentional, and goaloriented. o They, however, possess minimal knowledge of career development theory and how environmental factors affect development.

Ways in Which Parents Can Assist Children (Herr, Cramer, & Niles) • Encourage children to analyze self-characteristics (interests, capacities, values) • Communicate work requirements to children.

• Discuss the importance of work values in work behavior.

• Explain the relationship among work, pay, and the economic condition of the family.

Ways in Which Parents Can Assist Children (Herr, Cramer, & Niles) • Connect children with informational resources (workers, books, films).

• Be careful to avoid stereotyping occupational alternatives and workers.

• Provide children with opportunities for work in the home and community.

• Provide children with opportunities to learn and practice decision-making skills.

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Chapter 11 Career Development Interventions in Middle Schools Career development interventions in middle school help lay the foundation for understanding career possibilities. Many work habits are developed in middle school that will impact career decision making later in high school. This chapter includes a discussion of career development needs and goals for middle school students.

Middle/ Junior High School • Adolescence is a time in which identity clarification must be achieved (Erickson, 1963) • Havighurst (1972) suggests that adolescents must accomplish the following developmental tasks: o Achieve new and more sophisticated relations with peers o Achieve emotional independence from parents and other adults o Set vocational goas o Prepare for marriage and family life o Develop skills for civic competence o Acquire a set of values and an ethical system as a guide to behavior o Set realistic goals and make plans for achieving those goals • Career assistance provided to middle school students must be sensitive to the contextual, physical, and emotional transitions that students experience • Currently 93% of middle school students report that their goal is to attend college; only 44% eventually do, and only 26% graduate with a college diploma within six years of enrolling (Conley, 2012) • Akos, Konold, and Niles (2004) found that middle school students exhibit distinct patterns of needs with respect to career decision readiness- from indecision or moratorium status to premature career identity foreclosure • Data from the National Assessment of Education Progress indicate that adolescents experience mixed success in coping with the career development tasks they confront in middle and high schools.

• This variability points to the importance of being clear about the societal expectations placed upon students in the middle and high school years.

• Adolescents must be able to achieve new and more sophisticated peer relationships, achieve emotional independence from parents, set vocational goals, prepare for life after high school, develop skills in civic competence, and set realistic goals and make plans for achieving these goals.

• The ASCA National Standards (2003, 2012) provide direction for professional school counselors as they construct career development interventions for middle school students.

• National Career Development Guidelines address competencies in the areas of enhancing self-understanding, engaging effectively in educational and occupational exploration, and career planning that are necessary for middle and high school students to cope effectively with the career development tasks confronting them.

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Career Development Goals for Middle School Students • Herr, Cramer, and Niles (2004) offer four career planning considerations for middle school/junior high school students. o 1. Provide students with a broad opportunity to explore their personal characteristics as well as those educational options o 2. Provide a wide array of methods to accommodate differences due to career maturity, interests, values, and abilities o 3. Provide concrete hands-on direct experiences o 4. Provide career programs to help students explore their feelings, needs, and uncertainties as they search for a personal identity.

Career Development Interventions in Middle School • Thematic consideration of middle/junior high school-level career development competencies reveals the importance of students acquiring the necessary knowledge, skills, and understanding to advance in their career development • Important to help students understand issue related to equity and access to career choice • Interventions should help students construct their ideal future life and then discuss how prepared they feel for taking on those future tasks • Use groups or classroom guidance activities • The ASCA National Model (ASCA, 2003) provides an excellent guide for identifying topics to incorporate in psychoeducational activities with students such as job shadowing, attending career fairs, and occupational information interviews.

• Career assessments are helpful to help students clarify their interests, values, and aptitudes.

• The U. S. Office of Education clusters occupations according to whether they involve producing goods or providing services. These two broad categories are then divided into 15 occupational clusters. Within each cluster there is a hierarchy of occupations ranging from professional to unskilled.

• Clustering systems can be used to guide career exploration by using the clusters to organize career information resources. o The National Association of State Directors of Career Technical Education Consortium (2015) organizes occupations according to whether they involve producing goods or providing services. The chapter lists the 16 career clusters. o Career Pathways- helps students identify knowledge and skills required for a particular career • Group interventions are recommended; such as using a small group focused on STEM occupations (Hutchinson, 2013).

• Council of Chief State School Officers (2014) recommends exposing students to real-world work experiences while in secondary school • Patterns of life-role salience can be addressed by using a group guidance format to help middle/junior high school students reflect on the various life roles they have or they can create a life-role portfolio

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Middle school students need assistance in career and educational planning.

An educational and career planning portfolio is one technique that school counselors can use to help middle school students plan effectively.

Activities 1. Ask students to interview a middle school student and ask him or her to identify what has been most helpful in their career development thus far. Students could also ask their interviewee what type of assistance would be most helpful currently in their career development.

2. Divide the class into groups. Each group will be asked to present an ageappropriate classroom guidance lesson lasting 30 minutes. The guidance lesson must address at least one of the competencies identified in the National Career Development Guidelines.

3. Invite middle school students to Skype into the class or come to talk about what types of jobs they are interested in. OR search on YouTube for videos centered around middle school students and career beliefs.

Discussion 1. Discuss ways in which counselors can get parents/guardians more/better involved in providing career development assistance to their children.

2. What changes, if any, do you envision for the delivery of career planning and counseling in middle schools in the future?

3. What habits do you think are important for students to develop in middle school?

4. With 93% of middle school students expressing a desire to go to and graduate from college, what do you believe emotionally happens to them if they fail to reach their goal? Should schools talk about all of the options after graduation or should they continue to push college as the primary goal?

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Test Bank – Chapter 11 Essay Questions 1. What strategies would you use to develop and implement a successful career development program in a middle school setting?

2. Why is it important to evaluate the effectiveness of career development programs in the schools?

3. How do the National Career Development Guidelines enhance our ability to serve the career development needs of middle school students?

4. Identify and discuss two unique career development needs of middle school students.

5. The Council of Chief State School Officers (2014) recommends exposing students to real world work experiences. What type of experiences would you recommend for middle school students?.

Multiple Choice 1. An adolescent makes strides toward independence by developing A. physically and psychologically.

B. maturity.

C. socially and physically.

D. socially and psychologically.

2. Teachers, counselors, and curriculum designers expect middle school students to A. make a career plan and stick to it for most of their career.

B. begin to know what careers are and how to write a resume to get the job they want.

C. learn about themselves and the world of work and then translate this learning into an educational plan for the remainder of their secondary school education.

D. wait until later to worry about career goals.

3. The National Career Development Guidelines recommend that middle school students learn all of the following except A. self-understanding.

B. family knowledge.

C. educational and occupational exploration.

D. career planning.

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4. It is important for career interventions to continue to stimulate curiosity in middle school students because A. those who are curious about their emerging self-concepts are more likely to engage in exploratory behavior to acquire the information they need.

B. those who have no idea about the world of work need to be encouraged to look at a new concept.

C. students are rarely stimulated in middle school, but careers and career decisions interest them.

D. exploratory behavior leads to self-concept clarification, but only in regard to a career choice.

5. The most useful foundation for the exploration process is provided by A. aptitude tests.

B. skills inventories.

C. combining interest inventories with aptitude test results.

D. exposure to work.

6. According to Super, the tasks of crystallizing, specifying, and implementing tentative career choices occur during all of the following stages except A. early adulthood (21-24).

B. late adolescence (18-20).

C. middle adolescence (16-17).

D. early adolescence (12-15). .

7. Acquiring reading and writing skills and a good attitude are all aspects of A. career maturity.

B. workforce readiness.

C. self-knowledge.

D. values clarification.

8. The readiness to cope with the various career development tasks confronting an individual is known as A. career maturity.

B. workforce readiness.

C. self-knowledge.

D. values clarification.

9. Crisis/exploration and commitment are central to the career development process developed by A. Super.

B. Muuss.

C. Hansen.

D. Marcia.

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10. Appropriate career goals for middle school students, as proposed by Herr, Cramer, and Niles (2004), include all of the following except A. a wide array of methods to accommodate differences due to career maturity, interest, values, and abilities B. internship opportunities C. opportunities to explore their personal identity D. opportunities to explore educational options 11. Suggestions provided in the text to encourage parental involvement in their children’s career development include A. provision for babysitting.

B. career guidance for parents.

C. evening information sessions and newsletters.

D. GED classes.

12. Assessment tools to measure interests and abilities include all of the following except the A. Self-Directed Search.

B. Differential Aptitude Test.

C. Myers-Briggs Type Indicator.

D. Career Assessment Inventory.

13. Career choice readiness is important to adolescent career development because it is a necessary precursor to effective A. retirement planning.

B. use of ability and interest assessment.

C. salary negotiations.

D. identity development.

14. Career choice readiness includes A. a planful attitude toward coping with career stages and tasks.

B. gathering information about educational and occupational opportunities.

C. exploring the world of work and knowing how to make a good decision.

D. all of the above.

15. Indications of the qualities people desire and seek in activities in which they engage, in the situations in which they live, and in the objects they make or desire are all aspects of A. career maturity.

