An Introduction to Geographical Information Systems, 4E Ian Heywood Instructor Manuals

Type:

Instructor Manual

Resource:

An Introduction to Geographical Information Systems

Edition:

4th Edition

Author(s):

D. Ian Heywood Sarah Cornelius Steve Carver

Instructor’s Manual An Introduction to Geographical Information Systems Fourth Edition

Ian Heywood Sarah Cornelius Steve Carver For further instructor material please visit: Email: richard@qwconsultancy.com

Contents Chapters

Pages

Introduction

5

Part 1 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

Lecture outlines What is GIS? Spatial data Spatial data modelling Database management Data input and editing Data analysis Analytical modelling in GIS Output: from new maps to enhanced decisions The development of computer methods for handling spatial data Data quality issues Human and organizational issues GIS project design and management The future of GIS

8 9 13 17 21 24 27 31 34 37 41 45 48 51

Part 2 2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

10.

12.

13.

Practical exercises Spatial data Spatial data modelling Database management Data input and editing Data analysis Analytical modelling in GIS Output: from new maps to enhanced decisions Data quality issues GIS project design and management The future of GIS

54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64

Part 3

GIS software and data sources GIS software: freeware/shareware GIS data sources: downloads

65 66 68

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Heywood, Cornelius and Carver, An Introduction to Geographical Information Systems, 4th Edition, Instructor’s Manual

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Introduction This Instructor’s Manual is based around a lecture planner (see below) that uses the chapters in the book to build-up a series of sample lecture courses in GIS. These can be used ‘as is’ or modified to create customized lecture courses using the book as the students’ core text. The basic contents of each lecture is given as a series of subject headers and numbered points together with suggestions for modes of delivery (e.g. problem-focused or sequential).

PowerPoint slides of selected graphics from the book are provided to help with lecture development. Lectures are supported through suggestions for student activities, student assessment (both formative and summative), practical exercises, data sources and software.

Lecture planner The book has been written in such a manner that it can be used on its own to build-up an introductory course to GIS, simply by working through the chapters in numerical order.

However, it is appreciated that many lecturers and tutors will want to customize their teaching, following a different track through the basic material, perhaps using the chapters in a different order. To facilitate this process, a lecture planner table is provided to give a few examples of how the chapters in the book can be organized into coherent lecture courses simply by reordering the material. Indeed, when we originally put pen to paper, we thought long and hard about how best to order the material. For example, the material on the historical development of GIS that we placed in Part 2: Chapter 9, to some people’s mind might better have been placed in Chapter 1. Nevertheless, we thought it best to cover the basics of the technology first before seeing how it was developed. It’s all a matter of personal choice. With this in mind, take a look at the following table.

Week 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

Course 1 1 9 2, 8 3, 4 5, 10 6 6, 7 6, 7 − − − − − 12 12, 13

Course 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8, 10 9, 11 12 13

Course 3 1 2 − − − − 3 4 5 6 7 8 12

Course 4 1 2 3 4, 5 6 8 − 10, 7 11, 12 11, 12 − 9 13

Course 5 1, 2, 9 3 4 4 − 5 5 10 10 6 6 7 10 8 11 12

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Course 6 1 − 2 − 3 4 5 6 − 7 8 − − 9

Course 7 1, 9 2 − 3 3 3, 4 4 − 5 6, 7 6, 7 8, 11 10, 11, 12 11, 13

Heywood, Cornelius and Carver, An Introduction to Geographical Information Systems, 4th Edition, Instructor’s Manual

Lecture outlines In the following pages, each chapter is considered as one lecture, though it is clear that these can be combined as required. Each chapter follows a similar format, giving ‘lecture’ title, sections (headings), contents (sub-headings), case studies, suggested modes of delivery, in-class activities and reading lists.

Chapter 1. What is GIS? Chapter 2. Spatial data Chapter 3. Spatial data modelling Chapter 4. Database management Chapter 5. Data input and editing Chapter 6. Data analysis Chapter 7. Analytical modelling in GIS Chapter 8. Output: from new maps to enhanced decisions Chapter 9. The development of computer methods for handling spatial data Chapter 10. Data quality issues Chapter 11. Human and organizational issues Chapter 12. GIS project design and management Chapter 13. The future of GIS

Practical exercises In Part 2 of this manual, a series of five suggestions for practical exercises is given for each chapter where relevant, which in turn might be used to accompany each chapter ‘lecture’ unit.

Again, it is clear that these can be combined as required. Some of these practical exercises will require access to a GIS and appropriate GIS data, whereas others can be completed on paper or using the Internet. Note that not in all cases is it appropriate to have associated practical exercises.

Chapter 2. Spatial data Chapter 3. Spatial data modelling Chapter 4. Database management Chapter 5. Data input and editing

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Heywood, Cornelius and Carver, An Introduction to Geographical Information Systems, 4th Edition, Instructor’s Manual

Chapter 6. Data analysis Chapter 7. Analytical modelling in GIS Chapter 8. Output. from new maps to enhanced decisions Chapter 10. Data quality issues Chapter 12. GIS project design and management Chapter 13. The future of GIS

GIS software and data sources A series of web links to selected GIS freeware/shareware portals and software providers is given in Part 3. A series of web links to selected GIS data portals and data providers is also given.

Student-centred activities and assessment The selected student-centred online activities can be used in conjunction with, or instead of, the practical exercises. These may be especially useful in the absence of GIS software/data and have the advantage that they can be completed anywhere with a PC and Internet connection. Online assessment is available in the form of revision questions and multiple choice questions (MCQs).

Students should access the site at www.booksites.net/heywood.

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Part 1

Lecture Outlines

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CHAPTER 1

What is GIS? Lecture outline 1. Introduction a. GIS definition b. Generic types of questions GIS can answer c. GIS components i.

Hardware

ii. Software iii. Data iv. Procedures (‘orgware’) v. People 2. Case studies a. Example: Happy Valley b. Example: nuclear waste disposal site search c. Example: land use planning in Zdarske Vrchy d. Example: house hunting 3. Issues raised 4. Application areas of GIS 5. Conclusions

Case studies Each of the chapters in the book makes reference to one or more of the four common case studies: the hypothetical Happy Valley Ski Resort, a nuclear waste disposal site search and selection, land-use planning in Zdarske Vrchy and the search for a new home. These case studies have been selected to reflect the different kinds of applications GIS can address. You may wish to add additional case studies related to your own area of expertise.

Introduction to GIS: •

GIS.com: www.gis.com/content/what-gis

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•

The GIS lounge: gislounge.com/what-is-gis/

•

GIS Development online tutorial: www.gisdevelopment.net/tutorials/index.htm

•

Ordnance Survey GIS Files: www.ordnancesurvey.co.uk/oswebsite/gisfiles/

•

USGS GIS Poster: erg.usgs.gov/isb/pubs/gis_poster/

GIS dictionaries and glossaries: •

Esri GIS Dictionary: support.esri.com/index.cfm?fa=knowledgebase.gisDictionary.gateway

•

University of California Berkeley Dictionary of abbreviations and acronyms: www.lib.berkeley.edu/EART/abbrev.html

Case study related materials: •

http://www.ccg.leeds.ac.uk/teaching/nuclearwaste/Public participation in locating a nuclear waste disposal site in the UK. Details the NIREX case study.

•

Nuclear Waste World Network http://www.nuclearwaste.com/

•

Radwaste.org http://www.radwaste.org/

•

NDA http://www.nda.gov.uk/

•

Sun Valley Idaho, example mountain resort http://www.sunvalley.com/index.cfm

•

Property Finder UK http://www.zoopla.co.uk/

As a lecturer/tutor you may wish to use these or use examples of your own. Use the links to online student-centred activities or data sources to help you find additional example material.

Suggested modes of delivery This lecture lends itself to being delivered through the classic sequential method: start with a definition and go through the sequence of problems, applications, issues, case studies, etc. The order of the sequence may be altered to suit the type of students being taught (e.g. computer science students may require a different approach than geography students because of their different backgrounds and baseline knowledge). However, the lecture can easily be made more interesting and interactive (depending on class size) using the following in-class activities.

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Heywood, Cornelius and Carver, An Introduction to Geographical Information Systems, 4th Edition, Instructor’s Manual

In-class activities 1. Ask students to give alternative definitions of what is a GIS. 2. Ask students if they can think of typical GIS applications.

3. Get students to make a list of generic application areas and/or disciplines.

4. Develop a functional list for a GIS package.

5. Get students to draw simple flowcharts detailing one or more of the four common case studies.

6. Ask students to discuss some of the issues raised by the case studies with their neighbour.

7. Get students to debate the difference(s) between GISystems and GIScience.

Reading list Bedford M (2004) GIS for Water Management in Europe. Esri Press, Redlands.

Bonham-Carter G F (1995) Geographic Information Systems for Geoscientists: Modelling with GIS. Pergamon Press, New York.

Burrough P A, McDonnell R (1998) Principles of Geographical Information Systems. Oxford University Press, Oxford Davis D (1999) GIS for Everyone. Esri Press, Redlands.

DeMers M N (2008) Fundamentals of Geographic Information Systems. 4th edn. Wiley, New York.

DeMers M N (2009) GIS for Dummies. Wiley, New York.

DiBiase D (2010) Nature of Geographic Information. Open Geospatial Textbook available at https://www.e-education.psu.edu/natureofgeoinfo/node/1672.

Giusti de Perez R, Perez R (2008) Analyzing Urban Poverty: GIS for the Developing World.

Esri Press, Redlands.

Grimshaw D J (1999) Bringing Geographical Information Systems into Business. 2nd edn.

Longman, London..

Harder C (1997) ArcView GIS means Business: Geographic Information System Solutions for Business. Esri Press, Redlands.

Longley P A, Goodchild M F, Maguire D J, Rhind D W (eds) (1999) Geographical Information Systems: Principles, Techniques, Management and Applications. John Wiley, New York.

