Assessing Students with Special Needs, 8th edition James A McLoughlin Instructor Manual and Test Ban

Type:

Instructor Manual and Test Bank

Resource:

Assessing Students with Special Needs

Edition:

8th Edition

Author(s):

James A. McLoughlin Rena B. Lewis Effie P. Kritikos

Instructor’s Manual and Test Bank to accompany

Assessing Students with Special Needs Eighth Edition Effie P. Kritikos, Northeastern Illinois University James A. McLoughlin, Cleveland State University Rena B. Lewis, San Diego State University

Table of Contents Chapter 1: Special Education Assessment

1

Chapter 2: The Assessment Process

15

Chapter 3: Including Parents and Families in the Assessment Process

31

Chapter 4: Selection of Assessment Tools to Promote Fair Assessment

44

Chapter 5: Standardized Tests

59

Chapter 6: Classroom Assessment

75

Chapter 7: Intellectual Performance

93

Chapter 8: Adaptive Behavior

106

Chapter 9: Learning Disabilities

114

Chapter 10: Classroom Behavior and Behavioral Disorders

130

Chapter 11: Academic Achievement

145

Chapter 12: English Language Learners

162

Chapter 13: Reading

169

Chapter 14: Mathematics

185

Chapter 15: Writing and Oral Language

199

Chapter 16: Early Childhood Assessment

220

Chapter 17: Assessment for Transition and Planning

236

iii .

Chapter 1 Special Education Assessment OVERVIEW Special education assessment is an on-going, systematic process of gathering educationally relevant information to make important decisions about the provision of special education services. The need for assessment information is present throughout the entire process of special education service delivery. For example, in order to receive special education services, it must be determined if the student meets legal criteria for eligibility of special education services. Once found eligible for special education, an appropriate program and placement must be identified for the student. Assessment information is an integral part of making these types of decisions.

The assessment tools currently available include a variety of standardized tests and also informal procedures. Depending upon the stated purpose of the assessment, some combinations of these techniques are used. In this textbook students with mild disabilities are the focus, although both formal and informal procedures and strategies can be used with all students. A team of professionals implements the assessment process with the special educator playing a central role.

Educational assessment questions are used to structure the assessment process. That is, they guide the choice of assessment procedures and the ultimate use of the information that is gathered.

OUTLINE I.

Definition of Assessment A. Basic considerations 1. Special education assessment is an ongoing process 2. Special education assessment is systematic 3.

B.

Special education assessment focuses on the collection of educationally relevant information 4. Special education assessment is purposeful 5. Special education assessment extends beyond the school years Assessment, testing, and diagnosis are not synonymous 1. Tests are one type of assessment technique 2. Assessment, in contrast to testing, is a much broader term 3. Diagnosis is a term borrowed from the medical profession 1 .

II.

Assessment Past and Present A. Influences on educational assessment practices 1. In the 1900’s assessment techniques were developed in part through the work of Binet and others 2. Controversy over the nature of intelligence 3. Work in other fields a. Medicine b. Anthropology c. Sociology 4.

B.

III.

IV.

After World War II, services for individuals with disabilities were expanded

a. Individual tests developed b. Abuses of assessment 5. PL 94-142 and PL 108-446 (IDEA 2004) 6. Trends within the fields of education and special education Status of educational assessment today 1.

The challenge of appropriate procedures to assess culturally and linguistically diverse students 2.

Assessing students across multiple environments

3.

Assessment connected to academic standards 4.

Implementation of the No Child Left Behind Initiative Four Purposes of Assessment A. Identification and referral 1. Screening 2. Prereferral strategies B. Determination of eligibility C. Program planning D. Program implementation and evaluation Types of Assessment Procedures A. Formal assessment strategies 1. Structured assessment procedures with specific guidelines for administration, scoring, and interpretation a. Norm-referenced tests 1)

Group administered tests a. Often penalize students with disabilities b. Commonly used in the general education environment 2

.

2)

V.

Individually administered tests a. Preferred for use in special education B. Informal assessment procedures 1. Less structured or differently structured from standardized tests 2. Results can be expressed in instructional terms 3. Connected to curriculum Students with Special Needs A. Definition of “child with a disability” by IDEA 2004 1. Expanded to include children (ages 3-9) with developmental delays 2.

VI.

Expanded Other Health Impaired (OHI) to include students with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and ADD (Attention

Deficit Disorder) B. Emphasis of this book on three groups of students with mild disabilities 1. Students with mild intellectual disabilities 2. Students with emotional disturbance 3. Students with learning disabilities Collaboration and the Team Approach A. Team decisions are federally mandated by IDEA and its amendments for many decision made in special education 1.

2.

3.

4.

B.

Evaluation for eligibility IEP formulation Evaluation and modification of IEP Periodic review of the need for special education placement and related services Membership from various disciplines 1. School personnel 2. Families and students 3. School support personnel 4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

Medical personnel Social workers and counselors Transitional specialists Motor skill specialists Other personnel

3 .

C.

Purpose of the team approach 1. Combines skills, knowledge, experience and expertise 2. More objective VII. A Framework for Special Education Assessment A. Five major assessment questions 1. Is there a school performance problem?

2. Is the school performance problem related to a disability?

3. What are the student's educational needs?

4. What educational program is required to meet those needs?

5.

How effective is the educational program?

KEY TERMS assessment individualized education program (IEP) individual transition plan (ITP) individual family service plan (IFSP) prereferral strategies

formal assessment standardized tests norm-referenced tests informal assessment mild disabilities

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1.

Discuss the impact that PL 108-446 (IDEA 2004) has had on assessment procedures and practices.

2.

Compare and contrast formal and informal strategies of assessment delineating purposes and specific examples of each.

3.

Educational assessment is used throughout every phase of the special education program for students with disabilities. Discuss the purposes of assessment from the first indication of a learning problem to its successful remediation.

4.

With increased focus on state standards and high-stakes testing for students with disabilities, how will special educators need to change assessment practices and instructional strategies?

5.

Assessment data are used to make both legal and instructional decisions. What types of assessment procedures lend themselves to legal decisions and what types lend themselves to instructional decisions?

4 .

ACTIVITIES 1.

Interview a parent of a child receiving special education services. Ask them to discuss their part in the assessment process initially and currently.

2.

Present a case study of a child with a probable disability. Divide the class into groups and have each group independently select assessment objectives, procedures, and evaluation methods. Share the results and discuss differences.

3.

Role-play a team staffing for a child recently assessed. Provide information to team members for each of their areas of expertise. The team will then attempt to determine the student's eligibility for special education services.

STUDY GUIDE REVIEW QUESTIONS 1.

2.

3.

Define special education assessment.

Differentiate between the terms: assessment, testing, and diagnosis.

The purpose of assigning labels to students is to diagnose the causes of students’ disabilities. (True or False) 4. Identify at least 3 disciplines that have shaped assessment practices and describe the impact of each.

5. Name the four main purposes of special education assessment.

6. Indicate whether each of the following is a formal or informal assessment strategy. a. Observations of students with behavior problems b. Teacher made quiz c. Norm-referenced test of achievement d. Group test of academic achievement 7. Students with disabilities tend to show better performance on group tests than on individual tests. (True or False) 8. Name the disabilities that are considered “mild disabilities”.

9. The team approach is recommended in federal special education law but is not required. (True or False) 10. Match the team member in Column A with the type of information he or she contributes to assessment in Column B. Column A a. Parent b. Assistive technology specialists c. School psychologist d. Speech-language pathologist e. Educator f.

School Nurse

5 .

Column B a. Assistive technology needs b. Vision and hearing c. Academic performance d. Developmental and health histories e. Oral language skills f.

Current intellectual performance 11. Match the assessment question or questions in Column A with the assessment team’s task in Column B. Column A a. Is there a school performance problem? b. Is the school performance problem related to a disability? c. What are the student’s educational needs? d. What educational program is required to meet those needs? e. How effective is the educational program?

Column B a. Developing annual goals and short-term objectives b. Deciding if the student is eligible for special education services c. Considering special factors such as the need for assistive technology devices and services and the language needs of students with limited proficiency in English d. Determining if the student is making progress toward the annual goals e. Assessing the student’s current intellectual performance f.

Examining the relationship of learning problems to classroom demands g. Selecting the types of special education services to provide to the students h. Describing the student’s strengths and needs in reading, mathematics, written language, and other school skills 12. At what age must the IEP contain appropriate postsecondary goals and a description of the transition services needed to attain those goals?

13. Describe the change made in IDEA 2004 related to the requirement for annual goals and short-term objectives.

14. Name at least two types of supplementary aids, services, and supports that might be provided in general education classes to assist students with disabilities.

15. Parents of children with disabilities must receive progress reports on their students’ performances at least as often as parents of students without disabilities. (True or False)

6 .

ANSWERS TO STUDY GUIDE REVIEW QUESTIONS 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

Special education assessment is the systematic process of gathering educationally relevant information to make legal and instructional decisions about the provision of special services.

Assessment is the systematic process of gathering educationally relevant information to make legal and instructional decisions. Tests are one type of assessment technique. Diagnosis is a term borrowed from the medical profession.

Diagnosis is identifying the cause of an illness or condition.

False Education, psychology, medicine, behavioral psychology, anthropology, and sociology Identification and referral, determination of eligibility, program planning, program implementation and evaluation a. informal b. informal c. formal, d. formal False Intellectual disabilities, emotional disturbance, and learning disabilities False a-d; b-a; c-f; d-e; e-c; f-b a-; b-b,e ; c-f,h; d-a,c,g; e-d 16 IEP’s must include measurable, annual goals. Short-term objectives are no longer required be federal law. consultation to general educator, special materials, modification of tests, in-class instruction by special educator True

7 .

Test Items for Chapter 1 MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS 1.

Which of the following is not a purpose of educational assessment? a. Program planning b. Determining eligibility for special education services c. Establishing the cause of a disability d. Monitoring student progress

2.

Norm-referenced tests are designed to a. compare a student’s performance to the student’s own past performance b. compare a student’s performance to other student’s in the classroom c. compare a student’s performance to a curriculum goal d. compare a student’s performance to the performance of a normative sample

3.

The team approach is a. generally not used in special education b. mandated by federal laws such as PL 94-142 and IDEA c. a relatively new phenomenon in education d. not necessary when students are re-evaluated for special education placement

4.

All of the following are major considerations in the assessment of students with disabilities except a. Is the school performance problem related to a disability? b. What are the student's educational needs? c. Is there a school performance problem? d. What is the etiology of the disability?

5.

Which of the following is not a goal included in IDEA 2004? a. Consideration of behavioral interventions and supports needed by students with disabilities. b. The need for assistive technology devices and services must be explored. c. Assessment of all student using assessment tools in the English language d. Mandated due process procedures to protect parents and their students.

6.

Norm-referenced tests are a. considered informal assessment tools b. used to compare a student's performance with that of persons in the test's normative group c. the best type of measure for all assessment purposes d. always discriminatory

8 .

7.

Special education assessment a. occurs at one point in time during the school year b. only needs to occur before and after instruction c. is an ongoing process d. none of the above

8.

According to federal laws, IEPs for students with disabilities must be reviewed at least a. biannually b. quarterly c. annually d. every three years

9.

Educational assessment, testing, and diagnosis are a. related but not synonymous b. procedures used only with students currently receiving special education services c. designed to help label students with a disability d. performed only by school psychologists

10. Controversy over the nature of intelligence centers on whether intelligence is a. testable b. one factor or many c. changeable d. answers b and c 11. To receive special education services, a student must a. confer with his or her parents, teacher, and the school social worker b. show evidence of a behavior problem c. meet both federal and state eligibility requirements d. perform poorly in reading 12. Which statement best describes formal tests? a. There are explicit directions for administration and scoring. b. They are administered individually. c. Observation is one example. d. They are criterion-referenced.

13. Supplementary aids, services, modifications and supports are a. intended to make educational environments more accessible to students with disabilities b. intended to enhance the home environments of students with disabilities c. intended to allow student with disabilities to be educated with students without disabilities to the maximum extent appropriate d. both a and c

9 .

14. Which of the following statements is false? a. Federal law mandates a multidisciplinary assessment team. b. Educational assessment is concerned only with students in kindergarten through grade 12. c. The IEP is a plan for the student's special education program. d. One major purpose of assessment is identification of the student's specific educational needs.

15. Individually administered tests are usually preferred for the assessment of students with disabilities because a. they usually required fewer prerequisite skills such as writing b. they permit the development of rapport between the student and the assessor c. they measure individual skills separately d. all of the above 16. Informal assessment procedures a. compare a student’s performance to a normative group b. are typically commercially prepared c. have standardized administration, scoring, and interpretation procedures d. have a clear connection to the curriculum of students 17. According to IDEA 2004, students with ADD and ADHD a. are not eligible for special education services b. may qualify for special education services under the disability category “learning disabilities” c. may qualify for special education services under the disability category “other health impairments” d. none of the above 18. Which professional would be responsible for gathering assessment information about the student's academic performance? a. Adaptive physical education teacher b. School psychologist c. Speech-language clinician d. Educator 19. Curriculum-based assessments include a. criterion-referenced assessment b. curriculum-based measurement c. portfolios d. all of the above

10 .

20. Which of the following is not an abuse of assessment procedures? a. comparing a student's performance to peers in his or her classroom b. administration by untrained or poorly trained individuals c. using tests that are not in the student’s primary language d. inappropriate use of results 21. Educational decision-making teams a. should include representatives from every discipline b. should include various individuals depending on the needs of the student c. should include various individuals based on the type of decision being made by the team d. b and c are correct 22. The professional(s) who gather(s) assessment information about motor development include a. adaptive physical education teachers b. physical therapists c. occupational therapists d. all of the above 23. The assessment question used to guide the team in gathering information to design the student's IEP is a. Is the school performance problem related to a disability? b. What are the student's educational needs? c. Is there a school performance problem? d. What educational program is required to meet the student’s needs?

24. Students’ eligibility for special education services must be evaluated a. every year b. every two years c. every three years d. only once 25. For young children to qualify for special education services, delays must be documented in one of more of the following areas a. physical, cognitive, communication, social or emotional, or adaptive development b. physical, cognitive, communication, basic academic skills, or adaptive development c. physical, cognitive, personality, social or emotional, or adaptive development d. none of the above

11 .

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS 1.

IDEA 2004 requires teams of people to make four types of decisions regarding the provision of special education services. List these four decisions.

2.

The intent of laws such as PL 94-142 and IDEA 2004 is to involve students and their parents in the decision-making process. Describe the unique perspective parents can offer to educational decision-making teams.

3.

Educational assessment is the systematic process of gathering information to make___________________ and ___________________ decisions.

4.

List the disability categories that are considered “mild disabilities”.

5.

List 2 of the 4 major goals of the education initiative, “No Child Left Behind”.

ESSAY QUESTIONS 1.

Assessment is an important skill for all teachers. Why is it a particularly important skill for special education teachers?

2.

Assessment practices have changed from focusing on students and their deficits to focusing on students’ performances in the school environment. What are the benefits of this change in focus for students?

3.

Why is it important to use formal and informal assessment procedures for the various decisions made in special education?

4.

Elaborate on this statement: Assessment does not end when instruction begins.

5.

Three important members of the assessment team are the parents, students and general education teachers. How does each of their perspectives add to the thoroughness of the assessment process?

12 .

Answer Key for Chapter 1 Answers to Multiple Choice Questions for Chapter 1 1.

C

2.

D

3.

B

4.

D

5.

C

6.

B

7.

C

8.

C

9.

A

10. D 11. C 12. A 13. D 14. B 15. D 16. D 17. C 18. D 19. D 20. A 21. D

13 .

22. D 23. D 24. C 25. A Answers to Short Answer Questions for Chapter 1 1.

Evaluation of the eligibility of students for special education and related services.

Formulation of Individualized Education Programs (IEP’s).

Evaluation and modification of IEP’s Periodic review of the need for special education and related services

2.

Parents have a unique perspective of the student’s performance because their observations take place in the home, neighborhood, and community. Parents can also contribute information about the student’s past educational experiences, health history, and progress through the stages of development.

3.

legal; instructional

4.

Intellectual disabilities, emotional disturbance, and learning disabilities

5.

Two of the following: Increase accountability for student performance Focus on what works Reduce bureaucracy and increase flexibility Empower parents

14 .

Chapter 2 The Assessment Process OVERVIEW Educational assessments are performed to gather data in order to make important educational decisions. This chapter describes the legal and instructional decisions typically considered in serving students with disabilities, particularly as these decisions relate to the types of data needed and the strategies used. The assessment process is a systematic step-by-step procedure beginning with the identification of a potential problem and attempts to remedy that problem through prereferral interventions in the student’s classroom. If these attempts are not successful, the student is referred for special education assessment. Before the assessment begins, the assessment team develops an individualized assessment plan based on important assessment questions for each stage of the assessment process. When assessment results become available, the team reports and discusses them with the student's parents. Then, parents and professionals make decisions about educational and other needs and whether special education services are indicated. The student’s progress in the program is monitored and the program evaluated at least once each year.

OUTLINE I.

Special Education Assessment: Making Two Types of Decisions A. Legal decisions 1. Determination of eligibility 2. Reevaluation of eligibility 3. Two major eligibility criteria a. The student is determined to have a disability. b. The disability has an adverse effect on the student’s educational performance.

4.

5.

Each disability category is defined by federal laws and state regulations Legal decisions about mild disabilities require the contributions of several team members Most states require the assessment of general intellectual performance, educational performance, and performance related to the specific disability Eligibility decisions rely heavily on norm-referenced tests

6.

7.

15 .

8.

B.

Informal assessment procedures help confirm the results of normreferenced tests Instructional decisions 1. Preparation of IEP a. Establish current levels of performance in important skill areas b. Establish annual goals and short term objectives of the program c. Select appropriate services and curricular modification d. Agree on suitable evaluation plan 2. Throughout the school year a.

II.

Frequent, ongoing data collection to make decisions about instructional methods, curricular content, and overall effectiveness

using formal and informal tests Steps in the Assessment Process A. Identification and Referral 1. Screening and teacher identification of students with school problems a. Child find activities conducted by state education agencies, school districts, and other educational agencies b. Prereferral by teachers or other members of the community 2. Prereferral strategies a.

Minor issues may be resolved by simple adaptations in the general classroom b. Identify sources outside of special education, which may assist the student such as peer tutoring c. Pre-referral information informs the special education team Referral to Special Education and Parent Notification a. Parents are informed in writing of the referral, provided with a copy of their rights, and asked to provide written consent to assess for the determination of eligibility

3.

b.

A parent or surrogate parent may represent the student

16 .

B.

Determination of Eligibility 1. Design of the Individualized Assessment Plan (IAP) a. Reflects reason for referral b. Concentrates primarily on educational concerns: student’s skills and abilities, general education curriculum causing difficulty and the learning environment c. May consider physical, social, and cultural characteristics of the student d. Developed by assessment questions which progress from general to specific e. f.

Formal and informal procedures are included A team of qualified professionals, including the student’s parent(s),

assessed gathers assessment information for the determination of eligibility g. Assessment information needs to be gathered to determine eligibility and conduct program planning Parental permission for assessment a. Written notice of assessment must be given to parents in their native language

2.

b.

Written permission for assessment to determine eligibility is required Administration, scoring, and interpretation of assessment procedures a. Formal tests must be administered by trained professionals b. Informal tests governed by good practice Reporting results a. Parents must have assessment results reported to them b. Parents have access to all school records and must be informed of this right c. Parents must be given information on how to obtain an independent

3.

4.

educational evaluation Decisions about eligibility a. Assessment results are compared to criteria for eligibility for special education services b. A disability may or may not be identified

5.

17 .

C.

Program planning 1. Design of the Individualized Education Plan (IEP) a. Team approach is used in making decisions b. Parents are encouraged to participate fully in the development of the IEP 2. Basic features of the IEP a. Present levels of educational achievement and functional performance b. Annual goals and short-term objectives c. d.

Type of special education program and/or related service Extent to which student will not participate with students without

disabilities in general education settings e. Procedures for participation in state- and district-wide assessments f.

Strategies for measuring progress and informing parents g. Transition services (as appropriate) h. Special factors such as behavioral needs or assistive technology devices The least restrictive environment (LRE) must be identified Parental agreement to the IEP

3.

4.

a. b.

D.

Parents must sign the IEP to grant permission for placement If parents disagree, they are entitled to mediation and/or an impartial due process hearing Program implementation and monitoring 1. IEP implementation and ongoing progress monitoring a. Implemented the IEP as soon as possible b. All persons delivering services must have a copy of the IEP c. Generally informal assessments are used to monitor progress d. District-wide assessments can be administered as given in general education, or with modifications or alternative assessments can be given as described in the IEP

18 .

2.

Annual review of the IEP a. Formal or informal assessments are used to report progress for the purpose of continuing, modifying, or discontinuing the program b. IDEA 2004 authorizes a feasibility study of multiyear IEP’s in a limited number of states Periodic reevaluation of eligibility a. Required at least every 3 years

3.

KEY TERMS

individualized education program (IEP) due process individualized assessment plan (IAP) least restrictive environment (LRE)

curriculum-based assessments curriculum-based measurement (CBM) response to intervention (RTI)

19 .

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1.

Define least restrictive environment and discuss this concept as it relates to the models of delivery for special services.

2.

Discuss the various steps of the assessment process and relevance of parental participation in each step.

3.

Discuss the eight basic components of the IEP and give examples of each.

4.

Discuss ways in which due process procedures safeguard the rights of students with disabilities.

5.

Discuss the importance of prereferral strategies and how implementation and duration of modifications affect the number and types of referrals to special education.

ACTIVITIES 1.

Interview a member of the local school district's assessment team regarding Individualized Assessment Plans and their use in the district. If possible, obtain a copy of the guidelines they use to develop an assessment plan.

2.

Provide a case study of a child including the assessment plan and the results.

Develop the IEP in class.

3.

Write the state department and obtain information about the process of appointing surrogate parents. If possible, interview a surrogate parent.

4.

Contact at least 2 local school districts and get copies of all forms used in the assessment process. Compare the similarities and differences across forms used in the various districts.

20 .

STUDY GUIDE REVIEW QUESTIONS 1.

2.

3.

Special education assessment provides information for two types of decision:________ decisions and __________decisions.

Informal assessment procedure are preferred for __________decisions, and formal procedures are preferred for _________decisions.

Place these steps in the assessment process in order. Write ‘1’ before the step that occurs first, ‘2’ before the step that occurs second, and so on.

____Parental permission for assessment ____Eligibility ____Screening ____Annual review of the IEP ____Referral ____Design of the IEP ____Design of the IAP ____Prereferral intervention ____Reevaluation of eligibility ____Parental approval of the IEP 4.

5.

6.

IAP stands for ________ _________ __________.

The three areas of functioning that are assessed when mild disabilities are suspected are general intellectual performance, __________ performance, and index of the _________.

Decide whether each of the following statements about the rights of parents is true or false.

____Parents must be notified in writing when their child has been referred for special education assessment. ____Parents must give their consent for special education assessment. ____Parents can examine only those portions of their child’s school records that are not confidential. ____Parents who disagree with a decision of the school can request an impartial due process hearing. ____Parents must be informed of the results of eligibility decisions. ____Parents must obtain a judge’s order before they can obtain an independent educational evaluation of their child.

7.

8.

9.

If a student’s parents are not available, a surrogate parent can be appointed to represent the student’s interest. (True or False) Give three examples of Prereferral Intervention strategies.

According to federal law, only formal assessment procedures can be listed on the IAP. (True or False)

10. Districts have the right to bar students with disabilities from participation in state- or district-wide assessments of student achievement. (True or False) 21 .

11. The IEP team contains the same members as the team responsible for eligibility determination. (True or False) 12. Match the IEP requirements in Column A with the examples in Column B. Column A a. Present levels of educational performance b. Annual goals and objectives c. Special Education and related services d. Supplementary aids, services, modifications, and supports e. Strategies for measuring progress Column B ____Jon will receive assistance from the resource teacher in reading for 30 minutes 3 days a week ____Portfolio assessment of students’ work samples and teacher observation ____Yvonne is achieving at grade level in all subjects except mathematics ____Rose will write a complete sentence beginning with a capital letter and ending with appropriate punctuation ____Louie has significant problems in spelling and written expression ____Increase oral reading skills to the grade 3 level ____Dirk will use books on tape for seventh grade English 13. According to the Least Restrictive Environment principle, students with disabilities should be educated with students without disabilities ___________.

14. When parents and the school disagree over one or more aspects of the IEP, the first step is _________________.

15. A review of a student’s eligibility for special education services must be held ________ years.

22 .

ANSWERS TO STUDY GUIDE REVIEW QUESTIONS 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

Legal, instructional instructional, legal 5, 6, 1, 9, 3, 7, 4, 2, 10, 8 Individualized Assessment Plan educational, disability true, true, false, true, true, false True Conferences with students and parents, review of educational records, changes in the classroom environment, instructional modification, changes in behavior management. false false true c, e, a, b, a, b, d to the maximum extent appropriate mediation 3

23 .

Test Items for Chapter 2 MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS 1.

Eligibility for special education services must be re-evaluated every a. two years b. three years c. four years d. year

2.

An IEP must be developed a. before meeting with the parents b. within 15 days after placement c. within 30 days after placement d. before the student begins to receive special services

3.

Informal assessment procedures are used for all of the following purposes except a. to evaluate the special education program b. to determine general intellectual functioning c. to make instructional decisions d. to collect ongoing data frequently

4.

A surrogate parent can be a. assigned by the state to represent the student b. assigned by the school system to represent the student c. an employee of the school district d. assigned to represent the student even if the parents are available

5.

Parents of students who have been assessed a. must have results reported to them if the child is eligible for special services b. must have results reported to them if the child is not eligible for special services c. must give permission before the child is placed in special education d. all of the above

6.

An impartial due process hearing a. may be requested by the parents but not the school system b. may be requested by the school system but not by the parents c. may be requested by either the parents or the school system d. none of the above

7.

An IEP includes all of the following except a plan for a. an individualized curriculum b. termination of services c. evaluation of student progress d. implementation of services 24 .

8.

Placement in the least restrictive environment refers to a. the type of curriculum used in special education b. the severity of the disability c. the length of time special services will be needed d. the type of class or classes in which the student is placed

9.

The Individual Assessment Plan is concerned with a. specific learning tasks b. the student's skills and abilities c. learning environment d. all of the above

10. Determining whether a student is eligible for special education is a(n) a. instructional decision b. legal decision c. medical decision d. evaluation decision 11. To document the presence of intellectual disabilities, it is necessary to identify: a. low to average intellectual performance b. above average to high average intellectual performance c. very low to low average intellectual performance d. no measure of intellectual performance must be made 12. To establish eligibility for services for students with intellectual disabilities, it is necessary to show a significantly reduced rate of learning as well as a. poor school achievement b. impaired adaptive behavior c. perceptual problems d. both a and b 13. An IEP must be written when a. a student is found eligible for special education b. a teacher refers a student for special education assessment c. a parent requests an IEP for his or her child d. norm-referenced testing begins 14. When requesting parental permission for assessment for the determination of eligibility a. the request must be clearly written in understandable language b. the request must be translated into the parents’ native language, if needed c. the educational agency needs to carefully document that they have followed legal procedures d. all of the above are applicable to requesting parental permission for assessment

25 .

15. Which step in the assessment process follows design of the IAP? a. Referral b. Parental permission for assessment c. Reporting results d. Deciding eligibility for special education 16. To encourage parents to attend IEP meetings, districts must a. conduct meetings in the parents' home b. provide babysitters c. make interpreters available to parents who do not speak English d. provide transportation to and from the meetings 17. The IEP must include a. annual goals and objectives for the student's program b. estimated costs of providing services to the student c. a schedule for phasing the student back into the general education classroom d. all of the above 18. Each model of service delivery has both pros and cons. However, one main goal is to place the student a. in a special education program b. in a school near to the student's home c. in the least restrictive environment d. with a teacher who volunteers to instruct students with disabilities 19. When parents and the school disagree about a child's placement, hearings are held and the child a. remains in his or her current placement b. is placed in a regular classroom with peers of the same skill level c. is moved to a special school d. is placed in a regular classroom with peers of the same age 20. Assessment involves a. the systematic gathering of information b. design of an IAP to guide the data collection process c. the use of both formal and informal tools d. all of the above 21. A continuum of alternative placements refers to: a. the various settings where services are provided b. the individualized goals for a student c. the resource room d. none of the above

26 .

22.

The results of assessments collected for the determination of eligibility must inform parents: a. whether or not the student is found eligible b. the cause of the student’s identified disability c. the people who will provide services d. a and b

23.

Instructional decisions include all of the following except: a. development of an IEP b. evaluation of student progress toward annual goals c. determination of eligibility d. revision of the IEP

24.

An IAP is: a. an individualized assessment plan b. required by federal law c. good professional practice d. a and c

25.

If a student does not progress as expected: a. the parent may request a meeting to revise the IEP b. the IEP can not be changed until the following year c. the student can request a meeting to revise the IEP d. the principal must request a meeting to revise the IEP

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS 1.

Define the principle of least restrictive environment and provide 3 examples of alternative placements for students with disabilities.

2.

Identify the main phases in assessment and the steps that make up each phase.

3.

According to IDEA, who must be included in the IEP team?

4.

Describe what can occur if students fail to meet the goals identified in the IEP.

5.

Give two examples of due process rights of students and/or their parents.

27 .

ESSAY QUESTIONS 1.

Based on the two major eligibility criteria for qualification for special education services, why might a student NOT qualify for special education services?

2.

What is the purpose of the preferral intervention stage and how might this prevent the unnecessary referrals of student for special education?

3.

Although not legally required, the IAP is considered good professional practice.

Describe the IAP and the benefits of the creation of this plan.

4.

How can schools encourage parents to attend and participate in IEP meetings?

5.

Why is the assessment process described as a cycle and what are the components of the assessment process?

28 .

Answer Key for Test Items for Chapter 2 Answers to Multiple Choice Questions for Chapter 2 1.

B

2.

D

3.

B

4.

A

5.

D

6.

C

7.

B

8.

D

9.

D

10. B 11. C 12. D 13. A 14. D 15. B 16. C 17. A 18. C 19. A 20. D 21. A 29 .

22. A 23. C 24. D 25. A Answers to Short Answer Questions for Chapter 2 1.

Least restrictive environment is defined as the following: to the maximum extent appropriate, children with disabilities are educated with children without disabilities.

Examples of alternative placements include the following: regular class placement, resource rooms and itinerant instruction, special classes, special schools, home instruction, instruction in hospitals and other institutions.

2.

Phase 1: Identification and referral Steps in phase 1: screening and teacher identification, prereferral strategies, referral and notification of parents Phase 2: Determination of eligibility Steps in phase 2: design of the IAP, parental permission for assessment, administration, scoring, and interpretation of assessment procedures, reporting results, and decisions about eligibility Phase 3: Program planning Steps in phase 3: design of the IEP, parental agreement to the IEP Phase 4: Program implementation and evaluation Steps in phase 4: implementation of the IEP, ongoing monitoring of student progress, annual review of the IEP, and periodic reevaluation of eligibility

3.

Students parents, general education and special education teachers, representative of the educational agency, an individual to interpret assessment results, others with special expertise or knowledge of student, and the student, if appropriate.

4.

Parents have the right to ask that the IEP be revised. In this revision, parents may ask for a change in the types of services proved to their child, an increase in the amount of services, or other aspects of the IEP.

5.

Examples include: parental permission before assessment, right to mediation and an impartial due process hearing.

30 .

Chapter 3 Including Parents and Families in the Assessment Process OVERVIEW This chapter has focused on the importance of parent-professional partnerships throughout the assessment process. Listening to parental concerns and soliciting their perceptions of their child’s performance, abilities, and needs brings critical information to assessment, educational planning, and decision making. This collaboration strengthens the home-school alliance, which, in turn, increases the likelihood of positive outcomes for the child. This chapter suggests techniques to encourage parents and other family members to participate in assessment and intervention decisions.

Additional strategies are suggested for working with families from diverse cultural and linguistic backgrounds as well as those who are unfamiliar with assessment practices.

Interviewing and conferencing with parents provide opportunities to gather information, share information, and build collaborative partnerships. In these partnerships, both parents and professionals play vital roles. When family and professional knowledge and perspectives are combined, beginning with the assessment process, children are more likely to succeed.

OUTLINE I.

Parental-Professional Partnerships in Assessment A. Benefits of partnerships with parents and other family members are developmental and historical information can they can provide throughout the course of a child’s education B. Parents and family members can also assist with taking data on the student’s C. D. E.

skills in other settings and situations Parents and families have the right to be involved in the assessments and interventions received by their children Parent roles include providing information, advocating for services, and reinforcing school programs Professional roles include providing information, training, diagnostic evaluations, and advocacy

31 .

II.

Developing Parent-Professional Partnerships in the Assessment Process A. Parent-professional partnerships: Dimensions and strategies 1. Communication that is clear, frequent, open, honest, tactful, and positive, coupled with good listening behaviors is recommended 2. Commitment demonstrated through caring, flexibility, consistency, and accessibility will aid in good parent-professional partnerships 3. Promoting equity among team members through advocacy for the needs of the child and family, empowering parents, and validation is helpful 4. Adequate skills of teachers and other school personnel are necessary to demonstrate professional expertise Trust between parents and professionals is critical

5.

6.

III.

Respect in relationships between parents and professionals must also be present Assessment of Children from Diverse Cultural and Linguistic Backgrounds and Partnering with their Families A. Nonbiased assessment strategies, instruments, practices, and procedures must consider the culture, languages, and life experiences of those with whom they are to be used B. Encourage family participation Consider the parents’ language and familiarity with schooling in the United States 2. Examine one’s own attitudes, beliefs and behaviors and develop an awareness of cultural bias 3. Consider culture, language and life experiences when involving parents in the assessment process 4. Break down the barrier of the professional as expert Assessment instruments and strategies are preferably in the student’s primary language and use interpreters to discuss the results with parents 1.

C.

IV.

D. Share information in a clear, sensitive, and caring manner Communicating Effectively with Parents and Families A. Qualities of effective communicators 1. Show respect for parents’ knowledge, opinions, concerns and advocacy 2. Maintain a non-judgmental attitude Empathy is the ability to see the world from another’s perspective

3.

32 .

B.

V.

Specific communication skills 1. Listeners work diligently to understand the messages of others 2. Verbal communication skills such as paraphrasing, questioning and summarizing are important 3. Responding to affect with the same intensity 4. Questioning and summarizing are also critical communication techniques

Interviewing and Conferencing with Parents and Families A.

Prepare for the interview or conference 1. Invite families to participate in an interview or conference 2.

B.

Let families know what the purpose of the meeting will be and what questions you have for them 4. Ask if any special accommodations are needed such as an interpreter or home visit 5. Prepare open-ended questions and an outline of the meeting Conducting interviews and conferences 1. Establish rapport at the opening of the meeting 2. Decision making should occur only after families have had time to review the information The interview should be non-threatening in content and approach Parents and families should also have an opportunity to ask questions

3.

4.

VI.