B. workforce readiness.

C. values clarification.

D. career choice readiness.

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Text for PowerPoint Presentation (available on website) Developmental Tasks of Middle School • Achieve new and more sophisticated relations with peers • Achieve emotional independence from parents and other adults • Set vocational goals • Prepare for marriage and family life • Develop skills for civic competence Developmental Tasks, continued • Acquire a set of values and an ethical system as a guide to behavior • Set realistic goals and make plans for achieving these goals Career Development in Middle School • Career assistance provided to middle school students must be sensitive to the contextual, physical, and emotional transitions that students experience • Akos, Konold, and Niles (2004) found that middle school student exhibit distinct patterns of needs regarding their readiness for career decision making: from career indecisions to premature career identity foreclosure • Data from the National Assessment of Education Progress indicate that adolescents experience mixed success in coping with the career development tasks they confront in middle schools Middle School Student Attitudes • Currently 93% of middle school students report that their goal is to attend college; only 44% eventually do, and only 26% graduate with a college diploma within six years of enrolling (Conley, 2012) ASCA National Standards • Acquire skills to investigate the world of work in relation to knowledge of self and to make informed career decisions • Employ strategies to achieve future success and satisfaction • Understand the relationship between personal qualities, education and training, and the world of work Career Development Goals for Middle School • Enhance self-understanding • Learn how to engage effectively in education and occupational exploration • Career Planning Career Development Goals for Middle School Students (cont.)

• Herr, Cramer, and Niles (2004) offer four career planning considerations for middle school students. o 1. Provide students with a broad opportunity to explore their personal

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characteristics as well as those educational options o 2. Provide a wide array of methods to accommodate differences due to career maturity, interests, values, and abilities o 3. Provide concrete hands-on direct experiences o 4. Provide career programs to help students explore their feelings, needs, and uncertainties as they search for a personal identity.

Career Development Interventions in Middle Schools • Thematic consideration of middle school-level career development competencies reveals the importance of students acquiring the necessary knowledge, skills, and understanding to advance in their career development • Important to help students understand issue related to equity and access to career choice • Interventions should help students construct their ideal future life and then discuss how prepared they feel for taking on those future tasks Career Development Interventions in Middle School (continued) • Psychoeducational activities for middle school students include: o Classroom guidance lessons on careers and personal identity o Job shadowing o Attending career fairs o Occupational Information Interviews o Small groups o Exposure to real world work experiences Career Development Interventions in Middle School (continued) • Clustering systems can be used to guide career exploration by using the clusters to organize career information resources.

• Patterns of life-role salience can be addressed by helping student reflect on the various life roles they have or they can create a life-role portfolio • Middle school students need assistance in career and educational planning.

• An educational and career planning portfolio is one technique that school counselors can use to help middle school students plan effectively.

National Association of State Directors of Career Technical Education Consortium (2015) Clusters • Agriculture, Food, and Natural Resources • Architecture and Construction • Arts, A/V Technology, and Communications • Business Management and Administration • Education and Training • Finance • Government and Public Administration • Health Science • Hospitality and Tourism

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• • • • • • •

Human Services Information Technology Law, Public Safety, Corrections, and Security Manufacturing Marketing Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics Transportation, Distribution, and Logistics

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Chapter 12 Career Development Interventions in High School The transition to high school is a critical time in career readiness as students prepare to enter the workforce while both in school, during the summer, and then upon graduation. High school offers opportunities for actively engaging students in career development interventions that can strengthen their academic motivation, bolster their self-esteem, and help them make connections between their schools experiences and their future academic and career opportunities. This chapter outlines specific career development needs for high school students, career development goals, and specific career development interventions for high schools including those for at-risk students.

Considerations for High School Students • Super’s stages of crystallizing, specifying, and implementing tentative career choices occur from 12-24 years of age • In 2014, 68.4% of female high school graduates and 63.5% of male graduates enrolled in college • Less than 60% of African Americans and Hispanic members of the class of 2013 were enrolled in college in the fall of 2014 compared to 67% of white graduates • The unemployment rate for recent graduates who do not attend college was 30.9% in October 2013 • Feller reports that over 70% of high school seniors expect to hold professional jobs- the “silent dream” • Many students enroll in college while possessing no clear goal and often lacking the academic readiness to succeed • Important information for school counselors to give high school students to help with workforce readiness: o All students can attend college, but low-achieving students should be cautioned about the need to take remedial courses once they enter college o Even if high school students have college plans, they must prepare for work o College plans require substantial efforts and good academic planning in high school o Many good jobs do not require a college degree o High school students improve their changes for obtaining good jobs by having better academic achievement, taking vocational courses, getting job-placement assistance from teachers and developing “soft skills” such as interpersonal competence and good work habits • Baker and Gerler (2008) emphasizes the importance of school counselors’ providing “transition enhancement” assistance to secondary school students as they progress toward further education, training, or employment.

• Secondary school students need emotional support to lessen the anticipatory anxiety they may experience as they consider the transitions they will encounter.

• Transition skills build upon the self-awareness, occupational awareness, and 142

• •

decision-making skills students have developed throughout their educational experience.

Marcia (1966) identified a taxonomy of adolescent identity development which contains four identity statuses: (a) diffused or confused, (b) foreclosed, (c) moratorium, and (d) achieved.

Individuals’ identity status is not static but rather dynamic and parallel’s Super’s (1980) notion of life-role self-concepts

Career Development Goals for High School Students • Develop more advanced self-knowledge • Develop skills for engaging in educational and occupational exploration • Strengthen skills to make decisions • Help students construct and know how to implement a career plan • Develop an awareness for postsecondary options (e.g. joining the military, enrolling in community college, attending a four-year university) Career Development Interventions in High Schools • Savickas (1999) suggests that high school interventions: a) orient students’ comprehension of careers, b) develop students’ planning and exploration competencies, c) coach students to develop effective career management techniques, and d) guide students in behavioral rehearsals to become prepared for coping with job problems • Savickas (1999) proposed career development interventions for high school students that foster self-knowledge, educational and occupational exploration, and career planning.

• Important to address career maturity and career readiness in high school students. This can be done using assessments such as the Career Maturity Inventory (CMI) • Administering and interpreting interest assessments such as the Self-Directed Search can help student identify specific occupations they may be interested in • Career choice readiness (Super, 1990) involves five dimensions: having a planful attitude, gather information, exploring the world of work, knowing how to make good career decisions, and being able to make realistic judgments about potential occupations.

• Amundson and Penner (1998) recommend that professional school counselors consider involving parents/guardians directly in the career counseling exploration process • Career development interventions for high school students should also address: role salience, self and occupational knowledge, and parental involvement in a multiculturally sensitive fashion Career Development Interventions for At-Risk Students • Educational systems in the U.S. poorly prepare minority students and student with disabilities to enter and succeed in higher education

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• • • • •

Such disparities reflect serious deficiencies in the educational systems in the U.S. Jerald (2006) notes three secondary requirements for postsecondary school success: a) high expectations and rigorous instruction for all students, b) equal access to rigorous coursework and c) adequate support for student success McLaughlin, Sum, and Fogg (2006) report that exposure to work experiences in high school is lined to both greater success in the workforce and in postsecondary education More white teens-sometimes twice as many- held summer jobs in 2006 compared to nonwhite teens Froeschle (2009) provides a career development program for at-risk students that consists of four components: mentorship, small-group solution-focused counseling sessions, psychoeducational career lessons led by counselors and mentors, and implementation of solution-focused skills within the classroom.

Activities: 1. Break up students into groups of four and assign each group one post-graduation plan (i.e. military, community college, four-year university, full-time work, apprenticeship). Ask students to come up with a career plan for a high school based on the student’s post-graduation goal.

2. Ask students to interview a high school students about what career concerns they have: are they worried about the job market? College? Are they hopeful? If able, interview a recent high school graduate to gather their perspectives to compare and contrast.

3. Break up into dyads and share with your partner how you believe your parents’ impacted your career goals. What assistance, if any, did they provide when applying for college?

Discussion: 1. What strategies or career interventions can be used at the high school level? How might these strategies differ for an inner-city, urban school compared to a more rural suburban school? How might these interventions vary for a private high school? How might these strategies be the same?

2. In your opinion, what do you believe the “college for all” impact has had on careers in today’s job market, expectations from students, financial debt, and on those individuals who do not choose or are unable financially or academically to go to college?

3. What types of career interventions do you feel could help increase high school students’ work readiness? How do you help students become concerned about their future?

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Test Bank – Chapter 12 Essay Questions 1. What strategies would you use to develop and implement a successful career development program in a high school setting?

2. Name three revolutionary changes that started the “college for all” trend.

3. Name three specific career development competencies identify as being appropriate for high school students.

4. Identify and discuss two unique career development needs of high school students.

5. How might professional school counselors involve parents/guardians directly in the career development process for high school students?

Multiple Choice 1. According to the text, what is the “silent dream” of high school seniors: A. to go to college B. to make a lot of money C. to find a job D. to hold a professional job 2. The unemployment rate for recent graduates who do not attend college was what % in October 2013?

A. 10% B. 20% C. 30% D. 40% 3. When Malorie, age 16, came to the high school counselor for career assistance she stated that she wanted to be an actress on the Disney channel. The counselor, knowing Super’s exploration stage, asked Malorie to begin thinking realistically about her opportunities at this point. Which of the following would NOT be a question to help Malorie think realistically?

A. “Have you researched what internship, employment, or shadowing opportunities are available at Disney?”

B. “How much money will you make as an actress?”

C. “Do you have or know an acting agent?”

D. “What types of work or activities have you done thus far to help prepare you for a career as an actress?”

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4. You are working at an agency helping teens that are struggling with drug abuse/addiction. Your job is to help prepare teens for working, but many of the ones you see have absolutely no hope or desire to work. Many feel they do not have a future and just live for the day. Which career adaptability problem do they have?

A. concern B. control C. curiosity D. confidence 5. The most useful foundation for the exploration process is provided by A. aptitude tests.

B. skills inventories.

C. combining interest inventories with aptitude test results.

D. exposure to work.

6. According to Super, the tasks of crystallizing, specifying, and implementing tentative career choices occur during all of the following stages except A. early adulthood (21-24).