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Longley P A, Goodchild M R, Maguire D J, Rhind D W (eds) (2005) Geographic Information Systems: Principles, Techniques, Management and Applications. 2nd edn. Abridged version.

John Wiley, New York.

Longley P A, Goodchild M F, Maguire D J, Rhind D W (2010) Geographic Information Systems and Science. 3rd edn. John Wiley, Chichester.

Martin D (1995) Geographical Information Systems and their Socio-economic Applications.

2nd edn. Routledge, London.

Meehan B (2007) Empowering Electric and Gas Utilities with GIS. Esri Press, Redlands.

Mitchell A (1997) Zeroing In: Geographic Information Systems at Work in the Community. Esri Press, Redlands.

Pickles J (ed) (1995) Ground Truth: The Social Implications of Geographic Information Systems. Guilford Press, New York.

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CHAPTER 2

Spatial data Lecture outline 1. Introduction a. Types of data model b. Data sources 2. Maps and their influence on the character of spatial data a. Purpose b. Scale c. Spatial entities d. Generalization e. Projections f.

Spatial referencing i.

Geographic coordinate systems

ii. Rectangular coordinate systems iii. Non-coordinate systems g. Topology 3. Thematic characteristics of spatial data a. Entity types b. Scales of measurement 4. Sources of spatial data a. Maps b. Census and survey data c. Aerial photographs d. Satellite imagery e. Field survey and GPS 5. Data issues a. Data quality b. Data standards 6. Conclusions

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Heywood, Cornelius and Carver, An Introduction to Geographical Information Systems, 4th Edition, Instructor’s Manual

Case studies The Happy Valley Ski Resort case study is primarily used in this chapter to illustrate the issues concerned with spatial data, but any other GIS case study could equally be substituted.

Suggested modes of delivery Like Chapter 1, this lecture lends itself to being delivered via the classic sequential method.

However, the lecture can also be delivered using a problem-oriented approach (i.e. how can we represent the real world in a computer model?). This approach can easily be supported by the following in-class activities.

In-class activities 1. Ask the students to define a model, then a computer model and then a spatial model.

2. Get the students to create their own entity definitions and link these to real-world features they might want to model in a GIS. 3. Ask them why scale is important in respect to entity definition.

4. Ask the students to create a list of possible GIS data sources.

5. Get the students to think about maps as principal GIS data source and list issues and problems associated with their use.

6. Get the students to list different methods of spatial referencing and give examples.

7. Discuss as a group the importance of data standards in relation to GIS.

Reading list Campbell J B (2007) Introduction to Remote Sensing. 3rd edn. Taylor and Francis, London Clayton K (1995) The land from space. In: O’Riordan T (ed) Environmental Science for Environmental Management. 2nd edn. Longman, London, pp. 198–222 Curran P (1989) Principles of Remote Sensing. Longman, London Dale P F, McLaughlin J D (1988) Land Information Management: An Introduction with Special Reference to Cadastral Problems in Third World Countries. Clarendon Press, Oxford DeMers M N (2008) Fundamentals of Geographic Information Systems. 4th edn. Wiley, New York Department of the Environment (1987) Handling Geographic Information. Report of the Committee of Enquiry chaired by Lord Chorley. HMSO, London

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Gatrell A C (1991) Concepts of space and geographical data. In: Maguire D J, Goodchild M F, Rhind D W (eds) Geographical Information Systems: Principles and Applications. Longman, London, vol. 1, pp. 119–143 Gibson P, Power C H (2000) Introducing Remote Sensing: Digital Image Processing and Applications. Routledge, London Illiffe J, Lott R (2008) Datums and Map Projections for GIS, Remote Sensing and Surveying.

2nd edn. Whittles Publishing, New York Keates J S (1982) Understanding Maps. Longman, London Kennedy M (1996) The Global Positioning System and GIS: An Introduction. Ann Arbor Press, Ann Arbor, Michigan Maher M (2010) Lining up Data in ArcGIS. A Guide to Map Projections. Esri Press, Redlands Monmonier M (1996) How to Lie with Maps. University of Chicago Press, Chicago Raper J F, Rhind D W, Shepherd J W (1992) Postcodes: the New Geography. Longman, Harlow, UK Robinson A H, Morrison J L, Muehrecke P C, Kimerling A J, Guptill S C (1995) Elements of Cartography. 6th edn. Wiley, New York Seegar H (1999) Spatial referencing and coordinate systems. In: Longley P A, Goodchild M F, Maguire D J, Rhind D W (eds) Geographical Information Systems. Wiley, New York, vol.

1, pp. 427–436 National Mapping Agencies and other GIS data sources: •

United States Geological Survey: www.usgs.gov

•

Ordnance Survey, UK: www.ordnancesurvey.co.uk

•

Centre for Topographic Information, Canada: maps.nrcan.gc.ca/

•

Geoscience, Australia: www.ga.gov.au/

•

Eurographics, European National Mapping Agencies: www.eurogeographics.org

•

GeoCommunity GIS Data Depot: data.geocomm.com/

Map projections: •

David Rumsey collection of historical maps (can be viewed in various ways, including Second Life): www.davidrumsey.com/

•

Cartographical map projections: www.progonos.com/furuti/MapProj/Normal/TOC/cartTOC.html

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•

Gallery of map projections: www.csiss.org/map-projections/index.html

Census agencies: •

United States Census Bureau: www.census.gov/

•

National Statistics, UK: www.statistics.gov.uk/

•

Statistics Netherlands: www.cbs.nl/en-GB/default.htm

•

Australian Bureau of Statistics: www.abs.gov.au/

•

Statistics New Zealand: www.stats.govt.nz/

•

Population Reference Bureau Datafinder (world population database with online mapping): www.prb.org/DataFinder.aspx

GPS: •

GPS World: www.gpsworld.com/gpsworld/

•

UK GPS Information: www.ordnancesurvey.co.uk/oswebsite/gps/

•

Garmin, What is GPS? www.garmin.com/aboutGPS/

Data standards: •

Federal Geographic Data Committee http://www.fgdc.gov/

•

Open Geospatial Consortium http://www.opengeospatial.org/

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CHAPTER 3

Spatial data modelling Lecture outline 1. Introduction a. Entity definition i.

Points, lines and areas

ii. Surfaces iii. Networks 2. Spatial data models a. Raster i.

Simple raster

ii. Quadtrees b. Vector 3. Spatial data structures a. Raster b. Vector c. Modelling surfaces i.

Raster DTMs

ii. TINs d. Modelling networks 4. Building computer worlds a. Layer-based models b. Object-oriented models c. Modelling the third dimension d. Modelling the fourth dimension 5. Conclusions

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Heywood, Cornelius and Carver, An Introduction to Geographical Information Systems, 4th Edition, Instructor’s Manual

Case studies The Happy Valley Ski Resort case study is used extensively in this chapter to illustrate these generic concepts in GIS. It would be a good idea to illustrate this lecture using case studies and/or GIS applications that are based around both the raster and vector data models. Further case studies can be used to illustrate the importance of surface models, network models and the incorporation of the time dimension. Use the links to online student-centred activities or data sources to help you find example material.

Suggested modes of delivery A sequential approach may be used to deliver this material, but it is equally applicable to try a problem-oriented approach (i.e. how do we model spatial entities in a GIS?) or a case-studyfocused approach (i.e. detailed examples of how spatial data are incorporated in a GIS for particular projects).

In-class activities 1. Ask the students which data models are appropriate for different entity types and why.

2. Ask the students to draw diagrams showing how each entity type is represented in both the vector and raster data models.

3. Give the students a simple raster polygon (see page 81) and ask them to use run length encoding, block coding and chain coding to compress the data.

4. Give the students another simple raster polygon (like the one on page 82) and ask them to create a quadtree data structure.

5. Give the students a simple point, line and area shapes (like the ones on page 80) and ask them to draw up ‘spaghetti’ file, point dictionary and point-node topology data structures.

6. Ask the students to list possible data sources for building DTMs. 7. Get the students to make their own TIN analogue using a sheet of paper (as described in Box 3.5 on page 94).

8. Ask the students to explain the difference between a DTM and a TIN data model.

9. Discuss as a group the relative merits of the layer-based and object-oriented approaches to data storage/management.

10. Discuss as a group the difficulties of incorporating time into GIS data models. See if any of the students can make the link between handling time and the layer-based and objectoriented approaches.

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Reading list Abdul-Rahman A, Pilouk M (2007) Spatial Data Modelling for 3D GIS. Springer-Verlag, Berlin Aronoff S (1991) Geographic Information Systems: A Management Perspective. WDL Publications, Ottawa Burrough P A (1986) Principles of Geographical Information Systems for Land Resources Assessment. Clarendon Press, Oxford Langran G (1992) Time in Geographical Information Systems. Taylor and Francis, London Laurini R, Thompson D (1992) Fundamentals of Spatial Information Systems. Academic Press, London Peuquet D J (1990) A conceptual framework and comparison of spatial data models. In: Peuquet D J, Marble D F (eds) Introductory Readings in Geographical Information Systems. Taylor and Francis, London, pp. 209–214 Raper J F, Kelk B (1991) Three-dimensional GIS. In: Maguire D J, Goodchild M F, Rhind D W (eds) Geographical Information Systems: Principles and Applications. Longman, London, vol. 1, pp. 299–317 Samet H (1989) Applications of Spatial Data Structures: Computer Graphics Image Processing and Other Areas. Addison-Wesley, London Wise S (2002) GIS Basics. Taylor and Francis, London Worboys M F, Duckham M (2004) GIS: A Computing Perspective. 2nd edn. Taylor and Francis, London GIS data structures: •

University of Melbourne, GIS Self Learning Tool – Raster concepts: www.sli.unimelb.edu. au/gisweb/GISModule/GIST_Raster.htm

•

University of Melbourne, GIS Self Learning Tool – Vector concepts: www.sli.unimelb.edu.au/gisweb/GISModule/GIST_Vector.htm

Modelling surfaces: •

Population surfaces: www.public.geog.soton.ac.uk/users/martindj/davehome/popmod.htm

•

LandSerf: www.soi.city.ac.uk/~jwo/landserf/

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DTM data sources: •

SRTM (Shuttle Radar Topographic Mission) – Global Elevation Data: www2.jpl.nasa.gov/srtm/

•

ASTGTM global DEM: lpdaac.usgs.gov/lpdaac/products/aster_products_table/routine/global_digital_elevation_mod el/v1/astgtm

•

USGS DEMs: edc2.usgs.gov/geodata/index.php

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CHAPTER 4

Database management Lecture outline 1. Introduction a. Why we need to handle attribute data b. Using databases to handle attribute data 2. Database management systems (DBMS) a. Database models b. Relational databases 3. Creating a database a. What steps are required? b. Making the link between spatial and attribute data 4. Database applications in GIS a. Feature attribute tables b. Web-based databases c. Object-oriented databases 5. Conclusions

Case studies Again, the Happy Valley Ski Resort case study is used as a helpful and generic example of a GIS application to illustrate the subject of this chapter. It may be easiest to use this or another hypothetical example, as illustrating the concepts of GIS attribute data management with real (and often large and complex) examples tends to be difficult.