Interpreting, Reporting, and Using Information from Interviews and Conferences A. Reporting interview information is typically done in a summary relevant to educational planning B. Confidentiality must be carefully maintained C. Information gained through the interview should be use in educational planning and placement

KEY TERMS conferences partnerships

33 .

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1.

When interviewing parents from a different cultural background other than your own, what arrangements can you make to allow the family to feel most comfortable? What issues are important to consider?

2.

Why is it important to involve parents and families in every part of the special education process from referral through assessment to placement?

3.

Considering your own experiences, what different perceptions or feelings might parents have about schools and school personnel?

4.

What steps can you take to prepare for a meeting with parents and families from diverse cultural backgrounds?

5.

Why does the author say the first steps to working with parents and families from cultures different than your own is to examine your own beliefs and biases?

ACTIVITIES 1.

Role play a team meeting and discuss assessment data with parents.

2.

Interview a parent about the team conference. Then interview the child's teacher about the same conference. Compare and contrast their perceptions.

3.

Write a list of open-ended questions you might ask a family about their child’s abilities outside of school.

STUDY GUIDE REVIEW QUESTIONS 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

List three reasons why parents and other family members are important contributors to the assessment process.

List at least three roles that parents and professional can share in the assessment process.

List the six themes or dimensions of collaborative partnerships.

List three things to consider when you are working with families whose race, culture, language, and life experiences differ from your own.

Nonbiased assessment refers only to bias based on linguistic differences. (True or False).

Match the examples to the dimensions of collaborative partnerships each represents. Qualities can be used more than once.

34 .

Column A a. respect b. communication c. skills Column B ____Demonstrates expertise ____Use formal forms of assess (Mr., Mrs.) ____Listens to the family’s concerns ____Learns about the family’s cultural practices and their importance 7.

Paraphrasing is often used to clarify, to ensure that information was heard and interpreted accurately, and to show interest and attention. (True or False).

8. “Furthering responses” refers to the professional adding information from his or her experiences to the parents’ comments. (True or False).

9. Interviewing families in their homes is always an appropriate way to gather assessment information about a student. (True or False).

10. Match the following questions by type.

Column A a. Open-ended b. Close-ended Column B ____How often does Mark go the library with you? ____Can Paula make a sandwich without help? ____What usually happens when other children in the neighborhood refuse to play with Carson? ____What are Kevin’s plans after he graduates? ____About how long does it take for Candace to finish her homework? ____ Tell me about your hopes and dreams for Dan.

ANSWERS TO STUDY GUIDE REVIEW QUESTIONS 1.

2.

(i) Parental input is required by law. (ii) Parents know more about their own children than anyone else. (iii) Parents are the constant in student’s lives. (i) Identify learning and behavioral issues and problems and design prereferral strategies to prevent referral. (ii) Participate in identification and referral if assessment for special education services becomes necessary. (iii) Gather assessment information about the student. (iv) Ensure that cultural, linguistics, and sociocultural diversity are taken into account in the determination of assessment questions, the selection and administration of assessment instruments or strategies, interpretation of findings, and programs development, (v) Discuss and interpret findings and results. (vi) Develop and implement interventions. (vii) Monitor student progress.

35 .

3.

4.

Communication, commitment, equality, skills, trust, and respect (i) Native or preferred language; (ii) Experience with school systems, special education, and/or assessment-some may have no familiarity, some may have had negative experiences themselves; (iii) Respect for professionals that may make it difficult to present their own opinions; (iv) Different expectations for performance or behavior based on cultural differences.

5. false 6. c, a, b, a 7. true 8. false 9. false 10. b, b, a, a, b, a

36 .

Test Items for Chapter 3 MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS 1.

Parents have been recognized as essential IEP team members in special education law since a. IDEA Amendments in 1997 b. PL 94-142 in 1975 c. Section 504 in 1973 d. IDEA in 1990

2.

The parent/family-professional model proposed in the textbook focuses on a. differential roles b. frequent, positive communication c. family empowerment d. all of the above

3.

All of the following scenarios may keep families from participating fully in the assessment process except a. Life circumstances such as a lack of adequate housing. b. Parents speak another language and are unfamiliar with schools in the USA. c. Parents regularly hear only negative reports regarding their child’s performance at school. d. all of the above may keep families from fully participating in the assessment process.

4.

Parents who view professionals as “experts” present challenges when establishing a collaborative relationship because a. a barrier may exist when parents view professional as experts. b. parents may feel that disagreeing with a professional is disrespectful. c. parents may fee their experience is not as extensive as the professionals. d. all of the above.

5.

Parents’ roles in the assessment process include all of the following except a. providing information about applied academic skills b. advocating for quality services c. reinforcing school programs and keeping data d. selecting assessment instruments and strategies that are not biased

6.

When negative communication must be given to parents about their child, professionals should a. determine who caused the problem b. ask for the parents’ advice in solving the problem c. frequently communicate with the parents about the problem d. send a note home with the student about problems 37 .

7.

To assure assessments are non-biased, professionals need to consider a. each individual’s culture, language, and life experiences b. the primary language the student speaks c. the learning style of the individual d. the disability the student may have

8.

The first step to becoming culturally sensitive to parents and students is to a. get involved with community events b. learn to speak the primary language of the students c. make home visits a priority d. examine one’s own attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors

9.

Assessment issues important to parents include all of the following except a. assessment in the child’s primary language b. assessment information that is understandable and clear c. assessment that provides a label for the child’s disability d. assessment whose usefulness can be explained

10. According to the textbook, the foundations of effective communication are a. listening, respect, and empathy b. respect, a nonjudgmental attitude, and empathy c. sympathy, empathy, and listening d. good verbal skills and listening 11. “Listening” is all of the following except a. a way to show respect b. acknowledging that the speaker has been understood c. an active role d. a passive role 12. Restating what someone has said using one’s own words is called a. responding to affect b. furthering responses c. paraphrasing d. summarizing 13. Which of the following is not an open-ended question? a. How does Jonathan approach homework tasks? b. What information would help me best meet Mary’s needs? c. What are your priorities for today’s meeting? d. What is Kevin’s disability?

38 .

14. Summarizing is effective when a. engaging in problem solving b. bringing one part of an interview to closure c. concluding the meeting d. all of the above 15. Steps to prepare for a conference with parents include all of the following except a. determining the desired outcome of the meeting b. contacting parents to communicate the purpose of the meeting c. determining whether special accommodations are needed d. formulating questions to ask the parents 16. An advantage of meeting in the student’s home is a. most parents welcome having home visits b. home visits are more convenient for parents c. meeting other family members d. the extra time it takes 17. Which of the following statements is not true? a. Parents and interpreters should have an opportunity to talk before the interview. b. Finding a person who speaks the parent’s language qualifies the person as an interpreter. c. The content and the nature of the interview should be shared with the interpreter before the meeting. d. The interpreter may need to prepare ways to describe specific terms the professional may use.

18. Which of the following is not always a part of the opening of a parent-professional meeting? a. Ask the family to share their story b. Establish rapport and reduce anxiety c. Introduce those present at the meeting d. Clarify the purpose of the meeting 19. When recording the content of the meeting, the author suggests a. audiotaping or videotaping the meeting b. keeping the note pad in full view of the parents c. making a copy of the notes for the parents d. both b and c 20. Reporting interview information should be focused on a. background information important to the parent b. educationally relevant information for planning c. explaining the underlying meanings embedded in the interview d. accurately communicating the diverse viewpoints of the participants 39 .

21. When interpreting information shared by families, the goal is to a. extrapolate the information that provides insight and knowledge about the student’s behavior, skills, motivation, etc. b. search for underlying meaning, family dynamics, or pathology c. identify facts that support the professionals’ perspectives of the student d. none of the above 22. During an interview, the interviewer should a. nod and smile every time parents mention something unrelated to their student b. provide opportunities for parents to ask questions and request information c. redirect parents if they stray from the topics relevant to their child d. b and c 23. When making a home visit, the professional should a. consider their own safety b. consider the appropriateness based on the student’s age c. consider the family’s comfort and willingness d. all of the above 24. Listening a. is a nonverbal communication skill b. is a passive role c. is one of the least important components of communication d. a and c 25. The six themes/dimensions of collaborative partnerships identified by BlueBanning et al. are a. communication, commitment, equality, skills, trust, and respect b. communication, commitment, equality, social skills, trust, and respect c. communication, confidence, equality, skills, trust, and respect d. communication, commitment, expertise, skills, trust, and respect

40 .

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS 1.

List the 6 steps/considerations involved in preparing for an interview or conference.

2.

Identify the six themes or dimensions of collaborative partnerships identified by Blue-Banning et al.

3.

To ensure nonbiased assessment, the assessment strategies, instruments, practices, and procedures must be examined for their appropriateness and validity across _________, _________, and __________.

4.

Distinguish between open-ended and close-ended questions.

5.

List at least 3 specific communication skills to aid in interpersonal communication.

ESSAY QUESTIONS 1.

Describe at least five benefits of developing parent-professional partnerships.

2.

Describe how parents, families, and adolescent students contribute to the IEP process regarding post-high school outcomes.

3.

Describe at least five strategies a professional can use to encourage family participation.

4.

Explain why it is important for professionals to communicate the purpose of the IEP or IFSP meeting.

5.

Discuss four ways professionals can support interpreters in being successful team members.

41 .

Answer Key for Chapter 3 Answers to Multiple Choice Questions for Chapter 3 1.

B

2.

D

3.

D

4.

D

5.

D

6.

B

7.

A

8.

D

9.

C

10. B 11. D 12. C 13. D 14. D 15. A 16. C 17. B 18. A 19. D 20. B 21. A 42 .

22. D 23. D 24. A 25. A Answers to Short Answer Questions for Chapter 3 1.

Invite the families to participate in the interview or conference Communicate the purpose of the conference Determine whether any special accommodations are needed Determine if the interview should be conducted in the home Arrange for an interpreter, if needed Formulate questions or strategies for presenting information

2.

Communication, commitment, equality, skills, trust, and respect

3.

cultures, languages, life experiences

4.

Open-ended questions elicit more information than close-ended questions and enable parents to respond in ways that are comfortable for them. Close-ended questions typically produce limited responses, do not encourage elaboration, and may sound more like interrogation than collaboration.

5.

Listening, strategies to further responses such as paraphrasing, responding to affect, and questioning and summarizing

43 .

Chapter 4 Selection of Assessment Tools to Promote Fair Assessment OVERVIEW Assessment is an information-gathering activity. Its purpose is to provide answers to important educational questions, whether these concern identification and placement, instructional planning, or monitoring of student progress and program effectiveness. The assessment process begins with careful planning, and one of the most critical preparatory steps is selection of appropriate tools. Both legal and professional guidelines influence selection criteria. Among the important concerns are whether the assessment tool (a) fits the purpose of assessment, (b) is appropriate for the student to be studied and the professional who will use the tool, and (c) is both technically adequate and an efficient method of data collection. Evaluation of technical quality includes consideration of the suitability of reference group with which the student is to be compared and the psychometric characteristics of instrument such as reliability, validity, and measurement error. Also important are the types of test scores and other results available from the measure under study. In addition, professionals must make every effort to avoid bias in all stages of the assessment process.

OUTLINE I.

Council of Exceptional Children’s (CEC) Professional Standards Related to Assessment A. All special educators should possess a common core of knowledge and skills related to assessment 1. Basic terminology used in assessment 2. Legal provisions and ethical principles regarding assessment of individuals 3.

4.

5.

B.

Screening, pre-referral, referral, and classification procedures Use and limitations of assessment instruments National, state or provincial, and local accommodations and modifications In addition, there are specific competencies related to each specialty area 1.

2.

3.

Learning disabilities Emotional/behavioral disorders Intellectual disabilities/Developmental disabilities 44 .

II.

Criteria for the selection of assessment tools A. Legal guidelines for assessment 1. Federal and state laws provide guidelines for evaluation of students with disabilities a. Assessment is nondiscriminatory b. Assessment focuses on educational needs c. Assessment is comprehensive and multidisciplinary d. Assessment tools are technically adequate and are administered by trained professionals B.

e. Rights of the parents and students are protected Professional guidelines 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7. b.

Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing (1985) Test publishers' catalogues and manuals Mental Measurements Yearbooks series Tests in Print Test Reviews Online (www.unl.edu/buros) TestLink (www.ets.org) Tests Professional journals provide critical reviews of new tests

C.

III.

Evaluation criteria 1. The tool must fit the purpose of assessment 2. The assessment instrument must be appropriate for the student 3. The assessment instrument should match the skills of the professional using it 4. The assessment tool must be technically adequate 5. The assessment instrument should be efficient Evaluating Technical Quality A. Measurement terminology 1.

2.

Measurement scales may be nominal, ordinal, interval, or ratio Descriptive statistics include measures of central tendency, measures of variability, and correlation

45 .

B.

Test norms and other standards of comparison 1. Norm-referenced tests a.

Age, grade, and gender of norm group members should match characteristics of the students assessed b.

Random selection is preferable c.

Norm group should be representative of the population d.

Norm group should be of adequate size e.

Test norms should be recent to reflect current standards 2. Criterion-referenced tests a. b.

Determines whether students have mastered specific skills Content should match student’s current skill repertoire or school curriculum

C.

D.

Reliability 1. Test-retest reliability refers to consistency of measure from one administration to the next 2. Split-half reliability is concerned with internal consistency 3. Interrater or interobserver reliability is concerned with consistency among evaluators Validity 1.

E.

IV.

Content validity is the extent to which the instrument represents the content of interest 2. Criterion-related validity relies on an outside criterion and may examine predictive validity or concurrent validity 3. Construct validity examines the instrument and the theoretical construct it intends to measure Measurement error 1. Standard error of measurement is a statistic used to quantify measurement error.

2. Measurement error is related to the variability of scores and reliability Test Scores and Other Assessment Results A. Results of informal measures are descriptive and straightforward 1. Frequency counts and percentages are interval data 2. Criterion-referenced tests may yield nominal data 3.

Rating scales provide ordinal data as do age- and grade-referenced measures 46 .

B.

V.

Norm-referenced tests yield raw scores which are converted to derived scores based on the performance of the norm group 1. Age and grade equivalents are ordinal scores derived from the performance of the norm group 2. Percentile rank scores indicate the percentage of individuals within the norm group who earned an equal or lower raw score 3. Standard scores transform raw scores to a new scale with a set mean and standard deviation 4. Normal curve equivalent scores are normalized standard scores

5. Stanines represent a range of performance rather than a specific score Promoting Nonbiased Assessment A.

B.

Issues in assessment of culturally and linguistically diverse students 1. For students whose primary language is not English, tests and test directions should be translated into the home language 2. Interpreters may be used in the assessment of students who speak languages other than English 3. Culture-free and culture-fair measures attempt to minimize bias 4. Culture-specific measures relate directly to specific cultures 5. Separate norms may be provided for students from diverse groups 6. Test administration procedures may be modified 7. Dynamic assessment can be used to study the student’s learning ability 8. Standardized tests can be replaced with informal procedures Guidelines for the selection of nondiscriminatory assessment tools 1. Norm groups should be representative of the race, culture, and gender of the student to be assessed 2. Tests containing items that reflect cultural bias should be avoided 3. The tools for assessment should minimize the effects of the disability

47 .

KEY TERMS nominal ordinal interval mean range standard deviation correlation norm-referenced test criterion-referenced test reliability validity

ratio mode median standard error of measurement raw score age scores grade scores percentile rank standard scores normal curve equivalent (NCE) stanines

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1.

Describe at least three information sources that can provide guidance in the selection of assessment tools.

2.

Discuss the concepts of variability and reliability as they relate to measurement error.

3.

Compare and contrast three types of derived scores: percentile ranks, standard scores, and stanines. Tell how these scores are related to one another and to the normal distribution. A sketch may be included.

4.

Refer to the CEC’s Professional Standards for Special Education Professionals (Table 4–1). According to the standards, all special educators should posses a common core of knowledge and skills related to assessment. Why is this important and why are there differences in knowledge and skills related to differing areas of disability?

5.

CEC Standard 3 lists the curricular content knowledge areas special education professionals should possess. One area is to understand the limitations of assessment instruments. Discuss limitations of norm-referenced as well as curriculum-based assessment instruments.

48 .

ACTIVITIES 1.

Select two norm-referenced tests and look them up in the Mental Measurements Yearbooks. Critique the tests on the basis of the information found in that source.

2.

Invite a school psychologist to class to discuss his or her process of test selection and the criteria used for ensuring nonbiased assessment. Invite a special education teacher to discuss the same topics with emphasis on informal assessment.

3.

Contact the state department of education and ask for information about state laws and regulations for special education assessment. Compare state requirements to those of the federal government.

4.

Using one of the professional resources described in your text, identify 2 reading assessments available for students whose home language is Spanish.

STUDY GUIDE REVIEW QUESTIONS 1.

Tell whether each of the following statements about the selection of tools for assessment is true or false. ____If the assessment procedure is appropriate for the age, grade, and ability level of the student, then it’s technical quality is not a consideration. ____Trained professionals must be available to administer, score, and interpret the assessment. ____Assessment devices must be selected and administered so they are not racially or culturally discriminatory.

2.

Assessment must be nondiscriminatory and must focus on the student’s ____________needs.

3.

Several descriptive statistics can be used to summarize information. Which would be the best statistic to report the central tendency of a set of test scores expressed as percentages? a. mode b. standard deviation c. mean d. range

4.

Which of the following descriptive statistics describes the relationship between two sets of scores? a. median b. correlation coefficient c. standard deviation d. percentile rank 49 .

5.

With norm-referenced tests, one factor that should be considered in evaluation is the appropriateness of the norm group. List three aspects of the norm group that should be examined.

6.

Reliability and validity also influence technical adequacy. Which of these statements about test quality is true? a. Reliability refers to consistency. b. Validity refers to whether a test measures what it purports to measure. c. Correlational techniques are the most usual way of studying reliability. d. Valid test are reliable, although a test may be reliable without being valid. e. All of these statements are true.

7. Match the terms in Column A with the best explanation in Column B. Column A a. Test-retest reliability b. Predictive validity c. Alternate-form reliability d. Content validity e. Concurrent validity Column B ____The test items appear to assess the skill areas the test is designed to measure. ____Current test results are related to future results on a criterion measure. ____Results of a test given today will be related to results of the same test given next week. ____The results from one form of the test relate to the results from a second form. ____Currents test results relate to current results on a criterion measure.

8.

The statistic used to quantify the measurement error present in a test score is called the ___________.

9. Tests and informal procedures may show different types of results. Determine if these statements about assessment results are true or false. ____Results of informal measures, such as inventories, are often expressed as frequency counts (e.g.; the number of items the student answers correctly). ____Age and grade equivalents are useful scores because they are easy to understand and are rarely misinterpreted. ____Percentile ranks are comparative scores that allow the student’s performance to be contrasted with the performance of age or grade peers in the norm group. ____When standard scores are based on a normal distribution, they are easily converted into percentile ranks, stanines, and other types of standard scores.

10. Fill in the blanks using these words: “high” and “low.” To decrease measurement error, assessment devices should have __________reliability and __________variability.

50 .

11. What types of data do Likert-type scales produce? a. nominal b. ordinal c. interval d. ratio 12. What types of data are age equivalent and grade equivalent scores? a. nominal b. ordinal c. interval d. ratio 13. A student performed at the 85th percentile on an achievement test. This means that the student’s raw score equaled or exceeded the raw score of ________ percent of the norm group.

14. Many suggestions have been made for reducing the potential for bias in assessment. Which of the following statements are true? ____Translating a measure from one language to another eliminates bias due to language. ____Culture-fair tests eliminate concerns about bias due to culture. ____Pluralistic assessment systems are used widely in schools to avoid bias due to sociocultural factors. ____Most experts recommend that local norms be developed for culturally and linguistically diverse students.

15. When administration procedures are altered for standardized tests, test norms cannot be used and tests become _________ procedures.

ANSWERS TO STUDY GUIDE REVIEW QUESTIONS 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

False, true, true, false educational c b age, grade, and gender of norm group members; selection method; representativeness; size; recency e d, b, a, c, e standard error of measurement true, false, true, true high, low c b 85 False, False, False, False informal 51 .

Test Items for Chapter 4 MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS 1.

Which factor is not considered in evaluating a measure's technical adequacy? a. Reliability b. Validity c. Standardization sample or other standard of comparison d. Whether the measure fits the purpose of assessment

2.

Reliability a. refers to whether a test measures what it purports to measure b. refers to whether a test is a consistent measure c. is more important than validity d. is not a concern with informal assessment tools

3.

Which type of reliability is concerned with a measure's internal consistency? a. Test-retest b. Predictive c. Split half d. Construct

4.

Which type of reliability is an index of how consistent test results are over time? a. Test-retest b. Predictive c. Split half d. Construct

5.

If you wanted to establish the validity of a new test of gourmet cooking skills, what would be the best procedure? a. Give the test once, then give it again 6 weeks later to the same group of students b. Give the test and compare students' performance on odd-numbered items to performance on even-numbered items c. Give the test and, at the same time, give another test of gourmet cooking skills that has already been established as valid d. Have experts look at the test items

6.

A percentile rank of 73 indicates a. the student answered 73% of the questions correctly b. the student's performance equaled or exceeded that of 73% of the norm group c. the student's performance was inferior to that of 73% of the norm group d. the student's performance falls within the range associated with intellectual disabilities A test's standard error of measurement

7.

52 .

a. increases as the test's standard deviation decreases b. increases as the test's reliability decreases c. decreases as the test's mean increases d. stays the same no matter what the test's standard deviation is 8.

According to your text, which is the best type of score for reporting test results? a. Age equivalent b. Grade equivalent c. Stanine d. Standard score

9.

All of the following are types of measurement scales except a. nominal b. percentile c. ratio d. ordinal

10. The best source of information about the characteristics of the standardization sample of a particular test is a. Mental Measurements Yearbook series b. the manual that accompanies the test c. professional journals d. Tests in Print 11. As the variability of the scores of an assessment device increases, error a. increases b. decreases c. stays the same d. may increase or decrease 12. The type of measure that does not produce interval data is a. classroom quizzes b. checklists c. Likert-type rating scales d. inventories 13. Federal laws such as PL 94-142 and IDEA do not attempt to regulate a. the use of intelligence tests b. selection of assessment tools and their administration c. classroom assessment for instructional decisions d. communication with parents during the assessment process

53 .

14. In evaluating the reliability of a test, your text suggests looking for a minimum correlation coefficient of a. .80 b. .85 c. .90 d. .95 15. Age and grade equivalents are a. interval data b. ratio data c. ordinal data d. all of the above 16. If a measure has a mean of 100, standard deviation of 15, and scores are normally distributed, a score of 70 would fall a. two standard deviations above the mean b. within one standard deviation of the mean c. one standard deviation below the mean d. two standard deviations below the mean 17. When determining whether an assessment instrument is appropriate for an individual student, educators need to consider a. the content of the tool b. the methods of test task presentation c. the way the student is asked to respond to test tasks d. all of the above 18. The four types of measurement scales are a. aptitude, attitude, achievement, and adaptation b. standardized, normed, referenced, and criterion c. nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio d. formal, informal, survey, and observation 19. Measures of central tendency are a. mean, mode, and median b. variability, range, and standard deviation c. distributed evenly d. answers a and b 20. The manual that accompanies an assessment tool should contain information about a. the purpose of the measure b. how the measure was constructed c. norming, reliability, and validity studies d. all of the above

54 .

21. The results of a reading inventory state that the student reads at the fifth grade level. This is an example of a. a grade equivalent b. grade referencing c. a percentile d. none of the above 22. Under which conditions would you want to have an estimate of interscorer/interrater reliability for a particular assessment tool? a. When responses could have more than one interpretation. b. When the same examiner is unable to administer all parts of a test. c. When the examiner is concerned about the internal consistency of a test. d. None of the above.

23. Which of the following statements is true? a. If a test is reliable, it is also valid. b. If a test is valid, it is also reliable. c. If a test is valid, it might be reliable. d. All of the above is true.

24.

Methods to reduce bias present in assessment instruments include a. presenting all tasks in multiple choice format b. using tests created for individuals from specific cultural backgrounds c. translating measures into the individual’s native language d. using only standardized measures

25.

SEM: a. is the same as the normal curve equivalent b. when it is small, we can be more confident of a score because there is less error involved c. the more reliable a test is, the smaller the SEM d. b and c are correct

55 .

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS 1.

List the 4 major characteristics of an instrument that are considered in the evaluation of technical quality.

2.

Describe at least 3 important skill considerations for determining whether a tool is appropriate for the student.

3.

Indicate the measurement scale that is applicable for each of the following types of scores: percentiles, standard scores, age equivalents, grade equivalents.

4.

List at least 3 factors to consider when determining the appropriateness of test norms.

5.

List two methods of establishing the validity of a test.

ESSAY QUESTIONS 1.

Why are age and grade equivalents so easily misinterpreted and how might school professionals deal with their misuse?

2.

Provide examples that illustrate the difference between the two types of criterionrelated validity: predictive validity and concurrent validity.

3.

Assessment tools must be non-discriminatory. Discuss three ways in which assessment tools may discriminate against students.

4.

In many assessment situations, a professional team puts together an assessment battery—a collection of assessment measures to answer several questions.

Describe principles that should be considered when selecting tools for an assessment battery.

5.

Name and describe five elements from CEC’s standards related to assessment regarding core knowledge special educators should possess.

56 .

Answer Key for Chapter 4 Answers to Multiple Choice Questions for Chapter 4 1.

D

2.

B

3.

C

4.

A

5.

C

6.

B

7.

B

8.

D

9.

B

10. B 11. A 12. B 13. C 14. A 15. C 16. D 17. D 18. C 19. A 20. D 21. B 57 .

22. A 23. B 24. C 25. D Answers to Short Answer Questions for Chapter 4 1.

Reliability, validity, measurement error, and for norm-referenced and criterionreferenced measures, the reference group or standard against which a student’s performance is compared.

2.

Presentation mode, response mode, group versus individual administration, and/or time factors

3.

Percentiles-ordinal Standard scores-interval Age equivalents-ordinal Grade equivalents-ordinal

4.

Age, grade, and gender of norm group members, method of selection, representativeness of the norm group, size of the norm group, recency of test norms.

5.

Content validity, criterion related validity, or construct validity

58 .

Chapter 5 Standardized Tests OVERVIEW Of the many measures used in assessment, tests are likely the best known.

Tests range from informal measures devised by teachers for classroom use to very structured instruments known as norm-referenced standardized tests. Standardized tests require a great deal of skill on the part of the professional who administers, scores, and interprets them. That professional must prepare for testing by becoming a qualified examiner; the student and the testing environment must also be prepared. Strict adherence to administration and scoring guidelines is essential if valid results are to be obtained from standardized tests. The tester must also take note of the student’s behavior during administration and use that information in interpreting test results. At all times, it is important to guard against the intrusion of bias into the assessment process.

OUTLINE I.

II.

Basic Considerations A. Standard administration and scoring procedures must be followed for normreferenced tests B. The student's best efforts must be elicited Preparation for Testing A. Preparation of the tester 1. Training in the administration of standardized measures including supervised practice 2. Tester's performance must be evaluated to ensure accuracy B. Preparation of the testing environment 1. Testing room a. An office-sized room is usually sufficient and preferable to a large b. c. d.

classroom Adequate ventilation and lighting Freedom from distractions and interruptions Secured so that other people cannot interrupt the testing situation

59 .

2.

Seating arrangements a. Appropriate tables and stationary chairs of correct size are preferable b. Tester should be able to adequately observe the student and easily reach and manipulate test materials Equipment a. Required test equipment should be readily available b. Test materials not in use should be removed from the student's view

3.

4.

Participants a. The tester and student should be alone

If necessary, parents or others may observe out of the child’s view, but not participate Preparation of the student 1. Consider the optimal time of day to achieve the student’s best performance 2. The tester introduces himself or herself to the student 3. Check student’s physical and emotional status 4. The tester converses with the student to elicit information and establish b.

C.

III.

rapport 5. The purpose of the testing should be explained to the student 6. Test activities and requirements are described 7. The student should have the opportunity to ask questions about the assessment Test Administration A. Strict adherence to administration and scoring guidelines is essential B. Recording student responses 1. The test protocol is concealed from student view

C.

2. Verbatim student responses are recorded 3. Some tests must be scored during administration 4. Mechanical recording devices are not recommended Administering test items 1. Demonstration items may be provided on some tests 2.

3.

After selecting a starting point, an attempt is made to establish a basal Testing continues until a ceiling is reached 60 .

D.

IV.

Ending the test and retesting 1. Provide breaks based on the length of the testing session and the endurance of the participant 2. Testing ends when all items are completed, the time allotted is exhausted, or the student no longer works efficiently 3. The student-tester relationship should be evaluated as soon as possible 4. Students may require readministration of a test Observation of Test Behavior A. Observational data are objective and precise 1. Tester observes many student behaviors a.

The student’s approach to the testing situation

b. c. d.

Verbal or nonverbal response mode How the student begins the first test tasks Style of the student’s response such as the latency between questions and responses Tester observes the work style of the student a. Activity level is observed b. Length of time the student attends to the task c. Student's ability to persevere until task completion

2.

V.

d. Student's need for reassurance 3. Tester should be alert for signs of a disability Scoring the Test A. Scoring should be standardized, accurate, and immediate B. Calculation of chronological age may be needed C. Computing raw scores 1. Points earned by the student and those assumed to be earned are totaled D.

VI.

Converting raw scores to derived scores 1. Raw scores may be converted to age or grade equivalents, percentile

ranks, standard scores, or others 2. Plot student’s derived scores if graphs are provided Interpreting Test Results A. Test behavior 1. Evaluate observational data in relation to the student’s scores

61 .

B.

C.

D.

Choice of test scores 1. Age equivalent 2. Grade equivalent 3. Percentile rank scores 4. Standard score Measurement error 1. Used to estimate the amount of error likely to occur within scores 2. Construct confidence intervals around observed scores Criteria for evaluating test performance 1.

2.

Standard scores are preferable Scores should be reported as confidence intervals

3.

Scores should be described in relation to range of performance in which they fall VII. Technology as a Tool for Assessment A. Test administration 1. Computer assisted testing may depress student performance 2. Professional need to learn how to evaluate, select, and interpret results from computer-based measures B. Test scoring 1.

Most common and valuable use of computers in assessment C. Test interpretation and reporting 1. Can contribute to the interpretation of test results VIII. Modification of Testing Procedures A. Tests should be administered under standard conditions before modification is attempted B. Administration conditions can be modified in several ways C. Modifications should be reported as alternate scores and accurately described in the test report IX.

Avoiding Bias in Testing A. Tester must be professionally prepared B. Professionals should have knowledge about the types of students they assess C. Tester's attitudes affect expectations D. E.

Student-tester rapport is of critical importance Bias may occur during interpretation of test results 62 .

KEY TERMS tests rapport protocol demonstration basal

ceiling chronological age raw scores confidence intervals computer-assisted testing

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1.

Discuss the necessity of preparing the student for testing. Include points of consideration in scheduling the assessment and the five components the authors recommend for student preparation.

2.

Explain this statement: Tests with small standard errors of measurement allow much more precision in the estimation of true scores.

3.

Discuss the relevance of test behavior when interpreting test scores.

4.

Describe the importance of following basal and ceiling recommendations in standardized tests and the reasons they are used.

6.

Discuss how observing students during testing situations can provide important information about how individual students learn.

ACTIVITIES 1.

Obtain a professional test report. Read the report and discuss its inclusion of behavioral observation data related to the student's test performance.

2.

Administer a norm-referenced test to a fellow student in your class. Have the student administer another test to you. Critique one another's performances.

3.

Invite professionals to class for a panel discussion concerning standardized testing and students requiring special services.

4.

Survey several teachers about their understanding of age and grade equivalents and how they use this information. Based on the responses you receive, discuss why these scores are so easily misinterpreted and not recommended for use.

63 .

STUDY GUIDE REVIEW QUESTIONS 1.

2.

In standardized testing, test tasks are presented under standard conditions so that the student’s performance can be compared to the performance of the ____________ ____________.

Which of the following statements describe(s) an adequate testing environment? a. One of the student’s parents or the student’s teacher is present in the testing room. b. Chairs and a table are available for the student and the tester. c. All of the equipment and test materials needed for the session are placed on the test table ready for use. d. The temperature and ventilation in the room are comfortable for the student. e. The testing room is located near poplar school activities such as music and physical education.

3.

Which of the following is not good practice in introducing the students to the testing situation? a. Tests should be scheduled at the same time as the student’s favorite classroom activities. b. Physical needs of the students should be attended to before testing begins. c. The students should be informed about the purpose of testing. d. The tester should explain to the student what will happen during the test, including the length of the session, types of test activities, and so forth.

4.

Preparing a student psychologically for testing is called a. Establishing the basal. b. Establishing rapport. c. Coaching. d. Projective analysis.

5.

Suppose a professional began test administration with item number 10 in an attempt to establish a basal of four consecutively numbered correct responses. If the student failed item 10, what test item should be administrated next?

Match each term in Column A with the appropriate description from Column B.

6.

Column A a. Basal b. Coaching c. Demonstration items d. Ceiling

64 .

Column B ____Test questions used to teach students how to do test tasks. ____The point in the test when it can be assumed the student would receive full credit for all easier items. ____The practice of helping a student arrive at the answer to a test question. ____The point when it can be assumed the student would receive no credit for all the more difficult items.

7. Give two reasons why it is important to observe the student’s behavior during test administration.

8. Calculate the student’s chronological age in these examples: Student’s Birthdate 12-2-94 6-28-87 11-20-98 9.

Date of Testing 1-3-03 9-15-04 10-6-03

Chronological Age ______________ ______________ ______________

Find the raw scores for each of the following tests. Each items is worth 1 point. The basal is three consecutive correct responses, and the ceiling is three consecutive incorrect responses.

Test A 1. ____ 2. ____ 3. _+__ 4. _+__ 5. _+__ 6. _−__ 7. _+__ 8. _−__ 9. _−__ 10. _−__ Raw score ______ Test B 18. _+__ 19. _+__ 20. _+__ 21. _−__ 22. _+__ 23. _−__ 24. _+__ 25. _−__ 26. _−__ 27. _−__ Raw score _______

65 .

10. Choose the statement that best explains the meaning of the score. a. When a student earns a percentile rank score of 54, this means that 54% of the test questions were answered correctly. b. An age equivalent score of 10-3 indicates that the student’s raw score is equal to the average raw score of grade 10.3 students in the norm group. c. If test standard scores are distributed with a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 15, a standard score of 85 indicates performance one standard deviation below the mean. d. If test standard deviation scores are distributed with a mean of 50 and a standard deviation of 10, a standard score of 70 indicates performance two standard deviations below the mean.

11. A student received a standard score of 100 on a test in which the mean standard score is 100, the standard deviation is 15, and the scores are normally distributed.

This score a. falls at the 50th percentile. b. is within the average range. c. indicates performance at the mean. d. All of the above statements are true.

12. Match the standard score with the appropriate score range. The standard scores are normally distributed with a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 15.