B. late adolescence (18-20).

C. middle adolescence (16-17).

D. early adolescence (12-15). .

7. Acquiring reading and writing skills and a good attitude are all aspects of A. career maturity.

B. workforce readiness.

C. self-knowledge.

D. values clarification.

8. Cognitive and attitudinal readiness to cope with the developmental tasks of finding, preparing for, pursuing, getting established in, and retiring from an occupation.

A. career maturity/career adaptability B. career development C. career intervention D. career guidance program 9. Which of the following high school students would best transition (based upon factors that predict career transition adjustment)?

A. a student with no support system B. a student who feels compelled to do what their parent’s want them to do.

C. a student who has been preparing for her upcoming graduation.

D. a student who follows her friends’ career paths

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10. Matthew has known he wanted to be a doctor since he was five years old. His father, aunt, grandfather, and cousin are all doctors. Despite poor grades in biology and low standardized tests scores, he refuses to consider any other job other than being a doctor. According to Marcia, which adolescent identity status is Matthew?

A. diffused B. foreclosed C. moratorium D. achieved

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Text for PowerPoint Presentation (available on website) Developmental Considerations for High School Students • As students transition from middle school to high school, they focus more directly on the task of identifying occupational preferences and clarifying career/lifestyle choices.

• According to Super (1957), the essential tasks are crystallizing, specifying educational preferences, and implementing tentative career choices.

Preparation for Career Transition: After High School • Over 70% of high school seniors expect to hold professional jobs- “the silent dream” • This trend toward “college for all” aspirations emerged from a labor market that needed increased skills, more accessible enrollment to college, and community colleges instituted an open admissions policy.

• Important to teach students about a variety of rewarding careers that exist in a variety of fields including those occupations that do not require a college degree.

Coping with Transition • Adolescents must acquire workforce readiness to cope successfully with their school-to-work transition.

• Important to provide “transition enhancement” assistance to secondary school students as they progress toward further education, training, or employment.

Coping with Transition (Continued) • Secondary school students need emotional support to lessen the anticipatory anxiety they may experience as they consider the transitions they will encounter.

• Transition skills build upon the self-awareness, occupational awareness, and decision-making skills students have developed throughout their educational experience Helping Students Prepare for Workforce Readiness • All students can attend college, but low-achieving students should be cautioned about the need to take remedial courses once they enter college • Even if high school students have college plans, they must prepare for work • College plans require substantial efforts and good academic planning in high school Helping Students Prepare for Workforce Readiness (cont.)

• Many good jobs do not require a college degree • High school students improve their chances for obtaining good jobs by: o having better academic achievement, o taking vocational courses, o getting job-placement assistance from teachers and 148

o developing “soft skills” such as interpersonal competence and good work habits Marcia’s Taxonomy of Adolescent Identity • Identity-diffused: person has not yet experienced an identity crisis or exploration and has not made a personal commitment to an occupation -- or a set of goals, values, and beliefs.

• Foreclosed: person has not yet experienced an identity crisis or exploration but has committed prematurely to an occupation and a set of goals, values, and beliefs.

Marcia’s Taxonomy of Adolescent Identity, continued • Moratorium: person is engaged in an active struggle to clarify personally meaningful values, goals, and beliefs.

• Identity-achieved: person has sorted through the process of identity clarification and resolved these issues in a personally meaningful way.

Career Developmental Goals for High School Students • Develop more advanced self-knowledge • Develop skills for engaging in educational and occupational exploration • Strengthen decision making skills • Construct and implement a career plan • Develop an awareness for postsecondary options after graduation Career Development Interventions in High Schools • a) orient students’ comprehension of careers, • b) develop students’ planning and exploration competencies, • c) coach students to develop effective career management techniques, and • d) guide students in behavioral rehearsals to become prepared for coping with job problems • Savickas (1999) proposed career development interventions for high school students that foster self-knowledge, educational and occupational exploration, and career planning.

Career Assessments in High School • Career maturity/readiness: Career Maturity Inventory (CMI); Career Adaptability Inventory (CAI) • Interest inventories: Self-Directed Search (SDS) and Strong Interest Inventory Career Choice Readiness (Super, 1990) • Having a planful attitude, • Gather information, • Exploring the world of work, • Knowing how to make good career decisions, and • Being able to make realistic judgments about potential occupations.

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Career Development Interventions for At-Risk Students • Educational systems in the U.S. poorly prepare minority students and student with disabilities to enter and succeed in higher education • Such disparities reflect serious deficiencies in the educational systems in the U.S. • McLaughlin, Sum, and Fogg (2006) report that exposure to work experiences in high school is lined to both greater success in the workforce and in postsecondary education • More white teens-sometimes twice as many- held summer jobs in 2006 compared to nonwhite teens Career Development Intervention for At-Risk Students (Froeschle) • Mentorship • Small Group Solution-Focused Counseling • Psychoeducational Career Lessons • Implementation of solution-focused skills within the classroom

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Chapter 13 Career Development Interventions in Higher Education Chapter thirteen makes note of the increasing diversity of students in higher education, which requires career development professionals to ensure that their services meet the needs of all groups comprising the student body in their respective institutions.

It reviews career competencies for adults as well as models, services, and standards for career development interventions in higher education. The CAS Standards are outlined as a tool for issues pertaining to the management of career services in higher education.

The Career Needs of Higher Education Students • In 2011, slightly 21 million students were enrolled in postsecondary education in the United States.

• In October 2013m 65.9% of 2013 high school graduates enrolled in colleges and universities.

• College enrollment rates of Asians (79.1%) is highest compared to White (67.1%), Black (59.3%) and Hispanic (59.9%) • The unemployment rate for high school graduates not enrolled in college was 30.9% The Changing Landscape of Higher Education • Community college enrollments tend to rise as economy worsens- they are less expensive than four-year public colleges • 11,.8% of all 18 to 24 year olds enroll in community college • From 2006 to 2017, the National Center for Education Statistics projects a rise of 10% enrollments of people under 25, and a rise of 19% enrollments of people 25 and older.

• Only 19% of students enrolled in 4-year bachelor’s degrees at nonflagship colleges; 36% from flagship or very high research universities, graduate in four years (Complete College America, 2014).

• Only 59% graduate in six years (NCES, 2014) despite 83.4% believing they will graduate in four years- mismatch in expectations and a need for more preparation • Survey results from the Higher Education Research Institute (2012) indicate that most first-year college students (87%) indicate that they chose to attend college to “get a better job” and 75% report that they chose to attend college “to make more money” • Project on Student Debt (Kingkade, 2014) reports that 69% of students graduating in 2013 from four-year colleges and universities had student-loan debt.

• Average debt levels for graduate seniors is $28,400 in 2013 • Fewer than one in six students in higher education fits the description of a traditional student (between the ages of 18-22, living on campus, enrolled fulltime). Adult students must often balance their pursuit of higher education with child rearing and other life-role responsibilities.

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• •

• • • •

• •

•

Women make up 56 percent of the undergraduate and 59 percent of the graduate student population.

International students are another group that represents a substantial percentage of those enrolled in higher education. There were approximately 886,052 international students enrolled in higher education in the United States in 2014 Many international students have not received sufficient assistance with career development and tend to receive inadequate information concerning employment opportunities in their home countries.

Surge in students with disabilities currently attending college in the United States.

Women made up 57% (about 12 million) of undergraduate student population in 2014, with just over 9 million men enrolled (NCES) The percentage of students enrolled in higher education who are members of ethnic minority groups has also increased in recent years. The total enrollment for ethnic minorities represented 32% of all students in higher education in 2007.

Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgendered and questioning students encounter numerous contextual barriers in their career development.

In a recent survey of 90,000 college students (2012), 3% identified as gay/lesbian, 1.9% unsure, and 0.2% transgender. Unfortunately, their career development needs have long been ignored by career service providers in higher education.

Each of the student groups comprising the population in higher education has similar, but also distinct, career development needs. Career service providers in higher education have done a better job addressing the former needs than they have the needs in the latter category. Comprehensive career services must address the needs of the entire student body.

The Evolution of Career Development Interventions in Higher Education • Career services in higher education began with an emphasis on job placement that was typically provided by a student’s professor.

• In the early 1800s commercial employment agencies offered placement services to graduates from teacher training programs. By the late 1800s there were nearly 200 employment agencies in the United States.

• Yale University established a placement office in 1919 to provide vocational guidance to students and to match them with employment positions during the academic year, the summer months, and after graduation.

• The focus on placement in career services resulted in the separation of placement offices from other student affairs functions that were more focused on student development. Rather than training in counseling, career placement “officers” tended to have a variety of backgrounds, many times linked to business.

• A shift occurred in career services beginning in the late 1950s and early 1960s. Career planning activities that had been a part of many counseling centers were relocated to placement offices and combined with placement 152

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•

services.

Today, there is no single type of career development and placement center in higher education. Whitely, Mahaffey, and Geer (1987) provide evidence of five major types of career services centers: (1) macrocenter, (2) counseling orientation center, (3) general-level service center, (4) career planning and placement center, and (5) minimal service center.

Healy and Reilly report that students in higher education typically desire the following sort of career assistance: help knowing more about themselves, help identifying career goals, assistance in becoming more certain of their career plans, assistance in exploring various career options, help with career planning, and guidance in learning job search skills.

Career Development Competencies in Adulthood • The National Career Development Guidelines (NCDG) were originally developed by the National Occupational Information Coordinating Committee (1989)- these guidelines identify career development competencies for adults that are relevant to students in higher education.

• These competencies include three domains: a) personal social development, b) educational achievement and lifelong learning, and c) career management.