Suggested modes of delivery A sequential approach may be used to deliver this material, but again it is equally applicable to try a problem-oriented approach (i.e. how do we handle attribute data in a GIS?).

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Heywood, Cornelius and Carver, An Introduction to Geographical Information Systems, 4th Edition, Instructor’s Manual

In-class activities 1. Ask the students to describe different approaches to attribute data management in GIS. 2. Ask the students to list the main advantages of the relational database model.

3. Get the students to draw up the tables you would expect to see in a simple relational database containing data for the following entities: student, course, teacher and department.

Get them to note which fields would be used as keys, and give examples of the types of queries that could be asked of the database.

4. Discuss as a group the main issues to be considered by users of large corporate databases.

5. Discuss as a group the issues faced in serving databases over the Internet.

6. Get the students to list the main features of the object-oriented approach to databases.

7. Ask the students for definitions of the items given in the reflection box on p.120.

Reading list Aronoff S (1991) Geographic Information Systems: A Management Perspective. WDL Publications, Ottawa Batty P (1990) Exploiting relational database technology in GIS. Mapping Awareness 4 (6): 25–32 Burrough P A (1986) Principles of Geographical Information Systems for Land Resources Assessment. Clarendon Press, Oxford Dale P F, McLaughlin J D (1988) Land Information Management: An Introduction with Special Reference to Cadastral Problems in Third World Countries. Clarendon Press, Oxford Egenhofer M, Frank A (1992) Object-oriented modeling for GIS. Journal of the Urban and Regional Information Systems Association Vol. 4: 3–19 Elmasri R, Navathe S B (1994) Fundamentals of Database Systems. 2nd edn. Benjamin/ Cummings, California Healey R G (1991) Database management systems. In: Maguire D J, Goodchild M F, Rhind D W (eds) Geographical Information Systems: Principles and Applications.

Longman, London, vol. 1, pp. 251–267 Longley P A, Goodchild M F, Maguire D J, Rhind D W (2010) Geographical Information Systems and Science. 3rd edn. Wiley, Chichester McLaren R A (1990) Establishing a corporate GIS from component datasets – the database issues. Mapping Awareness 4 (2): 52–58 Oxborrow E P (1989) Databases and Database Systems: Concepts and Issues. 2nd edn.

Chartwell Bratt, Sweden

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Worboys M F (1999) Relational databases and beyond. In: Longley P A, Goodchild M F, Maguire D J, Rhind D W (eds) Geographical Information Systems. New York, Wiley, vol. 1, pp. 373–384 Worboys M F, Duckham M (2004) GIS: A Computing Perspective. 2nd edn. Taylor and Francis, London Worboys M, Hearnshaw H, Maguire D (1991) Object-oriented data modeling for spatial databases. International Journal of Geographical Information Systems 4(4): 369–383 Definitions and concepts: •

Data models: unixspace.com/context/ databases.html

Database design: •

Unesco training materials on data modelling: ioc.unesco.org/oceanteacher/resourcekit/ Module2/GIS/Module/Module_e/module_e2.html

Online databases: •

OECD: caliban.sourceoecd.org/ vl=2215771/cl=97/nw=1/rpsv/home.htm

Transport tracking: •

Nextbus: www.nextbus.com/predictor/newUserWelcome.shtml

•

ACISK: www.acislive.com/pages/busnet.asp?SysID=13

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CHAPTER 5

Data input and editing Lecture outline 1. Introduction a. The data stream 2. Methods of data input a. Keyboard entry b. Manual digitizing c. Automatic digitizing d. Electronic data transfer 3. Data editing a. Detecting and correcting errors b. Attribute and spatial data checking c. Re-projection, transformation and generalization d. Edge matching and rubber sheeting 4. Developing an integrated database 5. Conclusions

Case studies Box 5.12 on pages 169–171 gives an extensive example of how an integrated GIS database may be created for the Happy Valley Ski Resort. This may be used as a template if the lecturer/tutor wants to use a different example.

Suggested modes of delivery The sequential mode of delivery is perhaps the most appropriate for this lecture since it mirrors closely the nature of the subject matter itself; namely, the data stream.

In-class activities 1. Ask students to outline the main phases of the data stream.

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2. Use reflection box on page 171 to link data sources and encoding methods.

3. Get the students to consider the problems associated with manual digitizing and describe their implications for data quality.

4. Ask the students how they would go about detecting and correcting errors in a GIS database.

5. Get the students to draw up a data stream flow chart for a specific project.

6. Ask the students to identify weak points and bottlenecks in the data stream for their example.

Reading list Chrisman N R (1987) Efficient digitizing through the combination of appropriate hardware and software for error detection and editing. International Journal of Geographical Information Systems 1: 265–277 Chrisman N R (2002) Exploring Geographic Information Systems. 2nd edn. Wiley, New York DeMers M N (2005) Fundamentals of Geographic Information Systems. 3rd edn. Wiley, New York Douglas D H, Peucker T K (1973) Algorithms for the reduction of the number of points required to represent a digitized line or its caricature. Canadian Cartographer 10 (4): 110–112 Hohl P (ed) (1998) GIS Data Conversion: Strategies, Techniques, and Management. Onward Press, Santa Fe Jackson M J, Woodsford P A (1991) GIS data capture hardware and software. In: Maguire D J, Goodchild M F, Rhind D W (eds) Geographical Information Systems: Principles and Applications. Longman, London, vol. 1, pp. 239–249 Martin D (1996) Geographical Information Systems and their Socio-economic Applications.

2nd edn. Routledge, London Miller H J, Han J (2001) Geographic data mining and knowledge discovery. Taylor and Francis, London Openshaw S (ed) (1995) The 1991 Census User’s Handbook. Longman Geoinformation, London Walsby J (1995) The causes and effects of manual digitizing on error creation in data input to GIS. In: Fisher P (ed) Innovations in GIS 2. Taylor and Francis, London, pp. 113–24 Further information on data sources and input: •

The GIS Data Primer – Data Sources: www.innovativegis.com/basis/primer/sources.html

•

GIS and Scanning Technology: www.gisdevelopment.net/technology/gis/techgi0002b.htm

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•

OpenStreetMap: www.openstreetmap.org/

Finding spatial data: •

US National Spatial Data Intrastructure Geospatial Onestop: www.geodata.gov/

•

ESRI Geography Network: www.geographynetwork.com/

•

Go-Geo! (service for UK academic community): www.gogeo.ac.uk/

•

Digital chart of the world: www.maproom.psu.edu/dcw/

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CHAPTER 6

Data analysis Lecture outline 1. Introduction a. Analytical functionality in GIS b. The Happy Valley example 2. Measurement a. Length (distance) b. Perimeter c. Area 3. Queries 4. Reclassification a. Boolean operators 5. Buffering and neighbourhood functions 6. Map overlay a. Vector i.

Point-in-polygon

ii. Union, erase and intersect b. Raster i.

Cartographic modelling

c. The nuclear waste disposal site search example d. Problems and issues in overlay 7. Spatial interpolation a. Deriving continuous surfaces from discrete point data b. Classification of interpolation methods 8. Analysis of surfaces a. Slope and aspect b. Visibility

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9. Network analysis a. Shortest path b. Travelling salesperson c. Location-allocation modelling d. Route tracing 10. Quantitative spatial analysis 11. Conclusions

Case studies Both the Happy Valley Ski Resort and the nuclear waste site search examples are used in this chapter and can equally be used in a lecture. The nuclear waste example is a classic site search analysis and can be substituted very effectively by any other site search application because all site search applications share common elements of reclassification and overlay, with additional analyses such as buffering and spatial interpolation. An environmental impact assessment could equally be used in this same manner.

Suggested modes of delivery This lecture can be very effective when delivered in a problem-oriented or case-study mode though care needs to be taken to ensure the problem described or the case study chosen include all the required elements of analysis. The lecture also (necessarily) contains a large amount of material. Looking at the lecture planner, you can see this material can be split over two or more lectures.

In-class activities 1. Get the students to think of examples of GIS analysis.

2. Get the students to suggest 10 different applications for buffering and overlay.

3. Ask the students to discuss some of the problems with overlay in GIS. 4. Discuss as a group some of the relative advantages/disadvantages of adopting a vector or raster model in GIS analyses.

5. Get the students to think about spatial interpolation and its role in the data stream: why is it so important?

6. Give the students a list of spatial interpolation methods and ask them to classify them.

7. Ask the students to draw a simple flowchart for a typical analysis problem such as siting a new school or routing a new highway.