Standard Score a. 117 b. 83 c. 68 d. 135 e. 105 Range of Performance ____Above average performance ____High average performance ____Average performance ____Low average performance ____Below average performance 13. A student earned a standard score of 73 on a test with a standard error of measurement of 6. In what range of scores would the student’s true score be expected to fall 68% of the time?

14. How are computers best used in assessment? a. Administration of test of intellectual performance b. Conversion of raw scores to derived scores c. Interpretation of results d. Preparation of test reports

66 .

15. Testing can be modified if the professional is interested in studying the student’s performance under alternate administration conditions. One example is to extend or to remove the time limits for test tasks. Give four other examples.

ANSWERS TO STUDY GUIDE REVIEW QUESTIONS 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

norm group b, d a b item 6 c, a, b, d Any two of the following: to determine whether the student is comfortable during test administration, gather information about how the student approaches a work situation, determine the student’s response style and work style, collect data on the student’s attitude and perception, look for warning signs of disabilities. a. 7-1, b. 17-3, c. 4-11 Test A 6, Test B 22 c. d. d, a, e, b, c 67 to 79 b Any four of the following: paraphrase test instructions, provide a demonstration, change the presentation mode, change the response mode, allow the student to use aids, provide prompts, give feedback, offer positive reinforcement, change the physical location of the test, change the tester.

67 .

Test Items for Chapter 5 MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS 1.

According to your text, what is the least appropriate type of score for reporting test results? a. Age or grade equivalent b. Percentile rank c. Standard score d. Stanine

2.

In preparing the student for testing, the tester should not a. schedule testing at an optimal time b. invite the student's parent or teacher to observe in the testing room c. make sure the student's physical needs are attended to d. explain what types of activities the student will be doing

3.

When test administration procedures are modified, test results are called a. alternate scores b. latency scores c. percentile scores d. derived scores

4.

The level at which we can assume that the student would answer all easier items correctly, were these administered, is the a. ceiling b. basal c. starting point d. instructional level

5.

If a student responds to a test question with an answer that the tester is unable to score, the tester should a. score the item incorrect and move on b. skip the item and come back to it at the end of the test c. tell the student that the answer is unsatisfactory and ask for another answer d. repeat the student's answer and say "Tell me more about that"

6.

Which of the following is true? a. Raw scores are used to determine derived scores. b. A student's raw score indicates his or her performance in relation to age or grade peers. c. Derived scores are used to determine raw scores. d. Among the most common raw scores are percentile ranks and standard scores.

68 .

7.

If a test's mean is 50 and its standard deviation is 10, how would you classify a score of 38? a. Above average performance b. High average performance c. Low average performance d. Below average performance

8.

If a student earns a standard score of 78 on a test with a standard error of measurement of 4 standard score units, which of the following is the most appropriate conclusion? a. The student's true score will fall in the range of standard score 74 to standard score 82 99% of the time. b. The student's true score will fall in the range of standard score 74 to standard score 82 68% of the time. c. The student's true score will fall in the range of standard score 70 to standard score 86 99% of the time. d. The student's true score will fall in the range of standard score 70 to standard score 86 68% of the time.

9.

When the confidence level is increased (e.g., from 68% to 90%), the width of the confidence interval a. decreases b. stays the same c. increases d. is not affected

10. When beginning administration of a standardized test, the tester should explain a. the test activities that will be used b. the length of the test c. parts of the test that have time limitations d. all of the above 11. When calculating a student's chronological age, the tester a. subtracts the student's birthdate from the date of testing b. subtracts the date of testing from the student's birthdate c. ask the student to tell his or her age d. reports CA in years, months, and days 12. A student's observed score is 100 and the standard error of measurement is 5. If the desired confidence level is 90%, the standard error of measurement will be multiplied by a. 1.00 b. 1.64 c. 2.00 d. 2.58

69 .

13. On a test with a standard score mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 15, which range of standard scores would indicate average performance? a. 70 to 84 b. 85 to 115 c. 116 to 130 d. 131 to 145 14. Which statement about the results of standardized tests is false? a. Test results can be used to document changes in student performance. b. The data produced are comparative in nature. c. Test behavior is not relevant to the results obtained. d. Performance is contrasted with performance of age or grade peers.

15. A good working relationship between the tester and student is facilitated by a. meeting one or two days before the test to get acquainted b. taking practice tests to familiarize the student with the testing format c. discussing the purpose of the test, the types of activities, time requirements, and difficulty level d. fully explaining the answer to each question and what the student missed 16. The purpose of demonstration items is to a. acquaint the student with the type of test tasks he or she is expected to complete b. determine if the student is easily confused c. allow the tester time to observe the student's behavior d. provide a series of easy questions so that the basal can be established 17. A test may need to be re-administered if a. results are needed to assess growth (e.g., from September to June) b. the original test was invalidated by tester errors c. the student was ill during the first administration d. all of the above 18. In analyzing the student's test behavior, the tester should look at a. the length of time the student takes to respond b. how the student indicates he or she does not know an answer c. the student's ability to put the tester at ease d. answers a and b 19. Grade equivalents a. accurately reflect the progress the student has made in his or her classroom curriculum b. appear simple to interpret but are quite difficult c. are the most appropriate score for reporting results to parents and teachers d. none of the above

70 .

20. A tester begins administration with item 10. The basal is 5 consecutivelynumbered correct responses. The student answers items 10 and 11 correctly, then misses item 12. What should the tester do? a. Administer item 13 b. Administer item 10 c. Administer item 9 d. Discontinue testing 21. The goal in test administration is to a. obtain the best possible sample of behavior under standard conditions b. accommodate the needs of the tester as much as possible c. to demonstrate what the student does not know d. all of the above 22.

Identify the statement that would be acceptable to say while administering a test to a student? a. “Good job. You got that one right!” b. “Nice job working so hard!” c. “Nice try, but that was wrong.” d. None of the above

23.

It is acceptable to say, “________” while administering a standardized test a. Have you thought about all the possible answers. b. Are you sure that is your answer? c. Maybe you should look at that one again. d. I like how you are answering all of my questions.

24.

If a second grade student scores a grade equivalent of 4.7 in arithmetic, we can assume the student a. has the prerequisites for fourth grade math b. did not score equal to the mean of students in 2nd grade c. scored in the above average range for 2nd graders d. none of the above

25.

A student’s birthday is February 22, 1990. The testing date was October 20, 2007. The student’s chronological age at the time of testing was: a. 17 years, 7 months, 28 days b. 16 years, 8 months, 2 days c. 17 years, 8 months, 2 days d. none of the above

71 .

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS 1.

Andrew Smith took an intelligence test that has a mean of 100 and standard deviation of 15. Andrew’s standard score was 90. How many standard deviations is Andrew’s score above or below the mean?

2.

Matt’s math score was equivalent to the 70th percentile. Provide an interpretation of his performance.

3.

A student receives a standard score of 85. The test has a SEM of 5 points at the 68% confidence interval. Provide a statement that interprets the 68% confidence interval for this test.

4.

The average range of performance is between _____ and _____standard deviations from the test’s mean.

5.

Results obtained under nonstandard conditions are reported as ___________.

ESSAY QUESTIONS 1.

Describe the importance of tester preparation. Name 5 possible consequences of incorrect administration of tests?

2.

What are the purposes of starting points, basals and ceilings in standardized tests?

3.

In interpreting test scores, many factors must be considered. Discuss the relationship between the student’s scores on the test, the observation of the student during testing, and the purpose of the test.

4.

Jane (a student in the sixth grade) obtained a grade equivalent score of 7.4 on a reading test. Due to Jane’s performance on this reading test, Jane’s mother is going to talk to the school about moving Jane into a seventh grade class for instruction in reading. Explain why Jane’s mother’s interpretation of Jane’s grade equivalent is incorrect.

6.

Why is it important to report scores as falling within a range?

72 .

Answer Key for Chapter 5 Answers to Multiple Choice Questions for Chapter 5 1.

A

2.

B

3.

A

4.

B

5.

D

6.

A

7.

C

8.

B

9.

C

10. D 11. A 12. B 13. B 14. C 15. C 16. A 17. D 18. D 19. B 20. C 21. A 73 .

22. B 23. D 24. B 25. A Answers to Short Answer Questions for Chapter 5 1.

Andrew’s score fell two-thirds of a standard deviation below the mean.

2.

Matt scored as well as or better than 70% of students his age/grade in the norm group. Matt scored in the average range.

3.

The student’s true score will fall between the standard score range of 80-90, 68% of the time.

4.

-1, 1

5.

alternate scores

74 .

Chapter 6 Classroom Assessment OVERVIEW Teachers use informal assessment everyday as they go about their classroom duties and observe students, interview them, and grade their work. Informal assessment tools and procedures provide information that is directly relevant to instruction, whether that information concerns the current performance of the student, the task, or the instructional setting. There are many types of informal tools.

Observation, work sample analysis, and task analysis are basic assessment procedures that do not require the introduction of test tasks. Instead the teacher observes student behaviors, analyzes sample of student work to discover patterns of error, or analyze tasks within the curriculum. More direct are curriculum-based assessment strategies such as inventories and classroom quizzes, criterion-referenced tests, and diagnostic probes and diagnostic teaching. Assessment procedures that make use of informants (e.g., a teacher, parent, or students themselves) include checklists, rating scales, questionnaires, and interviews. While informal assessment is considered more relevant to instructional planning than formal testing, it carries with it limitations such as lack of information about technical adequacy. Also, bias remains a danger, even when teachers design their own assessment tools.

OUTLINE I.

II.

III.

Advantages of Informal Classroom Assessment Techniques A. Relevance to instruction B. Closely approximates typical classroom conditions C. Allows for evaluation of student performance and instructional settings and tasks D. Many informal assessment strategies are curriculum-based Areas of Difference between Informal Classroom Measures and Formal Measures A. Standard of reference B. Technical adequacy C. Efficiency D. Specificity Types of Classroom Assessments A. Obtrusiveness or unobtrusiveness of techniques

75 .

B. C.

D.

E.

IV.

Direct or indirect measures Results in three types of informal assessment techniques 1. Observation, task analysis, and other direct and unobtrusive procedures 2. Curriculum-based assessment techniques such as inventories and criterion-referenced tests that are direct but obtrusive 3. Procedures using informants such as checklists and interviews that are indirect and obtrusive Observation, task analysis, and analysis of student work 1. Allows direct observation of student behaviors, tasks, and settings without the introduction of test tasks Curriculum-based assessment

1. Content is determined by the standard school curriculum F. Measures using informants 1. Three purposes of using informants a. Provide historical perspective b. Summarize observations and offer interpretations c. Comment on less observable concerns, such as attitudes, values, and perceptions Observation A.

B. C. D.

Narrative report 1. Anecdotal 2. Ethnographic Continuous or narrative recording Sequence analysis Steps for conducting observations 1. Describe the behavior to be observed 2. Select a measurement system 3. Set up a data collection system

4. Select a data reporting system 5. Carry out observations V. Analyzing Student Work A. Work sample analysis is often used to assess academic skills, but can be used to assess other areas as well B.

Response analysis 1. Examines correct and incorrect responses 76 .

C.

Error analysis 1. Attempts to identify patterns of errors D. Rubrics 1. A set of brief, written descriptions of different levels of student performance VI. Task Analysis A. Both an instructional technique and an assessment strategy B. Methods of identifying task subcomponents 1. Analysis by temporal order 2.

3.

Analysis by developmental sequence Analysis by difficulty level

C. Structural task analysis 1. Describes the task in terms of the demands placed upon the learner 2. Considers task directions, presentation mode, response mode, quantity requirements, time requirements, and accuracy requirements VII. Informal Inventories A. Inventories are screening devices that assess selected portions of curricula areas B. Identifies general level of student functioning within the curricular area C. Most often used as a preteaching assessment tool D. Inventories may be commercially prepared or devised by a teacher E. The informal reading inventory is the most common F. Goal is to estimate a student's current level of performance VIII. Classroom Tests and Quizzes A. Assesses whether students have acquired some body of knowledge or skills taught by the teacher B. Quizzes can be teacher made or may come in the teaching materials of the curriculum C. IX.

May include true-false, multiple-choice, matching, completion, short answer, problem, and essay questions Criterion-Referenced Tests A. Compares student performance to curriculum goals 1. Emphasis is on mastery of specific content 2.

Placement tests and competency tests are similar to CRTs

77 .

X.

XI.

Diagnostic Probes and Diagnostic Teaching A. Diagnostic probes 1. Usually are brief measures of a single instructional option 2. Provide hypotheses about modifications that may influence student performance B. Diagnostic teaching 1. Evaluates two or more instructional techniques 2. Occurs over a period of time Curriculum-Based Measurement A. B.

Brief probes are used to collect samples of critical target behaviors Probes are administered frequently and the data are graphed

XII. Checklists and Rating Scales A. Structured assessments B. Checklists utilize a yes-no response C. Rating scales often utilize numerical values and may be summarized statistically D. Rankings provide information about student preferences and are more difficult to interpret XIII. Questionnaires and Interviews A. Questionnaires elicit information from informants in writing, while interviews elicit information from informants orally 1. Value of data is dependent on the informant's accuracy 2. Interpreter of the data must be aware of possible biases in the data B. Clinical interviews 1. Utilize student insight to discover the process used by the student to complete a task 2. Student's report provides insight into unobserved cognitive strategies 3. Clinical interviewing is sophisticated and requires expertise in observation and interviewing techniques XIV. Portfolio Assessment A. Portfolio assessment is the most common type of alternative assessment used

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Collections of students’ work assembled over time 1. A framework or goal of the portfolio should be established 2. Organization and selection of student work samples 3. Student self-evaluation and reflections are included 4. Evaluation of contents of portfolio as to proficiency in the performance of relevant tasks XV. Grading and Report Cards A. Serve at least four purposes: informational, administrative, motivational and guidance B.

B.

C. D.

Types of grades 1. In norm-referenced grading, students are evaluated in relation to the performance of others 2. In criterion-referenced grading, grade are assigned in relation to preestablished performance standards 3. In grading by self-referenced viewpoint, students are graded in relation to their own past performance General and special education teachers must often collaborate in the process of grading Differentiated standards for specific assignments can make the process more

fair XVI. Interpreting Classroom Assessment Results A. Greatest limitation of informal assessment results may be lack of information about technical adequacy B. Appropriate tools must be selected C. Quality of the behavior sample should be evaluated in terms of representativeness D. The professional interprets performance and makes decisions E. Informal assessment information can be translated into instruction XVII. Avoiding Bias in Classroom Assessment A. Standard of comparison should be appropriate B. Cultural bias should be avoided C. Language should be appropriate for the student D. The instrument should bypass limitations of the disability

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KEY TERMS informal assessment classroom assessment curriculum-based assessment observation work sample analysis response analysis error analysis rubric task analysis structural task analysis inventories

classroom quizzes criterion-referenced tests diagnostic probes diagnostic teaching curriculum-based measurement checklists rating scales questionnaires interviews clinical interviews portfolio assessment

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1.

Task analysis is both an instructional technique and an informal classroom assessment strategy. Discuss the use of task analysis for each purpose. Include the different types of task analysis.

2.

Clinical interviewing is a sophisticated assessment tool requiring expertise in observation and interviewing techniques. Explain this statement using examples.

3.

Discuss the importance of using informal classroom measures and normreferenced measures together to present a complete student profile.

4.

What advantages do informal classroom measurement techniques have over formal measurement tools?

5.

Discuss the types of information that can be learned through informal classroom assessment that is not easily obtained through formal assessments.

ACTIVITIES 1.

Visit a special education program. Discuss with the teacher the formal and informal classroom assessment tools used in the evaluation of students for placement in the special program. Are certain assessment tools mandatory?

2.

Interview a parent of a student who receives special education services. Try to determine how the parent was used as an informant during the assessment process.

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3.

Invite a panel of teachers to the class to discuss their uses of informal classroom assessment measures. If possible, have examples available for examination.

4.

Prepare an outline for a portfolio that would represent a student’s work in fourth grade.

5.

Interview a special education teacher about types of ongoing assessment used in the classroom and how these assessments are related to IEP goals.

6.

Gather several rubric systems to evaluate a specific academic area, such as written language. What are the strengths and weaknesses of using rubric scoring guides?

STUDY GUIDE REVIEW QUESTIONS 1.

2.

Name two purposes of informal assessment techniques.

Identify the 4 areas of difference between informal classroom measures and formal measures such as NRT’s.

3. Criterion-referenced tests and curriculum-based assessment techniques, are _______(direct or indirect)_________(obtrusive or unobtrusive) ________measures of student performance.

4. Curriculum-based assessments such as inventories and quizzes are screening devices that are designed based on the standard school curriculum or the special course of study. (True or False).

5. Identify 4 informal assessment procedures that make use of the expertise of an informant.

6. In the least structured type of observation, called a(n) ______report, the observer simply describes events in writing.

7. Decided whether each of these statements about observation is true or false. ____a. Continuous recording, in which all the behaviors of the students are observed and recorded, is a preliminary technique used to identify possible problem behaviors. ____b. In sequence analysis, the observer records the student’s behavior and the events that precede and follow that behavior. ____c. The first step in setting up an observation is to determine who will observe. ____d. In duration recording, the observer counts the number of times the student displays the target behavior. ____e. Graphs are used to report observational data.

8.

9.

There are two ways in which work samples can be analyzed. In ________analysis, the student’s incorrect answers are studies. In __________analysis, both correct and incorrect answers are considered.

Describe rubrics.

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10. Match the types of task analysis in Column A with the descriptions in Column B. Column A a. Temporal b. Developmental sequence c. Difficulty d. Structural task analysis Column B ____The characteristics of the task such as directions, presentations and responses modes, quantity, time, and accuracy requirements are analyzed. ____Task subcomponents are identified, then put in order by the ease of learning. ____The task is analyzed according to which behavior is performed first, which comes next, and so on. ____Subtasks are arranged in a hierarchy according to which are typically learned or taught first, second, and so on.

11. The standard of comparison used to evaluate student performance on informal inventories, classroom quizzes, and criterion-referenced tests is the______, not the performance of other students.

12. Suppose a teacher wanted to design a criterion-referenced test to measure mastery of this objective: When given a worksheet with 20 2-digits plus 2-digits addition problems requiring regrouping, the students will write the correct answers to at least 13 of the problems within 5 minutes. a. What materials would be needed to administer the test? b. What instructions would the teacher give to the student? c. What would be the criterion for acceptable performance?

13. Find the false statement. a. Diagnostic probes and diagnostic teaching are both indirect, rather than direct, measures of student performance. b. Diagnostic probes and diagnostic teaching are instructional procedures as much as they are assessment procedures. c. With diagnostic probes, the teacher changes one element of the instructional situation to determine whether the student’s performance will improve. d. Diagnostic teaching is a type of classroom research. The teacher observes the student’s behavior under baseline conditions, then introduces an intervention and analyzes its effect on performance.

14. Decide whether each of these statements about curriculum-based measurement is true or false. a. Assessment takes place once or twice each month. b. Students complete brief probes that are typically 5 to 6 minutes in length. c. Basic skills such as reading words and writing numbers are assessed. d. Results are converted to standard scores to allow monitoring of student progress.

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15. On Likert-types scales, informants are asked to considered a statement, then indicate whether or not they ______ with the statement.

16. In a clinical interview, the professional observes the student perform a task and also asks the student to describe his or her thinking process. (True or False).

17. Which type of portfolio should be developed if the goal is to demonstrate student progress toward IEP goals and objectives? a. Showcase portfolio b. Cumulative portfolio c. Goal-based portfolio d. Process portfolio 18. Portfolio assessment is less subjective than other informal assessment techniques.

(True or False).

19. In special education programs, some evaluation of student progress in important goal areas should take place at lease once per a. day . b. week. c. month. d. semester.

20. The practice of modifying grading standards for students with special needs is called a. differentiated grading b. standard assessment c. self-referenced grading. d. testing accommodations.

21. Interpretation of classroom assessment results is difficult because a. results are relevant to classroom instruction. b. the technical quality of informal assessment tools is usually unknown. c. informal assessments generally do not offer standards for evaluating the acceptability of student performance. d. Answers b and c are correct.

22. Informal assessments designed by teachers may contain discriminatory language and content. (True or False).

ANSWERS TO STUDY GUIDE REVIEW QUESTIONS 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

ongoing evaluation of the instructional program, evaluation of students’ progress standard of reference, technical adequacy, efficiency, and specificity direct, obtrusive True checklists, rating scales, questionnaires, and interviews narrative a. true, b. true, c. false, d. false, e. true error, response

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9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

Rubrics are another method for analyzing student work. It combines several assessment strategies and requires the use of observational techniques as well as professional judgment. d, c, a, b curriculum a. worksheet with 20 2-digits plus 2-digits addition problems requiring regrouping b. “Write the answers to these problems. You have five minutes.” c. at least 15 of the 20 problems must be correct. a a. false, b. false, c. true, d. false agree true c false b a d true

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Test Items for Chapter 6 MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS 1.

This informal classroom assessment is also an instructional technique a. observation b. response analysis c. task analysis d. diagnostic probes

2.

Which of the following statements is false? a. Curriculum-based assessment tools use the school's curriculum as the standard of comparison. b. Some informal classroom assessments are curriculum-based. c. The major purpose of curriculum-based assessment is comparison of one student's performance to that of grade peers. d. Most experts recommend that curriculum-based assessment be a frequent occurrence so that pupil progress can be monitored.

3.

When analyzing a task such as two-digit by two-digit addition with regrouping, which type of task analysis would be most appropriate? a. Analysis by temporal order b. Analysis by developmental sequence c. Response analysis d. Error analysis

4.

Which is not an advantage of informal classroom assessment techniques? a. They help in the selection of instructional goals and objectives. b. They document student progress. c. They are accurate predictors of student achievement. d. They may indicate the need for further assessment.

5.

Informants are used in assessment for all of the following purposes except to provide a. objective information b. information about attitudes c. opinions and interpretations d. historical perspective

6.

According to your text, interrater reliability for observations should be at least a. 60% b. 70% c. 80% d. 90%

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7.

Which is the most direct means of gathering information about a student's strategies for attacking and completing a task? a. Clinical interview b. Diagnostic probe c. Task analysis by developmental sequence d. Work sample analysis

8.

When interpreting the results of a criterion-referenced test, the teacher should consider a. the age of the student b. the importance of the skill assessed in relation to other skills c. the age-appropriateness of the skill d. all of the above

9.

In response analysis a. the student's errors are analyzed b. the task in which the student experiences difficulty is analyzed c. both correct and incorrect answers are analyzed d. only correct answers are analyzed

10. Which type of observation is used to identify target behaviors? a. Duration recording b. Event recording c. Continuous recording d. Rate and frequency measures 11. Which would you select if you were interested in how long a behavior occurs? a. Duration recording b. Event recording c. Continuous recording d. Rate and frequency measures 12. Which would you select if you wanted general information about a student's skill level in a curriculum area? a. Informal inventory b. Criterion-referenced test c. Diagnostic probe d. Diagnostic teaching 13. Which would you select to assess attitudes toward school in a student with poor reading skills? a. Questionnaire b. Rating scale c. Checklist d. Interview

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14. The least accurate method of observation is a. momentary time sampling b. whole interval recording c. event recording d. all of the above are accurate methods 15. Checklists and rating scales are examples of informal classroom assessment techniques that are a. direct and obtrusive b. direct and unobtrusive c. indirect and obtrusive d. indirect and unobtrusive 16. Observational data are usually reported via a. videotapes of student behaviors b. written reports c. test profiles d. charts or graphs 17. Work sample analysis is most often used in the assessment of a. academic skills b. employment readiness c. on-task behavior d. none of the above 18. If results of an informal inventory indicate a potential problem, the next step is a. administration of a second inventory for confirmation b. assessment with a more specific tool such as a criterion-referenced test c. retesting in a month d. identification of the student with a disability 19. An informant reads descriptions of student behaviors and marks those that describe the student being assessed. What type of informal classroom assessment is being used? a. Questionnaire b. Checklist c. Rating scale d. Continuous ranking 20. Clinical interviews are a special type of assessment tool because a. the student is the informant b. the tester observes and interviews c. the tester may intervene with a diagnostic probe d. all of the above

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21. Portfolios may include a. photos and art work b. written work c. self-evaluations d. all of the above 22. Asking students to demonstrate their knowledge of a topic by evaluating and presenting samples of their work is an example of a. response analysis b. criterion based assessment c. portfolio assessment d. curriculum-based measurement 23. Which of the following may be a type of informal classroom assessment? a. Group administered norm referenced tests b. Criterion referenced tests c. District-wide achievement tests d. High-stakes testing 24. Grading a student in relation to pre-established performance standards is called a. criterion-referenced grading b. norm-referenced grading c. self-referenced grading d. objective grading 25. When assessing students’ behavior, which of the following should be considered? a. setting events b. antecedents and consequences c. skill deficits d. all of the above 26. Curriculum based measures are unique because they involve a. measurement of curricular areas b. frequent direct probes c. performance based measures d. direct measurement of specific skills 27. Advantages of curriculum-based measurement include all of the following except a. immediate feedback to students and teachers b. data showing the effectiveness of different intervention strategies c. documentation of rapid positive or negative changes in student growth d. identification of reasons for students successes or failures

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28. When planning the use of portfolio assessments, it is important to a. determine the purpose of the portfolio and set goals b. allow students to choose the assignments that will be included c. include responses to a set of formal assignments d. include only the student’s best work 29. Which of the following types of assessment would most likely be used to determine a student’s ability to write an essay regarding a current event? a. portfolio assessment b. curriculum based measures c. assessment using informants d. checklists 30. Which of the following types of assessment would most likely be used to determine a student’s ability to read 100 words per minute with no errors? a. portfolio assessment b. curriculum based measures c. assessment using informants d. checklists 31. Tips for managing student data include all of the following except a. Save many examples of student work to show changes over time. b. Make students responsible for collecting data on a regular basis. c. Initially, use portfolios only with students who need intensive monitoring. d. Stagger collection of data from a few students each week.

32. Using best practice policies, student’s grades can be based on any of the following except a. the student’s effort considering his or her learning disabilities b. how much the individual has progressed compared to past performance c. how well the student achieved compared to his or her peers d. district, state, and federal policies regarding grading 33. Parents of students in special education must receive information about their child’s progress at least a. weekly b. every six weeks c. as often as general education students d. at the annual review of IEP goals

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SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS 1.

State the standard of comparison for norm-referenced grading, criterion-referenced grading, and self-referenced grading.

2.

Describe the greatest limitation of informal classroom assessments.

3.

Why have informal classroom assessments been suggested as one possible solution to the problem of bias in assessment?

4.

Provide an example of a diagnostic probe the teacher could use to determine if a student is having difficulty with math story problems due to a reading skill deficit.

5.

What is the major advantage of informal classroom assessment techniques?

ESSAY QUESTIONS 1.

Describe the differences between informal classroom assessments and formal assessments in terms of standard of reference, technical adequacy and efficiency.

2.

What are the benefits of observational types of informal classroom assessments?

What types of information can be learned from observation that cannot be gleaned from other types of assessments?

3.

Describe how task analysis can be both an instructional technique and an assessment strategy.

4.

Why is structural task analysis important for teachers of students with disabilities in terms of task directions, presentation mode, response mode,quantity requirements, time requirements and accuracy requirements?

5.

Often informal assessments focus on students’ weaknesses. Which informal classroom assessment approaches can be used to determine conditions under which the student performs his or her best?

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Answer Key for Chapter 6 Answers to Multiple Choice Questions for Chapter 6 1.

C

2.

C

3.

B

4.

C

5.

A

6.

C

7.

A

8.

D

9.

C

10. C 11. A 12. A 13. D 14. A 15. C 16. D 17. A 18. B 19. B 20. D 21. D 91 .

22. C 23. B 24. A 25. D 26. B 27. D 28. A 29. A 30. B 31. A 32. A 33. C Answers to Short Answer Questions for Chapter 6 1.

norm-referenced grading = to the performance of others criterion-referenced grading = to a pre-established performance standard self-referenced grading = to the student’s own past performance

2.

The greatest limitation of informal classroom assessments is the lack of information about reliability and validity. Often, the technical adequacy of the measure is unknown.

3.

The standard of comparison is considered fair. They also tend to assess skill areas in more depth than norm-referenced tests.

4.

The teacher could read the math story problems to the student and observe if the student’s performance improves as a result of this change.

5.

The major advantage of informal classroom assessments is their relevance to instruction.

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Chapter 7 Intellectual Performance OVERVIEW Once the assessment team has documented that a student is experiencing a school performance problem, the next step is to determine whether a disability is influencing school learning. To begin that phase of the assessment, the team gathers information about a number of ability areas, including general aptitude for learning.

Intellectual disability is characterized by poor general aptitude for learning, and assessment typically includes measures of both intellectual performance and adaptive behavior. Other disabilities typically require evidence of adequate aptitude for learning.

Sources of information about general learning aptitude include school records, reports of teachers and parents, and the test performance of students as well as observation of their behavior in various natural environments. Popular measures of intellectual performance such as the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children- Fifth Edition and Woodcock-Johnson IV Tests of Cognitive Abilities assess a wide range of cognitive abilities. Nonverbal tests of intelligence that deemphasize verbal abilities are also available.

OUTLINE I.

Considerations in Assessment of Learning Aptitude A. Learning aptitude 1. Ability for altering behavior when presented with new information or experiences B. Purposes 1. Part of identification of several different disabilities 2. The combined use of measures of intelligence and adaptive behavior provide a global picture of a student’s current aptitude for learning 3.

Determination of general learning aptitude is critical to identify a student for eligibility for special education services under disability categories such as intellectual disability, learning disabilities and behavioral disorders

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C.

D.

Issues and trends 1. Intelligence testing is controversial 2. In the past, poor use and abuse of measures like tests of intelligence led to misplacement of students from diverse groups in special education 3. The Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975 provided safeguards against testing abuses 4. School systems and professional educators are now aware of clear guidelines for the appropriate use of intelligence tests 5. Research on the topic of intelligence continues and will likely continue to modify future assessment of intelligence Current practices 1.

Group test of general learning aptitude tend to be used in general education while individual tests of intellectual functioning are used to special education.

Several measure of intelligence are available such as the Stanford Binet Intelligence Scale-Fifth Edition, the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Fifth Edition, the Woodcock Johnson IV: Tests of Cognitive Abilities, and the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children, Second Edition

2.

II.

Sources of Information about Learning Aptitude A. School records contain past performance data 1. Group intelligence test results 2. Individual intelligence test data 3. Developmental and school histories B. Students provide information regarding individual tests of intellectual performance C. Teachers are important sources of information about learning aptitude as they observe learning aptitude in the classroom

III.

Group Tests of Intellectual Performance A. Group tests are typically used in general education environments B. Scores tend to be low estimates of actual abilities C. Many group tests of intelligence are current editions of long-used measures D. Should only be used for screening purposes

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IV.

Individual Tests of Intellectual Performance A. Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children–Fifth Edition (WISC–V) 1. Most common test of general intellectual performance; also used to assess specific cognitive abilities 2. One global score (Full Scale IQ) and four composite scores (Verbal Comprehension, Visual Spatial, Working Memory, and Processing Speed).

3. Fluid Reasoning subtests are Matrix Reasoning, Figure Weights, Picture Concepts and Arithmetic.

4.

5.

Visual Spatial subtests are Block Design and Visual Puzzles.

Working Memory subtests are Digit Span, Picture Scan, and LetterNumber Sequencing.

Processing Speed subtests are Coding, Symbol Search and Cancellation.

Subtest results are scaled scores with a mean of 10 and a standard deviation of 3.

IQ and Index scores are standard scores with a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 15 and are reported in confidence intervals.

WISC–V is well-standardized, reliable with adequate validity data

6.

7.

8.

9.

C.

Woodcock-Johnson IV Tests of Cognitive Abilities 1. Assesses general cognitive functioning, cognitive factors, and scholastic aptitudes 2. Can compare student performance across factors, between aptitude and achievement areas 3. Eighteen cognitive ability tests; 10 subtests in standard battery, 8 subtests in supplemental battery 4. Seven cognitive factors are Comprehension-Knowledge, Long-Term Retrieval, Visual Processing, Auditory Processing, Fluid Reasoning, Cognitive Processing Speed, and Short-term Working Memory.

Standard scores distributed with mean of 100 and standard deviation 15 New Woodcock-Johnson data provides reliability and validity information

5.

6.

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D.

E.

Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children, Second Edition (KABC-II) 1. Administration requires formal training 2. Norms available for ages 3-0 to 18-11 3. Assesses mental processing 4. No longer contains achievement subtests; a companion test, the Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement, Second Edition was conormed with the KABC-II Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale: Fifth Edition 1. Arranged in subtests in skill areas, rather than by age 2.

Assesses Fluid Reasoning, Knowledge, Quantitative Reasoning, Visualspatial Processing, and Working Memory

3.

F.

G.

V.

VI.

Four intelligence scores are reported: Full Scale, Abbreviated, Nonverbal and Verbal.

Hammill Multiability Intelligence Test (HAMIT) 1. A special use version of the Detroit Tests of Learning Aptitude–4 2. Includes 10 subtests which result in three composite quotients: General Intelligence, Verbal Intelligence and Nonverbal Intelligence Das-Naglieri Cognitive Assessment System-2 (CAS-2) 1. PASS theory of cognitive processing – Planning, Attention,

Simultaneous, Successive 2. Basic battery contains 8 subtests, standard battery contains 12 subtests Nonverbal Measures of Intelligence A. Raven Progressive Matrices B. Leiter International Performance Scale-3 C. Test of Nonverbal Intelligence (4th ed.) (TONI–4) D. Newer measures 1. Naglieri Nonverbal Ability Test-2 2. Universal Nonverbal Intelligence Test-2 (UNIT-2) Nonbiased Assessment of Learning Aptitude A. System of Multicultural Pluralistic Assessment (SOMPA) 1. Rescores WISC–R based on student's sociocultural characteristics 2. Includes measure of adaptive behavior B. Dynamic Assessment 1.

The relationship of between the examiner and the learner is interactive and the examiner provides feedback to the learner.

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C.

Learning Potential Assessment Device (LPAD) 1. Uses a test-teach-test format called dynamic or interactive assessment 2. Results are primarily descriptive VIII. Answering the Assessment Questions A. Several types of procedures are used to assess learning aptitude are group and individual intelligence testing B. The nature of assessment tasks affects obtained results C. Learning aptitude must be documented for all mild disabilities

KEY TERMS learning aptitude intelligence

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1.

Compare and contrast the WISC–V, the Woodcock-Johnson IV, the KABC-II, and the Stanford-Binet (5th edition). Which measure is most comprehensive? In what areas do the tests overlap?

2.

Discuss at least four sources of information about learning aptitude. Why is it essential to use a variety of sources?

3.

What is measured when students are assessed for “learning aptitude”? How would you describe a student’s learning aptitude to a parent of a student with a specific learning disability?

4.

Discuss why some professionals feel that intelligence tests are really measures of verbal abilities and skills in dealing with abstractions rather than true measures of reasoning, learning skills, and problem-solving abilities.

ACTIVITIES 1.

