African Americans A Concise History, Combined Volume, 4E Darlene Clark Hine Solution Manual

Type:

Solution Manual

Resource:

African Americans A Concise History, Combined Volume

Edition:

4th Edition

Author(s):

Darlene Clark Hine William C. Hine Stanley C. Harrold

INSTRUCTOR’S RESOURCE MANUAL Elizabeth D. Blum Troy State University

THE AFRICAN-AMERICAN ODYSSEY CONCISE FOURTH EDITION

Darlene Clark Hine Northwestern University

William C. Hine South Carolina State University

Stanley Harrold South Carolina State University

Prentice Hall

CONTENTS Chapter 1

Africa

1

Chapter 2

Middle Passage

4

Chapter 3

Black People in Colonial North America

7

Chapter 4

Rising Expectations: African Americans and the Struggle for Independence

11

Chapter 5

African Americans in the New Nation

14

Chapter 6

Life in the Cotton Kingdom

17

Chapter 7

Free Black People in Antebellum America

20

Chapter 8

Opposition to Slavery

23

Chapter 9

Let Your Motto Be Resistance

25

Chapter 10

“And Black People Were at the Heart of It”

28

Chapter 11

Liberation: African Americans and the Civil War

31

Chapter 12

The Meaning of Freedom: The Promise of Reconstruction

35

Chapter 13

The Meaning of Freedom: The Failure of Reconstruction

38

Chapter 14

White Supremacy Triumphant: African Americans in the South in the Late Nineteenth Century

41

Chapter 15

African Americans Challenge White Supremacy

44

Chapter 16

Conciliation, Agitation, and Migration: African Americans in the Early Twentieth Century

48

Chapter 17

African Americans and the 1920s

52

Chapter 18

Black Protest, the Great Depression, and the New Deal

55

Chapter 19

Meanings of Freedom: Culture and Society in the 1930s, 1940s, and 1950s

58

Chapter 20

The World War II Era and the Seeds of a Revolution

61

Chapter 21

The Freedom Movement

64

Chapter 22

Black Nationalism, Black Power, Black Arts

68

Chapter 23

African Americans at the Millennium

72

Chapter 24

The Triumph of Black Politics: 1980 to the Present

75

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CHAPTER ONE: AFRICA CHAPTER SUMMARY Africa is an incredibly diverse region, incorporating different geographies, ethnicities, religions, political systems, and cultures. The earliest hominids emerged in the savannah, or Sudan, region of Africa. Scholars disagree as to whether modern man (Homo sapiens) developed in Africa and then migrated to the rest of the world, or developed concurrently around the world from an African predecessor. However modern man emerged, historians agree that Africa continued to be a vital part of human culture. Egyptian society, in particular, played an especially important part in Greek development and all other Western cultures.

West Africa, the ancestral home of many African Americans, contains two environmentally distinct areas – savannah and forest – each housing distinct cultures. Ancient Ghana, Mali, and Songhai exemplify the savannah cultures of West Africa. They typically engaged in more trade, and were larger, more powerful, and more urbanized than the forest region groups of the Senegambia, the Akan states, the Yoruba culture, and the Kingdom of Benin.

The forest groups, however, played a very important role in the slave trade with the Europeans.

People in West Africa generally lived in villages based on lineages or extended families in the early sixteenth century. Most made a living through farming, and generally possessed few material goods. Political power within villages could be passed down either matrilineally or patrilineally, although West African society remained patriarchal and male dominated. Women held some positions of power, and often had more sexual freedom than their European counterparts. West Africans captured enemies as slaves, often allowing them later to assimilate into their culture. Islam and a polytheistic, animistic indigenous religion integrated into West African culture. The region maintained vibrant art and literature, exemplified by fetishes and oral poets known as griots.

Generalizations are difficult, however, as elements of culture varied not only by society, but also between the savannah regions and the forest. West African technology played important roles in society with the production of iron, buildings, and cloth in the region.

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LEARNING OBJECTIVES Describe African geography and its role in various areas’ development.

Understand Africa’s role in the development of humans and Western culture.

Outline West African geography and culture, and explain why West Africa is important to African Americans.

Discuss the developments of various West African civilizations.

Understand the general features of West African culture and society.

TOPICS FOR LECTURES/LONG ESSAYS OR PAPERS/CLASS DISCUSSIONS • • •

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Discuss the role of geography and environment in African history and development.

Discuss the views of Bernal and Lefkowitz. Use that as a stepping-stone to introduce historiography – and the concept that all presentations of history are dependent upon the times in which they are produced.