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8. Ask the students to list possible derivatives of terrain surfaces (slope, aspect, flow direction, etc.) and suggest applications (snow melt models, access models, etc.).

Reading list Berry J K (1993) Beyond Mapping: Concepts, Algorithms and Issues in GIS. GIS World Inc., Colorado Burrough P A, McDonnell, R (1998) Principles of Geographical Information Systems. Oxford University Press, Oxford Chou Y-H (1996) Exploring Spatial Analysis in Geographic Information Systems. OnWord Press, USA Chrisman N R (2002) Exploring Geographic Information Systems. 2nd edn. Wiley, New York Davis J C (1986) Statistics and Data Analysis in Geology. Wiley, New York DeMers M N (2005) Fundamentals of Geographic Information Systems. 3rd edn. Wiley, New York Fotheringham A S, O’Kelly M E (1989) Spatial Interaction Models: Formulations and Applications. Kluwer Academic, Dordrecht Fotheringham A S, Rogerson P (eds) (1994) Spatial Analysis and GIS. Taylor and Francis, London Fotheringham A S, Brunsdon C, Charlton M (2000) Quantitative Geography: Perspectives on Spatial Data Analysis. Sage, London Lam N S (1983) Spatial interpolation methods: a review. American Cartographer 10: 129–149 Laurini R, Thompson D (1992) Fundamentals of Spatial Information Systems. Academic Press, London Longley P A, Goodchild M F, Maguire D J, Rhind D W (2010) Geographical Information Systems and Science. 3rd edn. Wiley, Chichester Maguire D J, Goodchild M F, Rhind D W (eds) (1991) Geographical Information Systems: Principles and Applications. Longman, London McHarg I L (1969) Design with Nature. Doubleday, New York Mitchell A (1999) The Esri Guide to GIS Analysis: vol. 1: Geographic Patterns and Relationships. Esri Press, Redlands Monmonier M (1996) How to Lie with Maps. University of Chicago Press, Chicago Openshaw S (1984) The Modifiable Areal Unit Problem: Concepts and Techniques in Modern Geography, vol. 38. GeoBooks, Norwich, UK

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Openshaw S, Carver S, Fernie J (1989) Britain’s Nuclear Waste: Safety and Siting. Belhaven, London Price M F, Heywood D I (eds) (1994) Mountain Environments and Geographical Information Systems. Taylor and Francis, London Raper J F, Kelk B (1991) Three-dimensional GIS. In: Maguire D J, Goodchild M F, Rhind D W (eds) Geographical Information Systems: Principles and Applications. Longman, London, vol. 1, pp. 299–317 Stocks A M, Heywood D I (1994) Terrain modelling for mountains. In: Price M F, Heywood D I (eds) Mountain Environments and Geographical Information Systems. Taylor and Francis, London, pp. 25–40 Tobler W R (1976) Spatial interaction patterns. Journal of Environmental Systems 6: 271–301 Vincent P, Daly R (1990) GIS and large travelling salesman problems. Mapping Awareness 4(1): 19–21 Weibel R, Heller M (1991) Digital terrain modelling. In: Maguire D J, Goodchild M F, Rhind D W (eds) Geographical Information Systems: Principles and Applications. Longman, London, vol. 1, pp. 269–297 Wilson A G (1975) Some new forms of spatial interaction model: a review. Transportation Research 9: 167–179 Wilson J P, Gallant J (2000) Terrain Analysis: Principles and Applications. John Wiley, London Worboys M F (1995) GIS: A Computing Perspective. Taylor and Francis, London GIS analysis: •

WaterontheWeb – Interactive online map service: waterontheweb.org/under/gis/IMSindex.html

•

Query function explained at: waterontheweb.org/under/gis/query.html

•

Ordnance Survey GIS Files: www.ordnancesurvey.co.uk/oswebsite/gisfiles/section4/

•

Geospatial analysis website and book: www.desmith.eu/MJdS/output/GeospatialAnalysis.htm

Software for surface analysis: •

LANDSERF: www.soi.city.ac.uk/~jwo/landserf/

•

Whitebox geospatial analysis tools: www.uoguelph.ca/~hydrogeo/Whitebox/index.html

•

SAGA: www.saga-gis.org/en/index.html

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CHAPTER 7

Analytical modelling in GIS Lecture outline 1. Introduction a. Reminder about models 2. Process models a. Model types: natural/scale, conceptual, mathematical, process b. Example: Happy Valley snow cover model c. Linking models to GIS 3. Modelling physical and environmental processes 4. Modelling human process 5. Decision making with GIS a. Multi-criteria evaluation (MCE) b. Public participation GIS (PPGIS) 6. Problems with modelling 7. Conclusions

Case studies This chapter continues nicely from the previous one and again contains quite a lot of material, depending how you put it across and the detail given. The Happy Valley Ski Resort and nuclear waste examples are used again in the text. There is a wealth of GIS modelling examples that could be included with or substituted for these.

Suggested modes of delivery Again, this lecture is suited to a problem-oriented approach, using case studies as appropriate to illustrate the material. Again, this material can be split over two lecture blocks in the lecture planner.

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In-class activities 1. Ask the students to explain the difference between models of spatial form and models of spatial process.

2. Ask the students to create a classification of model types. Why is this important?

3. Get the students to discuss ways in which models may be linked to GIS and describe the relative merits of each approach.

4. Discuss as a group the different approaches required to model physical versus human systems.

5. Discuss the role of GIS in decision making.

6. Ask the students to list the advantages of an MCE approach over Boolean overlay.

Reading list Batty M, Xie Y (1994a) Modelling inside GIS: Part 1. Model structures, exploratory spatial data analysis and aggregation. International Journal of Geographical Information Systems 8 (4): 291–307 Batty M, Xie Y (1994b) Modelling inside GIS: Part 2. Selecting and calibrating urban models using ARC/INFO. International Journal of Geographical Information Systems 8 (5): 451–470 Birkin M, Clarke G, Clarke M, Wilson A (1996) Intelligent GIS: Location Decisions and Strategic Planning. GeoInformation International, Cambridge, UK Carver S J (1991b) Integrating multi-criteria evaluation with geographical information systems.

International Journal of Geographical Information Systems 5 (3): 321–339 Fotheringham A S, O’Kelly M E (1989) Spatial Interaction Models: Formulations and Applications. Kluwer Academic, Dordrecht Goodchild M F, Parks B O, Steyaert L T (eds) (1993) Environmental Modelling with GIS. Oxford University Press, Oxford and New York Haines-Young R, Green R D, Cousins S H (eds) (1994) Landscape Ecology and GIS. Taylor and Francis, London Heit M, Shortreid A (1991) GIS Applications in Natural Resources. GIS World Inc., Colorado Hengl T, Reuter H I (2009) Geomorphometry: Concepts, Software, Applications. Developments in Soil Science Volume 33. Elsevier, Amsterdam Janssen R, Rievelt P (1990) Multicriteria analysis and GIS: an application to agricultural land use in the Netherlands. In: Scholten H J, Stillwell J C H (eds) Geographical Information Systems for Urban and Regional Planning. Kluwer Academic, Dordrecht

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Longley P A, Batty M (2003) Advanced Spatial Analysis: The CASA book of Spatial Analysis.

Esri Press, Redlands Longley P, Clarke G (eds) (1995) GIS for Business and Service Planning. GeoInformation International, Cambridge, UK Malczewski J (1999) GIS and Multi-criteria Decision Analysis. Wiley, London Price M F, Heywood D I (eds) (1994) Mountain Environments and Geographical Information Systems. Taylor and Francis, London Ripple W J (ed) (1994) The GIS Applications Book: Examples in Natural Resources: a Compendium. American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, Maryland Thill J-C (1999) Spatial Multicriteria Decision Making and Analysis: A Geographic Information Systems Approach. Ashgate, Aldershot Wilson J P, Gallant J (2000) Terrain Analysis: Principles and Applications. John Wiley, London Modelling environmental processes: •

University of Texas Center for Research in Water Resources: www.ce.utexas.edu/prof/maidment/gishydro/home.html

•

GIS Lounge, hydrology links: gislounge.com/hydrology-and-gis/

•

PCRaster: pcraster.geog.uu.nl/

Modelling human processes: •

Research projects at the Centre for Advanced Spatial Analysis: www.casa.ucl.ac.uk/projects/index.asp

PPGIS: •

The PPGIS web ring: t.webring.com/hub?ring=ppgis

•

Integrated approaches to participatory development (IAPAD): www.iapad.org/

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CHAPTER 8

Output: from new maps to enhanced decisions Lecture outline 1. Introduction a. The range of GIS outputs 2. Maps as the principal form of GIS output a. Cartographic rules b. Choropleth mapping c. Alternative forms of cartographic output 3. Non-cartographic output 4. Multimedia a. Serving maps on the web b. VRGIS 5. Decision support as a form of output a. Maps as decision tools b. Example: Zdarske Vrchy c. Example: nuclear waste disposal 6. Conclusions

Case studies The Happy Valley, Zdarkse Vrchy and nuclear waste disposal case studies are included in this chapter. Any GIS project can be used to illustrate this lecture, since all GIS projects by definition have some form of output.

Suggested modes of delivery The sequential mode of delivery is perhaps best used for this material.

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In-class activities 1. Ask students to create a list covering the range of types of GIS outputs.

2. Get students to draw a sketch map showing the main cartographic elements of a map.

3. Ask students to describe a cartogram and give examples.

4. Ask students to devise different methods for deriving class intervals for a choropleth map.

5. Ask students what examples of GIS output they have seen on the web.

6. Discuss as a group the possible applications of VRGIS. 7. Discuss as a group the issues surrounding the use of GIS output for decision support.