Consult special education journals and sources like the Mental Measurements Yearbooks for information about the SOMPA and the LPAD. What do experts say about the usefulness of measures such as these for promoting nonbiased assessment?

2.

Invite a school psychologist or psychometrist to class to discuss assessment of learning aptitude. Include a question-and-answer period.

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3.

Interview parents of students who receive special education services. Find out what types of information the parents provided to the assessment team. Were they asked to comment on their child's general learning aptitude?

STUDY GUIDE REVIEW QUESTIONS 1.

What is learning aptitude?

2.

Select the statement that best describes current practices in the assessment of learning aptitude. a. Learning aptitude is assessed only when intellectual disability is suspected. b. All students referred for special education assessment are evaluated in terms of adaptive behavior. c. When students show below average performance on tests of intellectual performance, adaptive behavior is assessed. d. Group tests are preferred for the study of intellectual performance.

3.

Many of the controversies related to special education assessment center on the misuse of intelligence tests. List two safeguards of federal law that help prevent the inappropriate use of these measures.

4.

Check each of the assessment devices and procedures that be used to document learning aptitude. ____a. Group intelligence tests ____b. Measures of adaptive behavior ____c. Norm-referenced achievement tests ____d. Parent and teacher interviews ____e. Early developmental history ____f. Individual measures of intellectual performance ____g. Criterion-referenced test of reading and mathematics ____h. Observation of the student’s behavior in nonacademic settings.

5.

Match the test of intellectual performance in Column A with the description in Column B.

Column A a. Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Fifth Edition b. Woodcock-Johnson IV Tests of Cognitive Abilities c. Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children, Second Edition d. Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale: Fifth Edition e. Test of Nonverbal Intelligence (4th ed.)

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Column B ____A measure for school-aged children that provides scores for Sequential Processing and Simultaneous Processing, Planning, Learning, and Knowledge ____This test provides an overall score called the Full Scale IQ as well as several composite Index scores ____Results include scores for Verbal Reasoning, Abstract/Visual Reasoning, and Quantitative Reasoning ____This classic measure contains five verbal subtests and five nonverbal subtests ____Test items assess one ability area: problem solving with abstract, figural designs 6.

The Raven Progressive Matrices is an assessment designed to provide information about the general learning aptitude of children from diverse sociocultural backgrounds. (True or False).

7.

Which type of measure is typically used in the assessment of intellectual performance? a. Norm-referenced tests b. Informal measures such as criterion-referenced tests

ANSWERS TO STUDY GUIDE REVIEW QUESTIONS 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

Learning aptitude refers to an individual’s capacity for altering his or her behavior when presented with new information or experiences. c Any two of the following: tests must be nondiscriminatory, tests must be administered in the language of the student, tests must be validated for the purposes for which they are used, tests must be administered by trained professionals, no one test score may be the sole basis for determining educational placement. a, b, d, e, f, h, c, a, d, b, e false a

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Test Items for Chapter 7 MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS 1.

A student's general learning aptitude may be evaluated by looking at information sources such as a. individual and group intelligence tests b. social and developmental histories c. records of school grades d. all of the above

2.

Which statement about the WISC–V is not correct? a. It requires the use of fine-motor skills. b. It requires verbalizations from the student. c. It requires basic reading skills. d. It requires English language competence.

3.

A scaled score of 6 on a WISC–V subtest would fall in the a. below average range b. low average range c. average range d. high average range

4.

Which of the following statements about the Woodcock-Johnson IV Tests of Cognitive Ability is incorrect? a. No reading is required. b. A prerequisite skill is discrimination of colors. c. All 20 subtests must be administered. d. English language skills are a necessity.

5.

The test that assesses simultaneous and sequential mental processing is a. KABC-III b. Stanford-Binet (5th ed.) c. Woodcock-Johnson IV d. TONI–4

6.

All of the following are nonverbal measures of intelligence except a. Leiter–3 b. TONI–4 c. Raven Progressive Matrices d. SOMPA

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7.

8.

9.

Which statement about the LPAD is incorrect? a. It uses a test-teach-test format. b. It assesses cognitive modifiability. c. It is primarily a clinical measure. d. It yields age and grade scores.

The Woodcock-Johnson IV Tests of Cognitive Abilities evaluates a. academic achievement b. scholastic aptitude c. cognitive factors d. all of the above In the 1960s and 1970s, special education assessment practices were heavily criticized because a. IQ tests were administered by untrained personnel b. group IQ tests were used instead of individually-administered tests c. disproportionate numbers of students from diverse groups were placed in special classes d. all of the above

10. Most individual tests of intellectual performance include measures of a. both verbal and nonverbal reasoning b. reading skills as well as speaking skills c. nonverbal performance only d. both verbalization and talking skills 11. The WISC–V is one of a family of tests; other tests in the family are a. WISC and WRAT b. WAIS and WPPSI c. WRAT and WRIOT d. WISA and WISP 12. To document intellectual disabilities, the assessment must show that a. intellectual performance is below average b. adaptive behavior is below average c. reading, writing, and mathematics skills are below average d. both intellectual performance and adaptive behavior are below average

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13. Which statement about the Woodcock-Johnson IV Tests of Cognitive Ability is incorrect? a. Seven cognitive factors are assessed. b. Standard scores are distributed with a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 15. c. Norms extend from age 2 to age 90+. d. It yields a Performance IQ, a Verbal IQ, and a Full Scale IQ. 14. The 5th edition of the Stanford-Binet a. is divided into age levels rather than subtests b. includes measures of fluid reasoning and quantitative reasoning c. is essentially a test of verbal ability d. produces only one score, Mental Age 15. Which measure would you select to assess both long-term retrieval and short-term memory? a. WISC–V b. Woodcock-Johnson IV c. KABC-III d. SOMPA 16. Which Woodcock-Johnson IV cognitive factor includes the Visual Matching and Decision Speed subtests? a. Auditory Processing b. Comprehension-Knowledge c. Fluid Reasoning d. Processing Speed 17. Tests of intelligence are best viewed as measures of a. scholastic aptitude b. general aptitude c. learning potential d. innate potential 18. In response to concern about the fair assessment of students from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds a. measures stressing figural reasoning were developed b. traditional measures such as IQ test have been used in nonstandard ways c. nonverbal tests of intellectual performance were developed d. all of the above have been done to achieve fair assessment of students from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds

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19. Which statement below is correct with regard to intelligence testing? a. There is a universally accepted operational definition of intelligence. b. Intelligence can’t be measured directly, only samples of behavior are measured with IQ tests. c. Intelligence test scores tell us the exact learning potential of an individual. d. None of the above.

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS 1.

Define learning aptitude.

2.

List at least 3 ways the field of assessment has attempted to make the assessment of students from linguistically and culturally diverse backgrounds fair.

3.

Describe the two primary areas of assessment included on most individual test of intellectual performance.

4.

Provide examples of information parents or other family members can contribute to the assessment of intellectual performance.

ESSAY QUESTIONS 1.

Outline at least three ways dynamic assessment is different than other types of individualized intelligence testing. Discuss the pros and cons of dynamic assessment.

2.

Why was the WISC-V changed to include four composite scores rather than just the Verbal Scale and Performance Scale reported in the WISC-IV? Explain why you think these changes are important.

3.

If a student is found to have adequate learning aptitude, what are other possible explanations for poor school performance?

4.

How can parent interviews be used in the assessment of learning aptitude and why are they important?

103 .

Answer Key for Chapter 7 Answers to Multiple Choice Questions for Chapter 7 1.

D

2.

C

3.

B

4.

C

5.

A

6.

D

7.

D

8.

D

9.

C

10. A 11. B 12. D 13. D 14. B 15. B 16. D 17. A 18. D 19. B

104 .

Answers to Short Answer Questions for Chapter 7 1.

Learning aptitude refers to an individual's capacity for altering behavior when presented with new information.

2.

Use of group measures that stress figural reasoning and deemphasize verbal skills and school learning.

Nonstandard use of traditional measures such as IQ tests.

Nonverbal tests of intellectual performance and measures in languages other than English.

3.

Most individual tests of intellectual performance assess both verbal and nonverbal reasoning.

4.

Parents are the best source of information concerning the student’s performance at home, in the neighborhood, and in the community. They can provide information about developmental history, observed learning aptitude such as rate of learning, and current adaptive behavior at home and in the community.

105 .

Chapter 8 Adaptive Behavior OVERVIEW The way individuals deal with environmental changes and demands is what we refer to as adaptive behavior skills. Adaptive behavior is also a concern of general learning aptitude, particularly when intellectual disability is the disability under consideration. Measures of adaptive behavior such as the AAMR Adaptive Behavior Scale-School (2nd ed.) and the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales, Second Edition rely on informants such as parents, teachers, and caregivers to provide information about the current skills of students. The assessment team considers all sources of information when making decisions about whether a school performance problem is related to a disability.

OUTLINE I.

Current Practices A. Adaptive behavior has been part of the definition of intellectual disabilities.

B. The most recent AAID definition sets up specific standards regarding adaptive behavior assessment.

C.

II.

Adaptive behavior is also part of the assessment of general learning aptitude and usually involves interviewing parents, teachers, and others well acquainted with the student

Sources of Information about Adaptive Behavior A.

Current adaptive behavior is assessed by observation and interviews

B.

Teacher observes adaptive behavior in nonscholastic school activities

C.

Parents are the best source of information about adaptive behavior in the home and community 1. Developmental histories 2. Parents observe learning aptitude 3. Parent interviews and questionnaires provide information about behavior in nonschool environments

106 .

III.

Adaptive Behavior Measures A. AAMR Adaptive Behavior Scale-School (2nd ed.)(ABS-S:2) 1. Assesses adaptive and maladaptive behavior 2. Five factor scores available: Personal Self-Sufficiency, Community SelfSufficiency, Personal-Social Responsibility, Social Adjustment, Personal Adjustment 3. Can be used as a questionnaire or an interview 4. Norms for students with and without intellectual disability B. Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales, Second Edition (Vineland-II) Most recent version of Doll’s classic measure of adaptive behavior Much improved since the last edition

1.

2.

3.

4.

C.

D.

Includes 4 measures, two rating scales and two interviews Assesses 4 domains – Communication, Daily Living Skills, Socialization, Motor Skills, and Maladaptive Behavior Scales of Independent Behavior–Revised (SIB–R) 1. Companion to the Woodcock-Johnson Psycho-Educational Battery– Revised 2. Assesses adaptive behavior and problem behaviors Supports Intensity Scale 1.

E.

Newest measure of adaptive behavior developed under the auspices of the American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities 2. Includes an interview of informants about the supports an individual requires and a supplemental scale on protection and advocacy Adaptive Behavior Evaluation Scale–Revised Second Edition (ABE–R2) 1. Includes a School Version and a Home Version for two ages groups: 412 and 18-18 2. Measures are linked to three major categories: conceptual, social, and practical 3.

Manual suggests objective, goals, and interventions

IV. Answering the Assessment Questions A. Several types of procedures are used to assess adaptive behavior are interviewing or providing questionnaires to informants or directly by observation

107 .

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1.

Compare and contrast the AAMR Adaptive Behavior Evaluation Scale-Revised Second Edition, Adaptive Behavior Assessment System-3, and Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scale-Second Edition. Which measure is most comprehensive? In what areas do the tests overlap?

2.

Discuss at least three sources of information about adaptive behavior skills. Why is it essential to use a variety of sources?

3.

Explain the relationships between intellectual performance and adaptive behavior.

Tell why it is important to consider both when determining eligibility for services for students with intellectual disabilities.

5.

What is measured when students are assessed for “adaptive behavior”? How would you describe a student’s adaptive behavior to a parent of a student with intellectual disabilities?

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1.

Consult special education journals and sources like the Mental Measurements Yearbooks for information about the Adaptive Behavior Evaluation Scale-Revised Second Edition and the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scale-Second Edition. What do experts say about the usefulness of measures such as these for promoting nonbiased assessment?

2.

Invite a school psychologist or psychometrist to class to discuss assessment of adaptive behavior. Include a question-and-answer period.

3.

Interview parents of students who receive special education services. Find out what types of information the parents provided to the assessment team. Were they asked to comment on their child's adaptive behavior?

STUDY GUIDE REVIEW QUESTIONS 1.

Decide whether these statements about measures of adaptive behavior are true or false. ____The Adaptive Behavior Evaluation Scale-Revised Second Edition is an observation system for use in school and home settings. ____Two forms of the AAMR Adaptive Behavior Scale-School (2nd ed.) are available, one for use in school and the other for individuals in residential and community settings.

108 .

____The Supports Intensity Scale is designed to gather information about the types of supports required by an individual. ____The Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales, Second Edition assesses five major adaptive behavior domains: Communication, Daily Living Skills, Socialization, Motor Skills, and Maladaptive Behavior. ____The Scales of Independent Behavior-Revised is a companion measure to the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-IV. 2.

Match the range of performance in Column A with the assessment results in Column B.

Column A a. Above average performance b. High average performance c. Average performance d. Low average performance e. Below average performance Column B ____WISC-V Verbal 72 ____WISC-V subtest scaled score 12 ____Subtest Standard Age Score 8 on the Stanford-Binet 5 ____Total set score 140 on the TONI-4 ____Broad Ability standard score of 62 on the Woodcock-Johnson IV Tests of Cognitive Abilities 3. Read these statements and tell whether they are true or false. ____Learning aptitude is assessed by evaluating two dimensions of behavior: intellectual performance and adaptive behavior. ____Adaptive behavior is operationalized as performance on standardized tests of intelligence. ____Intelligence tests contain items that require reasoning, problem solving, and scholastic aptitude. ____Measures of adaptive behavior assess competence in areas such as self-help, socialization, communication, and motor development.

4.

What is adaptive behavior?

109 .

5.

If the special education assessment team finds that a student performs in the below average range in academic achievement, intellectual performance, and adaptive behavior, which of the following conclusions can be drawn? a. The student is eligible for special education services because of learning disabilities. b. The student is eligible for special education services because of intellectual disabilities. c. The student is eligible for special education services because of behavioral disorders. d. The student is not eligible for special education services.

ANSWERS TO STUDY GUIDE REVIEW QUESTIONS 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

false, false, true, true, false d, c, c, a, e true, false, true, true Adaptive behavior is the way individuals deal with environmental changes and demands. b

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 1.

The AAMR Adaptive Behavior Scale-School (2nd ed.) a. can be used as a questionnaire or interview b. provides norms for students with intellectual disabilities and those with behavior disorders c. is designed for ages 10 to 21 d. is a measure of vocational readiness

2.

The content across measures of adaptive behavior is a. quite diverse b. quite similar c. always school related d. answers a and c

3.

Adaptive behavior is typically assessed by a. administration of individual norm-referenced tests b. administration of criterion-referenced tests c. use of culture-free or culture-fair inventories d. questionnaires and interviews with parents and teachers

110 .

4.

Which measure assesses student performance from medical, social system, and pluralistic perspectives? a. LPAD b. SOMPA c. ABS-S:2 d. Vineland-II

5.

Adaptive skills a. should not change as a person ages b. include personal independence and social responsibility c. are only skills demonstrated in the school environment d. are identical across different cultures

6.

Learning aptitude is a a. relatively changeable characteristic b. relatively stable characteristic c. too unpredictable to assess d. is the same as adaptive behavior

7. The Adaptive Behavior Assessment System-3 is a(n) a. interview b. questionnaire c. rating scale d. narrative response 8. The Diagnostic Adaptive Living Skills assessment is for individuals ages a. infants to mature adults b. K-12 c. 4-0 to 18-0 d. 3-21

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS 1.

Define adaptive behavior skills.

2.

Describe the two primary areas of assessment included on most individual test of adaptive behavior.

3.

Provide examples of information parents or other family members can contribute to the assessment of adaptive behavior.

111 .

ESSAY QUESTIONS 1.

What are the two most important indicators of intellectual disabilities? Why must both be present before it can be determined that a child has intellectual disabilities?

2.

If a student is found to have adequate adaptive behavior skills, what are other possible explanations for poor school performance?

3.

How can parent interviews be used in the assessment of learning aptitude and why are they important?

112 .

Answer Key for Chapter 8 Answers to Multiple Choice Questions for Chapter 8 1.

A

2.

B

3.

D

4.

B

5.

B

6.

B

7.

C

8.

A

Answers to Short Answer Questions for Chapter 8 1.

Adaptive behavior is the effectiveness or degree with which individuals meet the standards of personal independence expected for age and cultural group.

2.

Two primary areas of assessment included on most individual test of adaptive behavior are adaptive and maladaptive behaviors.

3.

Parents provide adaptive behavior information from home, the neighborhood

113 .

Chapter 9 Learning Disabilities OVERVIEW After it has been determined that a student is experiencing a school performance problem, the next step is investigation of possible disabilities that might be influencing school learning. Specific learning abilities and strategies are one area of concern, particularly when the disability of learning disabilities is suspected. Among the questions addressed by the assessment team are the status of the student’s sensory abilities, current performance, the possibility of a discrepancy between expected performance and actual achievement, the student’s response to high quality academic instruction if a response-to-intervention approach is used by the school, the student’s current level of development in specific learning abilities, and his or her current functioning level in strategies for learning and study skills. Sources of information include school records, the student’s participation in observations and test administration, and interviews with teachers and parents. The initial stages of assessment may include screening measures such as those for vision and hearing impairments and those that identify students at risk for learning disabilities. Measures of specific perceptual-motor skills and other learning abilities may be administered. Or, the team may choose to administer a comprehensive test battery such as the Detroit Tests of Learning Aptitude (4th ed.). Another approach is the use of information about specific abilities available from measures of intellectual performance such as the WISC– V and the Woodcock-Johnson IV. Information about the student’s learning strategies is typically gathered via informal assessment devices and procedures such as observations and interviews. When data collection is complete, the assessment team carefully evaluates all results in order to describe the student’s current performance in the area of specific learning abilities and strategies.

OUTLINE I.

Considerations in the Assessment of Learning Disabilities A. Debate exists over the definition of learning disabilities (LD) 1.

B. C.

IDEA 2004 allows defining LD using a discrepancy analysis or a response to intervention approach Specific learning abilities are attention, perception, memory, and the processes of receiving, associating, and expressing information Learning strategy assessment focuses on methods students use to interact with the demands of a learning task

114 .

D.

E.

Eligibility for learning disabilities services includes 1. Gathering information about specific learning abilities and learning strategies used by the student 2. Consideration of whether appropriate learning experiences have been provided to the student 3. Determining the learning difficulties are not the result of other disabilities or conditions or of environmental, cultural or economic disadvantage Issues and trends 1. Historical approaches include preferred modality method which utilizes a student's strengths and deficit remediation method which focuses on weaknesses 2.

3.

Research does not support the effectiveness of these approaches Newer learning disability definitions focus less on specific abilities and more on performance problems in basic school skills More emphasis is placed on learning strategies than specific abilities Phonological awareness training may support acquisition of decoding and spelling skills Movement away from the use of the discrepancy concept in the identification of learning disabilities towards responsiveness to

4.

5.

6.

F.

instruction Current practices 1. Specific learning abilities and strategies are a concern of general and special education 2. Major concern is the technical quality of traditional measures of specific abilities 3. Some states continue to use discrepancy analysis techniques 4. Systems for conducting discrepancy analysis include WoodcockJohnson Tests and Wechsler Tests 5.

II.

State and local regulations may require the assessment team to gather data on the student’s response to instruction Sources of Information about Specific Learning Abilities A. School records may include test results, results of vision and hearing screenings, and information about aptitude-achievement discrepancies B.

The student may be observed, individually tested, and/or interviewed

115 .

C.

D.

III.

Teachers provide information about current abilities and strategies for learning, aptitude-achievement discrepancies, and progress in the school curriculum and response to intervention Parents provide information about the history of treatment for vision and hearing problems and their observations of their child in learning situations

Screening for Sensory Impairments A. Visual impairments 1. Myopia, hyperopia, and astigmatism are refractive errors that are usually correctable with glasses Muscle disorders, restricted peripheral vision, and impairments in color

2.

B.

IV.

V.

vision may also create vision problems 3. Snellen Chart is most typical method for vision screening; assesses far distance vision Hearing impairments 1. Conductive hearing losses often are responsive to medical or surgical treatment 2. Sensorineural losses are caused by damage to the inner ear 3. Screening done with device called audiometer

Screening for Learning Disabilities A. Learning Disability Evaluation Scale–R2 (LDES–R2) 1. Screening questionnaire completed by teachers to identify students with possible learning problems B. Learning Disabilities Diagnostic Inventory (LDDI) is a similar measure Discrepancy Analysis for Identification of Learning Disabilities A. Historically a discrepancy between expected performance and actual performance was required to identify a learning disability 1. States can no longer require a school to establish a discrepancy, rather

B.

it can remain an option for a school 2. The response-to-intervention approach is favored by IDEA 2004 Instruments such as the Woodcock Johnson and the Wechsler tests are commonly used to determine a discrepancy

116 .

VI.

The Response-to Intervention Approach to Identification of Learning Disabilities A. Involves examination of the student’s ability to benefit from high quality instruction in order to show progress in the school curriculum 1. Takes place during the prereferral stage 2. Preventative 3. Include multiple levels or tiers within a broader continuum of services 4. Three primary components: systematic application of scientific, research-based interventions in general education, measurement of student responses to the interventions, and use of the response data to change the intensity or type of subsequent intervention

VII. Measures of Perceptual-Motor Skills and Other Specific Learning Abilities A. Tests of perception may evaluate visual discrimination, figure-ground

B.

C.

discrimination, spatial relationships, form perception, auditory discrimination, and auditory blending 1. Developmental Test of Visual Perception (3rd ed.) (DTVP–3) 2. Motor-Free Visual Perception Test (3rd ed.) (MVPT–3) 3. Goldman-Fristoe-Woodcock Auditory Skills Test Battery 4. Goldman-Fristoe-Woodcock Test of Auditory Discrimination 5. Auditory Discrimination Test Tests of motor skills may evaluate fine motor and/or gross motor skills 1. Purdue Perceptual-Motor Survey 2. Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency (2nd ed.)

3. Test of Gross Motor Development (2nd ed.) (TGMD–2) 4. Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration (5th ed.) (VMI) 5. Test of Visual Motor Integration (TVMI) Measures of memory and attention 1. The majority of memory tests assess only short-term recall in the serial mode 2. One comprehensive measure of memory is the Test of Memory and Learning (2nd ed.) (TOMAL-2) The Wechsler Memory Scale–Fourth Edition is designed for adolescents and adults Observation is the major technique used to assess attention

3.

4.

117 .

VIII. Test Batteries for Specific Ability Assessment A. Detroit Tests of Learning Aptitude (4th ed.)

1. Detroit Tests of Learning Aptitude (4th ed.) (DTLA–4), individually assesses specific cognitive abilities on 10 subtests 2. The DTLA–4 provides scores for three domains (Linguistic, Attentional, and Motoric) as well as several Theoretical Composites 3. The DTLA–Primary: 2 is for children ages 3–0 to 9–11 4. The DTLA–A is for persons ages 16–0 to 79–11 B. Intelligence tests can be used to measure specific cognitive abilities 1.

Examination of five scores of theWISC–V are useful in identification of learning disabilities

2.

3.

IX.

X.

Woodcock-Johnson IV provides information on nine scores Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children, Second Edition (KABC-II) gives information on simultaneous and sequential processing and three other specific ability areas Assessment of Learning Strategies A. Research findings indicate that many students with learning disabilities utilize inefficient or ineffective strategies for learning B. The School Motivation and Learning Strategies, is a self-report measure available for younger children and teens C. Professionals tend to rely upon informal approaches to gather information about learning strategies D. Study Skills Counseling Evaluation (SSCE) and similar instruments used to identify study skill weaknesses are usually designed for high school and college students Answering the Assessment Questions A. Different types of procedures yield varied results B. Technical quality of formal and informal instruments should be documented C. D.

Assessment devices measure the same skills utilizing different strategies Assessment team must document specific learning abilities and strategies

118 .

KEY TERMS specific learning abilities learning strategies psychological processes acuity discrepancy analysis response-to-intervention (RTI) clinical approach

curriculum-based measurement perception memory attention gross-motor skills fine-motor skills

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1.

Discuss the criteria mandated by federal law for identification of learning disabilities.

2.

Identify at least four sources of information about specific learning abilities and strategies. Discuss the importance of using various sources.

3.

How has the definition of learning disabilities changed over time?

4.

Why do many educators want to move away from the discrepancy model for the determination of a specific learning disability. Discuss the pros and cons of the response to intervention model.

5.

Describe the difficulties students with learning disabilities may have in the area of study skills.

ACTIVITIES 1.

Talk with school personnel in your area about the process of identifying students with learning disabilities. Invite them to visit the class and discuss their methods and procedures.

2.

Observe one of the tests discussed in this chapter being administered in a clinical setting. Review the results.

3.

Visit a special education classroom and observe a student with learning disabilities as he or she works on an assignment. Does the student appear to be an inactive learner? Pay special attention to the strategies the student uses for planning and organizing the task, recalling information, and solving any problems encountered.

119 .

STUDY GUIDE REVIEW QUESTIONS 1.

Specific learning abilities and strategies are assessed for which of the following reasons? a. To assist in determining whether school performance problems are related to learning disabilities b. To aid in the planning of instructional interventions for any students c. To identify students with behavior disabilities d. Answers a and b e. All of the above

2.

The specific learning abilities most often studied are memory, ______________, and _____________.

3. In the assessment of learning strategies, educators are concerned with the ways that students use specific learning abilities in situations that require the acquisition of new skills or information. (True or False).

4. Read these statements and determine whether each is true or false. ____ Most of the research on specific learning abilities comes from the study of students with intellectual disabilities. ____The traditional approach to assessment of specific learning abilities stresses identification of deficits in areas as visual perception, auditory discrimination, and eye-hand coordination. ____Measures such as the Woodcock-Johnson IV and WISC-V are often used to provide information about specific cognitive abilities. ____Learning strategies and study skills are a newer area of interest in the study of learning disabilities, but as yet, there are few measures available to assess them.

5.

Check each of the assessment devices and procedures that can be used to gather information about specific learning abilities and strategies. ____a. Individual tests of intellectual performance ____b. Informal inventories and criterion-referenced tests ____c. Interviews with parents and teachers ____d. Measures of adaptive behavior ____e. Classroom observations ____f. Behavior problem checklists 6.

Complete this sentence. Vision and hearing screening… a. should be conducted with all students, not only those referred for special education assessment. b. is designed to identify students with possible problems in auditory or visual discrimination. c. uses devices like the audiometer to identify vision problems and measures like the Snellen Chart to identify hearing problems. d. produces results that allows teachers to prescribe remedial treatments.

120 .

7.

8.

Discrepancy analysis and response-to-intervention are the same methods for determining eligibility under learning disabilities. (True or False).

Match the perceptual-motor measure in Column A with the description in Column B.

Column A a. Auditory Discrimination Test-2 b. Motor-Free Visual Perception Test-3 c. Developmental Test of Visual Perception (3rd ed.) d. Detroit Test of Learning Aptitude (4th ed) Column B ____ A measure of eye-hand coordination in which students copy geometric designs ____A test in which students listen to pairs of words and tell whether the words are the same or different ____Assesses visual perception by having students point to the correct answer ____A measure of visual perception that provides scores for General Visual Perception, Motor-Reduced Visual Perception, and Visual-Motor Integration 9.

Find the true statement about learning strategies. a. Many students with learning disabilities show inefficient and ineffective strategies for learning. b. Students with learning disabilities recall less information than students without disabilities because they actively rehearse the material to be learned. c. It is not possible to teach students new strategies for learning. d. There are few measures available for the assessment of learning strategies. e. Measures of study skills provide some information about the ways students go about learning tasks.

10. If the special education team finds that a student with average intelligence performs in the low average or below average range in academic achievement, what conclusion can be drawn? a. The student may be eligible for special education services for students with intellectual disabilities. b. The student may be eligible for special education services for students with learning disabilities. c. The student is not eligible for special education services. d. The student is eligible for special services in reading.

121 .

ANSWERS TO STUDY GUIDE REVIEW QUESTIONS 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

d perception, attention true false, true, true, true a, c, e a false b, a, b, d a, d, e b

122 .

Test Items for Chapter 9 MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS 1.

There has been much debate about learning disabilities including controversy about a. the definition of this disability b. the effectiveness of the preferred modality and the deficit remediation approaches c. the poor technical quality of older tests designed to assess specific abilities d. all of the above

2.

The most common method for screening vision problems is the a. Keystone Telebinocular b. Snellen Chart c. Titmus Vision Tester d. Bausch and Lomb Orthorater

3.

Students are considered legally blind when visual acuity in the better eye is a. 20/20 b. 20/50 c. 20/100 d. 20/200

4.

Benefits of using tests with built-in systems for discrepancy analysis include a. the availability of tests of both cognitive abilities and school achievement b. computer programs that come with them to assist with scoring and discrepancy analysis c. saving administration time d. a and b

5.

An appropriate instrument for assessing specific cognitive abilities of a 17-year-old student would be the a. ITPA-3 b. MVPT-3 c. DTLA–4 d. none of the above

6.

A student with a vision problem that could be corrected surgically should be treated by an a. ophthalmologist b. optician c. optometrist d. any of the above

123 .

7.

Students with normal hearing ability should be able to detect sounds at intensities somewhere between a. 0 and 10 dB b. 10 and 20 dB c. 20 and 30 dB d. 30 and 40 dB

8.

Which of the following tests is one of the best known measures of auditory perceptual ability? a. Purdue Perceptual-Motor Survey b. Auditory Discrimination Test-2 c. Motor-Free Visual Perception Test-3 d. Developmental Test of Visual Perception-3

9.

An appropriate instrument for measuring fine and gross motor skills is a. Bender Visual-Motor Gestalt Test II b. Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration-5 c. Slosson Drawing Coordination Test d. Bruininks-Oseretsky-2

10. Which area is not typically studied in the assessment of specific learning abilities? a. Speech b. Memory c. Attention d. Perception 11. All of the following statements about the Study Skills Counseling Evaluation are true except a. it addresses five study skill areas b. it identifies study skill weaknesses c. it is a normed instrument d. it is appropriate for middle school students 12. Results of the DTLA–4 include scores for a. Linguistic, Attentional, and Motoric Domains b. Verbal Scale and Performance Scale c. Simultaneous and Successive Processing d. all of the above 13. Rather than attempting to assess the perceptual process as a whole, measures of perception tend to focus on a. discrimination b. memory c. either visual or auditory perception d. either fine or gross motor perception

124 .

14. The Bruininks-Oseretsky is an individual, norm-referenced test that measures a. handwriting skills b. fine motor skills such as walking and running c. auditory speed and agility d. gross and fine motor skills 15. The type(s) of memory usually assessed on standardized tests is/are a. short-term recall, usually in the serial mode b. paired-associate memory c. short- and long-term recall of visual images d. long-term recall of numerical information 16. The DTLA–4 a. is designed to assess a variety of specific cognitive abilities b. is appropriate for students ages 6-0 to 17-11 c. contains 10 subtests d. all of the above 17. Individual intelligence tests are often used to gather information about specific cognitive abilities because a. several such tests are available b. many early tests of specific learning abilities were technically inadequate c. they typically offer measures of listening, speaking, reading, and writing d. results include global IQ scores 18. The term "learning strategy" is usually reserved for a. results of standardized tests of achievement b. student skills and aptitudes in adaptive behavior c. general cognitive strategies applied to learning tasks d. specific learning abilities such as memory and attention 19. To determine if a student is responsive to instruction, educators must do all of the following except a. document what methods have been used b. evaluate the types of interventions that have been tried c. rely on ability-achievement discrepancies d. use progress-monitoring measures when interventions are used 20. In learning disabilities assessment, assessment teams should a. avoid measures with poor technical quality b. approach discrepancy analysis with care c. use informal strategies and study skills measures to assess learning strategies d. all of the above

125 .

21. Assessment of specific learning abilities is used a. only with students suspected of having specific learning disabilities b. only with students suspected of having behavior disorders c. only with student suspected of having low intellectual performance d. none of the above 22. IDEA 2004 requires states to a. require schools to use the combination of discrepancy analysis and RTI to determine the presence of a learning disability b. permit schools to the use RTI as a substitution of the use of the discrepancy analysis to determine the presence of a learning disability c. require schools to only use discrepancy analysis to determine the presence of a learning disability d. none of the above 23. Recently, the emphasis in assessment has shifted from a. the study of isolated specific abilities to consideration of learning strategies b. the study of isolated learning strategies to consideration of specific abilities c. the study of isolated sensory abilities to consideration of learning strategies d. the study of isolated specific abilities to consideration of study strategies 24. Learning strategies can be described as a. the ways that individuals utilize specific learning abilities in situations that require the acquisition of new skills or information b. techniques, principles, or rules that will facilitate the acquisition, manipulation, integration, storage, and retrieval of information across situations and settings c. methods employed by the individual to interact with the demands of the learning task d. all of the above 25. All of the following is correct about the memory EXCEPT a. Many different types of memory are required in the classroom. b. Norm-referenced tests of memory usually assess long-term recall of familiar information c. A digit span task in which the student listens to and attempts to repeat a series of numbers is an example of a serial recall task. d. Memory is often separated into two separate abilities.

126 .

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS 1.

Differentiate between specific learning abilities and learning strategies.

2.

Identify the 4 primary sources of information about students’ specific learning abilities, learning strategies, and study skills.

3.

Identify the two methods approved by IDEA 2004 as means of identifying eligibility under the learning disability category.

4.

Identify at least 3 characteristics of the response-to-intervention approach

5.

When determining the present of a learning disability, why has assessment shifted from the assessment of isolated specific abilities to consideration of learning strategies?

ESSAY QUESTIONS 1.

Explain how vision and hearing are closely related to specific learning abilities.

Why is screening for vision and hearing an important step in assessing learning abilities?

2.

Describe four ways in which the student can assist the examiner in assessing for specific learning disabilities.

3.

Explain the difference between gross motor and fine motor skills and how they affect school performance.

4.

Evaluate the merits and drawbacks of using the response-to-intervention model for determining eligibility for special education services for students with specific learning disabilities.

5.

Discuss four specific learning abilities that affect school performance for students with learning disabilities.

127 .

Answer Key for Chapter 9 Answers to Multiple Choice Questions for Chapter 9 1.

D

2.

B

3.

D

4.

D

5.

C

6.

A

7.

A

8.

B

9.

D

10. A 11. D 12. D 13. C 14. D 15. A 16. D 17. B 18. C 19. C 20. D 21. D 128 .

22. B 23. A 24. A 25. B Answers to Short Answer Questions for Chapter 9 1.

Specific learning abilities are an individual’s capacity to participate successfully in certain aspects of the learning task or in certain types of learning. Learning strategies are the ways that individuals utilize specific learning abilities in situations that require the acquisition of new skills or information.

2.

School records, teachers, parents, and the students themselves.

3.

Discrepancy analysis and response-to-intervention (RTI)

4.

Involves the systematic application of high quality instruction, frequent progress monitoring, use of progress monitoring data to change the intensity or type of subsequent intervention; takes place during the prereferral stage of assessment; it is preventative; includes multiple levels or tiers within a broader continuum of services

5.