Personal Social Development • Career service providers can help students with the following personal development goals: o 1) develop understanding of self and maintain a positive self-concept; o 2) develop positive interpersonal skills, including respect for diversity, o 3) integrate growth and change into your career development, and o 4) balance personal, leisure, community, learner, family, and work roles Educational Achievement and Lifelong Learning • Career service providers can help students obtain educational achievement and life learning by: o Helping students know how to access and use the information they gather in their educational and occupational career exploration o Helping student develop strategies for overcoming obstacles in their career path (e.g. childcare, financial costs) o Offering career planning courses to assist students in long and short range career plans o Provide career information via courses, workshops and small groups Career Management • Career service providers can help students reach their career management goals by helping students: o Create and manage a career plan that meets their career goals o Use a process of decision making as one component of career development o Use accurate, current, and unbiased career information during career 153

planning and management o Master academic, occupational, and general employability skills in orer to obtain, create, maintain, and/or advance your employment o Integrate changing employment trends, societal needs, and economic conditions into their career plans Models, Services, and Standards for Career Development Interventions in Higher Education • Various models of career services can be used to help adults manage their careers (e.g., Colozzi, 2000; Crites, 1981; Reardon et al., 2000; Sampson, 2008) Models • Powell and Kirts (1980) propose a systems approach to career services that focuses on giving all new student an overview of career services (awareness programming), engaging students in self-assessment activities, exposing students in career exploration, and providing training in job-search skills.

• Reardon (1996) developed the curricular career information service (CCIS) model for Florida State that involves five modules: introduce services, orient students towards the career decision-making process, engage students in selfassessment, help students locate career information, and help students match majors and jobs.

• Sampson (2008) recommends an eight-step model which begins by evaluating and assessing career resources and services. Based on the initial assessment, career resources and services are adapted and revised to meet the students’ needs.

Services • Career services in higher education include courses, workshops, individual counseling, group counseling, and placement services (Herr, Cramer, and Niles, 2004) with increasing emphasis being placed on appropriate use of technology in each (Davidson, 2001) • Herr (1989) highlighted nine categories of career services in higher education in addition to individual career counseling such as infusing academic subject matter with information pertinent to career development, providing coursework on career development, using external resources such as internships) to provide career-related information, providing seminars in residence halls, and providing interactive, computer-based career guidance and information systems.

• Normyle (2014) suggests the importance of a students needs inventory in first year of college to address student concerns • Chan & Derry (2013) contend that the title “career services” is no longer adequate- and suggest that career offices in higher education must prioritize the “developmental processes to teach, engage, and equip students to find the unique intersection between who each student is and where they fit in the world”(p.9) • New emphasis on helping students evaluate their career choices, along with tracking alumni experiences and forming partnerships with employers 154

Standards • The CAS Standards (2010) provide useful guides for delivering career development interventions in higher education. Topics include: leadership, organization and management, human resources, financial resources, technology, facilities and equipment, legal responsibilities, equity and access, campus and external relations, diversity, ethics, and assessment and evaluation.

• The Professional Standards for College and University Career Services developed by the National Association of Colleges and Employers (NACA, 2010) overlap with CAS (2010) Standards and Guidelines. CAS, 2010) identified 10 topics for the day to day operation of career services in higher education detailed in this chapter, for career services in the next millennium. o Leadership o Organization and management o Human resources o Financial resources o Technology o Facilities and Equipment o Legal Responsibilities o Equity and Access o Campus and External Relations o Diversity o Ethics o Assessment and Evaluation Managing Career Services in Higher Education • A primary issue in the organization of career services in higher education relates to whether services are centralized or decentralized. Herr, Rayman, and Garis (1993) have identified pro’s and con’s of both approaches.

• Another issue pertaining to managing career services in higher education relates to the place of career services within the institutional structure- (e.g., whether to place it under student services) • Rayman (1999) lists 10 imperatives for career services for the next generation Activities 1. Divide the class into small groups. Assign each a student population (e.g., international students, students with disabilities, etc.). Ask each group to identify the unique career concerns confronting their student population.

2. Coordinate with your campus career services center to schedule a tour during class time.

3. Ask each student to utilize one of the services offered by your career service center (e. g. resume review, mock interview, career fair, group, or workshop) and then write a one page reflection on the experience.

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4. Divide the class into groups. Assign each group a specific student population outlined in the chapter. Ask each group to identify a specific career intervention for their student population and then develop a marketing plan for their program.

Discussion 1. What student populations on your campus are underserved by career services?

What are the challenges faced by career services to better serve these populations?

2. How will your university career service center change in the next ten years?

3.

How well prepared did you feel when you came to college and what services did you use to help prepare you for the “real world”? If you failed to use the career services in your undergraduate program, why was that? Is there anything that the university could have done, in your opinion, to influence that?

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Test Bank – Chapter 13 Essay Questions 1. Choose one specific student population and identify two unique needs of this student group and one intervention designed to address each need.

2. Identify and discuss four major approaches used for delivering career services to students in higher education (Herr, Cramer, and Niles, 2004).

3. Identify and discuss three of the nine categories of career services in higher education as identified by Herr (1989).

4. Many career services offices in higher education do not engage in true career counseling, but rather provide career advising and assessment services to their students. Why is this the case? Do you think this is a good approach?

5. Name five out of the ten Professional Standards for College and University Career Services developed by the National Association of Colleges and Employers. Then given an example of a service, policy, and/or resource of how a college career office meets this standard.

Multiple Choice 1. The prevalent reason that adults return to college is to A. take a break from work.

B. follow wishes of their parents.

C. enhance career opportunities.

D. learn about a new field.

2. All of the following groups face unique challenges regarding career issues in higher education except A. adults returning to school.

B. international students.

C. people with disabilities.

D. people without financial concerns.

3. As a result of the changing demographics of higher education career development interventions should A. be comprehensive and planned systematically.

B. remain the same.

C. be the same for all students.

D. be planned individually.

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4. Which of the following statements about university college students is true?

A. 19% of students graduate in six years B. 39% of students graduate in six years C. 59% of students graduate in six years D. 79% of students graduate in six years 5. The competencies suggested in adulthood regarding the domain of self-knowledge include the skills to A. write an effective resume and cover letter.

B. maintain a positive self-concept, maintain effective behaviors, and understand developmental changes and transitions.

C. make decisions regarding educational decisions.

D. find out about job openings.

6. Johnson’s four types of decision-making styles include all of the following except A. systematic.

B. spontaneous.

C. internal.

D. controlled.

7. The steps in typical career development process that students go through in higher education are A. exploring, searching, making a commitment, and implementing.

B. searching, making a commitment, and implementing.

C. exploring and crystallizing.

D. exploring, crystallizing, making a commitment, and implementing.

8. The phases of Powell and Kirts’ (1980) approach to career services in higher education include all of the following except A. awareness programming.

B. self-assessment activities.

C. job interviewing skills.

D. exposure as students engage in career exploration.

9. According to Reardon, modules of the Florida State curricular career information services (CCIS) include all of the following except A. providing students with an introduction to the service.

B. orienting students to the career decision-making process.

C. helping students with their coursework.

D. helping students engage in self-assessment.

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10. Self-knowledge competencies include the skills to A. enter and participate in education and training.

B. participate in work and life-long learning.

C. locate, evaluate, and interpret career information.

D. maintain effective behaviors.

11. Skills in stress management and interpersonal communication contribute to coping with A. a collective activity.

B. occupational information.

C. transitions.

D. career information libraries.

12. As career counselors become more familiar with computers, they should integrate technology into their work by balancing A. “high tech” with “high resolution.”

B. “high tech” with “high touch.”

C. “high tech” with “low tech.”

D. none of these.

13. Herr, Cramer, and Niles (2004) identify all of the following major approaches used for delivering career services to students in higher ed except: A. courses B. placement programs C. individual career counseling D. all of these.

14. Although research has shown that while individualized counseling is the most effective approach to career development, comprehensive programs should make use of A. computerized delivery systems.

B. group counseling.

C. workshops.

D. a wide range of approaches.

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15. Maria is struggling with whether or not to pursue medical school after she graduates from college. She is married and very concerned about whether she should have children before applying to medical school, whether she should just take her chances on medical school and deal with it if she gets pregnant, or whether she should wait until she finishes residency to have children. She has sought out help from you as a licensed professional counselor. Which of the following responses by the counselor is unethical?

A. “What are your thoughts about whether to continue on to medical school or not?”

B. “It is important that you think about how you are going to handle a child if you get pregnant while in school because that can’t be easy.”

C. “Sounds like you are really struggling with how to manage two different roles: student/worker and mother.”

D. “How much of this decision do you feel responsible for making? How does your partner feel about each scenario?”

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Text for PowerPoint Presentation (available on website) Career Needs of Students in Higher Education • In 2011, slightly 21 million students were enrolled in postsecondary education in the United States.

• In October 2013m 65.9% of 2013 high school graduates enrolled in colleges and universities.

• College enrollment rates of Asians (79.1%) is highest compared to White (67.1%), Black (59.3%) and Hispanic (59.9%) • The unemployment rate for high school graduates not enrolled in college was 30.9% Changing Landscape of Higher Ed- Enrollment • Women made up 57% (about 12 million) of undergraduate student population in 2014, with just over 9 million men enrolled (NCES) • International students are another group that represents a substantial percentage of those enrolled in higher education. There were approximately 886,052 international students enrolled in higher education in the United States in 2014 • Ethnic minorities made up 32% of students in higher education in 2007.

• In a recent survey of 90,000 college students (2012), 3% identified as gay/lesbian, 1.9% unsure, and 0.2% transgender.

Changing Landscape of Higher Ed- Graduation Rates • Only 19% of students enrolled in 4-year bachelor’s degrees at nonflagship colleges; 36% from flagship or very high research universities, graduate in four years (Complete College America, 2014).