Reading list Brewer C (2005) Designing Better Maps: A Guide for GIS Users. Esri Press, Redlands Brown A, Feringa W (2003) Colour Basics for GIS Users. Pearson Education Limited, Harlow Dyke J, MacEachren A M, Kraak M-J (2005) Exploring Geovisualization. Pergamon, Oxford Kraak M-J, Brown A (eds) (2000) Web Cartography: Developments and Prospects. Taylor and Francis, London MacEachren A M (1994) Some Truth with Maps: A Primer on Symbolization and Design.

Association of American Geographers, Washington MacEachren A M (1995) How Maps Work: Representation, Visualization, and Design. The Guilford Press, New York MacEachren A M, Taylor D R F (1994) Visualization in Modern Cartography. Pergamon Press, New York McMaster R B, Shea K S (1992) Generalization in Digital Cartography. Association of American Geographers, Washington DC Monmonier M (1993) Mapping it Out. University of Chicago Press, Chicago Monmonier M (1995) Drawing the Line. Henry Holt, New York Monmonier M (1996) How to Lie with Maps. University of Chicago Press, Chicago Peterson M P (1995) Interactive and Animated Cartography. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ Plewe B (1997) GISOnline: Information Retrieval, Mapping and the Internet. Onword Press, Santa Fe

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Robertson B (1988) How to Draw Charts and Diagrams. North Light, Cincinnati, Ohio Wood C H, Keller C P (eds) (1996) Cartographic Design. Wiley, Chichester Online maps and mapping: •

USGS National Map Viewer: nationalmap.gov/nmjump.html

•

Digimap: edina.ac.uk/digimap/

•

David Rumsey Historical Maps: www.davidrumsey.com/

•

World Mapper: www.worldmapper.org/index.html

•

Google Earth: earth.google.com/

•

Google Maps: maps.google.com/

•

Bing maps: www.bing.com/maps/

•

NASA’s World Wind: worldwind.arc.nasa.gov/java/

•

Wikimapia: www.wikimapia.org/

•

MapTube: www.maptube.org/

•

Second Life: www.secondlife.com

Cartographic techniques and case studies: •

Case Studies of visualization in Social Sciences: www.agocg.ac.uk/reports/visual/casestud/contents.htm

•

CSISS ‘Recipe’ for creating a choropleth map in Arc/GIS: www.csiss.org/cookbook/recipe/36

•

Cartogram types: www.ncgia.ucsb.edu/projects/Cartogram_Central/types.html

•

Worldmapper: www.world mapper.com

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CHAPTER 9

The development of computer methods for handling spatial data Lecture outline 1. Introduction 2. Pre-GIS: handling spatial data manually 3. The advent of the computer a. Graphics b. Data access and storage c. Data input 4. The development of computer methods for handling spatial data a. Systems approach b. Computer cartography c. Spatial statistics d. AM/FM and CAD e. Web and mobile GIS 5. The development of GIS a. 1970s b. 1980s c. 1990s d. 2000s 6. Case studies in GIS development a. CGIS: example of early GIS b. ESRI: example of market leader c. CORINE: example of GIS project 7. The diffusion of GIS 8. Conclusions

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Case studies The case studies for this lecture are given above under point 6 in the lecture outline. These are covered in the book but you might like to add additional material from elsewhere or substitute other case studies.

Suggested modes of delivery Because of the time-line nature of this lecture it is perhaps best given in sequential mode.

In-class activities 1. Ask students to describe how methods of spatial data handling have changed since the advent of computers and GIS. What has this meant for GIScience and business?

2. Ask students what they think were the key events in the GIS development over the last 30 years.

3. Get the students to draw up a simple GIS time-line.

4. Ask students who they think are (a) the key individuals in GIS developments, and (b) the key market leaders in developing and shaping the software systems.

5. Discuss as a group the ongoing developments in GIS.

Reading list Anon (1995) GIS World interview: Ian McHarg reflects on the past, present and future of GIS. GIS World 8 (10): 46–49 Anon (1996) GIS World interview: Roger Tomlinson the father of GIS. GIS World 9 (4): 56 Baumann J (2009) Roger Tomlinson on GIS history and future. GEOconnexion International Magazine. February 2009. http://www.geoconnexion.com/uploads/roger_tomlinson_intv8i2.pdf Coppock J T (1988) The analogue to digital revolution: a view from an unreconstructed geographer. American Cartographer 15 (3): 263–275 Coppock J T, Rhind D W (1991) The history of GIS. In: Maguire D J, Goodchild M F, Rhind D W (eds) Geographical Information Systems: Principles and Applications. Longman, London, vol. 1, pp. 21–43 Drummond J, Billen R, Joao, E, Forrest D (eds) (2007) Dynamic and mobile GIS: investigating changes in space and time. Innovations in GIS. CRC Press, Taylor and Francis Group, Boca Raton, FL

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Foresman T (ed) (1997) The History of GIS. Prentice Hall, New Jersey Goodchild M F (1988) Stepping over the line: the technological constraints and the new cartography. American Cartographer 15 (3): 277–289 Goodchild M F (1992) Geographical Information Science. International Journal of Geographical Information Systems 6 (1): 31–45 Maguire D J, Goodchild M F, Rhind D W (eds) (1991) Geographical Information Systems: Principles and Applications. Longman, London McHarg I L (1969) Design with Nature. Doubleday, New York National Research Council (1997) The Future of Spatial Data and Society. National Academies Press, Washington DC Rana S, Haklay M, Dodge M (2001) GIS Timeline. www.casa.ucl.ac.uk/gistimeline Rhind D (1988) Personality as a factor in the development of a discipline: the example of computer-assisted cartography. American Cartographer 15 (3): 277–289 Rhind D (1992) The next generation of Geographical Information Systems and the context in which they will operate. Computers, Environment and Urban Systems 16: 256–268 Rhind D W, Goodchild M F, Maguire D J (1991) Epilogue. In: Maguire D J, Goodchild M F, Rhind D W (eds) Geographical Information Systems: Principles and Applications.

Longman, London, vol. 2, pp. 313–327 Tomlinson R F (1988) The impact of the transition from analogue to digital cartographic representation. American Cartographer 15 (3): 249–263 Tomlinson R F (1990) Geographic Information Systems – a new frontier. In: Peuquet D J, Marble D F (eds) Introductory Readings in Geographical Information Systems. Taylor and Francis, London, pp. 18–29 Wise S, Craglia M (eds) (2008) GIS and Evidence-based policy making (Innovations in GIS).

CRC Press, Taylor and Francis Group, Boca Raton, FL GIS timelines: •

CASA’s GIS timeline: www.casa.ucl.ac.uk/gistimeline/

•

GIS Development timeline: www.gisdevelopment.net/history/

Systems and organizations: •

US Census Bureau: www.census.gov/geo/www/tiger/index.html

•

NCGIA: www.ncgia.ucsb.edu/

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•

Idrisi/Clark Labs: www.clarklabs.org

•

Esri: www.esri.com/about-esri/about/history.html

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CHAPTER 10

Data quality issues Lecture outline 1. Introduction a. The language of data quality b. The importance of quality control 2. Describing quality a. Accuracy b. Precision c. Error d. Uncertainty e. Bias f.

Completeness, compatibility, consistency and applicability

3. Sources of error in GIS a. Understanding and modelling reality b. Source data c. Encoding errors i.

Digitizing error

d. Data editing and conversion i.

Rasterization errors

ii

Vectorization errors

e. Processing and analysis errors f.

Output errors

4. Finding and modelling errors a. Error checking b. Error modelling 5. Managing error 6. Conclusions

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Case studies The nuclear waste disposal site search case study is used here to demonstrate the importance of an appreciation and understanding of error in GIS. Other case studies could be included here depending on choice.

Suggested modes of delivery Sequential, problem-oriented or case-study-based modes of delivery can equally be well used to deliver this material. Care needs to be taken with the choice of case study to make sure the result is critical to its success and that the issues are fully covered.

In-class activities 1. Ask students to define the difference between accuracy and precision and give examples.

2. Get students to draw a mental map of their school, college or university, and compare it with their neighbour to see how different person perspectives on the real world might affect on how we model it in a GIS. 3. Ask the students to list all the possible sources of error in a GIS example project. Use the data stream as a point of reference.

4. Ask the students to describe the MAUP and what it means in terms of data error in GIS. 5. Discuss as a group possible strategies to combat error in GIS. What techniques are available to handle error?

6. Discuss as a group the importance of lineage.

7. Ask students to consider the legal implications of data quality for GIS analyses. What are the potential implications of using poor quality data?

Reading list Bolstad P V, Gessler P, Lillesand T M (1990) Positional uncertainty in manually digitized map data. International Journal of Geographical Information Systems 4 (4): 399–412 Brunsdon C, Carver S, Charlton M, Openshaw S (1990) A review of methods for handling error propagation in GIS. Proceedings of 1st European Conference on Geographical Information Systems, Amsterdam, April, pp. 106–116 Burrough P (1986) Principles of Geographical Information Systems for Land Resources Assessment. Clarendon Press, Oxford

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Carver S, Brunsdon C (1994) Vector to raster conversion error and feature complexity: an empirical study using simulated data. International Journal of Geographical Information Systems 8 (3): 261–272 Chrisman N R (1989) Modelling error in overlaid categorical maps. In: Goodchild M F, Gopal S (eds) The Accuracy of Spatial Databases. Taylor and Francis, London, pp. 21–34 Dunn R, Harrison A R, White J C (1990) Positional accuracy and measurement error in digital databases of land use: an empirical study. International Journal of Geographical Information Systems 4 (4): 385–398 Fisher P (1991) Modelling soil map-unit inclusions by Monte Carlo simulation. International Journal of Geographical Information Systems 5 (2): 193–208 Fisher P F (1993) Algorithm and implementation uncertainty in viewshed analysis.