This change is due in part to the criticism leveled against traditional specific ability assessments and treatment programs. Research has also indicated that many students with learning disabilities are characterized by inefficient and ineffective strategies for learning.

129 .

Chapter 10 Classroom Behavior and Behavioral Disorders OVERVIEW Classroom behavior is often a concern in special education assessment. Among the dimensions that may be evaluated are classroom behavior and social-emotional development, self-concept and self-esteem, acceptance by peers, attitudes toward school, and the influence of the classroom-learning environment upon the student’s behavior. Several sources provide information including school records, former and current teachers, peers and students themselves, and parents and other family members. Classroom behavior is assessed using two strategies: standardized behavior rating scales and checklists that solicit input from informants such as teachers and parents, and more informal (but more individualized) techniques such as direct observation and functional behavioral analysis. Examples of well known commercial instruments are the Behavior Rating Profile (2nd ed.), Behavior Evaluation Scale–4, and Social Skills Rating System. If attention deficits or hyperactivity are suspected, a number of rating scales are available; examples are the Attention-Deficit Disorders Evaluation Scale-4 and Conners’ Rating Scales–3. Self-concept is typically assessed using self-report measures such as the Piers-Harris Children’s Self-Concept Scale (2nd ed.) while peer acceptance may be evaluated via sociometric techniques. Informal measures such as interviews and questionnaires are often used to find out about students’ interests and attitudes toward school. Another important concern is the learning environment and the ways in which classroom behavior problems are influenced by environmental elements such as behavioral expectations, instructional demands, student-teacher interactions, and the physical environment. Finally, the team carefully considers all of the information gathered to answer the assessment questions in this area, including questions related to the disability of behavioral disorders.

OUTLINE I.

Considerations in Assessment of Classroom Behavior A. Classroom behavior is a broad term that includes nonacademic school B.

behaviors Purposes for assessing classroom behavior and social-emotional development 1. Obtain information about a student's ability to meet nonacademic demands of the classroom and other learning environments 2.

Ascertain that the behavior disorder is severe and pervasive and influences school performance

130 .

3.

C.

D.

Two primary approaches in identification of behavior disorders are direct student observation and gathering information from informants Issues and trends 1. Educators prefer the term "behavior disorders" rather than "emotional disturbance" 2. Definition of the disability varies 3. Assessment and treatment have been influenced most by the behavioral model and more recently by the ecological perspective Current practices 1.

2.

Both formal and informal measures are used Personality measures are rarely used

II.

Sources of Information about Classroom Behavior A. School records provide a historical perspective B. Students may be observed and can provide information on rating scales and inventories C. Teachers can observe current student behavior and provide information about the classroom environment D. Peer acceptance and interaction are examined E. Parents can describe home environment and behavioral expectations

III.

Behavior Rating Scales and Checklists A. Behavior Rating Profile (2nd ed.) (BRP–2) 1. Norm-referenced instrument obtains information from parents, teachers, students, and peers 2. One of the few instruments that allows student self-ratings and peer ratings B. Behavior Evaluation Scale-3 (BES–4) 1. Norm-referenced teacher and parent rating scale 2. Four versions: Long and Short versions of rating forms for parents and

C.

teachers 3. Items linked to federal definition of emotional disturbance Social Skills Rating System (SSRS) 1. Norm-referenced rating scales for teachers, parents, and students 2. Areas assessed are social skills, problem behaviors, and academic competence Links assessment to interventions

3.

131 .

D.

IV.

Rating scales differ on several dimensions 1. Age levels 2. Informants (e.g., teachers, parents, peers, students themselves) 3. Types of behaviors included 4. Psychometric quality Direct Observation A. Direct observation substantiates a behavior problem and can assist in program planning 1. Describe the behavior to be observed 2.

3.

Select a measurement system Set up a data collection system

4. Select a data reporting system 5. Carry out observations and interpret results V. Functional Behavioral Assessment A. Functional behavioral assessment is designed to gather the information needed to plan positive behavioral interventions 1. Describe the behavior 2. Identify factors that influence the behavior 3. Generate a hypothesis VI.

4. Program planning Attention Deficits and Hyperactivity A. Problems in attention and activity sometimes identified as Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD) or Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) 1. Criteria suggested by the American Psychiatric Association typically used to diagnose attention and hyperactivity disorders B. Several measures available for parents and teachers 1. Attention Deficit Disorders Evaluation Scale-Fourth Edition (ADDES–4) 2. Conners’ Rating Scales–3

VII. Self-Concept and Peer Acceptance A. Norm-referenced and informal assessment devices for self-concept and selfesteem 1. Piers-Harris Children's Self Concept Scale (2nd ed.)

2. Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventories 3.

4.

5.

Multidimensional Self Concept Scale Self-Esteem Index Culture-Free Self-Esteem Inventories (3rd ed.)

132 .

B.

Peer acceptance scales 1. Peer Attitudes Toward the Handicapped Scale (PATHS) 2. Sociometric techniques used to establish student's acceptance in specific classroom VIII. School Attitudes and Interests A. Attitudes toward school are usually assessed informally 1. Some formal measures available 2. Incomplete sentences may elicit attitudes about school B. Student interests may be assessed informally or by a norm-referenced instrument 1. Kroth's survey IX.

Learning Environment A. The Instructional Environment Scale–II (TIES–II) uses observation and interviews with students and the teacher to assess 12 components of the learning environment B. Behavioral expectations may be ascertained by interviewing the teacher or by classroom observation 1. Classroom rules should be few in number, stated positively and simply, and able to be enforced by the teacher 2.

C. D.

E.

Classroom management plan may be informal or more structured such as a contingency management plan Instructional demands are influenced by curriculum, materials and activities, teaching procedures, and task requirements Student-teacher interactions are best evaluated by observation 1. Brophy-Good Teacher-Child Dyadic Interaction System 2. Flanders' Interaction Analysis Categories 3. EcoBehavioral Assessment System Software (EBASS) Physical conditions affect the learning environment 1.

X.

Consider sound, convenience, movement efficiency, flexibility, and density Answering the Assessment Questions A. Types of procedures 1. Assessment relies heavily on informants 2.

Many informal techniques are used

133 .

B.

C.

Nature of assessment tasks 1. Divergent views may be presented by various informants 2. Rating scales and checklists may appear to be similar but yield quite different data Documentation of classroom behavior 1. Student must have a behavioral problem that is severe and persistent

KEY TERMS Continuous recording sequence analysis functional assessment

hyperactivity attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder sociometric techniques

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1.

Discuss the importance of using a variety of informants in assessing behavior disorders. List the types of informants that may be available and their possible contributions.

2.

Compare and contrast the Ecological Approach and Behavioral Approach to behavior disorders. How do the differences in approaches influence assessment procedures?

3.

React to this statement: Classroom behavior is an important consideration for all students referred for special education assessment, not only those who may qualify for services for students with behavior disorders.

4.

Problem behaviors are the most obvious concern in assessment of classroom behavior. What are other areas of concern when assessing students for consideration of special education services for students with emotional disturbance?

5.

Discuss the effects of the classroom-learning environment for students with emotional disturbance. What factors may exacerbate or inhibit inappropriate behaviors in the classroom?

134 .

ACTIVITIES 1.

Obtain information from your state department about special education requirements for assessment and placement. What part does classroom observation play for each disability?

2.

Use The Instructional Environment Scales–II (TIES–II) as a basis for observing the learning environment of a classroom serving students with disabilities. Analyze the results and suggest strategies for improving instruction.

3.

Interview at least five special education teachers about their use of classroom observations. Obtain samples of their forms or systems. Determine what part the observations play in placement and instructional decisions.

STUDY GUIDE REVIEW QUESTIONS 1.

2.

3.

Assessment information about classroom behavior is used to make eligibility decisions and to plan classroom intervention programs. (True or False).

What are three areas of classroom behavior that may be assessed?

Which of the following statements is false? a. One of the disabilities included in federal special education law is emotional disturbance. b. In the field of emotional disturbance, there is a lack of consensus about both terminology and definition. c. There are several theoretical models of behavior disorders. d. School practices in the assessment and treatment of students with behavior problems are most influenced by the psychoanalytic model.

4.

Check each of the assessment devices and procedures that can be used to gather information about classroom behavior. ____a. Behavior rating scales and checklists ____b. Individual tests of intellectual performance ____c. Self-concept measures and sociograms ____d. Observations of students’ behaviors and student-teacher interactions ____e. Measures of reading, mathematics, and study skills ____f. Environmental checklists ____g. Tests of memory, perception, and attention 5.

6.

7.

Rating scales and checklists are used to obtain information about the student’s behavior from informants such as _______, __________, and __________.

Most of the behavior rating scales and checklists designed to identify students with conduct disorders are based upon the same set of problem behaviors. (True or False).

Match the assessment device or procedure in Column A with the description in Column B. 135 .

Column A a. Direct observation b. Social Skills Rating System c. Behavior Evaluation Scale-4 d. Attention Deficit Disorders Evaluation Scale-Fourth Edition e. Multidimensional Self Concept Scale f. Behavior Rating Profile (2nd ed.)

Column B ____Teachers, parents, students themselves, and students’ peers act as informants ____A self-report scale for students that assesses self-perceptions ____Teachers and parents rate inattention, impulsivity, and hyperactivity ____Its rating scales address problem behavior, social skills, and academic competence ____Based on the federal definition of emotional disturbance ____A very flexible technique used to study a wide range of students and teacher behavior 8. Conducting a classroom observation requires several steps. The first step is, Describe the behavior to be observed. What are the four other steps?

9. To find out about how a particular student is perceived by his or her classmates, ________ techniques can be used. For example, the teacher can ask each student to nominate the peers he or she would most like to play with during recess.

10. Find the true statement or statements. a. Measures of personality are often used in the assessment of classroom behavior because they provide educationally relevant information. b. In ecological assessment, the student is considered to be the source of the learning problem. c. Among the concerns in the study of the student’s learning environment are behavioral expectations, instructional demands, student-teacher interactions, and the physical environment of the classroom. d. When assessing the instructional environment, consider the classroom curriculum and the instructional methods, material, and learning activities used to teach that curriculum.

11. If the special education team finds that a student with average intelligence performs in the low average or below average range in academic achievement and in one or more areas of classroom behavior, what conclusions can be drawn? a. The student may be eligible for special education services. b. The student should receive counseling or psychotherapy services. c. The student is not eligible for special education services. d. The student should be returned to the general education classroom.

136 .

ANSWERS TO STUDY GUIDE REVIEW QUESTIONS 1.

2.

true Any three of the following: conduct problems, attention and activity levels, selfconcept, acceptance by peers, interest and attitudes toward school and learning, influence of the classroom learning environment.

3. d 4. a, c, d, f, 5. teachers, parents, peers 6. false 7. f, e, d, b, c, a, 8. (2) select a measurement system, (3) set up the data-collection system, (4) select a data-reporting system, (5) carry out the observation 9. sociometric 10. c, d 11. a

137 .

Test Items for Chapter 10 MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS 1.

Which statement about the BRP–2 is not true? a. It includes four measures involving four types of informants. b. It is a norm-referenced measure. c. It is appropriate for use with preschool children. d. It is one of the few instruments that allows students to rate themselves.

2.

When assessing classroom behavior, the assessment team typically relies on a. results of teacher and/or parent rating scales b. direct observations of student behavior c. clinical impressions of the school psychologist d. answers a and b

3.

The Social Skills Rating System a. contains norm-referenced rating scales for teachers, parents, and students b. includes forms for preschool, elementary, and secondary students c. assesses social skills, problem behaviors, and academic competence d. all of the above

4.

The person with the best opportunity of all professionals to observe and evaluate daily classroom behavior is the a. student b. school psychologist c. classroom teacher d. school counselor

5.

When conducting behavioral observations, the first step is a. select a data reporting system b. describe the behavior to be observed c. set up a data collection system d. select a measurement system

6.

Which statement about the Piers-Harris and the Coopersmith is false? a. They are norm-referenced checklists best used as informal measures. b. They are checklists that contain positive and negative statements. c. They are suitably normed for 11th-grade students. d. They can be group administered.

138 .

7.

To qualify for services for behavior disorders, it is necessary to meet all of the following criteria except a. a persistent behavior disorder b. a behavior disorder that is considered severe c. a school performance problem d. a medical diagnosis of emotional disturbance

8.

The theory of behavior disorders that emphasizes a student's interaction with the environment is known as the a. Ecological approach b. Humanistic approach c. Behavioral approach d. Psychoeducational approach

9.

Current school practices in assessment and treatment of behavior disorders appear to be most influenced by the a. Ecological approach b. Humanistic approach c. Behavioral approach d. Psychoeducational approach

10. The Behavior Evaluation Scale–4 is a norm-referenced measure a. designed for use by parents and teachers b. that includes an observation system c. for ages 3 through 16 d. with items linked to traditional mental illnesses such as schizophrenia 11. In the assessment of classroom behavior, screening instruments typically a. include direct observational techniques b. rely on reports of informants c. are psychological and humanistic measures d. use curriculum-based objectives 12. The term that educators prefer to use when referring to students with classroom behavior problems is a. behavior disorders b. serious emotional disturbance c. personality disorder d. classroom schizophrenia 13. In assessing classroom behavior, it is important to review the student's school records to determine a. if the problem is longstanding b. if there is a history of conduct problems and truancy c. if previous interventions have been successful d. all of the above 139 .

14. Behavior rating scales and checklists a. are typically norm-referenced b. use teachers, not parents, as informants c. are usually designed with a behavioral orientation d. are most appropriate for preschoolers and young school-aged children 15. Which BRP–2 standard score indicates a possible behavior problem? a. 6 b. 8 c. 10 d. All of the above 16. Which measure classifies behavior in domains such as Conduct Disorder, Socialized Aggression, and Attention Problems-Immaturity, Anxiety-Withdrawal, Psychotic Behavior, and Motor Excess? a. Social Skills Rating System b. Behavior Evaluation Scale–4 c. Revised Behavior Problem Checklist d. Behavior Rating Profile–2 17. Which measure is organized by federal definition of emotional disturbance? a. Walker Problem Behavior Identification Checklist, Revised b. Behavior Evaluation Scale–4 c. Revised Behavior Problem Checklist d. Children's Attention and Adjustment Survey 18. Find the measure(s) often used to rate a student's activity level. a. Test of Early Socioemotional Development b. Self-Esteem Index c. teacher and parent rating scales by Conners d. answers a and c 19. Sociometric techniques are used to a. assess how regular class students perceive children and adults with disabilities b. identify students with poor attitudes toward school c. determine if a student gets along in the family d. find out how a particular student is perceived by classmates 20. Which statement about TIES–II is true? a. Its purpose is assessment of the classroom learning environment. b. It is a system for analyzing student-student and student-teacher interactions. c. It is a norm-referenced measure of self-concept. d. It is an observational system for studying classroom conduct problems

140 .

21. A major difficulty in assessing classroom behavior is that a. culture influences behavioral expectations b. gender influences behavioral expectations c. age influences behavioral expectations d. all of the above 22. In the assessment of self-concept, interests, and attitudes toward school, the ________ is the primary source of information a. teacher b. parent c. peers d. student 23. In classroom observations, students should be observed daily for a minimum of ________ days. a. 2 b. 3 c. 4 d. 5 24. Graphs can be used to report a. duration observational data b. frequency observational data c. rate observational data d. all of the above 25. In the behavioral approach, a. behavior disorders are considered the result of learning b. behavior disorders are considered the result of chemical imbalances c. behavior disorders are considered the result of poor parenting d. behavior disorders are considered the result of socioeconomic status

141 .

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS 1.

Describe the kind of information a student and his/her parents can provide about the student’s current and past classroom behavior.

2.

Identify 4 major aspects of the learning environment that should be assessed.

3.

List the 5 steps needed to conduct a direct observation.

4.

Part of the federal criteria for emotional disturbance/behavior disorders entails exclusionary criteria. Describe these exclusionary criteria.

5.

Describe the most common sociometric technique.

ESSAY QUESTIONS 1.

What are the major differences between the Behavioral Approach and the Ecological Approach in assessments and interventions for students with emotional disturbance?

2.

Name at least five possible characteristics of students with behavioral or emotional disorders. Why is it important that these characteristics exist for a long period of time and to a marked degree before labeling students as emotionally disturbed?

3.

Describe sources of information that would help an assessment team determine whether a student has an emotional or behavioral disorder.

4.

Describe an appropriate data collection system for students with behavioral problems. List several considerations in setting up the system.

5.

Give three examples of how learning environments can support students with emotional or behavioral disorders.

142 .

Answer Key for Chapter 10 Answers to Multiple Choice Questions for Chapter 10 1.

C

2.

D

3.

D

4.

C

5.

B

6.

C

7.

D

8.

A

9.

C

10. A 11. B 12. A 13. D 14. A 15. A 16. C 17. B 18. C 19. D 20. A 21. D 143 .

22. D 23. D 24. D 25. A Answers to Short Answer Questions for Chapter 10 1.

A student can participate in observations and answer questions about current behavior, attitudes, and perceptions. Parents can discuss their child’s behavior in the home and other nonschool settings.

2.

Behavioral expectations, instructional demands, student-teacher interactions, and the physical environment

3.

1. Describe the behavior to be observed 2. Select a measurement system 3. Set up a data collection system 4. Select a data reporting system 5. Carry out observations and interpret results

4.

The assessment team must determine that the inability to learn cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory, or health factors.

5.

The most common sociometric technique asks students to nominate the peers they would most or least like to associate with in some activity.

144 .

Chapter 11 Academic Achievement OVERVIEW One of the first steps in assessment when a student is referred for possible special education services is the determination of whether he or she is experiencing a school performance problem. The assessment team gathers school achievement information from a variety of sources, including school records, teachers and parents, and the student himself or herself. One major tool used to collect data about current school functioning is the broad-based achievement test, in particular those individually administered measures often used in special education. Among the most popular are the Peabody Individual Achievement Test–Revised/Normative Update, the WoodcockJohnson IV Tests of Achievement, and the Wechsler Individual Achievement Test–Third Edition. These tools assess current skill levels in school subjects such as reading, written language, and mathematics; oral language and content area subjects are also sometimes included. Curriculum-based measurement strategies and criterionreferenced tests such as the BRIGANCE ® Diagnostic Comprehensive Inventory of Basic Skills–Revised provide more detailed information about particular skills students have and have not mastered. To answer the assessment question, the team considers all available information and determines whether there is a probable school performance problem.

OUTLINE I.

Considerations in Assessment of Academic Achievement A. Purposes 1. Evaluate the achievement status of entire school populations 2. Determine the need for extraordinary instructional services 3. Provide information for instructional decisions 4. Provide information about the effectiveness of special education B.

programs Issues and trends 1. In the 1970s, back-to-basics movement and minimum competency testing for grade advancement and high school graduation stressed basic skills 2.

In the 1980s, excellence in education movement emphasized traditional content area subjects

145 .

3.

In the 1990s, debate centered around national education goals, national performance standards, and a national achievement test resulting in Goals 2000: Educate America Act of 1994 School restructuring movement signals a change in the governance structure of education Curricular reforms include a shift toward higher order thinking skills and alternative assessment focused on authentic tasks Movement toward greater inclusion of students with disabilities in general education while other placement options remain available

4.

5.

6.

C.

Current practices 1. Assessment of academic achievement is routine 2.

II.

Standards-based tests of academic achievement now mandated by states or districts use group rather than individually administered tests 3. Individual norm-referenced tests are preferred for students with disabilities administration 4. Norm-referenced test are the most common used for eligibility 5. Criterion-referenced tests and informal measures are typically used to provide detail descriptions of students’ needs Sources of Information about School Performance A.

B.

School records provide educational history 1. School grades 2. Retentions 3. Special services 4. Attendance records 5. Group achievement test results Student involvement in evaluation 1. Individual achievement tests yield final scores and opportunities for behavior observations 2.

3.

C.

Observation of the student in class and analysis of work samples Academic goals, viewpoints, and attitudes may be obtained by questionnaires or interviews Teachers provide information regarding classroom functioning 1. Reason for referral may come from the general education teacher 2.

3.

4.

Past classroom performance may document learning difficulties Current teachers describe present academic performance Instructional modifications can be examined 146 .

D.

III.

Parents and other family members provide information about the use of academic skills at home and in the community 1. Parents may have initiated the referral 2. Parents may provide academic history 3. Can describe current use of academic skills at home and in the community Group Tests of Academic Achievement A. Group achievement tests are usually administered in the general education program B. C.

IV.

V.

VI.

Group tests are not preferred for special education students Group tests can be used for screening and to evaluate progress of

mainstreamed students Test Accommodations A. Federal law requires IEP teams to determine what accommodations are needed by students with disabilities to participate in state-, district-, or schoolwide assessment 1. Timing accommodations: extra time, multiple sessions 2. Setting changes: small group administration, separate test session 3. Presentation: large print, audiotaped instructions 4. Response: answer questions in an alternative manner Individual Tests of Academic Achievement A. Individual tests are preferable for students with disabilities B. Assess basic skill subjects Peabody Individual Achievement Test-Revised/Normative Update (PIAT-R/NU) A. Subtests include General Information, Reading Recognition, Reading Comprehension, Mathematics, Spelling and Written Expression B. Reliability of PIAT-R/NU not well supported C. Administration requirements are minimal

D.

1. Basal is 5 consecutive responses 2. Ceiling is 5 errors in 7 consecutive responses 3. No basal or ceiling on Written Expression Both age and grade norms are available 1. Standard score mean is 100 with standard deviation of 15 2.

3.

Confidence intervals can be constructed around scores Reliability of Written Expression subtest not well established 147 .

VII. Woodcock-Johnson IV Tests of Achievement and Woodcock Johnson III Normative Update A. Assesses achievement in reading, oral language, mathematics, written language, and academic knowledge B. Three forms available each with 11 standard subtests and 9 supplemental subtests C. Fourth edition adds Oral Language as new component, as well as a third form D. The Woodcock Johnson IV includes new norms E. Administration relatively easy 1.

2.

On standard battery, each test has different basal and ceiling rules Administration is by page units; once a page is begun, it is finished

3.

Some subtests not administered if scores on other subtests fall below certain level F. Computerized scoring yields many scores that must be interpreted G. Results are reported for subtests, academic areas, and subskills VIII. Wechsler Individual Achievement Test–Second Edition (WIAT–III) A. Designed to accompany the WPPSI–R, WISC–III, and WAIS–R B. Contains 9 subtests to assess reading, mathematics, spelling, written expression, listening comprehension, and oral expression C. D. E. F. IX.

X.

XI.

Basal is 5 consecutive correct answers; ceilings vary from subtest to subtest Students with disabilities included in norm group Easy to administer If used as a screening device, only three subtests administered (Basic Reading, Mathematics Reasoning, Spelling) Wide Range Achievement Test: Fourth Edition (WRAT4) A. Subtests are Word Reading, Sentence Completion, Spelling, and Math Computation with two forms B. Students must have specific prerequisite skills to participate in this assessment C. Grade based norms are offered for the first time with this edition Diagnostic Achievement Battery (3rd ed.) (DAB-4) A. Eight subtests assess basic school subjects and spoken language skills B. Both listening and speaking skills are assessed Hammill Multiability Achievement Test (HAMAT) A. Assesses reading, writing, arithmetic, and facts B. Reading is required only on the reading subtest.

148 .

XII. Criterion-Referenced Tests A. Evaluate student performance in reference to instructional objectives B. Most popular is the Brigance Comprehensive Inventory of Basic Skills– Revised (CIB–R) 1. Inventories based on instructional objectives in readiness, oral language, reading, writing and mathematics XIII. Curriculum-Based Measurement Strategies A. Evaluate student performance in relation to local school curriculum B. Most useful for gathering data for instructional decisions and documenting C.

student progress Also suggested for use in eligibility decisions by establishing classroom

"norms" XIV. Answering the Assessment Questions A. Types of procedures 1. Each type of procedure is likely to produce different results 2. Group tests underestimate abilities of students with special needs.

Individual tests are more accurate 3. Norm-referenced measures help determine the existence and severity of a school performance problem while criterion-referenced are best for

B.

C.

instructional planning 4. School records, classroom observations and analyses of student work and descriptive data Nature of the assessment tasks 1. Comprehensiveness refers to the number of academic skills assessed and the breadth of coverage within each skill area 2. Test tasks differ from measure to measure and may or may not approximate classroom tasks 3. Motivational factors include the presentation style and requirements for failure Documentation of School Performance 1. “Is there a school performance problem?” will be determined by review of school records and assessment procedures

149 .

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1.

Discuss the importance of involving the student in the assessment of academic achievement. What types of information can be obtained from the student?

2.

Identify several purposes for assessing academic achievement.

3.

Discuss current practices in general education and special education for assessing school performance. Include descriptions of specific assessment instruments in your discussion.

4.

Why is it important to include assessment of “instructional factors in the classroom” as part of evaluating a student’s school performance?

5.

Discuss difficulties low achieving students have with group tests and ways that individually administered tests bypass those difficulties.

ACTIVITIES 1.

Interview a special education teacher and a general education teacher in a local school. Obtain information about their methods of assessing school performance or academic achievement.

2.

Examine copies of the PIAT–R/NU, the Woodcock-Johnson IV Tests of Achievement, and the WIAT-II. If possible, also examine the K-TEA-3, the DAB–4, the WRAT4, and the HAMAT.

3.

Observe one of the individual achievement tests being administered to a student.

Determine the purpose for using that particular test. Observe the tester as he or she scores the test.

150 .

STUDY GUIDE REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. Read these statements and tell whether they are true or false. ____a. The major concern in the assessment of school performance is academic achievement. ____b. Students must show a school performance problem to be eligible for special education services. ____c. When a general education teacher is concerned about a student’s school performance, the teacher’s first step is referral for special education assessment.

2. What are two reasons for assessing school performance?

3. If the special education assessment team finds that a student’s current school achievement falls within the below average range of performance, which of the following conclusions can be drawn? a. The student is eligible for special education services. b. The student is not eligible for special education services. c. The student has school performance problems, and assessment should continue. d. The student has school performance problems that should be handled in the general education classroom.

4.

Find the true statement: a. According to federal law, the standard academic assessment designed for general education students must also be administered to all students with disabilities. b. The most common type of testing accommodation is a change in the response mode the student uses to answer questions. c. Alternate assessments are typically used with students with mild disabilities; testing accommodations are used with students with more severe disabilities. d. The IEP team makes decisions about whether testing accommodation or alternate assessments are needed for students with disabilities.

5.

Which of these statements is true? a. In the 1970s, public concern over the state of American education led to the back-to-basics movement. b. In the 1980s, the excellence in education movement stressed achievement in traditional content area subjects, not basic literacy skills. c. Current school improvement efforts include a greater emphasis of standards for academic performance and increased accountability for schools. d. All of the above statements are true.

6.

Check each of the assessment devices and procedures that can be used to document school performance. ____a. Classroom observations ____b. Standardized tests ____c. Personality measures ____d. Group and individual achievement tests 151 .

____e. Criterion-referenced measures ____f. IQ tests ____g. Interviews with parents, teachers, and students ____ h. Review of school records 7. Find the best description of current practices in special education assessment of school performance. a. Only group test are used. b. Only individually administered test are used. c. Both group and individual measures are used, but individual tests are preferred. d. Both group and individual measures are used, but group tests are preferred.

8.

9.

What are two factors of group testing that may affect how well students with disabilities perform?

Match the types of testing accommodation in Column A with the examples in Column B.

Column A a. Timing b. Setting c. Presentation d. Response Column B ____The student types an essay using a word processor with a spelling checker. ____The teacher reads questions to the student. ____The test is administered to a small group of students. ____The student is allowed 2 hours, rather than 1 hour, to complete the exam. ____Math problem are written in large type with only a few problems to a page. ____The student tape-records answers to test questions.

10. Match the assessment device or procedure in Column A with the description in Column B. Column A a. Review of school records b. Teacher interviews c. Parent interviews d. Peabody Individual Achievement Test-Revised/Normative Update e. Wide Range Achievement Test-4th Edition f. Woodcock-Johnson IV g. Wechsler Individual Achievement Test-Third Edition h. Diagnostic Achievement Battery (4th Ed.)

152 .

Column B ____The best source of information about the student’s ability to use academic skills at home and in the community. ____An individual achievement test for ages 5 through adult that assesses reading, sentence comprehension, spelling, and math computation skills. ____A test system that includes measures of cognitive performance as well as academic achievement tests. ____A norm-referenced measure of spoken language (listening and speaking), written language (reading and writing), and mathematics. ____An individual measure that offers tests of reading comprehension, written expression, and general information. ____The best source of data about the types of instructional modifications effective in improving classroom performance. ____A strategy for finding out about the student’s past grades, attendance history, and other historical data. ____An individual achievement test that includes measures of listening and speaking.

11. What score interpretation is not accurate? a. A standard score of 109 on the PIAT-R/NU indicates performance in the average range. b. A standard score of 89 on the WIAT-III indicates performance in the low average range. c. A standard score of 76 on the WRAT4 indicates performance in the low average range. d. A standard score of 135 on the Woodcock-Johnson IV indicates performance in the above average range.

12. Tests with similar purposes such as the PIAT-R/NU and the WRAT4 contain similar assessment tasks. (True or False).

13. Criterion-referenced tests evaluate a student’s mastery of specific skills and subskills. (True or False).

14. How can curriculum-based measures contribute to the database of the assessment team?

153 .

ANSWERS TO STUDY GUIDE REVIEW QUESTIONS 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

a. true, b. true, c. false Any two of the following; to determine if there is a problem in academic achievement, to identify areas of educational need, to assess academic progress c d d a, b, d, e, g, h c Any two of the following: time limits, reading skills are required, students respond in writing, instructions are presented orally, independent work skills are assumed d, c, b, a, c, d c, e, f, h, d, b, a, g b false true Curriculum-based measures can add to the database that the assessment team assembles to determine whether a student shows poor school performance.

154 .

Test Items for Chapter 11 MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS 1.

Which individual achievement test would you select to assess a student's spoken language skills? a. PIAT-R/NU b. DAB-4 c. WRAT4 d. All of the above

2.

The test containing 20 subtests grouped into a standard battery and a supplementary battery is the a. WIAT II b. DAB-4 c. Woodcock-Johnson IV d. WRAT4

3.

Considering the nature of the tasks on different achievement tests is important because a. they may not look like classroom tasks. b. they may not comprehensively measure the subject. c. they may take a long time to administer. d. All of the above

4.

Which of the following statements regarding academic achievement tests is not true? a. Academic achievement tests may contribute information for instructional decisions. b. Academic achievement tests can help determine if a student has the skills to be mainstreamed. c. Academic achievement tests may reveal a school performance problem. d. Academic achievement tests alone determine the student's placement.

As a general rule, group tests of academic achievement will a. accurately estimate school performance abilities of students with academic problems b. underestimate school performance abilities of students with academic problems c. estimate school performance abilities of students with academic problems above their actual abilities d. none of the above

5.

155 .

6.

Which measure relies most heavily on multiple-choice tasks? a. PIAT-R/NU b. WRAT4 c. Woodcock-Johnson IV d. DAB-4

07. The achievement test that looks most like typical classroom tasks is the a. PIAT-R/NU b. WRAT4 c. Woodcock-Johnson IV d. DAB-4 08. Current school reform efforts include all but the following a. back-to-basics movement b. alternative assessments c. school restructuring d. focus on higher order thinking skills 09. On which measure are most test tasks timed? a. Woodcock-Johnson IV b. K-TEA/NU/NU c. WRAT4 d. WIAT II 10. When a student is referred for special education assessment, what is the first question the assessment team asks? a. Is there a school performance problem? b. Is the student functioning two years below grade level? c. Is there a disability? d. Is there a cultural bias?

11. Which individual achievement tests assess composition skills? a. PIAT-R/NU and WRAT4 b. WRAT4 and DAB-4 c. K-TEA/NU and Woodcock-Johnson IV d. Woodcock-Johnson IV and WIAT II 12. Which measure assesses spelling with a dictation test? a. WRAT4 b. PIAT-R/NU c. Both of the above d. None of the above

156 .

13. Which statement about the WRAT4 is false? a. It contains two levels, one for younger students, one for older students. b. It only offers both age norms. c. Its subtests are Reading, Spelling, and Arithmetic. d. It is difficult to administer correctly.

14. Which individual test is the most comprehensive achievement measure? a. Woodcock-Johnson IV b. PIAT-R/NU c. WRAT4 d. WIAT III 15. Curriculum-based measures are most valuable for a. comparing a student's performance to that of age or grade peers b. monitoring student progress c. evaluation of teacher performance d. assessing students' attitudes toward school 16. On which measure are older students asked to write a composition? a. Woodcock-Johnson IV b. PIAT-R/NU c. WRAT4 d. K-TEA-3 17. Which statement about the Woodcock-Johnson IV Tests of Achievement is true? a. It includes an academic skill battery and a readiness battery. b. Three forms are available. c. It is quite easy to administer, score, and interpret. d. Norms are available for ages 5 to 95.

18. Which statement is true? a. Students read isolated words aloud on the WRAT4. b. On the PIAT-R/NU, students select the correctly spelled word from four choices. c. Students can use paper and pencil on most Woodcock-Johnson IV math subtests. d. All of the above 19. On which Woodcock-Johnson IV subtest are students asked to detect and correct errors? a. Dictation b. Quantitative Concepts c. Word Attack d. Proofing

157 .

20. If an assessment team found that a student showed adequate achievement in basic school skills, what would be the next step in assessment? a. Identification of the disability b. Exploration of the possibility of giftedness c. Consultation with the referring teacher about possible classroom modifications d. Referral for hearing and vision screening 21. When testing accommodations are used, the one used least often is a. changes in timing b. changes in setting c. changes in presentation modes d. changes in response modes 22.

The Woodcock Johnson IV a. reanalyzed data from the most of the norm group b. collected data on a new norm sample c. are dramatically different from the old norms d. none of the above

23.

If the assessment team desires to know how the student uses his/her skills in the home of community environment, the best person(s) to provide this is a. the teacher b. the student c. the parent d. others

24. Criterion-referenced tests provide a. relative standing information b. skill mastery information c. progress monitoring information d. none of the above 25. A teacher needs an assessment that will provide data at the planning stage before instruction begins, immediately after instruction to determine whether mastery has occurred, and periodically throughout the year to evaluate long-term retention, you suggest a. curriculum-based measurement b. criterion-referenced tests c. norm-referenced tests d. group administered tests

158 .

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS 1.

Provide two explanations for why students with disabilities are likely to perform more poorly on group-administered test of achievement.

2.

Describe the unique perspective parents and other family members have about how the student uses academic skills.

3.

Describe how an IEP team determines what testing accommodations are appropriate for a student.

4.

Identify the areas of the curriculum/major content areas assessed on the WJ III Tests of Achievement.

5.

Identify the three stages in the teaching process when curriculum-based measures provide important data.

ESSAY QUESTIONS 1.

When assessing for school performance problems, what recommendations are given for the use of norm-referenced standardized tests, criterion-referenced tests and curriculum-based measurement?

2.