Why was it important that Africa be linked to Western development?

Discuss the word “primitive,” which in the nineteenth- and twentieth-century, Americans often derisively referred to Africans. What does that word mean? Does it apply to pre-sixteenth century Africa? Think about political structures, religion, economy, culture, and urban areas, especially as compared to Europe during the same time periods.

Discuss gender roles in African history. How are they different from or similar to Europe or Asia?

Discuss the nature of slavery in pre-sixteenth century African society.

Discuss the importance of religion in Africa. How did it influence culture and events?

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CHAPTER OUTLINE I. Introduction II. Physical geography A. Many climactic regions B. Diverse geography III. Birthplace of humanity A. Early hominids B. Homo erectus C. Development of Homo sapiens 1. multi-regional model 2. out-of-Africa model IV. Ancient civilizations and old arguments A. Egyptian civilization 1. importance of the Nile 2. political history 3. social history 4. religion B. Kush, Meroë, and Axum 1. Kush a. political origins b. Egyptian influence 2. Meroë a. iron industry b. development of culture c. decline 3. Axum V. West Africa A. Introduction 1. birthright of most African Americans 2. diversity 3. economy B. Ancient Ghana 1. origins 2. economy and religion 3. destruction C. Empire of Mali (1230-1468) 1. origins 2. religion 3. political administration 4. economy 5. decline D. Empire of Songhai (1464-1591) 1. political history 2. European influence 3. decline

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E. West African forest region 1. geography 2. early population 3. politics and economy 4. Senegambia 5. Akan states 6. Yoruba culture 7. Kingdom of Dahomey 8. Kingdom of Benin VI. Kongo and Angola A. Culture B. Politics VII. West African society and culture A. Families and villages 1. political organization 2. physical structure 3. economies 4. gender roles B. Women 1. some political roles 2. sexuality C. Class and slavery 1. hierarchal structure 2. varieties of slavery D. Religion 1. Islam 2. indigenous E. Art and music 1. relationship to religion 2. characteristics F. Literature 1. oral poets 2. prose tales G. Technology 1. iron 2. architecture 3. cloth 4. rice VIII. Conclusion

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CHAPTER TWO: MIDDLE PASSAGE CHAPTER SUMMARY Portugal and Spain took an early lead in exploration among European countries in the fifteenth century. Europeans desperately needed labor in their “New World” colonies, but only focused on Africans after the Native American population succumbed to disease. Europeans discovered a thriving slave trade in Africa, and began to expand and develop it to meet their needs. Africans traded slaves to the Europeans for a variety of reasons, including rivalries among other tribes. The trade remained relatively small, however, until Columbus’s discovery and the subsequent development of plantation agriculture demanded labor.

Slavery in the Americas differed significantly from slavery in Africa. Most slaves in the Americas were men used for agricultural labor. The slaves also became personal property, losing some of their basic rights. Various nations competed for control of the slave trade. Initiated by the Spanish and Portuguese, the Dutch captured control in the early 1600s, and later the British became dominant, altering world trade patterns and providing markets for their manufactured goods. Captured Africans endured a series of long, arduous, and psychologically demanding stages on their route to the Americas. Often captured in warfare, slavers forced them to trading posts on the coast, and then stuffed them as tightly as possible onto slave ships for the long journey across the Atlantic. Slave ship conditions were often revolting, and slavers had to take many precautions to prevent open rebellion by their cargo. Slaves also resisted the process by throwing themselves overboard to drown. Chances for a slave even reaching the Americas were not favorable. Poor sanitation, insufficient food, and widespread disease contributed to a high mortality rate.

Technology adapted to assist slavers, as shipbuilders proved resourceful in building strong, quick ships for slave trading.

Many of the slaves who survived the journey to the Americas were first sold in the West Indies. There, they endured a seasoning process that instructed them in their new jobs, environments, language, and rules. This seasoning process could be just a middle step for some slaves, as British, and later American, plantation owners purchased them for work in North America. Because of the moral outrage over the horrors of the slave trade, and a lessening dependence on plantation agriculture, Britain outlawed the Atlantic slave trade in 1807. Other nations followed suit, including the United States in 1808, although violations of the ban continued for some time.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES • • • • • •

Understand the links between early European exploration and the development of the slave trade.

Understand the development of the slave trade in Africa prior to European arrival.

Describe the differences between European and African slavery.

Understand the route to slavery in the Americas for an African.