International Journal of Geographical Information Systems 7 (4): 331–347 Goodchild M (1978) Statistical aspects of the polygon overlay problem. In: Dutton G H (ed) Harvard Papers on Geographical Information Systems, vol. 6, Addison-Wesley, Reading, Mass., pp. 1–21 Goodchild M F, Gopal S (eds) (1989) The Accuracy of Spatial Databases. Taylor and Francis, London Heuvelink G B, Burrough P A, Stein A (1990) Propagation of errors in spatial modelling with GIS. International Journal of Geographical Information Systems 3: 303–322 Jenks G F (1981) Lines, computer and human frailties. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 71 (1): 142–147 Keefer B K, Smith J L, Gregoire T G (1988) Simulating manual digitizing error with statistical models. Proceedings of GIS/LIS ’88. ACSM, ASPRS, AAG and URISA, San Antonio, Texas, pp. 475–483 Longley P A, Goodchild M F, Maguire D J, Rhind D W (eds) (2005) Geographical Information Systems: Principles, Techniques Management and Applications. Wiley, Chichester Mather P M (ed) (1993) Geographical Information Handling – Research and Applications.

Wiley, Chichester McAlpine J R, Cook B G (1971) Data reliability from map overlay. Proceedings of the Australian and New Zealand Association for the Advancement of Science 43rd Congress, Section 21 – Geographical Sciences. Australian and New Zealand Association for the Advancement of Science, Brisbane, May 1971 Newcomer J A, Szajgin J (1984) Accumulation of thematic map errors in digital overlay analysis. American Cartographer 11 (1): 58–62 Openshaw S, Charlton M, Carver S (1991) Error propagation: a Monte Carlo simulation. In: Masser I, Blakemore M (eds) Handling Geographic Information: Methodology and Potential Applications. Longman, London, pp. 78–101

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Otawa T (1987) Accuracy of digitizing: overlooked factor in GIS operations. Proceedings of GIS ’87. ACSM, ASPRS, AAG and URISA, San Francisco, pp. 295–299 Walsh S J, Lightfoot D R, Butler D R (1987) Recognition and assessment of error in Geographic Information Systems. Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing 53 (10): 1423–1430 •

NCGIA I-1 Closing Report: www.ncgia.ucsb.edu/Publications/Closing_Reports/CR-1.pdf

•

The Geographer’s Craft – Error, accuracy and precision: www.colorado.edu/geography/gcraft/notes/error/error_f.html

•

DTM error: www.geocomputation.org/1998/80/gc_80.htm

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CHAPTER 11

Human and organizational issues Lecture outline 1. Introduction a. Key organizational questions 2. GIS applications a. Application typology b. Components c. Examples 3. Thinking about the GIS user 4. Investing in GIS a. Justifying the expense b. Cost-benefit analysis 5. Choosing a system a. Involving users b. User-needs surveys c. Benchmarking d. Pilot systems 6. Implementation and organizational change 7. Conclusions

Case studies Any number of case studies could be used to accompany this material, but surprisingly few are well documented in the literature (see the books under further reading for places to look). Do not forget to include examples of failed GIS as well as the success stories.

Suggested modes of delivery This lecture material is perhaps best delivered either sequentially or in relation to one or more case studies.

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In-class activities 1. Ask the students ‘What makes a good GIS?’ and follow this up with the question ‘What makes a good GIS implementation?’

2. Ask the students to list the key factors to be considered when choosing a GIS for (a) a large corporate company, (b) a department and (c) an individual.

3. Discuss as a group the merits of techniques such as benchmarking and pilot projects.

4. Get the students to draw up a strategy for implementing a GIS in an example organization.

5. Ask the students to think of a failed GIS application and give possible reasons for why it failed.

Reading list Bernhardsen T (1999) Choosing a GIS. In: Longley P A, Goodchild M F, Maguire D J, Rhind D W (eds) Geographical Information Systems. Wiley, New York, 589–600 Campbell H J (1994) How effective are GIS in practice? A case study of British local government. International Journal of Geographical Information Systems 8 (3): 309–326 Campbell H J (1999) Institutional consequences of the use of GIS. In: Longley P A, Goodchild M F, Maguire D J, Rhind D W (eds) Geographical Information Systems. Wiley, New York, 621–631 Campbell H J, Masser I (1992) GIS in local government: some findings from Great Britain.

International Journal of Geographical Information Systems 6 (6): 529–546 Campbell H J, Masser I (1995) GIS and Organizations: How Effective are GIS in Practice?

Taylor and Francis, London Eason K D (1988) Information Technology and Organizational Change. Taylor and Francis, London Eason K D (1994) Planning for change: introducing a Geographical Information System. In: Medyckyj-Scott D J, Hearnshaw H M (eds) Human Factors in Geographical Information Systems. Belhaven, London, pp. 199–209 Gould M I (1992) The use of GIS and CAC by health authorities: results from a postal questionnaire. Area 24 (4): 391–401 Hernandez T, Verrips A (2000) Retail GIS: more than just pretty maps. GeoEurope 9 (4): 16–18 Hernandez T, Scholten H J, Bennison D, Biasiotto M, Cornelius S, van der Beek M (1999) Explaining retail GIS: the adoption, use and development of GIS by retail organizations in the Netherlands, the UK and Canada. Netherlands Geographical Studies 258, Utrecht

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Longley P A, Goodchild M F, Maguire D J, Rhind D W (eds) (1999) Geographical Information Systems: Principles, Techniques, Management and Applications. Wiley, New York Longley P A, Goodchild M F, Maguire D J, Rhind D W (2005) Geographical Information Systems and Science. 2nd edn. Wiley, Chichester Medyckyj-Scott D J, Cornelius S C (1991) A move to GIS: some empirical evidence of users’ experiences. Proceedings of Mapping Awareness 1991, conference held in London, February, Blenheim Online, London Medyckyj-Scott D J, Cornelius S C (1994) User viewpoint: a survey. In: Hart T, Tulip A (eds) Geographic Information Systems Report. Unicom Seminars, Uxbridge, UK Medyckyj-Scott D J, Hearnshaw H M (eds) (1994) Human Factors in Geographical Information Systems. Belhaven, London Obermeyer N J (1999) Measuring the benefits and costs of GIS. In: Longley P A, Goodchild M F, Maguire D J, Rhind D W (eds) Geographical Information Systems. Wiley, New York, 601–610 Roche S, Caron C (2009) Organizational Facets of GIS. Wiley, New Jersey Cost benefit analysis: •

Cost–benefit analysis and justifying investment in GIS: www.nysgis.state.ny.us/coordinationprogram/reports/cost/index.cfm

•

EU GISIG Guidelines for best practice in user interface in GIS: www.gisig.it/best-gis/Guides/chapter9/nine.htm

GIS implementation: •

Implementing GIS: lagic.lsu.edu/gisprimer/phased_implementation.asp

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CHAPTER 12

GIS project design and management Lecture outline 1. Introduction 2. Stages in developing an application a. Problem identification i.

Rich picture

ii. Root definition b. Designing a data model i.

Conceptual and physical data

c. Designing and analysis: Cartographic modelling d. Project management i.

The waterfall approach

ii. The prototyping approach 3. Implementation problems 4. Project evaluation 5. Conclusions

Case studies The house hunting example is given here as a case study because it is one to which most people can easily relate at a personal level. Other case studies could be substituted depending on choice and audience.

Suggested modes of delivery This lecture is best delivered in a problem-oriented mode because of the problem focus of the material (i.e. how to design and manage a GIS project).

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In-class activities 1. Ask the students to draw a rich picture for a simple GIS application.

2. Ask the students to choose a data model and justify their choice for (a) the Zdarske Vrchy case study and (b) the nuclear waste disposal case study.

3. Get the students to create a simple cartographic model for the nuclear waste disposal case study. Ask them to create a risk register for the project.

4. Discuss as a group the main problems that might occur during the implementation of a GIS application.

5. As a group, evaluate one of the GIS case studies used in the book.

Reading list Checkland P B, Howell S (1998) Information, Systems and Information Systems: Making Sense of the Field. Wiley, London Checkland P B, Poulter J (2006) Learning for Action: A Short Definitive Account of Soft Systems Methodology and its use for Practitioners, Teachers and Students, Wiley, London Chrisman N R (2002) Exploring Geographic Information Systems. 2nd edn. Wiley, New York Curry A, Flett, P, Hollingsworth, I (2005) Managing Information and Systems: The Business Perspective. Routledge, Oxford DeMers M N (2009) GIS for Dummies. Wiley, New York Huxhold W E (1991) An Introduction to Urban Geographic Information Systems. Oxford University Press, New York Longley P A, Goodchild M F, Maguire D J, Rhind D W (2010) Geographical Information Systems and Science. 3rd edn. Wiley, Chichester Reeve D E, Petch J R (1998) GIS Organizations and People: a Socio-technical Approach.

Taylor and Francis, London Cartographic modelling in practice: •

PCRaster: pcraster.geog.uu.nl/documentation/pcrman/c1194.htm

•

Cartographic modelling lab: cml.upenn.edu/

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Project management tools: •

GANTT charts: www.ganttchart.com/

•

Smartdraw: www.smartdraw.com/specials/projectchart.asp?id=15063

•

SWOT analysis: www.quickmba.com/strategy/swot/

•

RISK Management Plans: www.wikihow.com/Develop-a-Risk-Management-Plan

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CHAPTER 13

The future of GIS Lecture outline 1. Introduction 2. Where next for GIS? a. Applications b. Technology c. Information d. People 3. Exploring the future for GIS a. Natural disasters b. Daddy, what does lost mean? c. The ad man's dream 4. Conclusions

Case studies They are difficult to find when looking into the future! Much of the material is hypothetical, but is based on our knowledge of past events to extrapolate and predict new developments. The Happy Valley case study is perhaps the easiest to use because it is hypothetical and therefore we can ‘design’ its future. To help imagine what the future might hold for GIS, we also use stories.