Why are testing accommodations allowed for students with special needs in stateand district-wide tests? Name 6 common testing accommodations.

3.

Besides administering individual achievement tests to students, what are other ways to establish a student’s school performance strengths and challenges?

4.

Sometimes there are concerns about the comprehensiveness of an achievement test. For example, a math achievement test only has students complete computation facts and does not present problems that require higher order thinking skills. What concerns would an evaluator have when using scores from these tests to discuss school performance problems?

5.

When choosing an academic achievement test to determine school performance problems, what features of the test would you look at to determine its appropriateness for your student?

159 .

Answer Key for Chapter 11 Answers to Multiple Choice Questions for Chapter 11 1.

B

2.

C

3.

B

4.

D

5.

B

6.

A

7.

B

8.

A

9.

C

10. A 11. D 12. A 13. B 14. A 15. B 16. B 17. B 18. D 19. D 20. C 21. D 160 .

22. B 23. C 24. B 25. A Answers to Short Answer Questions for Chapter 11 1.

Two of the following: time requirements, usually require a certain level of reading skills, students usually have to write their answers and often have to respond on a separate sheet, assumes the student can work independently, monitor own behavior, and sustain attention

2.

Parents and other family members can provide information about how the student uses academic skills in the home and community.

3.

The IEP must determine testing accommodations on an individual basis. These accommodations must be identified in the IEP, used as a regular part of instruction with the student, and cannot interfere with the test’s purpose.

4.

Reading, oral language, mathematics, written language, academic knowledge

5.

At the planning stage before instruction begins, immediately after instruction to determine whether mastery has occurred, and periodically throughout the year to evaluate long-term retention.

161 .

Chapter 12 Assessment of English Learners OVERVIEW For students who speak nonstandard versions of English, assessment centers on identification and description of the dialect in order to ensure that this language difference is not considered a language disorder. For students from homes where languages other than English are spoken, the first step is determining the student’s proficiency in English, the home language, and any other languages spoken. Students who are English learners may require bilingual education services or other types of language interventions. When English learners are under consideration for special education services, care must be taken to conduct assessments in all languages in which students possess some skill. For this to occur, it may be necessary to employ informal assessment strategies rather than standardized tests and to enlist the aid of interpreters in the data collection process.

OUTLINE I.

Considerations in Assessment of Language of ELL Students A.

II.

Purposes for assessing oral language 1. In early grades, language skills are monitored but not assessed by group achievement tests 2. Students for whom English is a second language may be assessed for possible placement in a bilingual or ESL/ESOL program

Assessing Students who Speak Dialects of U.S. English A. Dialectical differences 1. Standard English is one dialect; others should be considered different

B.

but not inferior 2. Black English differs from Standard English in some speech sounds and some aspects of morphology and syntax 3. When Spanish-speakers learn English they may have morphological and syntactical variations Assessment strategies 1. Informal strategies can be used in the assessment of speakers of dialects (e.g., collection of speech samples, use of imitation tasks) 162 .

2.

III.

Formal assessments can be scored both in a standard fashion and with alternate scores that give credit for responses correct in the student's dialect Assessing Students who are English Learners A. Language proficiency consists of two dimensions, which must be assessed 1. Basic interpersonal communication skills (BICS) 2. Cognitive/academic language proficiency (CALP) B. Language of the home is determined by interview or questionnaire and, as needed, student's language proficiency is assessed C. D.

IV.

A major problem is lack of appropriate measures in all languages Special education assessment for English learners should be completed in

the student's primary language 1. Prereferral interventions should be tried before the student is referred for special education assessment 2. Assessment in both languages may be necessary 3. Interpreters or informal measures in the student's primary language may be used Within the Context of the Classroom A. The instructional environment depends highly on the communication skill of B. C.

the teacher When assessing the interpersonal dimension, it is important to determine student opportunity to practice oral language Room arrangement is important in the realm of the classroom physical for student interaction opportunity

KEY TERMS English-language learner (ELL) bilingual education First language basic interpersonal Dialect communication skills (BICS) code switching cognitive-academic language proficiency (CALP)

163 .

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1.

2.

3.

Students sometimes speak with dialects or differences in language that are related to their culture. What is your opinion on how these differences impact assessment approaches in oral language?

What intervention options are available to students who are English learners if they need additional services?

Why students who are culturally/linguistically diverse sometimes over or under identified for special education services?

ACTIVITIES 1.

Explain why dialectical differences must be considered in assessment.

2.

Give examples of assessment strategies appropriate for use with students who speak nonstandard English.

STUDY GUIDE REVIEW QUESTIONS 1.

Nonstandard forms of English such as Black English and Spanish-influenced English are considered language deficits, not language difference. (True or False).

2.

Students who speak a nonstandard version of English are said to speak a(n) ________of English.

3.

With students who are English learners, a. the first step in assessment is determination of the student’s language proficiency in the first language and in English. b. special education assessment takes place in the student’s primary language, whenever feasible. c. bilingual education programs may be provided as well as special education services. d. all of the above.

4.

When tools for assessment are not available in the student’s first or only language, assessors may need to use interpreters to assist in the administration of Englishlanguage measures. (True or False).

5.

If the special education team finds that an English- speaking student shows poor performance in oral language, what conclusion can be drawn? a. The student may be eligible for bilingual education services. b. The student requires individualized instruction in reading, writing, listening, and speaking.

164 .

c. Special education services should be provided in the area of oral language if the student meets eligibility criteria for one of disabilities. d. The student will require an interpreter for all assessments.

6.

Poor oral language skill development may affect a. reading. b. composition. c. mathematics. d. classroom behavior. e. all of the above.

ANSWERS TO STUDY GUIDE REVIEW QUESTIONS 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

false dialect d true c e

165 .

Test Items for Chapter 12 MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS 1.

Which of the following statements is incorrect? a. For English learners, bilingual education is one common intervention. b. Some bilingual students may need to be assessed in two languages. c. When an interpreter is used in assessment, test norms no longer apply. d. If a student qualifies for special education services, that student is no longer eligible for bilingual education or ESL services.

2.

Language proficiency involves a. basic interpersonal communication skills b. cognitive/academic language skills c. receptive and expressive language skills d. all of the above

3.

The most commonly accepted approach to the education of students who speak a dialect is a. eradication of the dialect b. acceptance of the dialect c. bidialectalism d. bilingual education

4.

In assessing a student who speaks a dialect, the best course of action for a tester to take is a. ignore the dialect and administer and score the test in a standard manner b. mention the student's dialect in the test report c. select only measures that have been normed with student who speak the same dialect d. score the test twice, once in a standard fashion and once giving credit if answers are correct in the student's dialect

5.

When a student learns English as a second language, the aspect of language that is most quickly learned is a. cognitive/academic language proficiency b. basic interpersonal communication skills c. phonological morphemes d. both a and b

6.

When students who speak languages other than English are referred for special education assessment, the first step is to a. determine if one language is clearly dominant b. interview past teachers of the student c. administer a global test of achievement such as the PIAT d. assume the student is proficient in English and design the IAP 166 .

7.

The purpose of language assessment for bilingual learners is to determine the extent of their a. reading and writing skills in English b. reading and writing skills in the first language c. proficiency in both languages d. proficiency in the language of the school

8.

The following is not a measure of language proficiency a. Dos Amigos Verbal Language Scales b. Language Assessment Scales-Oral c. Ber-Sil Elementary and Secondary Spanish Tests d. School Assessment Scales-2

9.

Which of the following statements is false? a. language loss is another factor to consider in language assessment b. paucity in both languages indicates a language disorder c. loss of proficiency may occur in the first language d. language loss may occur in children who are bilingual

10. In the whole language approach a. reading and writing responses are scored holistically b. writing is considered as important as reading c. students who do not speak English learn to read and write in their own language d. none of the above 11. The Woodcock Language Proficiency Battery–Revised and the TOAL–4 both assess a. a wide range of language skills b. listening only c. speaking only d. reading only

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS 1.

2.

3.

Describe what is meant by “code switching.”

Identify at least one alternative method of assessment when tests are not available in the language of the student.

Name and describe an assessment device for Spanish speaking students in the area of academic achievement.

167 .

ESSAY QUESTIONS 1. Describe the differences between language proficiency and language preference.

2. Describe how dialectical differences can affect assessment in oral language, reading and written language.

Answer Key for Chapter 12 Answers to Multiple Choice Questions for Chapter 12 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

D D C D B A C D B B A

Answers to Short Answer 1.

2.

3.

Changing from one dialect to another based on context.

Informal strategies such as observation of the student in communication situations, collection and analysis of samples of the student’s natural language, and administration of informal inventories and criterion-referenced tests.

One assessment device for Spanish speaking students in the area of academic achievement is the Prueba de Lectura & Lenguaje Escrito. It is a test of reading and writing.

168 .

Chapter 13 Reading OVERVIEW Reading is one of the most important academic skills because it forms the basis for learning in all other school subjects. Because reading is often an area of difficulty for students with disabilities, special education assessment typically includes examination of current school performance in skills such as decoding, reading comprehension, and the application of reading skills in everyday life. One approach to the assessment of reading is the administration of norm-referenced diagnostic measures such as the Woodcock Reading Mastery Tests–3rd Edition, the Gray Oral Reading Tests (5th ed.), and the Test of Reading Comprehension (4th ed.). Tests of phonological processing are also of interest for younger students who have difficulty with individual word sounds; measures of fluency are used to assess the ability to read both quickly and accurately.

Assessment continues with informal procedures in order to gather sufficient information to answer the assessment question about the student’s educational needs in the area of reading. Among the informal devices and procedures that may be employed are informal reading inventories (e.g., the Analytical Reading Inventory), teacher checklists, error and miscue analyses, the cloze procedure, clinical reading interviews, criterionreferenced tests such as those in the BRIGANCE® series, curriculum-based measurement, questionnaires and interviews, and portfolio assessment.

OUTLINE I.

Considerations in Assessment of Reading A. Purposes for assessing reading 1. Reading is assessed as part of school achievement 2. Reading assessment aids in planning instruction 3. Reading assessment continues on an on-going basis throughout instruction B.

Skill areas 1. Decoding and pronouncing printed elements 2. Comprehension of the text or assigning meaning to the elements 3. Three models of proficient reading emphasize different aspects of the reading process a.

“Bottom-up” model emphasizes phonetic and linguistic approaches

169 .

“Top-down” model emphasizes higher-level processes of comprehension c. “Interactive” model emphasizes both text and meaning Whole language instruction is based on the top-down and interactive models of reading a. Reading integrated with other language arts b. Meaning and motivation emphasized c. Learning takes place in social contexts where students use language for real purposes b.

4.

d. Research does not point to the superiority of this approach A combined approach is now recommended

5.

a. Development of decoding skills b. Development of comprehension of contextual meaning Balanced literacy is a popular approach that includes both reading and writing The Report of the National Reading Panel: Teaching Children to Read identified five components of evidence-based instruction in the area of reading a. phonemic awareness instruction

6.

7.

C.

II.

b. phonics instruction c. fluency and guided oral reading d. vocabulary instruction e. text comprehension instruction 8. The ability to use reading skills in everyday life should be assessed with informal techniques Current practices 1. Norm-referenced and diagnostic reading tests are used in general and special education

2. Informal reading inventories are grade-referenced 3. Criterion-referenced tests are commonly used Woodcock Reading Mastery Tests–3rd Edition (WRMT–3) A. WRMT–3 is a norm-referenced test for individuals 4-6 through 79-11 B. Each subtest provides grade equivalents, age equivalents, percentile ranks, C.

Relative Performance Indexes, Growth Scale Value and standard scores Major content areas include reading readiness, basic reading skills, and word and passage comprehension 170 .

III.

IV.

D. Decoding skills can be analyzed with the Word Attack subtest E. Vocabulary can be analyzed by subject area F. A procedure is available for aptitude-achievement discrepancy analysis G. WRMT–3 results may suggest areas needing informal assessment Gray Oral Reading Tests (5th ed.) (GORT–5) A. Norm-referenced test assesses oral reading rate, accuracy, fluency and comprehension B. Scores include percentile ranks, standard scores, and Oral Reading Index C. Provides for analysis of student errors or miscues D. GORT–5 results may point to possible need areas in oral reading Test of Reading Comprehension (4th ed.) (TORC–4) A.

V.

Norm-referenced test assesses silent reading comprehension and vocabulary for students aged 7 to 17-11 B. TORC–4 yields standard scores and percentile ranks for subtests and a Reading Comprehension Index (RCI) C. TORC–4 results present information about a student's present level of performance in comprehension skills and knowledge of word meanings Measures of Phonemic Awareness and Phonological Processing A. Test of Phonological Awareness-Second Edition: PLUS (TOPA-2+) 1.

B.

C.

Two levels: one for children 5–0 through 6–11 years of age and the other for early elementary grade students (ages 6-0 through 8-11) 2. Scores include a standard score and percentile rank Test of Phonological Awareness Skills (TOPAS) 1. For children 5–0 through 10–11 years of age 2. Measures sound comparison, phoneme blending and phoneme segmentation 3. Scores include a standard score and percentile rank Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing (CTOPP-2) 1.

2.

For students 4–0 through 24–11 years of age Measures phonological awareness, phonological memory and rapid naming Scores include age and grade equivalent, percentile ranks and standard scores

3.

VI.

Reading Fluency Measures A. Gray Oral Readings Test (GORT-5) B. Test of Silent Word Reading Fluency-2 171 .

C. D. E. F.

Test of Silent Contextual Reading Fluency-2 Contextual Reading Fluency Word Reading Curriculum-based measurement (CBM) 1. Can be teacher made or commercially prepared 2. The Reading Fluency Progress Monitor is a commercially prepared fluency measure that is part of Read Naturally VII. Informal Reading Inventories (IRIs) A. IRIs are individually administered to assess oral reading of words and paragraphs 1. Independent, Instructional, and Frustration reading levels are determined 2.

B.

C.

Silent reading levels and Listening Capacity level can be determined with some IRIs Selecting an informal reading inventory requires consideration of various factors 1. Number of forms available 2. Number and grade level of word lists and passages 3. Types of comprehension questions 4. Measures available for listening skills and silent reading

F.

Analytical Reading Inventory (10th ed.) (ARI) provides original writings, a wide range of comprehension questions, and procedures for miscue analysis of decoding errors Informal Reading Inventory (8th ed.) (IRI) contains passages from pre-primer to grade 12 levels.

English-Espanol Reading Inventory for the Classroom 1. Provides narrative and expository passages from preprimer to grade 9 levels in both English and Spanish Ekwell/Shanker Reading Inventory-Sixth Edition

G.

Standardized Reading Inventory (2nd ed.)

D. E.

172 .

VIII. Other Informal Strategies A. Teacher checklists quickly and efficiently gather information B. Error analysis describes common types of oral reading errors such as additions, substitutions, omissions, reversals, and repetitions C. Miscues can be analyzed to determine if they change the meaning from the original text D. Cloze procedure is used to determine if reading material is within a student's instructional range E. Diagnostic teaching and clinical reading interviews are dynamic procedures F.

IX.

requiring observation and questioning Criterion-referenced tests, such as the Brigance Diagnostic Inventories,

assess mastery of specific skills in the reading curriculum G. Curriculum-based measurement (CBM) techniques are often used to evaluate oral reading fluency H. Questionnaires and interviews gather information about students' views and opinions I. Portfolios for language arts often include information on students' accomplishments in reading Within the Context of the Classroom A.

X.

Assessment of the instructional environment includes study of the reading curriculum, reading materials, reading skill demands in other school subjects, and instructional procedures B. Assessment of the interpersonal environment considers interactions between students and teachers C. The physical environment is assessed to determine if it facilitates or hinders learning Answering the Assessment Questions A. Assessment tools vary greatly in how and what they assess B. C.

Assessment team must determine the relationship of reading to other areas of student performance Reading performance is documented by results of norm-referenced and informal measures that describe the student's current level of reading achievement and strengths and weaknesses in various skill areas

173 .

KEY TERMS balanced literacy phonemic awareness phonological processing decoding sight vocabulary phonics

fluency comprehension skills informal reading inventory miscue analysis cloze procedure readability

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1.

Discuss the importance of using both informal and norm-referenced reading assessments when gathering information to plan special education programs.

2.

IRIs typically provide three reading levels. Describe these levels and the importance of each.

3.

Select five informal reading assessment strategies. Describe each strategy and compare and contrast their purposes.

4.

Describe three approaches to reading instruction—bottom up, top down, and interactive. Discuss the pros and cons of each approach.

5.

Explain the importance of phonemic awareness and phonological processing to the reading process.

ACTIVITIES 1.

Interview special education teachers about the assessment instruments they use with their students to monitor and plan instructional programs in reading. What types of measures are used? Who uses them? Are the same instruments used for all students?

2.

Observe a professional assessing a student's reading ability with an informal tool such as an informal reading inventory. After the assessment is completed, interview the professional to learn about the results of the assessment. What observations did the professional make during assessment? What types of errors did the student make? What conclusions can be drawn about the student's instructional needs in reading?

3.

Use the Fry readability graph in your textbook to estimate the reading level of a content area text. Use that same content area text to prepare a cloze activity that could be used to assess a student's comprehension skills.

174 .

STUDY GUIDE REVIEW QUESTIONS 1.

Which of the following is the major reason for assessing reading skills? a. To determine whether the student has a disability b. To gather information about specific learning abilities c. To aid in planning the instructional program d. To evaluate the effectiveness of instructional practice in the general education classroom

2.

The two skill areas of primary concern in the assessment of reading are decoding and __________. In addition, there is growing interest in __________ between the reader and the text he or she is reading.

3. Decoding can be accomplished in many ways. Check each of the strategies available to readers for decoding unfamiliar words: ____a. Sight recognition ____b. Structural analysis ____c. Phonic analysis ____d. Readability analysis ____e. Contextual analysis 4.

In schools today, reading is assessed by a. group and individual measures. b. norm-referenced and criterion-referenced tests. c. informal inventories and clinical interviews. d. answers a and c e. answers b and a

5.

Diagnostic reading tests usually assess a wide range of reading skills rather than one single area. (True or False).

Match the assessment device or procedure in Column A with the description in Column B.

6.

Column A a. Woodcock Reading Mastery Tests-Third Edition b. Test of Reading Comprehension (4th ed.) c. Analytical Reading Inventory (10th ed.) d. Gray Oral Reading Tests (5th ed.) e. Monitoring Basic Skills Progress: Basic Reading (2nd ed.)

Column B ____Assesses only silent reading skills ____A test that considers both speed and accuracy in decoding ____An informal reading inventory that includes narrative and expository passages ____A computer-based measure that uses a modified cloze procedure ____Includes readiness measures such as Visual Auditory Learning and Letter Identification 175 .

7.

Which of these statements about reading measures are true and which are false? a. Decoding skills are assessed on the Woodcock Reading Mastery Tests Third edition and the Gray Oral Reading Tests (5th ed.). b. Most reading measures include a test of structural analysis skills. c. Informal inventories evaluate both decoding and comprehension skills. d. The Test of Reading Comprehension (4th ed.) uses oral reading to assess comprehension skills.

8.

Match the description with the assessment results. a. An area of strength b. A possible area of educational need ____Reading Comprehension Quotient 110 on the Test of Reading Comprehension (4th Ed.) ____Grade 1.6 Instructional Level on an informal reading inventory for a grade 4 student ____RPI score of 50/50 on one subtest of the WRMT-3 ____Scaled score of 4 on the Paragraph Reading subtest of the TORC-4 9.

The results of informal reading inventories are estimates of three reading levels: the _______level, the____________, and the ____________level.

10. Find the true statements about informal assessment of reading. a. On curriculum-based measures of reading fluency, students read classroom materials aloud for 1 minute. b. In reading assessment, response analysis is used to identify the miscues that students make in decoding and comprehension. c. Having students read high-frequency word lists is one way of assessing comprehension of connected text. d. With the cloze procedure, the students read a selection from which words have been omitted and attempts to fill in the missing words. e. Clinical reading interviews are one way of studying how the student interacts with the text. f. An example of a criterion-referenced test that includes reading skills is the BRIGANCE® Diagnostic Comprehension Inventory of Basic Skills-Revised.

11. Check each type pf response that is commonly considered to be a decoding error on informal reading inventories and oral reading tests. ____a. Omissions ____b. Substitutions ____c. Disregard of punctuation ____d. Listening comprehension ____e. Inference and main idea ____f. Additions 12. What three aspects of classroom environments should be evaluated when students experience difficulty in reading?

176 .

13. Poor reading skills would likely have the most effect on which school subject? a. Mathematics b. Spelling c. Speaking and listening skills d. Physical education 14. If the special education team finds that a student shows poor performance in reading comprehension, what conclusions can be drawn? a. The student is eligible for special education services for students with intellectual disabilities. b. The special education program should focus on improving decoding skills. c. The student does not qualify for special education services. d. A possible IEP goal would be improving reading comprehension.

ANSWERS TO STUDY GUIDE REVIEW QUESTIONS 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

c comprehension, interaction b, c, e, e true b, d, c, e, a true, false, true, false a, b, b, b independent, instructional, frustration a, d, e, f a, b, f instructional, interpersonal, physical b d

177 .

Test Items for Chapter 13 MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS 1.

What is the major purpose for assessing reading skills in special education assessment? a. To determine if a disability is present. b. To find out if a student has the skills to be mainstreamed. c. To determine whether a student shows poor performance in reading in relation to grade peers. d. To compare oral language development with rate of acquisition of written language skills.

2.

In reading assessment, it is important to consider a. silent and oral reading b. decoding and comprehension c. ability to use reading in everyday situations d. all of the above

3.

Which measure would you select to determine if a student's reading comprehension skills were within the average range for his or her grade? a. TORC–4 b. Informal reading inventory c. Brigance® Diagnostic Inventory d. Word Identification subtest, WRMT–III

4.

Traditional reading assessment measures are product-oriented and based upon which approach to reading? a. Top-down b. Bottom-up c. Interaction d. Spontaneous

5.

Which statement is false? a. Informal reading inventories provide information about the student's independent, instructional, and frustration reading levels. b. Miscue analysis is a form of error analysis in which the student's reading errors are studied to determine if they alter the meaning of the passage. c. High frequency word lists such as the Dolch Basic Sight Word List are used to assess students' skills in reading content subject textbooks. d. The cloze procedure can be used to determine if a textbook is within a student's instructional reading level.

178 .

6.

What assessment strategy would you use to study the interaction between the reader and the text he or she is reading? a. Miscue analysis b. Clinical reading interview c. Cloze procedure d. Readability graph

7.

A student must be able to read silently, work independently, and record answers on a separate answer sheet on the a. WRMT–III b. GORT–5 c. TORC–4 d. none of the above

8.

If a student earns a grade 4 instructional level on an IRI, that level relates to the student's a. silent reading ability b. oral reading ability c. comprehension ability d. decoding ability

9.

An example of a norm-referenced formal reading test is a. Cloze Test b. Analytical Reading Inventory c. Brigance® Diagnostic Inventory d. Woodcock Reading Mastery Tests–III

10. An alternate method of error analysis that takes into account the nature of the errors the reader makes is called a. qualitative analysis b. response analysis c. anaphoric analysis d. criterion error count procedure 11. IRIs are all of the following except a. arranged in order of difficulty according to grade levels b. grade-referenced measures c. designed to assess comprehension skills only d. commercially prepared or teacher-made 12. Which statement about the WRMT–III is incorrect? a. The test yields a wide variety of scores. b. All subtests must be administered. c. Norms extend from kindergarten through college. d. No writing is required.

179 .

13. Which measure assesses knowledge of vocabulary in specific content areas? a. Survival Reading List b. TORC–4 c. GORT–5 d. None of the above 14. A criterion-referenced test of reading skills can be used to a. assess mastery of specific skills b. evaluate curriculum effectiveness c. help develop an IEP d. all of the above 15. What broad assessment question guides assessment for instructional planning in reading? a. At what grade level is the student functioning? b. Is the student functioning at least two years below grade level? c. What are the student's educational needs? d. What assessment tools will best describe the student's problem in reading?

16. The act of reading consists of two stages: a. decoding and assigning meaning b. letter recognition and word recognition c. decoding and sound blending d. structural analysis and visualization 17. The WRMT–III is a reading assessment that is a. administered to groups or individually b. for grades 1 through 9 c. used when conducting clinical reading interviews d. norm-referenced 18. The basal on the WRMT–III is established by a. six consecutive correct responses beginning with the first item on the page b. six consecutive errors ending with the last item of the page c. success on five out of seven consecutively-numbered items d. three correct responses in a row 19. The GORT–5 assesses students' ability to a. read silently and write answers to comprehension questions b. read aloud and answer comprehension questions orally c. blend sounds into words d. decode nonsense words

180 .

20. Which measure would you select to determine a student's Reading Comprehension Quotient? a. WRMT–III b. TORC–4 c. GORT–5 d. ARI 21. Phonemic awareness is a. the sounds associated with letters and blending the sequence of sounds into a word b. reading text aloud quickly and with few errors c. word recognition skills d. the ability to recognize that words are composed of individual sounds within the word 22. Identify a norm-referenced assessment that measures oral reading fluency and comprehension of passages a. curriculum-based measurement b. GORT-5 c. WRMT-III d. IRI 23. A method in which every 5th word is omitted from a reading passage so that students can fill in the blanks with the missing words is called: a. maze procedure b. cloze procedure c. miscue analysis d. criterion-referenced assessment 24. When conducting an error analysis of a student’s oral reading, the assessor indicates an omission by a. slashing through the word on the assessor’s copy of the text b. circling the word on the assessor’s copy of the text c. underlining the word on the assessor’s copy of the text d. none of the above 25. Reading skills are assessed because a. reading is an easy skill to assess b. reading is an important component of school achievement c. reading is a minimum competency for grade advancement for most schools d. b and c

181 .

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS 1.

List the 5 components of evidence-based instruction in the area of reading identified in the Report of the National Reading Panel: Teaching Children to Read.

2.

Explain why some reading tests require students to read nonsense words.

3.

What skills are usually assessed by formal reading tests and inventories

4.

Provide at least 3 examples of possible contents of reading portfolios.

5.

The way a text is structured affects how easy it is to read; generally, ___________ text is easier to read than ________ text.

ESSAY QUESTIONS 1.

Explain the differences between independent reading levels, instructional reading levels and frustrational reading levels.

2.

Why might it be a good idea to assess oral reading, silent reading and listening levels for students with specific learning disabilities in the area of reading?

3.

Explain to a parent what a RPI score of 50/90 on a subtest of the WRMT–III means.

4.

Why are norm-reference tests insufficient in determining a student’s strengths and weaknesses in the area of reading? What other assessment tools would be useful and why?

5.

Describe the purpose and results of a clinical reading interview.

182 .

Answer Key for Chapter 13 Answers to Multiple Choice Questions for Chapter 13 1.

C

2.

D

3.

A

4.

B

5.

C

6.

B

7.

C

8.

B

9.

D

10. A 11. C 12. B 13. B 14. D 15. C 16. A 17. D 18. A 19. B 20. B 21. D 183 .

22. B 23. B 24. B 25. D Answers to Short Answer Questions for Chapter 13 1.

Phonemic awareness Phonics Fluency and guided oral reading Vocabulary Text comprehension

2.

Some reading tests require students to read nonsense words so that they must rely upon their phonic analysis skills rather than their sight word vocabulary.

3.

Formal reading tests and inventories usually contain measures of decoding and comprehension skills.

4.

Measures that reflect and analyze students’ decoding, vocabulary, or comprehension skills, measures that require students to write as a reaction to reading across content areas with different forms of text and for different purposes, measures of students; reading interests and attitudes, lists and logs of students’ actual reading experiences, projects or products that are the products of reading assignments, teachers’ progress notes, conference notes or observational notes about the student when the student is engaged in reading activities, and/or appraisal of the students’ reading skills outside the school environment.

5.

narrative; expository

184 .

Chapter 14 Mathematics OVERVIEW Like reading, mathematics is one of the basic school subjects, and it is sometimes a challenging area for students with disabilities. When this is the case, special education assessment typically includes measures of math computational and problem-solving skills as well as the application of these skills to everyday life.

Evaulation of a student’s strengths and weaknesses in mathmatics generally begins with the administration of diagnostic measures such as the well-known KeyMath 3 or another norm-referenced measure such as the Stanford Diagnostic Mathematics Test4th ed., the Test of Mathematical Abilities (3rd ed.) or the Comprehensive Mathematical Abilities Test. Assessment then proceeds with informal measures in order to gather the types of information needed to plan the student’s instructional program. Among the informal approaches that are most popular are informal inventories and checklists, analyses of student errors, clinical math interviews and diagnostic probes, and criterionreferenced tests such as those in the BRIGANCE® series. Teachers may also choose to use curriculum-based measures such as Monitoring Basic Skills Progress, a computer-based program that provides detailed feedback on the student’s progress in skill development.

OUTLINE I.

Considerations in Assessment of Mathematics A. Purposes for assessing mathematics 1. Mathematics is assessed as part of school achievement 2. Mathematics assessment aids in planning instruction B. Skill areas 1. Arithmetic involves computation with numbers 2. Arithmetic is part of mathematics, the general field of study 3.

4.

4.

5.

Problem-solving is an important part of mathematics Fluency is also critical in mathematics Traditional measures of mathematics performance are product oriented Informal measures investigate interactions between the student and mathematic tasks

185 .

C.

II.

Current practices 1. Standardized mathematics tests are survey instruments 2. A variety of informal assessment strategies are available KeyMath -3 A. KeyMath-3 includes 10 subtests that assess three major areas: Basic Concepts, Operations, and Applications B. Norms available for Kindergarten through grade 12 C. Norm-referenced with standard scores and percentile rank scores for subtests, areas, and total test D. E.

III.

Each test item is keyed to a specific skill domain KeyMath-3 provides direction for informal assessment

Other Formal Measures of Mathematics A. Stanford Diagnostic Mathematics Test (4th ed.)(SDMT) 1. Norm-referenced group measure for students in grades 1.5 through 12.9 2. Six levels, each of which assesses Concepts and Applications, and Computation 3. A Progress Indicator (PI) score indicates skill development in specific concept/skill domains B. Test of Mathematical Abilities (3rd ed.)(TOMA–3) 1.

2.

3.

C.

D.

Norm-referenced group measure for grades 8 to 18-11 Requires reading and writing skills Produces a Mathematics Quotient for the total test and scaled scores and percentile ranks for subtests 4. Measures attitude toward mathematics, mathematics vocabulary, and general mathematics found in everyday life.

Comprehensive Mathematical Abilities Test (CMAT) 1. Norm-referenced group measure for grades 3 to 12 2. Assess traditional computational and problem-solving skills as well as higher mathematic skills 3. Includes subtests that measure time, money, and measurement Diagnostic Test of Arithmetic Strategies (DTAS) 1. Individual formal test designed to evaluate computational skills 2. Numeral writing is required 3.

Does not produce scores but descriptive results may aid in planning instruction 186 .

IV.

V.

Curriculum-Based Measures: Monitoring Basic Skills Progress (MBSP) A. Commercially available curriculum-based measures of basic skills in reading and mathematics B. Timed tests are recommended twice a week for students in special education C. Produces a Skill Profile of skills mastered and not mastered Other Informal Assessment Procedures A. Teacher checklists can document and monitor students' acquisition of mathematics skills B. Informal inventories survey skills to determine strengths and weaknesses C. D.

VI.

Error analysis is particularly appropriate for the study of mathematics Clinical mathematics interviews and diagnostic probes are most appropriate

for process analysis E. Criterion-referenced tests assess mastery of specific mathematics skills 1. Brigance Diagnostic Inventories F. Questionnaires and interviews elicit students' attitudes and opinions about their own abilities G. Portfolio assessment is used to document progress in learning mathematics skills Within the Context of the Classroom A.

Assessment of the instructional environment examines curriculum and methods and materials used to implement that curriculum B. Interpersonal environment reflects student-teacher interactions C. Physical environment should be assessed in terms of student comfort and available equipment VII. Answering the Assessment Questions A. Assessment tools vary in content and depth of coverage B. Mathematics influences and is influenced by many other academic areas C. Documentation of mathematics performance requires the use of a variety of tools

187 .

KEY TERMS algorithm problem solving skills fluency

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1.

Discuss the ways in which mathematics may permeate every part of a student's school day. Include specific examples.

2.

What factors might influence the mathematics performance of a student? Discuss cognitive, physical, and emotional factors.

3.

Compare and contrast the KeyMath-3, SDMT-4, and the TOMA–3. In your opinion, which is the most appropriate measure and why?

4.

How can reading disabilities affect the acquisition of mathematics concepts and skills?

5.

Discuss the proposals made by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (1989). How do these proposals affect change in the way math is taught in the classroom?

ACTIVITIES 1.

Under the supervision of the instructor, administer a KeyMath-III test and calculate all scores.

2.

Interview at least three teachers to learn about the formal and informal strategies they use to assess mathematics skills.

3.

Design a series of informal assessment procedures to study a sixth grade student who is experiencing difficulty in solving mathematics word problems. Include at least three different types of informal devices and techniques.

188 .

STUDY GUIDE REVIEW QUESTIONS 1.

2.

3.

Mathematics performance is assessed to gain information about the student’s educational needs and strengths and weaknesses in specific mathematics skills.

(True or False).

Mathematics is the general field of study and one of its components, ________, is a computational skill.

In the current school practice, mathematics is assess by a. both formal and informal measures. b. individual and group tests. c. error analyses, informal inventories, and clinical math interviews. d. curriculum-based measures. e. all of the above.

4.

Which is the most frequently used comprehensive measure of mathematics skills for students in the elementary grades? a. KeyMath 3 b. Stanford Diagnostic Mathematics Test-4th Ed. c. Tests of Mathematical Abilities (3rd Ed.) d. Diagnostic Test of Arithmetic Strategies e. none of the above

5.

The BRIGANCE ®Diagnostic Comprehensive Inventory of Basic Skills-Revised is both norm-referenced and criterion-referenced. (True or False).

Match the assessment device or procedure in Column A with the description in Column B. (The answers in Column A may be used more than once.)

6.

Column A a. KeyMath-III b. Test of Mathematical Abilities (3rd ed.) c. Diagnostic Test of Arithmetic Strategies d. Stanford Diagnostic Mathematics Tests-Fourth Ed. Column B ____A group test for students in grades 1-12 ____Used to identify the strategies students use for addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. ____Assesses Basic Concepts, Operations, and Applications with 13 subtests ____Assesses Concepts and Applications as well as Computation ____An individual test with items referenced to skill domains and objectives ____Includes a measure of attitude toward mathematics and a test of mathematics vocabulary 7.

Write the letter S before each test result that indicates an area of strength; write the letter N if results point to a possible area of education need. ____a. Stanine 1 Total score on the Stanford Diagnostic Mathematics Test 189 .

____b. KeyMath-III Geometry subtest scaled score of 11 ____c. SDMT-4 Progress Indicator of 1 on the Addition Facts subtest ____d. Math Quotient 75 on the Test of Mathematical Abilities (3rd Ed.) ____e. General Mathematics Quotient of 100 on the CMAT 8.