• Only 59% graduate in six years (NCES, 2014) despite 83.4% believing they will graduate in four years- mismatch in expectations and a need for more preparation Changing Landscape of Higher Education • Survey results from the Higher Education Research Institute (2012) indicate that most first-year college students (87%) indicate that they chose to attend college to “get a better job” and 75% report that they chose to attend college “to make more money” • Project on Student Debt (Kingkade, 2014) reports that 69% of students graduating in 2013 from four-year colleges and universities had student-loan debt.

• Average debt levels for graduate seniors is $28,400 in 2013 • 11.8% of all 18 to 24 year olds enroll in community college The Evolution of Career Development Interventions • Professor/advocate • Job placement • Employment agencies • Placement offices

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Diverse services (no single type of counseling center or placement center)

Five Major Approaches for Delivering Career Services • Macrocenter • Counseling orientation • General-level service • Career planning and placement • Minimal service Why College Students Seek Career Assistance • Learn more about themselves • Identify career goals • Become more certain of their career plans • Explore career options • Do educational planning • Learn job search skills Career Development Competencies in Adulthood • Personal Social Development • Educational Achievement and Lifelong learning • Career Management Personal Social Development • Career service providers can help students with the following personal development goals: o 1) develop understanding of self and maintain a positive self-concept; o 2) develop positive interpersonal skills, including respect for diversity, o 3) integrate growth and change into your career development, and o 4) balance personal, leisure, community, learner, family, and work roles Educational Achievement and Lifelong Learning • Career service providers can help students obtain educational achievement and life learning by: o Helping students know how to access and use the information they gather in their educational and occupational career exploration o Helping student develop strategies for overcoming obstacles in their career path (e.g. childcare, financial costs) o Offering career planning courses to assist students in long and short range career plans o Providing career information via courses, workshops and small groups Career Management • Career service providers can help students reach their career management goals by helping students: o Create and manage a career plan that meets their career goals

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o Use a process of decision making as one component of career development o Use accurate, current, and unbiased career information during career planning and management o Master academic, occupational, and general employability skills in order to obtain, create, maintain, and/or advance your employment o Integrate changing employment trends, societal needs, and economic conditions into their career plans Goals of Career Interventions in Higher Education • Help students learn to identify and transfer career interests to a plan of action • Help students relate interests and goals to opportunities • Help students relate their career plans to life goals and opportunities • Help students learn how to evaluate their progress toward career goals through academic preparation.

Career Interventions in Higher Education (Crites’ Model) • Explore a variety of options.

• Crystallize a narrow range of specific options.

• Make a commitment to a choice and specify college major.

• Implement the choice of major.

Powell and Kirts Model • Proposes a systems approach to career services in higher education • Starts by providing an overview of services to new students • Continues by providing self-assessment • Then focuses on exposure as students engage actively in career exploration • Finally provides training in job search skills The Florida State Model • A curricular career information service (CCIS) model with five modules, as follows: o Introduction to the service o Orientation to the decision-making process o Self-assessment o Career information o Matching of majors and jobs Sampson Model (2008) • Eight-step model which begins by evaluating and assessing career resources and services.

• Based on the initial assessment, career resources and services are adapted and revised to meet the students’ needs.

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Career Services • Courses, workshops, and seminars -- structured group experiences on topics such as career decision making, career planning, and job search skills • Group counseling activities for students dealing with career indecision, career indecisiveness, and job search anxiety • Individual career counseling • Placement programs Career Services in Higher Education (Herr) • Infuse academic subject matter with information pertinent to career development • Provide coursework on career development • Use external resources such as internships) to provide career-related information, • Integrate placement and transfer processes in support of career planning Career Services in Higher Education (Herr) (Continued) • Offer opportunities for work-study/cooperative education • Provide decentralized counseling using academic departments • Provide seminars in residence halls, student unions, that focus on college life and career planning • Provide group counseling • Provide interactive, computer-based career guidance and information systems Goals of Career Interventions in Higher Education (Herr et al., 2004) • Provide assistance in the selection of a major • Provide self-assessment and self-analysis • Assist students to understand the world of work • Assist students to learn decision-making skills • Provide assistance with unique needs of sub-populations • Provide assistance with access to jobs Council for the Advancement of Standards (CAS) Guidelines • Essential components of career services o Leadership o Organization and management o Human resources o Financial resources o Technology o Facilities and Equipment CAS Standards, continued • Legal Responsibilities • Equity and Access • Campus and External Relations • Diversity • Ethics

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Assessment and Evaluation

Advantages of Centralized Services • More likely to have a critical mass of professional staff • Efficiencies and economies of scale in use of facilities and support staff • Vibrant, challenging environment because of heterogeneity of student population Disadvantages of Centralized Services • May be viewed by students as less personal due to size • May be located farther away from places where students spend most of their time Ten Imperatives for Career Services (Rayman, 1999) • 1: Acknowledge lifelong nature of career development and challenge students to take responsibility for their own career destiny • 2: Accept and embrace technology as an ally in service delivery • 3: Continue to refine and strengthen professional identity • 4: Acknowledge and accept that individual career counseling is at the core or our work Ten Imperatives for Career Services (Rayman, 1999) • 5: Forge relationships with other professionals and parents to achieve a “multiplier effect” • 6: Redouble efforts to meet needs of an increasingly diverse student body • 7: Maintain focus on quality career services while also filling relationship role with corporate America Ten Imperatives for Career Services (Rayman, 1999) • 8: Acknowledge that on-campus recruiting is a thing of the past and develop new approaches • 9: Resolve the nature of the university’s role with alumni, eliciting support rather than providing services to them • 10: Advocate effectively for resources to maintain and increase services and use existing resources efficiently

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Chapter 14 Career Development Interventions in Community Settings Chapter fourteen focuses on a variety of community-based settings for career counselors such as private practice, cyber-counseling, mental health and substance centers, rehabilitation settings, corrections and probation, military settings, job service and one-stop centers, faith-based organizations and other private corporations. The chapter outlines counselor competencies specific to working in these respective community settings.

• • • • •

Frank Parsons’ Bureau in Boston was community-based.

High school guidance was the first counseling specialty to be officially recognized – through the National Defense Education Act of 1958.

The American Personnel and Guidance Association (APGA) was formed in 1952 with four divisions related to career counseling, school counseling, college student personnel work, and counselor education and supervision.

Through its divisions, the American Counseling Association recognizes 21 specialties.

All of these divisions/specialties are comprised of professional counselors who have been trained for competency in eight specific areas.

Training, Certification, and Licensure • Counselor education programs at institutions that train counselors may be approved by the Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs (CACREP).

• Individuals may be certified by the National Board for Certified Counselors (NBCC), which has a requirement of 48 semester hours of course work (60 hours for addiction, mental health, and marital counseling), and a 600 hour supervised internship..

• Counselors must meet the requirements for licensure as defined in their own state’s law. Recently some state boards only license those students from a CACREP-accredited masters program • Many career counselors earn a Certificate of Advanced Study (CAS) or doctoral degree (Ed.D or Ph.D.) with a specialty in career development theory and practice.

Competencies • Community- based counseling is “the application of counseling principles and practices in agency, organization, or individual practice settings that are located in and interact with the surrounding community.” (Hershenson et al., 1996, p. 26) • Community counseling requires at least four additional competencies to that of other counseling specialties – coordination, consultation, advocacy, and case management.

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Coordination • Coordination is a process whereby a counselor brings together the needs of a client and the resources of the community.

• An intake interview can help counselors collect information about the clients’ strengths and barriers • Many individuals who seek out community based career counseling are going through a career transition.

• Career transitions are defined as an event or nonevent that results in a change that is significant enough to cause disruption in one’s usual roles, relationships, and/or routines.

• Schlossberg (1989) outlines a four-step process to help adults manage career transitions: define the situation clearly, learn about the self/inner resources, learn about the support system the client has, and develop a strategy for coping with the present need or transition. Web-based integrated career guidance systems such as Kuder’s Journey (Kuder, Inc., 2011) can help individuals identify needs and barriers. Then the system provides a statespecific list of Web sites that identify community-based sources of assistance in each of the areas identified by the user.

• It is also necessary to identify resources available in the community and become thoroughly knowledgeable about them in order to assist clients to reduce barriers.

• This model involves five steps: 1) identify client needs, 2) match client needs and community resources, 3) introduce the client to these resources, 4) refer the client to identified resources, and 5) follow through with the client and the agency (ies) to which referral was made.

Consultation • Consultation is the work of one professional with another in an attempt to find ways to identify interventions that will address the needs of a third party (the client).

Advocacy • Advocacy is the act of exerting pressure on some aspect of the community in order to improve the resources available to clients.

Advocacy • Advocacy may be exercised through representation on boards of referral agencies, pressing for specific legislation, writing newspaper columns, joining protests of various kinds, writing to legislators, exerting individual influence or making presentation to groups that can have influence.

Case Management • The goal of case management is to assure that a client receives the sequence of services needed in a timely and coordinated fashion.

• Its instrument is the case plan.

• The role of the case manager demands skill in assessment, coordination with 167

referral resources, evaluation of services provided, advocacy for the client, and continual follow-through with the client and the external service providers.

Similarities and Differences in Community-Based Settings • Similarities: o Practice draws on the same base of counseling and career development theories. o Counselors deal with similar client problems across settings.

• Differences: o Clients who seek career counseling in community-based settings are typically adults who have major responsibilities in several life roles such as spouse parent and citizen, in addition to worker o Options clients have for career choice or change are intimately tied to availability of resources and/or dilution of barriers in the community o Counselor may spend as much time with those in the community who are likely to provide resources for a client as with the client. o Counselor tasks include finding resources (such as housing or training opportunities), advocating on behalf of the client, and removing or minimizing barriers. o The skills of coordination, consultation, advocacy and case management may be needed and used more often in community-based settings compared to school settings o Counselors in community settings have varied roles- private practice to government agencies.