These stories have been designed to present our view of how GIS might develop in the future.

Suggested modes of delivery This lecture easily fits into a more discursive style. We can look back at past events fairly systematically and create a sequence leading up to the present day, but then we start to hypothesize about the future. Open up the lecture to greater student involvement at this point.

You might like to use our 'tales' from the future as a starting point (see pages 401–403).

In-class activities 1. Ask the students whether they think GIS has a rich future ahead of it. Can they justify their responses?

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2. Ask the students to outline the key developments in GIS over the last 10 years and explain how this might indicate new developments over the next decade.

3. Get the students to hypothesize how GIS might become more popular over the next 10 to 20 years.

4. Get the students to think of ways in which GIS might actually decline. Is this possible?

5. Ask the students to share their hopes and fears about GIS with their neighbour.

6. Ask students to draw up individual wish lists for new GIS functionality. Share these with the rest of the class.

7. Discuss as a group how developments in related fields such as communications, multimedia and remote sensing might influence the future direction of GIS. 8. Encourage students to create their own story about the future of GIS and add it to our blog (www.intro-to-gis.co.uk)

Reading list Baumann J (2009) Roger Tomlinson on GIS history and future. Geoconnexions: International Magazine, February 2009. http://www.geoconnexion.com/uploads/roger_tomlinson_intv8i2.pdf Berry J (2010) Topic 27: GIS Evolution and Future Trends. Beyond Mapping III. http://www.innovativegis.com/basis/MapAnalysis/Topic27/Topic27.htm Goodchild M F (1992) Geographical Information Science, International Journal of Geographical Information Systems 6 (1): 31–45 Haklay M, Morley J, Rahemtulla, H (eds) (2010) Proceedings of the GIS Research UK 18th Annual Conference GISRUK 2010, University College London, London http://eprints.ucl.ac.uk/19284/ Maguire D J, Goodchild M F, Rhind D W (eds) (1991) Geographical Information Systems: Principles and Applications. Longman, London Rhind D (1992) The next generation of Geographical Information Systems and the context in which they will operate. Computers, Environment and Urban Systems, 16: 256–268 Rhind D W, Goodchild M F, Maguire D J (1991) Epilogue. In: Maguire D J, Goodchild M F, Rhind D W (eds) Geographical Information Systems: Principles and Applications.

Longman, London, vol. 2, pp. 313–327.

Online mapping services: •

Google maps UK: maps.google.co.uk/

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•

Multimap: www.multimap.com/

•

Mapquest: www.mapquest.com/

•

Streetmaps (UK): www.streetmap.co.uk/

Future of GIS: •

Article on the present realities and the future of GIS: www.gisdevelopment.net/magazine/years/2004/july/29.shtml

•

GIS and social media: www.slideshare.net/aGISGuy/gis-social-media-integration.

•

GIS in natural resources: www.gis.wustl.edu/a-brief-history-and-probable-future.html

•

Google Earth: earth.google.com/index.html

•

NASA World Wind: worldwind.arc.nasa.gov/

•

GIS blogs: wiki.gis.com/wiki/index.php/List_of_GIS-related_Blogs

Professional bodies, training and certification: •

GISCI: www.gisci.org/

•

AGI: www.agi.org.uk

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Part 2

Practical Exercises

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CHAPTER 2

Spatial data 1. Choose a paper topographic map and for a selected area manually create paper facsimiles of a small section using both the vector and raster data models. How does scale and cartographic generalization influence the entity types used?

2. Repeat the above exercise for the same area using a map of a smaller scale and outline the differences between the two sets of raster/vector data. How has this altered the spatial entities types used to represent real-world features?

3. Convert vector datasets from one projection system into another. Overlay the newly reprojected data onto the original version to see the difference (this exercise is best done with a familiar vector polygon data layer such as the world coastline). Experiment further with different projection systems. How might the changes in projection system affect distance and area measurements?

4. Use a handheld GPS to collect some field data on or around campus. Try to collect data whose position can then be plotted on top of some detailed geo-referenced plan or street data. How do the GPS coordinates compare with the GIS data layer? Are there any mismatches? What might account for these?

5. Using a geo-rectified digital aerial photograph and/or high-resolution satellite image of a local area, use field visits and a GPS receiver to collect field data on ground cover/land use.

How does your field data compare to the image data? Can you use your field data to classify the image data?

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CHAPTER 3

Spatial data modelling 1. Create a raster and vector data model of the same set of point, line and area data. Display the vector data over the raster data and compare how the two data models differ in their handling of these three entity types.

2. For a vector point, line or area data layer, access the topology database files and note how they are organized.

3. Examine how surface data is handled in both raster and vector data models. In particular, create a raster DTM, TIN and contour surface for the same sample of terrain data. Examine closely these different methods and make comparisons (try to choose an area with both flat and variable relief, since this will aid the comparison process).

4. For the above terrain model data, change the resolution of the raster DTM by aggregation and thin the number of points used in the TIN and contour models. How does this affect the representation of the terrain surface?

5. Explore the way networks are handled in vector GIS using some appropriate data (e.g. roads or rivers). Explore the functionality of the GIS in terms of the network-specific analyses that are possible.

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CHAPTER 4

Database management 1. Using RDBMS interrogate a spatial database and perform some simple queries that span different tables. Note how this works. What is the common item linking all the tables?

2. Use SQL to build up some examples of spatial and non-spatial queries.

3. Query a spatial database interactively by performing different on-screen queries (e.g. point and click, point-in-polygon, etc.). How does the GIS make the link between spatial entities (points, lines and areas) and their associated attributes tables?

4. Use the websites of big GIS vendors to explore the range of RDBMS behind their GIS software products.

5. Access an online GIS database. Can you determine the model used and how it works?

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CHAPTER 5

Data input and editing 1. Draw a detailed and carefully annotated flow chart showing the data stream for a chosen GIS project. Annotate the flow chart with the commands/procedures required to implement this for a GIS of your choice.

2. Use a manual digitizer to capture a sample dataset from a paper map and convert it to a format suitable for the GIS package you commonly use. Now use a scanner to capture the same sample dataset and convert it into the same format (depending on the GIS you are using, this process may be very different and may require intermediate stages and/or other software). Compare the results. Are they comparable? What differences are there and how might these have been introduced?

3. Use the Internet to find some GIS data that is in a format not immediately compatible with the GIS you are using. Download the data and use either the tools provided by your GIS or those of a third party software package to convert the data into a readable format. How easy was this process? Convert the data back into its original format and use one of the many freely available data viewers to compare the original data and the converted copy. Are they the same? If not, why not?

4. Use the data editing tools in your GIS package to correct any positional and/or topological errors in the sample data digitized in task 2 above.

5. Using some sample data digitized from separate, but adjacent map sheets, display both datasets and examine the line of the join for topological mismatches. Use edge-matching tools to remove any errors and join up discontinuous lines and polygon boundaries.

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CHAPTER 6

Data analysis 1. Use both raster and vector GIS to calculate the distance from a series of points to a line or polygon boundary in the same sample dataset. How do the results compare?

2. Perform a buffer operation on a sample dataset containing point, line and area features. Use the buffer zones to identify how many points lie within a specified distance of a line or polygon feature.

3. Using a sample dataset perform a simple site search based on the vector sieve-mapping approach. You may have to pre-process some of the data using buffering, reclassification and/or interpolation. Draw a simple flow chart first to help with this process. Repeat the site search in raster GIS, using cartographic modelling principles.

4. Using a sample point dataset with quantitative attribute data attached (e.g. meteorological station data, height data, population survey data, etc.), create a continuous surface using interpolation methods. Try different interpolation methods and try varying the input parameters to see how this affects the result. For the data you have chosen, which is the most appropriate interpolation method and why?

5. Using a sample terrain model, calculate the area visible from a point and line feature.

Include height offsets and see how this can affect the results. What geographical variables affect visibility and how might they be incorporated into the visibility model?

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CHAPTER 7

Analytical modelling in GIS 1. For a modelling problem of your choice, draw a flow chart like the one shown in Figure 7.2 on page 229.

2. Using a suitable terrain model, try developing a snow cover model like the one described in Box 7.1 on pages 230–231 of the book for the Happy Valley Ski Resort. This will involve several assumptions and the odd leap of faith, but it will be interesting!

3. Use a terrain model to derive key variables for hydrological modelling (e.g. slope, aspect, flow direction, flow accumulation, etc.). Use these to derive catchment boundaries (watersheds) and stream networks. What assumptions do you need to make in defining the stream networks?

4. Use a simple MCE model to re-visit the site selection problem described in Chapter 6 task 3 on page 223. How do the results compare? What are the relative merits of these two different approaches?

5. Explore one or more of the several PPGIS applications available on the Internet. How easy are they to use and what are the issues concerned with their widespread adoption for public involvement in decision-making?

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CHAPTER 8

Output: from new maps to enhanced decisions 1. Examine a selection of topographic and thematic maps and note (a) the cartographic components used in the map layout and (b) the different symbolisms employed to represent point, line, area and surface features.

2. Using some sample boundaries and associated attribute data (census tracts and returns are a good source), explore the class-interval problem by drawing several maps using different methods (e.g. quartiles, equal intervals, natural breaks, etc.). How do the results differ and how do they affect our interpretation of pattern in the data?

3. Use some sample terrain data and an associated image (e.g. land cover, aerial photograph, satellite image) to generate a 3D-perspective image with draped images.

4. Use either the choropleth map from task 2 or the terrain view from task 3 above to create and publish a map. Use appropriate cartographic symbolism and annotation (i.e. title, legend, scale, north arrow, etc.). Print/plot your finished map.

5. Use the web to examine some of the ways in which spatial data is being used to communicate information and ideas.

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CHAPTER 10

Data quality issues 1. Convert a complex vector-polygon dataset to raster format using different resolutions.