Students may arrive at incorrect answers to mathematics computation problems if they use correct facts by inappropriate ___________.

9. One feature of the academic achievement tests by Brigance is that they included instructional objectives. (True or False).

10. Find the true statements. a. Many mathematics tests assess both computation and problem-solving skills. b. Mathematics measures may evaluate application skills such as time, money, and measurement. c. The difference between informal mathematics inventories and criterionreferenced test is that inventories tend to measure skill domains thoroughly, rather than assessing only a few representative skills. d. The four most common types of computation errors are incorrect operations, incorrect number facts, incorrect algorithms, and random errors. e. Clinical math interviews are used to determine how well students perform when they are provided with computational aids such as calculators.

11. In assessing mathematics performance within the context of the classroom, it should be determined whether the curriculum stresses _____________or _____________ skills.

12. Motor skills are necessary for what mathematics task?

13. If a student shows average intellectual performance, in what standard score range would you expect mathematics scores to fall? a. Less than standard score 70 b. Standard score 70 to 84 c. Standard score 85 to 115 d. Standard score 116 to 130 e. Greater than standard score 130 14. If the special education team finds that a student shows poor performance in mathematics computation, what conclusion can be drawn? a. The special education program should focus in improving problem-solving skills. b. The special education program should emphasize the use of computational skills in problems concerning time, money, and measurement. c. A possible educational goal would be to increase accuracy in addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. d. The student should remain in the general classroom and be provided with a calculator.

190 .

ANSWERS TO STUDY GUIDE REVIEW QUESTIONS 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

true arithmetic e a true d, c, a, d, a, b N, S, S, N, S algorithms true a, b, d computation, problem solving writing numerals c c

191 .

Test Items for Chapter 14 MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS 1.

The written language of mathematics is composed of a. abstract and concrete representations b. numerals and symbols c. arithmetic, algebra, and geometry d. problem solving units

2.

Mathematics includes arithmetic computation as well as a. problem solving b. geometry and measurement c. reading and interpreting tables, charts, and graphs d. all of the above

3.

In some ways, the distinction between computation and problem solving in mathematics is analogous to that between a. decoding and comprehension in reading b. speaking and listening c. mathematical algorithms and divergent thinking d. addition and division

4.

A formal test designed to provide an in-depth assessment of computational skills is the a. KeyMath–III b. SDMT-4 c. DTAS d. TOMA–3

5.

Which measure is a norm-referenced test that evaluates attitude toward mathematics, math vocabulary, computation, and story problems? a. KeyMath–III b. SDMT-4 c. DTAS d. TOMA–3

6.

Which statement about the SDMT-4 is false? a. The SDMT-4 is a norm-referenced test. b. A Progress Indicator score may be obtained. c. Two levels of the test are available. d. All questions are multiple choice.

192 .

7.

The most frequent type of computational error made by students with achievement problems is a(n) a. incorrect operation b. incorrect number fact c. incorrect algorithm d. random error

8.

The measure that uses error analysis procedures to detect slips and mistakes in setting up the problem is a. SDMT-4 b. KeyMath–III c. DTAS d. TOMA–3

9.

Which of the following scores is most likely to indicate a problem area in mathematics? a. A Total Math Quotient of 72 on the TOMA–3 b. SDMT-4 PI of + on the Subtraction Facts subtest c. A scaled score of 11 on a TOMA–3 subtest d. A stanine 4 Total Score on the SDMT-4

10. Traditional mathematics measures tend to focus on all of the following except a. measurement skills b. attitude toward mathematics c. problem solving skills d. computational skills 11. Which statement about the KeyMath–III is incorrect? a. It is most appropriate for students in Kindergarten through grade 9. b. Reading and writing skills are required. c. Domain scores provide information about the student's performance in specific skill areas. d. 13 subtests survey three major areas of mathematics.

12. The teacher asks the student to compute problems and then verbalize how he/she completed each problem. The teacher is using the informal assessment procedure called a. clinical interview b. error analysis c. diagnostic probe d. work sample analysis

193 .

13. Which feature does the KeyMath–III, the SDMT-4, and the TOMA–3 have in common? a. They are standardized tests. b. They must be administered individually. c. They are designed for grades 1 to 12. d. None of the above 14. What part of the DTAS asks the student to listen to a computation problem, write it down, but not solve it? a. Number Facts b. Written Computation c. Informal Skills d. None of the above 15. A student asked to add 12 + 7 gives 5 as the answer. What type of error has been made? a. Incorrect operation b. Incorrect number fact c. Incorrect algorithm d. Random error 16. In a clinical mathematics interview, the teacher should not a. present easier problems first b. ask the student to solve the problem and explain orally what he or she is doing c. ask the student to work as quickly as possible d. keep a written record or tape of the interview 17. Which diagnostic probe should be used to determine if a student is having difficulty decoding words in a story problem? a. Have the student dictate the problem while the professional writes it down. b. Provide the student with a calculator and see if he or she then solves the problem correctly. c. Tell the student which operation to use and see if he or she then solves the problem correctly. d. Read the problem aloud to the student and see if he or she then solves the problem correctly.

18. Which mathematics skills are used most in daily life? a. Algebra and geometry b. Money, time, and measurement c. Written and mental computation d. Estimation, probability, and statistics

194 .

19. The Mental Computation subtest of the KeyMath–III differs from other subtests on that test because a. the student may use pencil and paper b. it must be given at the beginning of the test c. items may not be repeated d. it requires students to estimate answers to problems 20. Which KeyMath–III Total Test score indicates high average performance? a. 89 b. 112 c. 125 d. 134 21. Informal inventories of mathematics a. evaluate a particular skill with one or two items b. provide detailed assessment of a student’s mathematical skills c. informal inventories are another form of a criterion-referenced test d. none of the above 22. The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics recommends that authentic problem solving activities be provided to a. elementary aged students b. middle school aged students c. high school aged students d. all of the above 23. Formal training in assessment and/or psychometric training is required to administer and score this assessment a. KeyMath-III b. TOMA-3 c. CMAT d. all of the above 24. A teacher suspects that a student is having problems with story problems due to a lack of reading skills. The teacher decides to read the story problems aloud to the student and observes if this results in a change of student performance. The teacher has completed a. a clinical math interview b. an informal inventory c. a criterion-referenced test d. a diagnostic probe

195 .

25. A teacher needs assessment information that will assist in the development of an IEP, you suggest using a. a clinical math interview b. an informal inventory c. a criterion-referenced test d. a diagnostic probe

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS 1.

Describe what is meant by the statement, “Traditional measures of mathematics are product-oriented, not process oriented.”

2.

What area of mathematics is more emphasized in the most recent trend in mathematics instruction?

3.

Identify an informal assessment procedure that would survey a variety of mathematics skills to determine the student’s strengths and weaknesses.

4.

The KeyMath-III links specific test items to skill domains and specific instructional objectives. Explain why it is recommended that this information be used for preliminary planning of instruction and that further assessment would be necessary.

5.

Identify a comprehensive, norm-referenced measure of mathematics that can be administered individually or in a group.

ESSAY QUESTIONS 1.

Explain the differences between mathematics and arithmetic.

2.

Describe the purpose of authentic problem solving activities in mathematics. Give a specific example.

3.

When conducting an error analysis, what types of errors might the examiner see in computation and in problem solving?

4.

What methods, approaches or assessment tools can teachers use to understand the strategies a student is using to figure out a math problem?

5.

Compare and contrast the basic skills approach to the authentic problem-solving approach. What are the benefits and drawbacks of each approach?

196 .

Answer Key for Chapter 14 Answers to Multiple Choice Questions for Chapter 14 1.

B

2.

D

3.

A

4.

C

5.

D

6.

C

7.

D

8.

C

9.

A

10. B 11. B 12. A 13. A 14. D 15. A 16. C 17. D 18. B 19. C 20. C 21. A 197 .

22. D 23. D 24. D 25. C Answers to Short Answer Questions for Chapter 14 1.

This statement means that traditional measures of mathematics assess the accuracy of the students’ answers as opposed to the assessment of the interaction between the student and the mathematical “text”.

2.

The most recent trend in mathematics instruction is emphasis on the teaching of problem-solving skills.

3.

An informal inventory

4.

Further assessment would be necessary because the KeyMath-III objectives are evaluated by only one or two test items.

5.

The SDMT-4 can be administered individually but is usually given in group settings.

198 .

Chapter 15 Writing and Oral Language OVERVIEW In today’s society, writing skills are just as necessary as reading skills. When students with school performance problems are evaluated for possible disabilities, the special education assessment team often includes written language as one of its areas of concern. Although some information may be available from results of broad-based achievement measures, usually more specific data is needed before planning the instructional program to improve performance in spelling, handwriting, composition, or a combination of these written language skills. Assessment may begin with a global measure such as the Test of Written Language–4 or with more specific measures such as the Test of Written Spelling–5 or an instrument that assesses handwriting skills.

Informal assessment tools are especially important in this curricular area because of the relative scarcity of well-designed formal tests. The most popular informal approaches include work sample analyses, informal inventories, criterion-referenced tests, and observation in the area of spelling; rating scales, observation, and error analyses in the area of handwriting; and writing sample analyses, criterion-referenced tests, clinical interviews, and portfolios assessment in the area of composition. The team considers all information sources when making decisions about specific areas of need in written expression and the instructional goals to be addressed to improve writing performance.

Oral language is the foundation for school learning. Schools expect young children to enter the early grades with skills in both listening to and speaking the English language. That is not always the case. For some students, disabilities interfere with the acquisition of oral language skills. In assessment, the goal is to determine the student’s current level of development in oral language and to identify strengths and weaknesses in various skill areas. Among the concerns are both reception and expression of the sound system of language (phonology), language form (morphology and syntax), language meaning (semantics), and the use of language (pragmatics). Assessment may begin with a comprehensive measure such as the Test of Language Development– 4 or the Oral and Written Language Scales-II. It is also possible to focus on one language area. For example, the team may choose to employ specific measures such as the Goldman-Fristoe Test of Articulation–Third Edition; the Test for Auditory Comprehension of Language (4th ed.); the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test, Fourth Edition; or the Test of Pragmatic Language-2. Informal assessment strategies such as observations, developmental checklists, and language sample analyses may also be useful.

199 .

OUTLINE I.

Considerations in Assessment of Written Language A. Purposes for assessing written language 1. General education monitors the acquisition of spelling, handwriting, and composition skills 2. Special education usually assesses spelling and other areas of written language as needed B. Skill areas 1. Oral language usually precedes written language 2.

C.

II.

Usually students learn to read and then to write; however, in the whole language approach, all language arts are integrated 3. Written language includes mechanical skills such as spelling, handwriting, capitalization, and punctuation as well as skill in composition 4. Composition is a multi-stage process with at least three stages: planning, writing, and evaluation Current practices 1. Most assessment instruments emphasize mechanical skills rather than

composition skills; newer measures of written language have begun to put a greater emphasis on composition 2. The number of tests of written language has increased dramatically in the last few years 3. Informal assessment strategies for written language are a necessity Strategies for Assessing Spelling A. Broad range achievement tests assess spelling in various ways 1. WRAT-4 uses recall tasks 2. PIAT-R/NU uses recognition tasks B.

3. Woodcock-Johnson-III uses recall and recognition tasks Test of Written Spelling-5 (TWS-5) 1. TWS-4 is norm-referenced for ages 6-0 to 18-11 2. Standard scores, percentile rank, age and grade equivalent scores are available for the total test

200 .

C.

Informal techniques for spelling assessment 1. Work sample analysis a. Poplin's sequence of acquisition of spelling skills can provide a framework for work sample analysis b. Spellmaster Assessment and Teaching System is a systematic error analysis procedure c. Teachers can use error analysis of students' work samples to categorize spelling errors 2. Informal spelling inventories provide a rough estimate of a student's spelling skills Criterion-referenced tests help identify spelling skills that have and have

3.

III.

not been mastered 4. Observation is used to evaluate how a student approaches a spelling task 5. Clinical interviews typically take place after the student has finished writing Strategies for Assessing Handwriting A. Rating scales are used to evaluate a student handwriting sample 1. Zaner-Bloser Evaluation Scales provide a standard method of collecting

B.

C. D. E.

and rating handwriting samples 2. Five factors are rated as “satisfactory” or “needs improvement” Observation and error analysis provide information about how a student goes about the task of handwriting 1. Classroom assignments can be used for error analysis or the student can copy from a model 2. Various systems of categorizing handwriting errors are available Inventories provide general information about handwriting abilities Criterion-referenced instruments may provide information about handwriting abilities and their use in daily life Test of Legible Handwriting (TOLH) 1. Norm-referenced measure for ages 7–0 to 18–6 2. Provides prompts for writing a story, biographical sketch, or letter 3. Handwriting scored holistically; evaluation criteria included for both manuscript and cursive writing Results include a standard score and percentile rank for each writing sample, overall Legibility Quotient

4.

201 .

IV.

Strategies for Assessing Composition A. Test of Written Language–4 (TOWL–4) 1. TOWL–4 is a norm-referenced test for ages 7 to 17-11 2. Contains 7 subtests to assess composition and mechanical aspects of writing 3. As part of test, student writes story describing picture prompt 4. Results include standard scores, percentile ranks, age and grade equivalents and three composite scores B. Test of Adolescent Language–4 (TOAL–4) 1.

TOAL–4 is a norm-referenced measure suitable for students ages 12–0 to 24–11

2.

3.

C.

D.

E.

F.

Assesses spoken and written language Three written language subtests yield scaled scores and a Written Language Composite Index Woodcock Language Proficiency Battery–Revised 1. Contains four written language subtests from the Woodcock-Johnson Psycho-Educational Battery–Revised 2. Assesses oral language, reading and written language 3. Subtests include dictation, proofing, writing samples, and writing fluency Mather-Woodcock Group Writing Tests (GWT) 1. Designed for group administration 2. Three levels are available for grades 2 through 16 and adults 3. Assesses dictation, spelling, editing, writing samples, and writing fluency Test of Written Expression (TOWE) 1. Measured contrived and spontaneous writing for ages 6–6 to 14–11 2. Student writes a story after a story starter, no picture prompts Informal techniques 1.

Rating scales and checklists are used to evaluate students' writing; some employ holistic scoring techniques whereas others examine specific subskills Writing sample analysis can use error analysis for mechanics or response analysis for composition skills

2.

3.

Criterion-referenced tests measure a variety of different composition skills 202 .

4.

V.

Observations and clinical interviews gather information about how a student interacts with the writing task 5. Portfolios often contain samples of student writing as well as student self-evaluations and teacher ratings and comments a. Language Arts Assessment Portfolio (LAAP) contains several tools for student and teacher use Within the Context of the Classroom A. Instructional environment should be evaluated in terms of types of skills emphasized and the amount of time devoted to instruction B.

VI.

Social relationships among students and student-teacher interactions are major factors within the interpersonal environment

C. The physical environment should be conducive to good writing skills Answering the Assessment Questions A. Because few comprehensive norm-referenced tests are available, informal strategies are important in the assessment of written language B. Written language should be evaluated in relation to estimated intellectual performance C. Specific learning abilities and strategies influence the acquisition and use of written language skills D. E. F.

Classroom behavior and achievement problems in other skill areas can interfere with the acquisition of written language skills Writing proficiency is a requirement in other curriculum areas The student's present level of performance in written language must be documented

VII. Considerations in Assessment of Oral Language A.

Purposes for assessing oral language 1. In early grades, oral language skills are monitored but not assessed by group achievement tests Many students with mild disabilities have educational needs in the area of oral language

2.

203 .

B.

C.

Skill areas 1. Language may be considered expressive or receptive 2. Phonology, morphology, and syntax are three aspects of language form 3. Language meaning is called semantics 4. Pragmatics is the use of language 5. Assessment requires many different types of instruments Current Practices 1. Oral language is typically not assessed by tests of academic achievement 2.

Tests of intellectual performance usually assess language skills in some way

3.

Most oral language assessment measures are designed for elementary grade students 4. There is a wide variety of oral language measures but few cover all skill areas VIII. Comprehensive Measures of Oral Language A. Test of Language Development–4 (TOLD–4), Primary 1. TOLD–4, Primary is an individual norm-referenced test most useful for children under the age 4-0 to 8-11 2.

B.

C.

Nine subtests assess receptive, organizational and expressive language in terms of phonology, syntax, and semantics 3. Percentile ranks and standard scores are available for subtests and six composite quotients Test of Language Development–4 (TOLD–4), Intermediate 1. TOLD–4, Intermediate is an individual norm-referenced test for older elementary students 2. Six subtests assess receptive and expressive syntax and semantics 3. Scores available include percentile ranks, standard scores, and composite quotients Other Comprehensive Measures 1. Oral and Written Language Scales (OWLS-II) includes 2 oral scales for ages 3–21: Listening Comprehension and Oral Expression 2. Test of Adolescent and Adult Language–4 (TOAL–4) is designed for students 12–0 through 24–11 Illinois Test of Psycholinguistic Abilities–3 (ITPA–3) measures both oral and written language for students 5–0 through 12–11

3.

204 .

IX.

Strategies for Assessing Articulation A. Photo Articulation Test-3 uses pictures to elicit all of the consonant, vowel, and diphthong sounds B. Goldman-Fristoe Test of Articulation-3 uses three strategies to assess speech sounds C. Informal observation and analysis of spontaneous speech

X.

Strategies for Assessing Morphology and Syntax A. Formal measures 1.

Northwestern Syntax Screening Test (NSST) assesses receptive and expressive syntax in children 3–0 to 7–1 years of age

2.

B.

XI.

Test for Auditory Comprehension of Language (4th ed.) (TACL–4) uses three receptive subtests to assess students 3–0 through 12–11 years of age 3. Carrow Elicited Language Inventory (CELI) investigates expressive morphology and syntax in students 3–0 to 7–11 years of age Analysis of language samples 1. Simplest analysis is to compute the mean length of utterance (MLU) 2. Developmental Sentence Analysis is norm-referenced for ages 2–0 to 6–

11 3. Language Sampling, Analysis, and Training (3rd ed.) (LSAT–3) provides information about expressive morphology and syntax Strategies for Assessing Semantics and Pragmatics A. Assessment of language meaning 1. Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test, Fourth Edition (PPVT–IV) measures receptive vocabulary from 2–6 through 90+ years of age through the use of pictures 2. Expressive Vocabulary Test, Second Edition (EVT-2) measures receptive vocabulary from 2–6 through 90+ years of age through the use of pictures and synonyms Comprehensive Receptive and Expressive Vocabulary Test– Third Edition (CREVT–3) assesses receptive and expressive semantics in students 5–0 to 89–11 years of age

3.

4.

Informal assessment strategies such as checklists are also used to comprehend and produce meaningful language 205 .

B.

Assessment of language use 1. Pragmatic competence may be assessed informally 2. Let's Talk Inventory for Children is a formal individual measure of pragmatics for children 4 to 8 years of age 3. Test of Pragmatic Skills (Rev) assesses expressive pragmatics in young children ages 3 to 8-11 4. Test of Pragmatic Language-2 (TOPL-2) is a measure for ages 5–0 to 13–11 that emphasizes expressive pragmatics 5. Pragmatic Language Skills Inventory is a norm-referenced rating scale for students ages 6 to 18-11 that assesses different aspects of pragmatic language 6.

Informal assessment strategies such as observation can be used to assess pragmatic competence XII. Within the Context of the Classroom A. Within the instructional environment, consideration must be given to the communication skill of the teacher and number and types of oral responses of the student B. Interpersonal environment of communication between students and with the teacher should be considered C.

Physical environment should be conducive to oral discussions and socialization XIII. Answering the Assessment Questions A. Nature of the assessment tools 1. Measures vary in the language they assess 2. Different assessment tasks are used to evaluate similar oral language skills B. Relationship of oral language to other areas of performance 1. General learning aptitude and specific learning abilities influence oral

C.

language skill development 2. Oral language pervades all school areas and daily life Documentation of oral language performance is accomplished with formal and informal measures

206 .

KEY TERMS written language language expressive language receptive language composition oral language phonology

articulation morphology syntax semantics pragmatics language samples

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1.

Discuss the skill areas assessed in written language and the relationship between writing and other dimensions of language.

2.

Describe the various strategies for assessing spelling skills and provide specific examples of each.

3.

Explain why writing skills increase in importance as students move through the grades. Then, discuss the roles of the instructional, interpersonal, and physical environments in the acquisition and use of written language skills.

4.

In what ways are writing skills different than speaking skills?

5.

Discuss the use of language samples and the Developmental Sentence Analysis for assessment of expressive syntax and morphology.

6.

Describe the relationship of pragmatics, semantics, syntax, morphology, and phonology. Explain which of these components of oral language are also found in written language.

ACTIVITIES 1.

Visit an elementary classroom and interview the teacher about the way written language is taught and assessed. Then visit a special education teacher and ask the same questions. You may also want to talk with a general and a special educator who teach at the secondary level.

2.

Obtain a composition written by a student with learning problems. Evaluate the student's work using either the Expressive Writing Rating Scale or the Checklist of Composition Skills found in your textbook.

207 .

3.

Interview a professional assessment team member about tests and strategies used to evaluate written language.

4.

Obtain a language sample from a student and calculate the mean length of utterance.

5.

Interview a member of a school assessment team about the types of measures used to evaluate oral language.

STUDY GUIDE REVIEW QUESTIONS 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

The major purpose for the assessment of written language skills is ______________.

What three skill areas are most often considered in the assessment of written language?

Find the true and false statements. a. In the developmental sequence, oral language generally precedes written language. b. Reading is an expressive language skill, whereas writing is a receptive language skill. c. Writing is often assessed by multiple-choice exams. d. One strategy frequently used to assess written expression is to obtain a writing sample. e. The most commonly assessed skill area in written language is composition.

Are traditional measures of written language more concerned with the process of writing or with the product?

Match the assessment device or procedure in Column A with description in Column B.

Column A a. Test of Written Language-4 b. Tests of Written Expression c. Zaner-Bloser Evaluation Scales d. Test of Adolescent and Adult Language-4 e. Test of Written Spelling-5 f. Woodcock Language Proficiency Battery-Revised Column B ____A standardized test that assesses the student’s skills in spelling ____Assesses four aspects of written language including Dictation and Proofing ____A rating scale for the evaluation of handwriting skills ____A writing sample is used to obtain scores for Contextual Conventions and Contextual Vocabulary subtests

208 .

____Includes tests of written vocabulary and grammar as well as tests of listening, speaking, and reading. ____ Contains two parts, Items and Essay 6.

Find the test results that indicate possible areas of educational need. a. Basic writing Composite 74 on the Mather-Woodcock Group Writing Tests b. Overall Written Language Quotient 86 on the Test of Written Langauge-4 c. Standard score 92 on one of the composite scores from the Test of Adolescent and Adult Language-4 d. Total test standard score of 117 for a grade 4 student on the Test of Written Spelling-5

7.

There are several systems for the analysis of spelling errors, but the simplest recognizes only two types of errors. Name the two types of misspellings.

8. Check each of the areas that should be considered in the evaluation of handwriting skills. ____a. Letter Formation ____b. Spelling ____c. Alignment and proportion ____d. Size of letters and spacing ____e. Punctuation and capitalization ____f. Speed 9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

On the Test of Written Language-4, a writing sample is elicited by asking students to ____________.

Writing samples can be analyzed for spelling, handwriting, grammar, punctuation and capitalization, and content and organization. (True or False).

Two fundamentals concerns in the evaluation of the instructional environment of the classroom are the amount of ___________devoted to instruction and the type of ___________that are emphasized.

If a student shows high average intellectual performance, in what standard score range would you expect the student to perform in written language? a. Less than standard score 70 b. Standard score 70 to 84 c. Standard score 85 to 115 d. Standard score 116 to 130 If the special education team finds that a student shows poor performance in one aspect of written language, what conclusions can be drawn? a. If the problem is in spelling, it is likely that the student’s handwriting is also poor. b. A problem in one area usually means that the student will show poor performance in all dimensions of written language. c. The student can perform poorly in one aspect of written language while showing adequate performance in other aspects. d. Written language skill is related to reading competence; if a student writes poorly, he or she also reads poorly.

209 .

14. Oral language skills are assessed to a. determine whether students are eligible for special education services from speech-language pathologists. b. identify educational needs in the areas of speech and language. c. find out if students are in need of bilingual education programs. d. all of the above e. answers a and b 15. What five dimensions of oral language are of interest in special education assessment?

16. Which of the following statements are true and which are false? a. In the developmental sequence, receptive language generally precedes expressive language. b. Listening in an expressive language skill, whereas speaking is a receptive language skill. c. Another term for receptive phonology is auditory discrimination. d. Articulation is the production of morphemes, the smallest meaningful units of language. e. Pragmatics refers to the use of language in communicative contexts.

17. Most measures of oral language assess language form, content, and use. (True or False).

18. Match the assessment device or procedure in Column A with the description in Column B. Column A a. Test of Language Developpment-4, Primary b. Comprehensive Receptive and Expressive Vocabulary Test (3rd ed.) c. Test of Adolescent and Adult Language-4 d. Goldman-Fristoe Test of Articulation-Third Edition e. Oral and Written Language Scales-II Column B ____Assesses expressive phonology ____Used to evaluate receptive and expressive phonology, syntax, and semantics in preschool and early elementary grade children ____In oral language, produces three scores: Listening Comprehension, Oral Expression, and Oral Composite ____This test assesses only semantics ____Contains three oral language subtests: Word Opposites, Word Derivations, and Spoken Analogies 19. Which measure would you select if you wished to assess both receptive and expressive syntax? a. Northwestern Syntax Screening Test b. Test for Auditory Comprehension of Language Inventory c. Carrow Elicited Language Inventory d. Language sampling 210 .

20. Which measure would you choose to assess pragmatics? a. Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test, Fourth Edition b. Expressive Vocabulary Test (2nd. Ed.) c. Let’s Talk Inventory for Children d. Test of Language Development-4, Intermediate 21. There are many ways to analyze samples of students’ oral language skills. In most systems, the words uttered by the students are analyzed according to their morphological and syntactical characteristics. However, the simplest method is calculation of the mean ____ of __________, an indicator of overall language development.

22. If a student shows low average intellectual performance, in what standard score range would you expect that student to perform in oral language? a. Less than standard score 70 b. Standard score 70 to 84 c. Standard score 85 to 115 d. Standard score 116 to 130 e. Greater than standard score 130

ANSWERS TO STUDY GUIDE REVIEW QUESTIONS 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

to gather information for planning the instructional program spelling, handwriting, and composition true, false, false, rue, true the product e, f, c, a, d, b a phonetic, nonphonetic a, c, d, f write a story about a picture true time, skills d c d phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics true, false, true, false, true false d, a, e, b, c, a c length, utterance b 211 .

Test Items for Chapter 15 MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS 1.

The assessment instrument in which spelling skills are evaluated by a multiplechoice test is the a. Test of Written Spelling–5 b. WRAT–4 c. PIAT–R/NU d. Test of Written Language–4

2.

A rating scale designed to evaluate handwriting skills is the a. Zaner-Bloser Evaluation Scales b. TWS–5 c. PSLT d. Test of Adolescent Language–4

3.

Which skill area is usually not included in tests of written language? a. Everyday writing skills b. Handwriting c. Spelling d. Composition

4.

Error analysis in writing is most valuable for identifying all of the following areas of need except a. handwriting b. vocabulary c. spelling d. punctuation

5.

The TOAL–4 is not a. a norm-referenced test b. appropriate for primary grade students c. used to assess listening skills d. useful for comparing performance across a range of different language functions

6.

The major areas of importance in written language assessment are a. decoding and comprehending symbol systems b. mechanics and handwriting c. spelling, handwriting, and composition d. composition and communication

212 .

7.

The act of writing differs from speech because a. speech is a social act and writing is solitary b. speech is expressive and writing is receptive c. writing requires greater gross motor control d. writing precedes reading

8.

Composition is a process that involves a series of steps. The steps are a. scribbling, printing, cursive writing b. drawing, scribbling, penmanship c. planning, transcribing, revising d. input, planning, output, debugging

9.

When evaluating a classroom program for teaching written language skills, it is important that a. the subskills of writing, such as spelling, vocabulary, and composition should be taught in an integrated manner, not separately. b. the students keep journals in which they write everyday. c. the subskills of writing, such as spelling, vocabulary, and compostition should be taught separately. d. students be exposed to a broad range of writing tasks.

10. It is best to conduct a clinical writing interview a. when the student is planning his or her composition b. while the student is writing c. after the student has finished writing d. when the composition has been graded and returned to the student 11. Which instructional method of spelling is not supported by research? a. Presentation of words in lists b. Use of the test-study-test method c. Allocation of 60 to 75 minutes per week for spelling d. Writing words several times each to promote retention 12. Clinical interview questions about the composition process should include questions about a. the student's view of the purpose of writing and the audience b. the student's past successes and failures in writing c. the teacher's requirements for written work d. the ways in which the student attempts to correct decoding errors

213 .

13. Holistic evaluation of writing samples a. is recommended when standardized tests are not available b. requires that the teacher read the student's work quickly to obtain a general impression of its quality c. is a process in which groups of teachers use the same rating scales and checklists to evaluate student work samples d. begins with correction of all student errors 14. Teachers can devise criterion-referenced tests of spelling skills using a. high frequency word lists b. lists of spelling demons c. words from the spelling basal used in the classroom d. all of the above 15. Which of the following statements is incorrect regarding written language? a. Writing imposes the roles of author and secretary on the student b. Written language assessment is usually limited to evaluation of spelling skills because spelling is the most important area of written expression c. Many students with mild disabilities experience difficulty in the area of written language d. Students should be instructed in the content and mechanics of written language 16. If handwriting is an area of difficulty for a student, the teacher can allow the student a. to type his or her written work b. to tape record his or her written work c. dictate his or her written work d. all of the above 17. Identify the phonetic spelling error a. writing "kat" instead of "cat" b. writing “lenht” for “length” c. writing “oh” for “house” d. none of the above 18. This aspect of language is concerned with the meanings of words. a. Morphology b. Semantics c. Pragmatics d. Phonology 19. The study of the use of language in various communication settings and contexts is a. morphology b. semantics c. pragmatics d. phonology 214 .

20. Which aspect of language is not concerned with language form? a. Semantics b. Morphology c. Syntax d. Phonology 21. Which is a formal measure of pragmatic competence? a. Basic Inventory of Natural Language b. Let's Talk Inventory for Children c. Photo Articulation Test-3rd Ed. d. Test of Adolescent and Adult Language–4 22. The TOLD–4, Intermediate does not assess a. phonology b. both expressive and receptive language c. syntax d. semantics 23. In the assessment of articulation, a sample of the student's speech is elicited by a. collecting a spontaneous speech sample b. asking the student to name pictures c. directing the student to imitate a sound or word produced by the tester d. all of the above 24. The abbreviation MLU stands for a. major language unit b. main linguistic use c. mean length of utterance d. none of the above 25. The major uses of language are a. action verbs, objects in the home, body parts, food, and drink b. emotions, numbers, temporal concepts, opposites, and shapes c. ritualizing, informing, controlling, feeling, and imagining d. nouns, modifiers, verbs, adverbs, and prepositions 26. If a student's primary disability is a language disorder, what professional is most likely to provide special education service? a. Teacher of students with learning disabilities b. Teacher of students with mild intellectual disabilities c. Resource teacher d. Speech-language pathologist

215 .

27. The PPVT-IV: a. is a measure of receptive language b. includes the tester reading a word and then having the student draw what is understood (tests says ball and student draws a ball) c. is a measure of expressive language d. none of the above 28. The professional counts the number of morphemes that a child produces and divides this total by the number of utterances. This is called: a. MLU b. Type Token Ratio c. MLS d. Language sampling 29. The assessment of receptive language involves determining the student’s a. ability to use proper syntax b. ability to use language to communicate information, thoughts, feelings, and ideas c. ability to understand language d. ability to articulate without stuttering.

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS 1.

List the 4 modes of discourse in written language.

2.

Distinguish between the author and secretary roles of writing.

3.

Name the two types of writing elicited from students on the TOWL-4.

4.

Rating scales for handwriting assessment require judgments of the professional who evaluates the student’s handwriting sample. What is the disadvantage of this practice and how can this practice be improved?

5.

Explain why writing might be a particularly difficult task for students with disabilities.

6.

Identify the language skill area for which the fewest measures are available.

7.

Identify the nature of most formal measures of semantics.

8.

___________ is language comprehension, and ______________ is the production of meaningful discourse.

216 .

ESSAY QUESTIONS 1.

Explain the 5 steps in the writing process. Give examples of how a teacher might assess each step of the process.

2.

Describe how difficulties with spelling and handwriting skills can interfere with the writing process. Name some strategies that could bypass difficulties in these areas.

3.

Some spelling tests assess students using the recall method and some use the recognition method. Which do you prefer and why?

4.

The Test of Written Language–4 (TOWL–4) has two types of assessment approaches to writing: the contrived and the spontaneous. Explain the differences and what each approach tells the examiner about students’ written language.

5.

Discuss issues in grading student writing and give 3 examples of effective grading practices that support students in positive ways.

6.

What five dimensions of oral language are of interest in special education assessment?

7.

Give three examples of poor pragmatic language skills and describe possible interventions for each of the examples.

8.

Name four ways a teacher or speech pathologist may analyze a language sample.

217 .

Answer Key for Chapter 15 Answers to Multiple Choice Questions for Chapter 15 1.

C

2.

A

3.

A

4.

B

5.

B

6.

C

7.

A

8.

C

9.

D

10. C 11. D 12. A 13. B 14. D 15. B 16. D 17. A 18. B 19. C 20. A 21. B 218 .

22. A 23. D 24. C 25. C 26. D 27. A 28. A 29. C Answers to Short Answer Questions for Chapter 15 1.

Four modes of discourse for written language are narration, description, exposition, and argument.

2.

The author’s role of writing is to generate ideas and compose the content of writing. The secretary role of writing attends to skills such as the spelling, handwriting, capitalization, and punctuation.

3.

The TOWL–4 elicits writing in both contrived and spontaneous formats.

4.

The results of rating scales are somewhat subjective. Ratings can be more objective if professionals are furnished with standards for judging students’ handwriting.

5.

Expectations about quantity of writing, speed requirements, and accurate spelling and use of grammar place additional performance demands on students with special needs who find writing difficult.

6.

The fewest measures are available for pragmatics.

7.

Most formal measures of semantics deal with receptive skills and use a pictureidentification task.

8.

Receptive semantics; expressive semantics

219 .

Chapter 16 Early Childhood Assessment OVERVIEW Early childhood assessments are conducted in order to find young children with or at risk for developmental delays or with gifts and talents and to assist the family and interdisciplinary team to identify priorities for any intervention. This chapter describes screening tools used by parents and early interventionists to identify the need for further assessment. According to the recommendations for best practice identified by the Council for Exceptional Children Division of Early Childhood, multiple methods of obtaining information are described and include interviews, formal and informal observation, play-based and curriculum-based methods, as well as standardized and norm-referenced methods. Assessment tools used to determine school readiness also are explained. Multiple assessment instruments that are currently used with young children are described for each method. The importance of working with families in a culturally sensitive and respectful manner is emphasized throughout the chapter. An illustrative example of a young boy and his family is used to demonstrate how assessment results can be put together to determine a program plan. The chapter concludes with the rationale for and instruments used to evaluate and monitor both individual child progress and overall program objectives.