Settings for Community-Based Career Counselors • Private practice • The World Wide Web (cybercounseling) • Mental health centers • Substance abuse centers • Rehabilitation settings • Corrections and probation • Military settings • Job Service offices and one-stop centers • Faith-Based Organizations • Corporations and other organizations

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Activities 1. Divide the class into groups. Ask each group to identify one local community agency they will introduce to the class. Their class presentation can include a formal presentation, guest speaker, or a panel of guests.

2. Invite a community-based counselor from any setting described in this chapter to come to class and to cover the following topics: a) description of setting, b) description of types of clients served, c) services provided, d) cost (if any) of services, and e) how clients can be referred to the service.

3. Provide a case study of an adult who comes to a community-based counselor for assistance. Ask students to analyze the case related to the four steps of the Schlossberg model: a) describe the situation, b) identify client’s strengths of personality or character that will help the person through the transition or problem described, c) assess the support system that the client has, and d) develop strategies for dealing with the case.

Discussion 1. How are community agencies – typical sites for a community counselor -funded?

2. In what ways does the work of a community counselor differ from that of a school counselor? College counselor?

3.

What are benefits and limitations of having a private practice in counseling?

4.

What are some of the agencies in our geographic area that are typical of those with which community counselors would collaborate? What types of services do they provide?

5. What is a case management plan, and why is it important?

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Test Bank – Chapter 14 Essay Questions 1. Given this case study (include one), what would a community-based counselor do to meet this client’s needs?

2. Describe competencies that a community-based counselor needs in addition to those for other counseling specialties, and indicate why they are needed.

3. In what ways is the work of a community-based counselor different from that of a counselor in schools or universities?

4. Outline Schlossberg’s four step model for controlling transition effectively.

5. Why is advocacy an important competency for community counselors? Give an example of how advocacy might impact the life of a community counselor’s client.

Multiple Choice 1. The specialty of school counseling was the first to be recognized by legislation. It A. is based on entirely different competencies than community counseling.

B. does not have its own division of the American Counseling Association.

C. was not represented as one of the original four divisions that formed the American Personnel and Guidance Association (APGA).

D. is represented by the American School Counselors Association (ASCA).

2. CACREP is a A. division of the American Counseling Association.

B. body that certifies counselors.

C. body that approves counselor education programs of study.

D. new piece of legislation that protects the confidentiality of clients.

3. As prerequisites to certification, the National Board for Certified Counselors requires A. thirty-six (36) hours of graduate work and a semester of supervised internship,.

B. forty-eight (48) hours of graduate work, two semesters of supervised field experience, two years of post-master’s counseling experience, and passing a national exam.

C. thirty-six (36) hours of graduate work and passing a national certification exam.

D. forty-eight (48) hours of course work and a 600 hour supervised internship.

4. One of the unique features about the work of community-based counselors, compared to other counseling specialties, is that they A. deal primarily with teenagers.

B. make a lot more money.

C. may spend as much time working with community resources as with clients.

D. base their work on different counseling theories.

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5. Schlossberg’s theory is helpful to community counselors because it A. provides a structure for interviewing and doing a case plan.

B. relates primarily to adults.

C. offers a cognitive approach to dealing with problems.

D. does all of the above.

6. Good competency in coordination is required of community counselors because A. there are more things to coordinate for a person who comes for services in the community.

B. the primary task of community counselors it to link clients to services that can meet their needs.

C. the clients they serve are not capable of doing this for themselves.

D. it is one of the 12 basic competencies required of all counselors.

7. Consultation is the process of A. hiring consultants to help with program development or delivery.

B. accepting supervision from a person with more training than you have.

C. working with another professional in order to address the needs of a client.

D. seeking the advice of others about how to deal with a client.

8. Advocacy is an important competency for community-based counselors for all of the following reasons except A. resources for clients are always limited.

B. many clients do not know how to advocate for themselves.

C. all referral agencies make decisions with the best interests of their clients in mind.

D. there are typically more clients than agencies can adequately serve.

9. The primary vehicle for assuring that clients receive the services they need when they need them is A. Schlossberg’s 4-S approach.

B. an action plan.

C. a case management plan.

D. a sequence of consultation activities.

10. A community-based setting that is associated with the U.S. Employment Service is A. the Division of Vocational Rehabilitation.

B. a military post.

C. a community mental health center.

D. a one-stop center.

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11. Types of services in mental health centers are most similar to those in A. private practice.

B. substance abuse centers.

C. rehabilitation settings.

D. military settings.

12. Career development in prison settings focuses on A. a wide range of services.

B. career planning and job placement.

C. assessment, advisement, and individual counseling.

D. on-the-job training.

13. Counselors in mental health centers typically have A. a smaller caseload than those in private practice.

B. more time to spend with clients.

C. reduced responsibility for promotion, marketing, and management.

D. a limited network for consultation and referral.

14. Coordination is the process whereby A. the counselor brings together the needs of a client and the resources of the community.

B. one professional works with another to find ways to reach compromise that will address a client’s needs.

C. pressure is applied to some aspect of the community to improve resources available to the client.

D. clients are assured a sequence of services they need in a timely and integrated fashion.

15. Career counselors in private practice require, to a greater extent than those in other settings, the ability to A. aid in transition situations.

B. facilitate a promotion.

C. make varied resources available.

D. apply business skills.

True-False 1.

There is a special division of the American Counseling Association for counselors who work in community settings.

2.

There is an entirely different set of competencies in which a community-based counselor is trained compared to other specialties of counseling.

3.

A community-based counselor is likely to spend as much time identifying and working with referral agencies as with one-to-one counseling with the client.

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4.

Many individuals who seek out community based career counseling are going through a career transition.

5.

Many corporations employ career counselors to assist their employees with career management.

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Text for PowerPoint (available on website) Introduction • Community-based counseling has had a long struggle for recognition, though Parsons’ Bureau in Boston was community-based.

• School counseling was the first specialty to be recognized -- in the National Defense Education Act of 1958.

Introduction • The American Personnel and Guidance Association (now the American Counseling Association) was formed in 1952 by four specialties, not including community-based.

• ACA currently has 21 specialties Training, Certification, and Licensure • Counselor education programs at institutions that train counselors may be approved by the Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs (CACREP).

• Individuals may be certified by the National Board for Certified Counselors (NBCC), which has a requirement of 48 semester hours of course work (60 hours for addiction, mental health, and marital counseling), and a 600 hour supervised internship.

Training, Certification, and Licensure (cont.)

• Counselors must meet the requirements for licensure as defined in their own state’s law. Recently some state boards only license those students from a CACREP-accredited masters program • Many career counselors earn a Certificate of Advanced Study (CAS) or doctoral degree (Ed.D or Ph.D.) with a specialty in career development theory and practice.

Competencies • Community- based counseling is “the application of counseling principles and practices in agency, organization, or individual practice settings that are located in and interact with the surrounding community.” (Hershenson et al., 1996, p. 26) • Community counseling requires at least four additional competencies to that of other counseling specialties – coordination, consultation, advocacy, and case management.

Coordination • This is a process of bringing together the needs of a client and resources of the community.

• An intake interview can help counselors collect information about the clients’ strengths and barriers • Many individuals who seek out community based career counseling are going through a career transition.

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* Career transitions are defined as an event or nonevent that results in a change that is significant enough to cause disruption in one’s usual roles, relationships, and/or routines.

Managing Career Transitions • Schlossberg’s 4-step model provides a helpful framework for identifying client strengths and barriers: • Define the situation clearly.

• Learn about the self or inner resources the client has • Learn about the support system that does or does not surround the client • Develop a strategy for coping with the present need or transition Identifying Needs and Barriers • Web-based integrated career guidance systems such as Kuder’s Journey (Kuder, Inc., 2011) can help individuals identify needs and barriers.

• The system provides a state-specific list of Web sites that identify communitybased sources of assistance in each of the areas identified by the user.

• It is also necessary to identify resources available in the community and become thoroughly knowledgeable about them in order to assist clients to reduce barriers. * Process for Career Counseling in an Agency Setting • Step 1: Identify client needs.

• Step 2: Match client needs and community resources.

• Step 3: Introduce client to the resources.

• Step 4: Refer the client to identified resources.

• Step 5: Follow through with the client and agency (ies) to which referral was made.

Consultation • Consultation is the work of one professional with another in an attempt to find ways to reach compromise that will address the needs of a third party (the client).

Advocacy • Advocacy is the act of exerting pressure on some aspect of the community in order to improve the resources available to clients.

Ways to Advocate • Serve on boards of agencies, • Press for specific legislation, • Write newspaper columns, • Join protests of various kinds, • Write to legislators, • Educate others (e.g. workshops, presentations)

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Case Management • Its goal is to assure that a client receives the sequence of services needed in a timely and coordinated way.

• Its instrument is the case plan.

• Its tasks include coordinating, sequencing, communicating, and following through.

Community Counseling and Other Specialties • Similarities o Practice draws on the same base of counseling theory. o Counselors deal with similar client problems.

• Differences o Community counselors deal with adults. o Options are limited to those in community. o Counselor may spend equal time with client and resources. o Work setting is the community.