Examine the results closely with the vector-polygon data overlaid. Are there any noticeable topological errors? How have these occurred?

2. Repeat the same polygon overlay analysis in vector and raster GIS and calculate the area and perimeter of the resulting polygons(s). Are they different and by how much? What may account for the differences?

3. For a sample vector-polygon dataset, generate a dense pattern of random-point data. Buffer the polygon boundary as a line feature at a distance (ε) at an appropriate distance (e.g. if the source data for the polygon was 1:25,000 then use a buffer distance of 25 m to assume a digitizing error of ±1 mm) and perform a point-in-polygon analysis using the points with the polygon and the buffer zone. What percentage of points can be classified as definitely in, possibly in, possibly out and definitely out?

4. Using the data you used for the MCE exercise in Chapter 6 task 3, add random noise to the input data and then the weights applied, before running the MCE model again. How does the random noise affect the results?

5. Try developing a Monte Carlo simulation of the effects of random noise on a Boolean overlay analysis.

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CHAPTER 12

GIS project design and management 1. Draw a rich picture for the nuclear waste disposal site search case study. Include the general public, politicians, nuclear engineers and environmental groups as the key stakeholders.

Where are the key areas of conflict?

2. With some sample data for a problem of your choice, develop a simple cartographic model, first on paper and then in your GIS. How does the simple paper model transfer to the GIS? 3. Develop a SWOT analysis for the nuclear waste disposal site search case study example.

4. Produce a GANTT chart for the nuclear waste disposal site search problem.

5. Produce a PERT chart for the nuclear waste disposal site search problem.

6. Create a risk register for the nuclear waste disposal site search problem.

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CHAPTER 13

The future of GIS 1. Read our 'tales' from the future which speculate on how GIS technology and GIS applications might develop in the future.

2. Now create your own story exploring how GIS could develop.

3. Share your story about the future of GIS on our blog www.intro-to-gis.co.uk.

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Part 3

GIS Software and Data Sources

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GIS software freeware/shareware GIS software can be horrendously expensive. For those of you without access to proprietary GIS packages through school, college or work, loading a GIS on your own PC may seem too expensive. There is, however, a wide range of GIS freeware or shareware that can be downloaded from the Internet for no (or little) cost. These can range from fully functional standalone GIS/Image Processing packages, to small programs or application software designed for a specific task such as data conversion, data viewing or map projection that must be used in conjunction with a fully fledged GIS or part of a suite of other software tools. It is therefore possible for anyone with a PC and an Internet connection to download and install a GIS on their machine at no cost save the download time.

The following list of GIS freeware/shareware sites and providers gives a taste of what is available. It is in no way intended to be a comprehensive list.

GIS freeware/shareware portals http://freegis.org/index.en.html The FreeGIS Project. This site provides freeware/shareware GIS software providers as well as online GIS data sources.

links

to

http://software.geocomm.com The GeoCommunity software site. Provides links to various software vendors including freeware/shareware GIS. http://opensourcegis.org Open source GIS. An attempt to build a complete index of open source/free GIS-related software projects.

GIS freeware/shareware http://www.agismap.com/index.html AGIS. A simple mapping and GIS shareware package. http://mcmcweb.er.usgs.gov/drc/dlgv32pro dlgv32. A Windows 95/NT software for viewing a variety of digital cartographic data. http://sourceforge.net/projects/fmaps Fmaps. A Geographic Information System and Remote Sensing application which stores its data in a PostgreSQL database. http://homepage.ntlworld.com/anton.helm/garnix.html GARNIX. A communication program that provides a data interface between an MS-DOS computer and a GARMIN GPS device. http://intevation.de/~jan/gen2shp gen2shape. A simple C-Progam that can read the format required by the ArcInfo generate command. The data in this file will be converted to the shapefile format, which actually means to three files: .shp, .shx and .dbf. http://www.mgix.com/gps3d GPS3d. A collection of utilities to manipulate a hand-held GPS device from your PC, and visualize the result in 3D. http://grads.iges.org/grads GrADS. The Grid Analysis and Display System (GrADS). An interactive desktop tool that is used for easy access, manipulation and visualization of earth science data.

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http://www.gslib.com GSLIB (Geostatistical Software LIBrary). A collection of geostatistical programs developed over the last 15 years at Stanford University . http://jshape.com/index0.html Jshape. Publish your GIS shapefiles through the www Internet/Intranet or any distribution media. No back-end spatial/map/GIS servers required. http://www.soi.city.ac.uk/~jwo/landserf LandSerf. Software for the visualization and analysis of continuous (terrain) surfaces. http://www.engineering.usu.edu/dtarb/tardem.html TARDEM. A suite of programs for the Analysis of Digital Elevation Data. http://www.microimages.com/tntlite MicroImages’ TNTlite. A free version of TNTmips, a professional software package for geospatial data analysis. http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~quake/triangle.html Triangle.

Generates exact Delaunay triangulations, constrained Delaunay triangulations and quality-conforming Delaunay triangulations. http://www.truflite.com/index.htm TruFlite for Windows. A powerful 3D landscape rendering systems available as a demo version. http://vec2web.sourceforge.net vec2web. A small tool to convert vector drawings (currently DXF) to graphics that can be used on the web (currently PNG). http://www.vterrain.org Virtual Terrain Project (VTP). Tools for easily constructing any part of the real world in interactive, 3D digital form. http://www.fao.org/giews/english/windisp/windisp.htm WinDisp. Windisp is a public domain, easy-to-use software package for the display and analysis of satellite images, maps and associated databases, with an emphasis on early warning for food security. http://www.cryptnet.net/fsp/zipdy Zipdy. Zipdy is a program for calculating the distance between two zip codes and finding all the records in a RDBMS with a zip code within x miles of another zip code.

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GIS data sources: downloads There is literally a huge amount of GIS data available for free download on the Internet. Of course, the coverage, detail and quality of the data can be very variable, with some countries sharing more of their geospatial data than others. The availability of free data depends very much on the data-sharing policy of the country or region concerned, which itself is governed by the status of national mapping agencies, the level of governmental control, security and commercial interests. For example, the USA is particularly well covered by free online GIS data because of the US Freedom of Information Act, while the UK is not, largely because the national mapping agency, the Ordnance Survey, operates under a cost-recovery policy and so charges for data downloads.

One of the main problems you may face in using online GIS data for your area of interest is finding it in the first place. Many online data sources can be difficult to find, so the best place to start is often one of the many link sites listing online GIS data sources. The following set of links includes some examples of GIS data portals and a series of online data sources. This is in no way intended to be exhaustive (there is simply not the room nor do I have the time!). To help you search the online data sources, these are organized into three categories: global, country and area-specific. In addition, links to three of the four case studies used throughout the book are given.

GIS data portals http://freegis.org/index.en.html Free GIS data listing http://www.gisdatadepot.com The GIS Data Depot

Global online datasets http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/mgg/shorelines/gshhs.html GSHHS (Global Self-consistent, Hierarchical, High-resolution Shoreline Database). A high-resolution global shoreline data set amalgamated from two databases in the public domain. http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/seg/topo/globe.shtml GLOBE (Global Land One-kilometre Base Elevation). An internationally designed, developed and independently peer-reviewed global digital elevation model (DEM), at a latitude–longitude grid spacing of 30 arc seconds. http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/srtm/cbanddataproducts.html SRTM (Shuttle Radar Topography Mission). Global digital elevation data information, mainly as raw images. http://visibleearth.nasa.gov Visible Earth Project. A consistently updated, central point of access to the superset of NASAs earth-science-related images, animations and data visualizations. http://ingrid.ldgo.columbia.edu IRI/LDEO Climate Data Library. Contains a wide variety of earth science data, primarily oceanographic and atmospheric datasets. http://www.grida.no/ UNEP GRID (United Nations Environment Programme Global Resource Information Database). Huge resource of environmental data at various scales and cover (from global to local).

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Country online datasets http://www.census.gov/geo/www/tiger/tigerua/ua_tgr2k.html US Census 2000 TIGER/Line. A digital database of geographic features, such as roads, railroads, rivers, lakes, political boundaries, census statistical boundaries etc., covering the entire USA. http://edcwww.cr.usgs.gov/webglis GLIS (Global Land Information System). The US Geological Survey (USGS) offers numerous geographic datasets mainly for the area of the USA. http://www.nationalatlas.gov/atlasftp.html National Atlas of the United States. An online data atlas compiled at a scale of 1:2,000,000 in SDTS, E00, Shape and TIFF formats. http://geogratis.cgdi.gc.ca/frames.html GeoGratis. A web and ftp site that distributes geospatial data of Canada. http://magic.lib.uconn.edu Map and Geographic Information Centre. University of Connecticut, Homer Babbidge Library offers free downloads of ArcView covers for US data. http://www.usgs.gov USGS home site. The main source of US digital map data. http://www.edina.ac.uk/digimap Digimap. The main source of UK OS digital map data (requires a valid password – free to students and academic institutions who have signed up to the Digimap deal).

Area-specific datasets http://www.tnris.state.tx.us/stratmap Strat-Map. A Strategic Mapping Initiative in Texas. http://www.grida.no/prog/norbal/baltic/htmls/arcinfo.htm Baltic Sea Region – GIS, maps and statistical database. Downloadable data for the Baltic Sea region: administrative units, arable lands, land and ocean (coastline), land cover, pasture lands, population density, sub-watershed drainage basins, wetlands in ArcInfo and MapInfo format. http://www.insideidaho.org Inside Idaho. Various datasets for Idaho (USA).

Case study data sources http://www.ccg.leeds.ac.uk/teaching/nuclearwaste/ Public participation in locating a nuclear waste disposal site in the UK. Details the NIREX case study. http://www.geog.le.ac.uk/cti/Tltp/t23.htm GeographyCal: the house hunting game. details of the GeoCAL house hunting game software.

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Gives