Outline the characteristics of slavery in the West Indies. Why that place is important to African Americans?

Trace the decline, and eventual prohibition, of the Atlantic slave trade.

TOPICS FOR LECTURES/LONG ESSAYS OR PAPERS/CLASS DISCUSSIONS • • • •

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Discuss the role of Africans in the slave trade, both before and after European arrival.

Discuss the changes in African society with the arrival of the Europeans.

Why and how did the Atlantic slave trade start? Discuss the factors that led to the trade’s development and continuation.

Compare and contrast the traveling conditions among voluntary travelers versus captured slaves.

Discuss the variety and significance of resistance among captured slaves at every level of the process of capture and middle passage.

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CHAPTER OUTLINE I. Introduction II. The European age of exploration and colonization A. Portugal B. Spain III. The slave trade in Africa A. Racial factors B. Gender factors C. Demand for slaves IV. The origins of the Atlantic slave trade A. Early Portuguese efforts B. Purchase from Africans C. Role of interethnic rivalries D. Effect of Columbus’s voyages V. Growth of the Atlantic slave trade A. Importance of sugar B. Differences in African and European slavery C. European trade monopolies D. English trade dominance E. Triangular trade systems VI. The African-American ordeal from capture to destination A. Capture 1. sources of slaves 2. journey to factories 3. treatment B. The crossing 1. voyage 2. causes for delays C. The slavers and their technology 1. ships and cargo 2. slave “quarters” 3. mortality rates (slaves and crews) 4. slaver technology D. Olaudah Equiano (slave) E. John Newton (slave ship captain) F. Provisions for the Middle Passage G. Sanitation, disease, and death 1. diseases 2. sanitation 3. ship’s surgeons 4. cultural differences H. Resistance and revolt at sea 1. timing 2. justification for harsh treatment 3. punishments 4. suicides I. Cruelty and treatment relative to others of time period J. African women on slave ships VII. Landing and sale in the West Indies A. Preparations for sale B. Sale and inspection VIII. Seasoning A. Preparation for resale B. Disciplining process C. Language

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D. Work and instruction IX. The end of the journey: masters and slaves in the Americas A. Criteria for successful seasoning 1. survival 2. adaptation 3. language 4. psychology B. Continuation of African culture X. The ending of the Atlantic slave trade A. English abolitionism B. Effects of abolition of slave trade XI. Conclusion

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CHAPTER THREE: BLACK PEOPLE IN COLONIAL NORTH AMERICA CHAPTER SUMMARY Early settlers in North America included a wide variety of ethnic groups, including Native Americans, Europeans, and Africans. The earliest Africans probably arrived in 1526 with Spanish explorers. In North America, the British, not the Spanish, came to dominate the area and their policies governed relationships between blacks and whites. Until the late 1600s, the British treated people of African descent much like their indentured servants. Blacks in this early period could obtain their freedom, own property, and had legal rights. By the mid 1600s, however, the British colonies had begun to harden the legal status of blacks, often making their term of service for life. Legal changes by 1700 reduced slaves to chattel, or personal property. They lost almost all of their basic social and legal rights as humans.

Different regions of the country saw many distinctions in the practice of slavery however. Compared to slaves in the Chesapeake, for example, slaves in the Carolinas outnumbered whites and faced the harshest legal codes. However, because their white masters were frequently absent, Carolina slaves also worked with a great deal of independence from white authority. Technology developed over the 18th century to assist slaves with labor previously done by hand, although the work remained difficult and timeconsuming.

Despite many of the horrors and injustices of life under slavery, African Americans maintained and preserved many aspects of their African culture, including music, folklore, building styles, and clothing. Even when they converted to Christianity during the Great Awakening, African Americans developed separate churches to maintain a distinctive African element to their religion. In addition to maintaining their own African culture, slaves heavily influenced white life, from speaking mannerisms to building styles to food. Resistance and rebellion played a significant part in the day-to-day lives of many slaves. Although armed uprisings like the Stono Rebellion, the South Carolina Revolt, and the New York City Rebellion remained rare, slaves demonstrated their objections to their situation by lying, stealing, destroying crops, breaking things, poisoning whites, and escaping.

Just as slavery varied across the South, it also varied in the North in British North America; it also varied by the colonial power dominating different areas. More slaves in the North were isolated from other blacks and more worked in household jobs or skilled trades. In addition, the harsh form of chattel slavery developed in British North America remained different from other European nations.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES • • • • • • •

Describe the various characteristics and achievements of the three main groups of people in North America in the early 1600s (Native Americans, Europeans, and Africans).