Typical Work Settings • Private practice • The World Wide Web (cybercounseling) • Mental health centers • Substance abuse centers • Rehabilitation settings • Corrections and probations • Job Service offices and one-stop centers • Faith-Based Organizations • Corporations and other organizations

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Chapter 15 Ethical Issues in Career Development Interventions The final chapter addresses ethical issues facing both career counselors and those working in other counseling specialties that do career development work. Students often raise questions regarding whether career work is “real” counseling. This bias towards career work makes the discussion of ethical issues in this arena imperative. Specifically, this chapter adopts the ethical framework provided by the NCDA Code of Ethics (2015) and uses the term “career professional” to refer to all those covered by that code. Content covered in the chapter includes: • •

Common ethical issues that confront career practitioners include the possibility of dual relationships, business ethics, use of the Internet in career services, and training issues.

Counseling behaviors can be separated into four categories: ethical and legal, ethical and illegal, unethical and legal, ad unethical and illegal

Ethical Dilemmas Versus Moral Temptations • It is important to note that not all issues involving ethics or proper behaviors deserve the title “dilemma.” Kidder (1995) contends that an ethical dilemma occurs only in instances when there are competing “rights” or there is a struggle to determine the “least bad” course of action.

• The struggle between right and wrong is seen as a moral temptation.

• The ACA (2014) and NCDA (2015) code of ethics helps guide behavior • A code of ethics cannot guarantee ethical behavior. Moreover, a code of ethics cannot resolve all ethical issues confronting career practitioners.

Using Principles to Resolve Ethical Decisions • VanHoose (1986) recommends that counselors use five principles to guide their professional practice: (1) autonomy, (2) nonmaleficence, (3) beneficence, (4) justice, and (5) fidelity.

• Beauchamp and Childress (2001) identified three principles as relevant for professional-patient relationships: (1) veracity, (2) privacy, and (3) confidentiality.

• Corey and Herily (2006) offer six virtue ethics to consider: (1) discernment or prudence, (2) respectfulness, (3) integrity, (4) self-awareness, (5) acknowledgement of emotions, and (6) connectedness with community.

• ASCA (2010) suggests the following steps should be taken when there is doubt about the ethical behavior of a colleague: o Consult confidentially with a professional colleague o Confront the colleague about the behavior in question o Document all action steps taken o Utilize the established channels for addressing ethical concerns o If the matter remains unresolved, contact the relevant state professional association or national association

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The Role of Values in Defining Career Development Interventions • Values assumptions underlie all questions (and answers) related to ethical behavior in career development interventions.

• Values are orienting beliefs about what is good for the clients and how that good should be achieved (Bergin, 1985, p. 99) • Tjeltveit (1986) recommends strategies career practitioners can use to behave in ways that are sensitive to their clients’ values. These include becoming informed about the variety of values held in society, being aware of one’s own values, being committed to the client’s freedom of choice, respecting differences in values, consulting with others when necessary and referring clients to another counselor when substantial moral, religious, or political value differences exist.

• The ACA Code of Ethics (2014) requires that counseling including career development interventions, requires counselors to be aware of the client’s values and the values embedded in career development intervention models • Herr and Niles (1988) stress that counselors need to be cognizant of the values being propagate at the national level (e.g., career intervention models based on European American values emphasizing individualism do not mesh with family expectations or traditions found in societies in which group decisions are norm and the family is the principle arbiter of appropriate occupational choices) • Because career development interventions promote specific values, national governments vary in their support and expectations of career interventions.

Using Ethical Codes • Most readers of this chapter are, or will be, subject to the ethical codes of the American Counseling Association (2014), the National Career Development Association (2015), the American Psychological Association (2010), the International Association of Educational and Vocational Guidance (1995), and/or the ASCA (2010).

• Complications in determining proper action can arise because the specific requirements of many laws governing counselor behavior are far from clear and the standards of practice incorporated in the regulations of many states are inconsistent with the ethical codes they resemble Progress on Ethical Challenges Facing Career Counselors • Progress is reported on three areas relevant to career professionals: the definition of a career counseling relationship, given the fact that not all career interventions constitute therapy; ethical standards for the appropriate and proper role of those who provide career services but are not professionally trained counselors; and the ethical use of the Internet to provide or enhance services • Standard counseling ethics: confidentiality, counseling relationships, professional responsibilities, and relationships with other professionals are clear; while other ethical requirements are not.

• .The National Career Development Association has developed guidelines for 178

using the Internet in career service delivery (1) to deliver occupational information, (2) to provide on-line job searches, and (3) to deliver interactive career counseling.

The Ethical Standards of the NCDA • The 2015 ethical standards of the NCDA are listed in the chapter: o Section A: The Professional Relationship o Section B: Confidentiality, Privileged Communication, and Privacy o Section C: Professional Responsibility o Section D: Relationships with other Professionals o Section E: Evaluation, Assessment, and Interpretation o Section F: Providing Career Services Online, Technology, and Social Media o Section G: Supervision, Training, and Teaching o Section H: Research and Publication o Section 1: Resolving Ethical Issues • Six critical ethical concepts are listed in the chapter that reflect the ACA and NCDA ethical codes. o Career professionals offer only services they are competent to offer. o Career professionals respect and value individual differences among clients and potential clients. o Career professional treat information received from and about clients as owned by the client and held in trust by the counselor. o The career professional does not engage in any professional relationship in which the counselor’s objectivity and ability to work solely for the welfare of the client might be impaired. o Career professionals assume professional responsibility for clients, and if they are unable to assist, they help the client to obtain alternative services. o Career professionals recognize that they have obligations to other members of the profession and to society to act in responsible ways and to consider the effects of their behavior on others.

• The latest revision of the NCDA (2015) ethical standards recognizes career professionals’ responsibility for advocacy on behalf of their clients and for social justice.

Using an Ethical Decision-Making Model • Forester-Miller and Davis (1996) provide an ethical decision making model for professional counselors that can be applied to career counseling: 1) Identify the problem, 2) Apply the NCDA Code of Ethics, 3) Determine the nature and dimensions of the dilemma, 4) Generate possible courses of action, 5) Consider the potential consequences of all options and choose a course of action, 6) Evaluate the selected course of action, and 7) Implement the course of action selected

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Activities 1. What do you think would be proper behavior of the career counselor faced the following challenges? a. A school counselor has reservations about military service. The father of the client, who the counselor knows to be caring and concerned, asks the counselor about giving his child information about military service as a means to mature and live up to their high potential. The counselor knows the child has high potential but lacks self-discipline. The counselor tends to agree with the father but questions the military as source of that discipline. b. A small career services office counselor helps a second-year 32 year old college student write a resume and then has no further contact with the student until the counselor enrolls in a yoga class in which the student is also enrolled. The student asks the counselor for coffee after class. c. A career counselor in private practice is counseling an executive about her career plans. She shares information about her excitement about an offer she will accept and tells the counselor about the IPO Corporation and the client’s excitement about a position with stock options. The client believes the stock options will multiply over a short-term. The counseling is terminated and the counselor wonders about an investment in IPO. The counselor does not think there is a counseling dilemma because the gain or loss could not affect the terminated counseling relationship. d. A high school counselor meets with a student who is excited about military service due recent advertisements about the military service providing resources for higher education. The student has no resources for further study and no potential family support. The student has great potential but the counselor is concerned about recent press information about the military attitude toward gays and lesbians in military. Rumors about the young person’s sexual orientation abound in the school but the counselor has not information no has the student ever mentioned their sexuality. e. An elementary school counselor is planning career related activities and has arranged a class trip to a large nearby dairy that has supported the school. A parent objects not only to his child’s participation but also to any participation of the school because the parent believes dairy farming is an unethical exploitation of animals. The parent has been written the local press and been on “call in radio” objecting to the school serving milk, in spite of meetings with officials that have demonstrated legal requirement for serving milk in lunch program.

2. Using the cases above. Ask the students to place the issues in the appropriate quadrant in the 2 X 2 matrix presented in this chapter.

3. Role play the cases presented above to practice addressing this ethical concerns with clients.

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Discussion 1. Where do the ethics of our profession come from? How do we know they are “right”?

2. What is the proper course of action if you disagree with an element of the ethical code? What do we do if we have a dilemma and the codes under which we operate disagree?

3. In what ways do values assumptions influence ethical standards?

4. What are the unique ethical dilemma in regards to the Internet? Cybercounseling?

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Test Bank – Chapter 14 Essay Questions 1. How can you increase the probability of engaging in ethical practice as a career counselor?

2. What ethical concerns are associated with using the Internet in career development interventions?

3. According to ASCA (2010) what steps should be taken when there is doubt about the ethical behavior of a colleague?

4. List and define the five guiding principles of professional practice outlined by VanHoose (1986).

5. Provide an ethical case study and have the students respond.

Multiple Choice 1. The 2 x 2 matrix used to classify career practitioners’ actions includes behavior that is A. right and wrong.

B. both moral and legal.

C. true and false.

D. legal and ethical.

2. In terms of legal and ethical issues, consultation is A. a valuable tool to avoid jail and lawsuits.

B. unnecessary, as counselors learn more than they need to know in their classes.

C. a strategy to avoid legal and ethical pitfalls.

D. not important if counselors can prove that they talked to somebody.

3. State laws and ethical standards are congruent A. always.

B. rarely.

C. never .

D. not always.

4. According to Kidder (1995), an “ethical dilemma” involves A. a decision between right and wrong.

B. instances when there are competing ‘rights” or there is a struggle to determine the “least bad” course of action.

C. a decision that can not be boiled down to right and wrong but involves the best choice to make.

D. instances when there are competing “truths” or there is a struggle to determine the best course of action.

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5. Compared to ethical codes or statutes, ethical principles A. are equally helpful.