OUTLINE I.

Considerations in the Assessment of Young Children A. Interrelationship between family and child 1. Establish family priorities 2. Familiar environments are the best context for assessment 3. Assessments should provide information about interventions 4. Assessments should be socially valuable 5. Assessments should be based on a wide foundation of information 6. Decisions must be based on team member consensus B.

Legislation 1. PL 99-457 a. Required all states to provide services for 3- to 5-year-old children with disabilities b. Discretionary program for infants and toddlers c. Individualized Family Service Plan (IFSP) must be developed

220 .

2.

IDEA 1997 a. Mandated services from birth to two for children at risk b. Services to be delivered in natural environments Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act 2004 a. More flexibility with services is provided b. Parents can provide informed written consent to continue early intervention from age 3 until kindergarten c. Funds are to support early intervention services to promote school readiness, preliteracy, language, and numeracy skills

3.

C.

D.

E.

d. Scientifically research-based practices must be used Purposes 1. Early screening for developmental delays 2. Determine service eligibility 3. Planning interventions 4. Program monitoring 5. Evaluation Areas assessed 1. Family’s strengths and concerns 2. Child’s strengths and delays in all areas of development a. Physical factors b. Language and communication skills c. Gross and fine motor skills d. Social and emotional development e. Self-help and adaptive skills f.

School readiness Issues 1. Services delivered in “natural” environments 2. Ongoing assessment linked to intervention/curriculum 3.

4.

Demand for ecological assessment Concern that individualizing assessment measures may result in the over-identification of young children Assessment with a transdisciplinary team is recommended

5.

221 .

F.

II.

Current Practices 1. Informal curriculum-based assessment usually not standardized 2. Use of familiar physical and social environments 3. Family members are equal contributors

Screening A. The Ages and Stages Questionnaires-3 1. Developmental survey for ages 4–60 months completed by parents B. AGS Early Screening Profiles 1.

C.

D.

E.

Screens for delays or gifts and talents in the areas of cognitive/language, motor, and self-help/social for children ages 2 through 6

Developmental Observation Checklist System (DOCS) 1. Assesses child development, child behavior, and family’s coping ability and stress for children birth through 6 years of age Developmental Indicators for the Assessment of Learning–4 1. Measures language, concepts, motor skills, self-help and social development for children ages 2-6 through 5-11 The Denver Developmental Screening Test (Denver II) 1. Designed to screen developmental delays in children from birth through

F.

age 6 Screeners from more extensive instruments have been designed as a first step in identifying delays

G.

Autism Screening Instrument for Educational Planning-3 1.

H. I.

Uses multiple measures to determine if the child has a pattern of skills and behaviors similar to individuals diagnosed with autism Screening preschoolers for gifts and talents may permit early intervention Screening and assessment of social-emotional development and temperament 1.

2.

3.

4.

Ages and Stages Questionnaires: Social Emotional The Vineland Social-Emotional Early Childhood Scales (SEEC) Temperament and Atypical Behavior Scale (TABS) Childhood Autism Rating Scales (CARS)

5.

6.

Gilliam Autism Rating Scales (GARS) Home Situations Questionnaire (HSQ)

222 .

III.

Ecological Assessment, Family Interviews and Rating Scales, Observation, and Play-Based Assessment A. Ecological assessment 1. Focuses on the interrelationship between child, family, and a variety of environments 2. Goal is to identify patterns and sequences of behaviors in a given environment B. Family interviews and rating scales to gain understanding of strengths, needs, and resources 1.

C.

D.

Infant-Toddler and Family Instrument (ITFI) is a survey guide for a complete and thorough interview

2. Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales-Second Edition for parents’ opinions Family strengths and concerns 1. Family Strengths Profile 2. Family Needs Scale 3. Family Needs Survey 4. Parent Needs Survey Direct Observation 1. Developmental checklist can be used 2.

3.

E.

Narrative recording is another tool Observation Instruments a. Social Interaction Assessment/Intervention c. ECO Play-Based Assessment 1. Considered an alternative approach to standardized norm-referenced assessments 2. Play environments are “natural” environments 3. Play Questionnaire 4.

IV.

The Transdisciplinary Play-Based Assessment-2 approach requires development of a coherent plan and is more time-consuming Curriculum-Based and Criterion-Referenced Assessment A. The Hawaii Early Learning Profile (HELP) 1. Two versions: Birth to 3 and Preschooler 2.

3.

Uses direct observation and parent interviews Provides detailed assessment and intervention procedures 223 .

B.

C.

D.

Assessment, Evaluation, and Programming System (AEPS) for Infants and Children 1. Includes detailed assessment and intervention procedures in six domains: social, social communication, fine motor, gross motor, adaptive and cognitive The Caroline Curriculum for Infants and Toddlers with Special Needs 1. Five developmental domains 2. Provides suggestions for intervention and group activities Creative Curriculum 1. For infants and toddlers 2.

E.

F.

V.

Provides suggestions for arranging the educational environment to embed goals and objectives into everyday routines The Brigance® Diagnostic Inventory of Early Development-III 1. Criterion-referenced and curriculum-compatible 2. Assesses 11 domains 3. Can be used with children up to a developmental age of 7 The Pediatric Evaluation of Disability Inventory (PEDI) 1. Designed for children with various sensory, motor, and neurological

delays 2. Three measurement scales: Caregiver assistance, functional skills, and modifications 3. For children ages 6 months to 7 years Norm-Referenced and Dynamic Assessment A. Bayley Scales of Infant Development III 1. One year to 48 months 2. Evaluates through use of Mental Scales, Motor Scales, and Behavior Rating Scales B.

The Batelle Developmental Inventory (2nd ed.)

1. Birth through age 7-11 2. Assesses 5 domains: personal-social, adaptive, motor, communication, and cognitive

224 .

C.

VI.

Mullen Scales of Early Learning 1. Birth through 68 months 2. Assesses 5 domains: expressive language, receptive language, visual reception, gross motor, and fine motor D. Pre-school Learning Assessment Device (PLAD) 1. Original dynamic assessment used to provide information on the process the child uses to respond to test items School Readiness A. Brigance K & 1 Screen-Revised B. C. D.

The Developmental Indicators for the Assessment of Learning–3 (Dial–4) Bracken Basic Concepts Scale–3 1. Includes basic pre-academic concepts for children ages 3 through 6–11 Other Readiness Assessments 1. Test of Early Reading Ability (3rd ed.) (TERA–3) 2. Test of Early Mathematics Ability (3rd ed.) (TEMA–3) 3. Expressive One-Word Picture Vocabulary Test-4 4. Hodson Assessment of Phonological Patterns (HAPP-3) 5. Receptive One-Word Picture Vocabulary Test-4 6. Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test, Fourth Edition (PPVT-4)

4. Test of Early Language Development (3rd ed.)(TELD–3) 5. Test of Early Written Language (TEWL) VII. Program Plans, Goals, and Objectives A. Individualized Family Service Plans (IFSPs) 1. Identifies resources available to family 2. Lists target outcomes with criteria and timelines 3. Outcomes to be reviewed at least every 6 months B. Program monitoring and ongoing assessment 1. Frequent curriculum-based assessments are recommended

C.

2. Individual goals must be addressed in group settings 3. Goals should be imbedded in enjoyable activities Program evaluation 1. Funding sources want to know if developmental problems have been minimized or prevented 2.

Recommendations are that programs are evaluated in the areas of utility, feasibility, propriety, and technical adequacy 225 .

KEY TERMS Individualized Family Service Plan (IFSP) natural environments ecological assessments

transdisciplinary team play-based assessments dynamic assessment

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1.

What are the reasons for conducting early childhood assessments in the most familiar and natural environments for the child?

2.

What are the components of ecological assessments and what factors contribute to the demand for ecological assessments for young children?

3.

In what ways can teachers assist families and children in transitioning into formal school programs?

4.

Discuss Neisworth and Bagnato’s eight critical qualities for making assessment choices: utility, acceptability, authenticity, collaboration, convergence, equity, sensitivity, and congruence. Define each and explain how they lead to a thorough and professional assessment.

5.

Discuss the importance of assessing young children in ways that are linked to intervention or curriculum.

ACTIVITIES 1.

Obtain a copy of an IFSP and a copy of an IEP. Compare the differences and similarities of the two documents from a parent’s perspective.

2.

Observe a preschool classroom with students with disabilities and without disabilities included. What strengths and weaknesses do you observe in this model? What interactions do you see between young children with and without disabilities?

3.

Interview a parent of a young child with developmental delays. What are their primary issues and concerns for their child now and in the future?

226 .

STUDY GUIDE REVIEW QUESTIONS 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

Discuss the most important consideration in the assessment of young children.

Where are early interventions services to be delivered according to Part C of the Individual with Disabilities Education Act? List the areas of development or domains typically assessed for possible delays.

Explain the purpose of screening assessments.

Describe the delays or difficulties in social-emotional development that can appear in early childhood.

Define ecological assessment.

Discuss the roles of family members on the early childhood assessment team.

State why it is important for early childhood assessors to communicate with families in a culturally sensitive manner.

Respond to the comment, “Anybody can just watch or observe. It does not seem to be an important part of an assessment.”

List some of the skills you can observe during a structured play session between a young child and a peer.

Compare and contrast curriculum-based and criterion-referenced assessment.

Explain why the use of curriculum-based assessment is recommended by the Division of Early Childhood as best practice in assessment.

Name two norm-referenced test that are currently used to assess the development of young children.

What skills and behaviors would you assess if you were aiming to determine kindergarten or school readiness?

Provide a rationale for program evaluation.

ANSWERS TO STUDY GUIDE REVIEW QUESTIONS 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

The most important consideration in the assessment of young children is the interrelationship between the child and his or her family. Family priorities guide goal selection and the conduct of assessment and the selection of assessment tools needs to be done in consideration of the family’s culture.

According to Part C of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, services are to be delivered in natural environments.

The areas of development or domains typically assessed for young children include: physical and health factors, cognitive functions, language and communication skills, gross and fine motor skills, social-emotional development, self-help and adaptive skills, and school readiness.

The purpose of a screening assessment is to identify infants/children who may have or be at risk for developmental delays so that further assessment can be completed.

The delays or difficulties in social emotional development that can appear in early childhood are found with self-regulation, compliance, communication, adaptive behaviors, autonomy, affect, and interactions with others.

227 .

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

Ecological assessment involves the observation of a child and family taken in the context of the culture, socioeconomic status, and value systems of the family.

Family members drive the choice of assessments and are equal members on the assessment team.

It is important for assessment to obtain an understanding of the priorities and values each family has that may be influenced by culture so that the results of any assessment can be interpreted with this knowledge.

Direct observation of the child in the context of the family and other settings, including a classroom, is an important skill and is used as part of multiple forms of assessment.

Skills you can observe include: emotional development, communication and social skills, cognitive understanding, language usage, and physical and motor development.

Both curriculum-based and criterion referenced assessments are based on a sequence of competencies or objective. Criterion referenced assessments focus on the mastery of items. CBA focuses on the progress of the objectives identified by the IEP and IFSP team.

Curriculum-based assessment is recommended by the Division of Early Childhood as best practice because it is considered an authentic measure of what the child is able to do given a familiar context.

The Bayley Scales of Infant Development and the Battelle Developmental Inventory are two examples.

Skills and behaviors that may determine kindergarten or school readiness would include: preacademic skills, communication wants and needs, following directions, maintaining peer interaction, sharing, turn taking, and ability to conduct self-care routines.

Program evaluation helps to determine if recommended practices are occurring, if families are satisfied, and if children are making progress on any identified goals.

228 .

Test Items for Chapter 16 MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS 1.

All of the following were included in PL 99-457 (1986) except a. States were required to provide services for all children with developmental delays b. States were required to provide services for children ages 3 to 5 years with developmental delays c. Family needs were to be addressed in an Individualized Family Service Plan d. Established a discretionary program for infants and toddlers and their families.

2.

Assessments that guide practices and determine interventions are said to have a. Authenticity b. Utility c. Convergence d. Collaboration

3.

Important to a team approach in assessment is a. Authenticity b. Utility c. Convergence d. Collaboration

4.

An IFSP is required for all children receiving service from a. birth through age 5 b. birth through age 3 c. birth through age 2 d. birth through age 6

5.

Young children may be eligible for special services if a. they have developmental delays in one or more areas b. they are at risk for developmental delays c. they have been diagnosed with a physical or mental condition d. all of the above

6.

Thinking, comprehension, and the formation of social relations is greatly affected by a. social skills b. language skills c. adaptive skills d. motor skills

229 .

7.

Which of the following is most likely to give a view of the child’s development in light of the family and cultural context? a. Ecological assessment b. Norm-referenced assessment c. Family interviews and surveys d. All of the above

8.

All of the following are screening devices for early childhood except a. Denver Developmental Screening Test (Denver II) b. Ages and Stages Questionnaires c. Developmental Observation Checklist System (DOCS) d. Bayley Scales of Infant Development III

9.

The Division of Early Childhood (DEC) provides recommended practices for a. locating community resources for parents. b. linking curriculum to assessment findings. c. selecting assessment measures. d. locating developmental checklists and family surveys

10. Which of the following involves parents completing developmental surveys as their child grows from the ages of 4 to 54 months? a. Brigance® Diagnostic Inventory of Early Development-II b. Ages and Stages Questionnaires c. Developmental Observation Checklist System (DOCS) d. Bayley Scales of Infant Development III 11. An instrument that assesses for impairments in the areas of social interactions and communication and stereotyped patterns of behavior is the a. Developmental Observation Checklist System (DOCS) b. Denver Developmental Screening Test (Denver II) c. Brigance® Diagnostic Inventory of Early Development-II d. Autism Screening Instrument for Educational Planning 12. Sensitivity of an instrument refers to its use of a. natural developmental competencies b. consensus decision making c. sequential and graduated measures of small increments of progress d. accommodations to the child’s limitations 13. All of the following statements are true of the Hawaii Early Learning Profile (HELP) except a. It can be used to assess children from birth through 6 years of age. b. It involves parent interviews and observations of the child. c. It provides instructional activities for teaching new skills to the child. d. It is a screening device for young children who are at risk for developmental delays.

230 .

14. Assessments that include items listed in hierarchies or sequences and provide objectives to address the domains assessed are a. curriculum-based assessments b. curriculum-compatible assessments c. criterion referenced assessments d. norm-referenced assessments 15. Which of the following assessments measure pre-speech gestures as part of the speech and language skills area? a. Brigance® Diagnostic Inventory of Early Development-II b. Assessment, Evaluation, and Programming System (AEPS) c. The Carolina Curriculum for Infants and Toddlers with Special Needs d. Hawaii Early Learning Profile (HELP) 16. Which of the following assessments require administration by a psychologist who receives special training? a. Assessment, Evaluation, and Programming System (AEPS) b. Preschool Learning Assessment Device (PLAD) c. Bayley Scales of Infant Development-III d. Pediatric Evaluation of Disability Inventory (PEDI) 17. All of the following are benefits of ecological assessment except a. It helps the assessment team understand the range of responses that a child and family exhibit under a variety of conditions. b. It is useful for determining eligibility for special services. c. It focuses on the interrelationship between the child, the family, and the environment. d. It is flexible enough to take into account the culture and value systems of the child and family.

18. Which of the following assessments obtain parents’ opinions on the skills of their child in communication, daily living, socialization, and motor skills? a. Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales b. Parent Needs Survey c. Family Needs Scale d. Developmental Observation Checklist System (DOCS) 19. Scales that measure specialized child care availability, financial and medical situations, meal preparation, and family and friend support systems are assessing a. a family’s needs b. a family’s strengths c. a family’s resources d. all of the above

231 .

20. Which of the following assessments is a dynamic assessment measure designed for use with preschool children? a. The Batelle Developmental Inventory II b. Preschool Learning Assessment Device (PLAD) c. The Transdisciplinary Play-Based Assessment (TPBA) d. Developmental Indicators for the Assessment of Learning–4 (DIAL–4) 21. Linking Assessment and Early Intervention serves as an excellent guide for a. locating community resources for parents. b. linking curriculum to assessment findings. c. selecting assessment measures. d. locating developmental checklists and family surveys 22. For what do the letters IFSP stand? a. Individualized Family Service Plan b. Individualized Family Support Plan c. Independent Family Survey of Progress d. Independent Framework for Serving Parents 23. The goals of assessment in early childhood include a. identification of coping skills for parents b. teaching the child how to respond to items on a standardized assessment c. none of the above d. all of the above 24. The five developmental areas typically assesses for possible delays in young children are a. cognitive development, social-emotional development, communication development, physical development, and interests b. creativity, social-emotional development, communication development, physical development, and adaptive development c. cognitive development, social-emotional development, communication development, physical development, and adaptive development d. none of the above 25. During a Transdisciplinary Play-Based Assessment, the child participates in a. unstructured motor play b. structured motor play c. a snack d. all of the above

232 .

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS 1.

List the five developmental areas typically assessed when identifying a developmental delay.

2.

Describe why it is easy to develop objectives for the IFSP or IEP with criterionreferenced tests.

3.

Identify at least two assessment strategies used in direct observation.

4.

Identify the 4 categories of resources that can contribute to a family’s strength.

5.

Federal law requires early childhood assessments t be conducted in _____________________.

ESSAY QUESTIONS 1.

Describe how dynamic assessment differs from standard norm-referenced assessment.

2.

Why is it important to provide services to young children in natural environments that include children who are developing typically?

3.

Describe the changes relevant to early childhood assessment and services in the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act 2004.

4.

When conducting an observation of a young child as part of an evaluation, what types of behaviors would you be looking for?

5.

Define the terms transdisciplinary and ecological in terms of early childhood assessment.

233 .

Answer Key for Chapter 16 Answers to Multiple Choice Questions for Chapter 16 1.

A

2.

B

3.

D

4.

C

5.

D

6.

B

7.

A

8.

D

9.

C

10. B 11. D 12. C 13. D 14. B 15. A 16. C 17. B 18. A 19. D 20. B 21. C 234 .

22. A 23. A 24. C 25. D Answers to Short Answer Questions for Chapter 16 1.

Cognitive, physical, communication, emotional-social, and adaptive development

2.

It is easy to develop objectives for the IFSP or IEP because assessment items are usually listed in hierarchies or sequences.

3.

Developmental checklists, narrative recording, event recording, and/or the time sampling method are strategies used in direct observation.

4.

Personal and social network members, associational groups, community programs and professionals, and specialized professional services

5.

the most natural environment

235 .

Chapter 17 Assessment for Transition Education and Planning OVERVIEW The process of making the transition from school to the world of adulthood becomes a concern in assessment when students enter the high school years. The special education team must be able to identify the student’s transition needs by age 16 or earlier. Assessment typically focuses on areas such as awareness of career options, general aptitudes and work habits, vocational interests, specific work skills, and community adjustment. Examples of measures that may be used are the Social and Prevocational Information Battery–Revised, Occupational Aptitude Survey and Interest Schedule (3rd ed. AS), Reading-Free Vocational Interest Inventory (2nd ed.), and Transition Planning Inventory. The model for the provision of transition services to students with disabilities includes person-centered planning involving students’ families and the development of self-determination in students themselves. Assessment may also center on postsecondary education for students who are interested in attending technical schools, community colleges, and 4-year institutions of higher education.

OUTLINE I.

Considerations in the Assessment of Adolescents and Young Adults A.

Transition outcomes for students with disabilities is poor despite advances in education, disability rights policy and increased funding

B.

Legal framework for transition assessment 1.

IDEA, PL 108-446 establishes school district responsibilities: a.

Coordinated set of activities

b.

Designed within a results-oriented process

c.

Promotes movement from school to post-school activities such as postsecondary education, training, employment, adult services, independent living or community participation

d.

Transition plan based on student’s needs, strengths, preferences and interests

e.

Should include a wide array of services

236 .

2.

Services need to begin no later than the first IEP to be in effect when the child is 16 Recent reauthorization of IDEA also requires a “Summary of

3.

Performance” for all students with disabilities who exit the school system 4.

No Child Left Behind Act of 2002 requires ALL students to be assessed in the areas of language arts, mathematics, and science at least once during grades 10-12

5.

Federal law mandates schools for the transition planning and providing a framework for the implementation of transition assessment practices a.

A strong link must exist between the student’s instructional program and his/her post-school outcomes and goals; this is to be articulated in the student’s IEP at the age of 16 and thereafter

C.

Conceptual framework for transition assessment 1.

An ongoing process in which all secondary education and assessment is fundamentally transition education and assessment

2.

May be framed by a set of guiding questions answered by a multidisciplinary team comprised of the student, hi/her family, school and related service personnel and community service providers

4.

Development of a comprehensive student- and family-focused transition plan

II.

Strategies and Approaches for Transition Assessment A.

Broad assessment approach that involves three components 1.

Student assessment to identify strengths, preferences, and needs

2.

Environmental analysis to identify potential living, working and educational settings

3.

Determining the match between strengths, preferences, needs and potential living, working and educational environments

B.

A variety of assessment techniques are available 1.

Cumulative data review

2.

Student, parent, and teacher interviews

3.

Interest inventories 237 .

4.

Vocational aptitude/ability testing

5.

Job readiness

6.

Job analysis

7.

Postsecondary education environment analysis

8.

Work samples and simulations

9.

Ecological analysis

10. Curriculum-based assessment 11. Situational assessment III.

Assessment Tools to Assist in Planning for Future Employment and Adult Life A.

Awareness of Career Options 1.

Social and Prevocational Information Battery-Revised (SPIB-R) a.

Nine tests assess job, money, home management, self-care, and communication skills

2.

BRIGANCE® Transition Skills Inventory a.

Contains sections that measure employment vocabulary, abbreviations and ads

3.

Job analysis is a systematic way for students to observe jobs and note tasks required and skills needed by an employee

B.

Employment related aptitude 1.

Occupational Aptitude Survey and Interest Schedule (3rd ed.

AS)(OASIS–3 AS) a.

Aptitude-Survey–3 measures general ability, verbal, numerical, spatial, and perceptual aptitudes and manual dexterity

b.

Interest Schedule–3 is composed of statements in 12 areas of career interests

2.

Aptitude Survey a.

3.

Includes assessment of six aptitude factors

COIN Basic Skills Test a.

Assesses verbal and quantitative skills related to areas of employment

238 .

4.

Talent Assessment Program a.

5.

Measures gross and fine motor skills

BRIGANCE® Transition Skills Inventory a.

Assesses basic skills and employability skills

b.

Assesses self-concept and attitudes, responsibility, job requirements, and job interview skills.

C.

Vocational interests 1.

Self-Directed Search

2.

a.

A career, self-assessment tool with a 9th grade reading level

b.

Appropriate for students with mild disabilities

Reading-Free Vocational Interest Inventory–2 (R-FVII–2) a.

Uses pictures rather than text to determine students’ interests

b.

Eleven areas of interest are represented with results showing high and low areas of interest

3.

D.

Computer-based measures a.

Your Employment Selections (YES)

b.

COIN Climb

Specific work skills 1.

Dictionary of Occupational Titles (DOT) a.

2.

Defines academic, verbal, and experiential qualities needed

Wide Range Employability Sample Test (WREST) a.

Evaluates productivity and technical work skills through 10 concrete tasks with one- and two-step instructions involved

b.

Scores are in the areas of production quality, production quantity, and technical productivity rating

3.

Singer Vocational Evaluation System (VES) a. b.

A set of 27 work samples that provide information for vocational training and placement Provides simulated, hands-on experience in selected occupations

239 .

E.

Community adjustment 1.

Transition Planning Inventory-Second Edition (TPI-2) a.

Comprised of a student form that complies with federal transition mandates

b.

Measures in the areas of employment, daily living, leisure, health, community participation and interpersonal skills

2.

The Life Centered Career Education (LCCE) Competency Assessment Knowledge Batteries a.

Curriculum-based assessment instrument that measures career awareness, exploration, and occupational guidance

IV.

Providing Transition Services A.

Challenges in providing transition services 1.

The challenge is to establish reasonable and achievable post-school outcomes

2.

Levels of awareness and knowledge of adult roles and activities restricts or expands the range of interests or needs that may be identified by the family

3.

Key factor in family involvement is the quality of the relationship between family and service providers

B.

Person-centered planning 1.

Planning based on the needs, preferences, and interests of the family and student

2.

Strategies for person-centered planning

3.

a.

Making Action Plans (MAPS)

b.

Planning Alternative Tomorrows with Hope (PATH)

Advantages of person-centered planning a.

Activities, goals, objectives, and strategies can be identified and included in the IEP

b.

More IEP goals are supported outside of school

c.

Ensures the full participation of the student and the family

240 .

C.

Self-determination 1.

Students who are more self-determined were more likely to achieve positive post-school outcomes

2.

Measures of self-determination are typically curriculum based a.

Self-Determination Scale is a self-report measure and coordinates with the curriculum Whose Future is it Anyway?

b.

Self-Determination Knowledge Scale (SDKS) is a pre- and post-test for Steps to Self-Determination: A Curriculum to Help Adolescents Learn to Achieve their Goals

c.

ChoiceMaker Self-Determination Transition Curriculum and Program

V.

Assessment for College and Other Postsecondary Education Settings A. B.

VI.

Eleven percent of all post secondary students are identified as having disabilities The two most frequently mentioned assessments for use on college campuses include current versions of 1. Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale

2. Woodcock-Johnson Psycho-Educational Battery Recommendations for Improving Transition Practices 1. Use validated practices 2. Begin conversations about transition early in a child’s school career 3. Select appropriate assessment tools 4. Understand plans are only as effective as the capacity to implement them 5. Document successful experiences 6. Outcomes are the true measure of success 7. Advocacy is essential

KEY TERMS transition Summary of Performance (SOP) job analysis

person-centered planning self-determination advocacy

241 .

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1.

Post-school transition can be difficult for any young person. What issues make it especially difficult for a person with disabilities?

2.

High school students with disabilities may have unrealistic expectations about their capabilities in the job market, either too high or too low. What can a transition counselor do to modify these expectations?

3.

What concerns may arise for parents when they consider their child’s future related to employment, postsecondary education, independent living, community involvement, social and personal relationships, mobility and leisure?

4.

Why might students with disabilities be at risk for having a limited awareness and knowledge of options in areas of adult living such as: postsecondary education, independent living, financial planning and social relationships?

5.

What is person-centered planning and how might it differ from traditional transition planning?

ACTIVITIES 1.

Obtain and complete Individual Transition Plans (ITP) with two high school students with disabilities. Compare and contrast the two experiences.

2.

Research at least 3 vocational programs in your area for students with disabilities.

Write a short description of each program.

3.

Interview a vocational guidance counselor or job coach. What challenges do they face in assisting students with transition plans?

STUDY GUIDE REVIEW QUESTIONS 1.

2.

3.

4.

Transition assessment is ongoing throughout an adolescent’s and young adult’s school career. (True or False).

Transition is an important focus for students with disabilities at the secondary level.

(True or False).

Other than IDEA, no other federal laws regulates transition assessment and planning for persons with disabilities. (True or False).

When a student reaches the age of _____, and every year thereafter for the duration of the student’s schooling, the IEP must include a statement of transition service needs.

242 .

5.

6.

7.

Which of the following measures assesses a student’s awareness of career options? a. Reading-Free Vocational Interest Inventory (2nd ed) b. Social and Prevocational Information Battery-Revised c. Occupational Aptitude Survey and Interest Schedule (3rd ed AS) d. Wide Range Employability Sample Test e. Transition Planning Inventory The DOT is the _______________.

The response mode on the Reading-Free Vocational Interest Inventory-2 is a. answering questions orally. b. writing sentences. c. marking pictures. d. all of the above.

8.

Commercially available instruments should be the sole method of gathering data for transition planning. (True or False).

9. Transition assessment and planning must take into account the school, home, and community of the student. (True or False).

10. There is a consistently used standardized test battery for students with disabilities entering college. (True or False).

ANSWERS TO STUDY GUIDE REVIEW QUESTIONS 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

true true false 16 b Dictionary of Occupational Titles c false true false

243 .

Test Items for Chapter 17 MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS 1.

For the school year that a student will turn ___ years old and for every school year thereafter, the IEP team is required to provide a statement of needed transition services, interagency responsibilities, and links between the two? a. 14 b. 15 c. 16 d. 18

2.

The National Council on Disability (2000) reported that a. post-high school outcomes for students with disabilities is improving for some groups of students b. post-high school outcomes for students with disabilities is poor c. post-high school outcomes require additional funding d. all of the above

3.

Sitlington et al. (1997) argued that transition assessment should be ongoing and emphasize the a. preferences, interests, and needs of the student with respect to current and future environments b. preferences, interests, and needs of the parents with respect to current and future environments of the student c. school district’s secondary education goals d. none of the above

4.

Reading is required on the following assessment tool. a. Wide Range Interest-Opinion Test (WRIOT) b. Talent Assessment Program c. Self-Directed Search d. Social and Prevocational Information Battery–Revised (SPIB–R)

5.

Job readiness skills include a. interviewing skills b. punctuality c. responses to authority d. all of the above

6.

The procedure for determining the specific skills required for a job is called a. Work sample b. Job analysis c. Simulated job station d. Situational assessment

244 .

7.

Work samples can a. provide information about a student’s stamina in a work situation b. determine students’ interests and preferences over a wide range of career opportunities c. assist in the coordination of job planning with other agencies and services d. all of the above

8.

Measures of vocational aptitude generally measure all of the following a. motor skills b. dexterity c. communication skills d. all of the above

9.

Which of the following assessment measures gives information about a student’s work and study habits? a. Occupational Aptitude Survey and Interest Schedule (3rd ed. AS) (OASIS–3 AS) b. The Aptitude Survey c. The Brigance® Transition Skills Inventory d. Talent Assessment Program

10. The following interest survey uses pictures rather than text to determine student vocational interests. a. Self-Directed Search b. Reading-Free Vocational Interest Inventory-2 (R-FVII-2) c. Occupational Aptitude Survey and Interest Schedule (3rd ed. AS) (OASIS–3 AS) d. Brigance® Transition Skills Inventory 11. All of the following are examples of work samples related to specific jobs, except a. The Wide Range Employability Sample Test (WREST) b. Singer Vocational Evaluation System (VES) c. Locally developed situational assessments d. The Life Centered Career Education (LCCE) Competency Assessment Knowledge Batteries 12. Dexterity measures can be frustrating to students with a. academic problems b. gross motor problems c. fine motor problems d. sensory problems

245 .

13. Guiding questions for effective transition assessment include a. What curricular and instructional opportunities, activities, and strategies must be employed? b. What are the student’s and his/her family’s needs, preferences, interests, priorities, and expectations? c. What performance criteria or standards may be established as measures or benchmarks for the student? d. all of the above 14. After leaving school, when compared to individuals without disabilities, individuals with disabilities experience a. higher work satisfaction b. more participation in leisure activities c. higher employment d. none of the above 15.

The following is true of transition assessment except a. transition planning is a static process b. transition planning is an ongoing process c. transition planning requires a futuristic perspective d. transition planning requires continuous updating

16. The Social and Prevocational Information Battery–Revised (SPIB–R) assesses all of the following areas except a. home management b. self sufficiency c. continuing educational goals d. communication skills 17. Which of the following are typically included in assessments of aptitude? a. spatial skills b. verbal skills c. manual dexterity d. all of the above 18. Which of the following assessment tools measure concrete tasks, such as folding, stapling, collating, and assembling? a. Your Employment Selections (YES) b. Brigance® Employability Skills Inventory c. Reading-Free Vocational Interest Inventory-2 (R-FVII-2) d. The Wide Range Employability Sample Test (WREST)

246 .

19. Which of the following statements are true about students with learning disabilities entering college? a. It is the responsibility of the university or college to identify students who may have learning disabilities and make modifications for these students. b. Some students are not aware they have a learning disability until they are in college. c. Less than 5% of college students have documented learning disabilities. d. There is a consistently used battery of tests to determine eligibility for services for learning disabilities on college campuses.

20. Preparing students to enter the job market requires surveying the work community to determine a. the types of jobs available b. the perceptions of employers working with students with disabilities c. accommodations that may be needed by students with disabilities d. all of the above 21. When selecting tools to assess vocational interests and preferences, professionals must consider the student’s a. fine and gross motor skills b. cognitive and fine motor skills c. cognitive and communication skills d. adaptive and fine motor skills 22. What percent of postsecondary school students are identified as having a disability according to recent federal data? a. 10 b. 11 c. 12 d. 13 23. Components of self-determination include all the following except a. self-awareness b. goal-setting skills c. choice-making skills d. reading skills 24. Determining if support, accommodations or instruction are needed to assist the individual in meeting the requirements of the job is called a. job analysis b. job identification c. job inventory d. none of the above

247 .

25. The process that involves the family and student as equal participants in documenting the student’s strengths, dreams, resources and interests in postschool outcomes is called a. family-centered planning b. person-centered planning c. student-centered planning d. individual-centered planning

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS 1.

Identify the three components of a broad transition assessment process described

by Sitlington et al.

2.

Define manual dexterity.

3.

Describe the philosophy that serves as the basis for person-centered planning.

4.

Identify at least 2 suggestions for improving the coordination and planning of the transition process for student with disabilities.

5.

Provide at least 2 examples of skills classified as components of self-determination.

ESSAY QUESTIONS 1.

Define transition assessment as described in IDEA and list all of the areas addressed by transition specialists.

2.

What are the components of an environmental analysis in transition assessment?

3.

Explain the statement, “All secondary education is fundamentally transition education and planning.”

4.

Provide examples of the kinds of information that can be gathered through interviews for each of the following individuals: the student, parent, and teachers.

5.

Define “job analysis” and the areas of a job that should be described in this analysis.

248 .

Answer Key for Chapter 17 Answers to Multiple Choice Questions for Chapter 17 1.

C

2.

B

3.

A

4.

C

5.

D

6.

B

7.

A

8.

D

9.

C

10. B 11. D 12. C 13. D 14. D 15. A 16. C 17. D 18. D 19. B 20. D 21. C 249 .

22. B 23. D 24. A 25. B Answers to Short Answer Questions for Chapter 17 1.

Student assessment, environmental analysis, and determining a match

2.

Manual dexterity tests measure students’ skills for jobs requiring fine motor skills and eye-hand coordination.

3.

Person-centered planning is based on the philosophy that requires equal participation, positive and clear communication, and active involvement of the student and the student’s family.

4.

Implement research validated practices, begin transition planning early, select transition assessments designed to be used with the students you are working with, develop a transition plan that can be fully and effectively implemented, document and record the successful home, school, work, and community experiences of the student, remember the outcomes achieved by the students after they leave school are the most important measures of success, and/or advocacy is essential.

5.

Choice making, decision-making, problem-solving, goal-setting, attainment skills, self-management, independent, risk-taking, safety skills, self-advocacy, leadership skills, internal locus of control, positive attributions of efficacy and outcome expectancy, self-awareness, and/or self-knowledge.

250 .