B. are less helpful.

C. provide a more solid framework for decision making.

D. are less flexible and allow an individual to know exactly what to do in a given situation.

6. Regarding medical ethics, Beauchamp and Childress (2001) address A. veracity, privacy, and confidentiality.

B. veracity, euthanasia, and fidelity.

C. privacy, malpractice, and fidelity.

D. confidentiality, licensing, and fidelity.

7. When questions pertain to proper practice all of the following principles can be used to help career professionals identify appropriate behaviors except: A. respectfulness B. loyalty C. self-awareness D. integrity 8. Related to ethical codes, A. malpractice is increased by the presence of so many sets of ethical codes.

B. malpractice is decreased by the presence of so many sets of ethical codes.

C. it would be desirable (according to the authors) to have one integrated set of ethical codes.

D. there are only two sets of codes that affect counselors.

9. Underlying all questions (and answers) related to ethical and legal behavior in career development interventions are A. legal statutes.

B. values clarifications.

C. moral opinions.

D. values assumptions.

10. When a client’s concerns include depressive feelings, low self-esteem, and other serious mental health issues, career counselors should A. automatically refer the client to a competent mental health professional.

B. assess whether they can adequately deal with the problem at hand or should refer the client to another professional.

C. handle the case as they have been trained to do.

D. assess what the client wants to work on.

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11. Dealing with ethical issues and values, Herr and Niles (1988) stress awareness of all of the following except A. personal values.

B. the client’s values.

C. values being propagated at the national level.

D. values the client and clinician share.

12. Career development programs, initiatives, and interventions typically receive funding A. regardless of the relevant issues because educational bodies understand the importance of their pupils finding work.

B. based on their relative importance at the time.

C. based on their ability to put money back into the educational facility housing the program.

D. based on their size and strength relative to the facility housing the program.

13. The authors suggest a practitioner adequately address the issue of personal competence through A. continuous quality improvement.

B. continuing education.

C. competent referrals.

D. receiving objective consultation.

14. In research settings the federally required body to protect human subjects is the A. institutional review board.

B. judicial review board.

C. institutional subject board.

D. advisory and steering board for research.

15. Susan has a master’s degree in counseling but has been unable to find work. As a result, she has taken a job working at Barnes & Noble making minimum wage. She’s very unhappy and has sought out counseling because she feels depressed. Which of the following would be helpful and ethical to tell Susan as her professional counselor?

A. “As someone who is underemployed, it is understandable that you feel frustrated and unhappy.”

B. “Why are you working at Barnes & Noble when you have a master’s degree?”

C. “What a waste of a degree!”

D. “Let’s discuss how to grieve becoming a counselor and how you can transition to Barnes & Noble.”

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Text for PowerPoint Presentation (available on website) Classifying Practitioner Behavior • Ethical and Legal • Ethical and Illegal • Unethical and Legal • Unethical and Illegal Relevant Ethical Codes for Career Practitioners • American Counseling Association (ACA) • National Career Development Association (NCDA) • American Psychological Association (APA) • International Association of Educational and Vocational Guidance (IAEVG) • American School Counselor Association (ASCA) Ethical “Rules of Thumb” • Dual relationships with the potential to exploit client trust and vulnerability are unethical.

• Consult with professional colleagues who understand career interventions when unsure about how to resolve a dilemma.

• Be aware of client’s values and those imbedded in career intervention models.

Ethical Dilemmas vs. Moral Temptations • Kidder (1995) contends that an ethical dilemma occurs only in instances when there are competing “rights” or there is a struggle to determine the “least bad” course of action.

• The struggle between right and wrong is seen as a moral temptation.

• A code of ethics cannot guarantee ethical behavior. Moreover, a code of ethics cannot resolve all ethical issues confronting career practitioners.

Using Principles to Resolve Ethical Decisions • Van Hoose (1986) recommended that counselors use ACA’s five principles to guide their ethical practice: o Autonomy o Nonmaleficence o Beneficence o Justice o Fidelity (Herlihy & Corey, 1996, p. 4-5) Additional Principles • Beauchamp and Childress (2001) identified additional relevant principles to guide professional-client relationships: o Veracity: Tell the truth and do not lie or deceive others. o Privacy: Allow individuals to limit access to information about

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themselves. o Confidentiality: Allow individuals to control access to information they have shared.

Virtue Ethics • Corey and Herily (2006) offer six virtue ethics to consider: o discernment or prudence, o respectfulness, o integrity, o self-awareness, o acknowledgement of emotions, o connectedness with community.

ASCA (2010) Ethical Dilemma Process • Consult confidentially with a professional colleague • Confront the colleague about the behavior in question • Document all action steps taken • Utilize the established channels for addressing ethical concerns • If the matter remains unresolved, contact the relevant state professional association or national association The Role of Values • Values assumptions underlie all questions (and answers) related to ethical behavior in career development interventions.

• Values are orienting beliefs about what is good for the clients and how that good should be achieved (Bergin, 1985, p. 99) • The ACA Code of Ethics (2014) requires counselors to be aware of the client’s values and the values embedded in career development intervention models • Herr and Niles (1988) stress that counselors need to be cognizant of the values being propagate at the national level Progress on Ethical Challenges Facing Career Counselors • Standard counseling ethics: confidentiality, counseling relationships, professional responsibilities, and relationships with other professionals are clear; while other ethical requirements are not.

• The National Career Development Association has developed guidelines for using the Internet in career service delivery (1) to deliver occupational information, (2) to provide on-line job searches, and (3) to deliver interactive career counseling.

• The latest revision of the NCDA (2015) ethical standards recognizes career professionals’ responsibility for advocacy on behalf of their clients and for social justice NCDA Ethical Standards (2015) • Section A: The Professional Relationship • Section B: Confidentiality, Privileged Communication, and Privacy

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• • • • • • •

Section C: Professional Responsibility Section D: Relationships with other Professionals Section E: Evaluation, Assessment, and Interpretation Section F: Providing Career Services Online, Technology, and Social Media Section G: Supervision, Training, and Teaching Section H: Research and Publication Section 1: Resolving Ethical Issues

Ethical Standards and Ethical Practice for Career Counselors • Offer only services they are competent to offer.

• Respect and value individual differences among clients and potential clients.

• Treat information received from and about clients as owned by the client and held in trust by the counselor.

Ethical Standards, continued • Do not engage in any professional relationship in which the counselor’s objectivity and ability to work for client’s welfare might be impaired.

• Assume professional responsibility for clients and, if unable to assist, help the client obtain alternative services.

• Recognize that you have obligations to other members of the profession and to society to act in responsible ways and to consider the effects of their behavior on others.

Using an Ethical Decision-Making Model • Forester-Miller and Davis (1996) provide an ethical decision making model for professional counselors that can be applied to career counseling: o Step 1: Identify the problem o Step 2: Apply the NCDA Code of Ethics o Step 3: Determine the nature and dimensions of the dilemma Using an Ethical Decision-Making Model (Continued) • Step 4: Generate possible courses of action • Step 5: Consider the potential consequences of all options and choose a course of action • Step 6: Evaluate the selected course of action • Step 7: Implement the course of action selected

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Answer Key Chapter 1— CORRECT ANSWERS 1. D 2. C 3. D 4. B 5. C

6. A 7. A 8. B 9. D 10. A

11. D 12. C 13. D 14. A 15. C

Chapter 2— CORRECT ANSWERS: 1. C 2. D 3. B 4. D 5. C

6. D 7. D 8. A 9. C 10. C

11. D 12. D 13. D 14. C 15. C

Chapter 3— CORRECT ANSWERS: 1. D 2. D 3. A 4. C 5. C

6. B 7. A 8. C 9. A 10. C

11. D 12. B 13. A 14. C 15. B

Chapter 4— CORRECT ANSWERS: 1. D 2. C 3. A 4. C 5. C

6. D 7. D 8. C 9. D 10. A

11. D 12. D 13. D 14. D 15. B 16. C

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Chapter 5— CORRECT ANSWERS: 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

B B D D B

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

F F T T T

6. D 7. D 8. B 9. C 10. A

11. B 12. B 13. C 14. D 15. D

Chapter 6— CORRECT ANSWERS 1. B 2. B 3. C 4. C 5. D

6. D 7. D 8. D 9. D 10. A

11. C 12. B 13. C 14. C 15. D

6. C 7. A 8. D 9. A 10. C

11. D 12. A 13. C 14. D 15. D

1. F 2. F 3. T 4. T 5. T Chapter 7— CORRECT ANSWERS 1. A 2. C 3. B 4. B 5. B 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

T T F F F

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Chapter 8— CORRECT ANSWERS: 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

D A D A A

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

D B C C C

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

B D C D A

Chapter 9— CORRECT ANSWERS: 1. D 2. B 3. D 4. C 5. C

6. A 7. B 8. C 9. B 10. D

11. A 12. B 13. A 14. D 15. B

1. T 2. F 3. T 4. F 5. T 6. T 7. T 8. F 9. T 10. T Chapter 10— CORRECT ANSWERS 1.

D 2.

D 3.

A 4.

A 5.

D

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

B D A C C

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11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

B B D D B

Chapter 11— CORRECT ANSWERS 1.

D 2.

C 3.

B 4.

A 5.

C

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

A B A D B

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

C C B D C

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

A B A C B

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

F T T F T

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

D D C C D

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

C B D D B

Chapter 12— CORRECT ANSWERS 1.

D 2.

C 3.

B 4.

A 5.

C

Chapter 13— CORRECT ANSWERS 1.

C 2.

D 3.

A 4.

C 5.

B Chapter 14— CORRECT ANSWERS: 1. A 2. C 3. D 4. C 5. D 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6. B 7. C 8. C 9. C 10. D

11. A 12. B 13. C 14. A 15. D

T F T T T

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Chapter 15— CORRECT ANSWERS 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

D C D B C

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

A B C D B

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11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

D B D A A