Describe the early status of blacks and early systems of labor, other than slavery, in the British colonies.

Understand the reasons for, and the development of, a system of chattel slavery in America during the 1700s.

Understand plantation slavery in the South.

Outline slave life in the British colonies, including the development of African-American culture, Africans’ impact on colonial culture in general, regional variations, gender variations, and types of resistance to slavery.

Understand the differences in Spanish and French slavery versus the system developed by the British.

Describe how slaves resisted slavery.

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TOPICS FOR LECTURES/LONG ESSAYS OR PAPERS/CLASS DISCUSSIONS • • • • • • •

Discuss the similarities and differences between common stereotypes and realities of both Native American culture and African culture, before European contact.

Discuss the development of racism and its role in the enslavement of Africans.

Discuss the differences/similarities between the earlier system of indentured servitude and slavery in the British colonies.

Discuss the development and changes in status for blacks in the British colonies from 1619 through the mid-eighteenth century. Why did these changes happen?

Discuss the continuation of elements of African culture among the slaves, as well as different types of resistance to slavery. Contrast this with the stereotypical image of “Sambo.” How does understanding slave culture alter our image of the “typical” slave?

Discuss the importance and influence of African culture on colonial, and even present day, society.

Discuss the differences between the development of slavery in the British colonies and the French and Spanish colonies. Was chattel slavery inevitable in the British colonies?

CHAPTER OUTLINE I. Introduction and source material II. The peoples of North America A. American Indians 1. diversity 2. Mexican influence 3. 14th-century changes 4. way of life 5. influence on British 6. interracial relationships B. The Spanish empire 1. economic production 2. Africans in borderlands C. The British and Jamestown 1. establishment 2. settlements 3. importance of tobacco 4. early labor D. Africans arrive in the Chesapeake 1. Spanish 2. English and Jamestown 3. status III. Black servitude in the Chesapeake A. Indentured servitude 1. conditions 2. Anthony Johnson B. Race and the origins of black slavery 1. social and demographic revolution 2. Caribbean precedents 3. reduction in indentured servants 4. British racism and discrimination C. The emergence of chattel slavery D. Bacon’s Rebellion and American slavery IV. Plantation slavery, 1700-1750

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A. Tobacco colonies 1. conditions of work 2. goals of slave and master 3. gender differences C. Low-country slavery 1. Carolinas 2. Georgia 3. race relations 4. class distinctions among blacks D. Plantation technology 1. tobacco and indigo 2. carpentry 3. tanning V. Slave life in early America A. housing B. furniture and utensils C. clothing D. food VI. Miscegenation and Creolization A. British versus other European colonies B. examples C. legal restrictions VII. The origins of African-American culture A. Preservation and loss of West African heritage 1. language and ethnic/tribal identity 2. extended family 3. religions B. The Great Awakening 1. Rise of Evangelical Christianity 2. African-American religious similarities 3. African-American religious influences C. Language, music, and folk literature D. The African-American impact on colonial culture 1. daily life impacts 2. work and labor impacts VIII. Slavery in the northern colonies A. Impact of religion B. Factors making slavery less extensive C. Slave codes D. Northern labor E. Effects on African heritage IX. Slavery in Spanish Florida and French Louisiana A. General differences B. Spanish Florida C. French Louisiana 1. plantation work 2. Creole population X. African Americans in New Spain’s northern borderlands A. Early African Americans with Spanish exploration B. Demographics C. Racial hierarchies XI. Black women in colonial America A. Geographic differences B. Price and value C. Work 1. fields

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2. housework D. Sexual exploitation XII. Black resistance and rebellion A. Reliance on physical force by masters B. Individual efforts at resistance 1. reasons 2. resistance by newly arrived Africans 3. acculturated efforts C. Rebellions 1. New York City, 1712 2. Stono Rebellion, South Carolina, 1739 XIII. Conclusion

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CHAPTER FOUR: RISING EXPECTATIONS: AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE CHAPTER SUMMARY After their success in the French and Indian War, England began taxing the colonies more stringently and passing other measures to help pay for the expensive war and administration of the new territories. This initiated a series of events which led to the American Revolution. Enlightenment principles fed the Declaration of Independence and dramatically influenced African American’s perceptions of themselves and the condition of slavery. As the ideas of natural rights and freedom spread through the African-American community, slaves reacted strongly. In the South, huge numbers escaped, while in the North, slaves in Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and Connecticut used the legal system to petition for freedom, sometimes successfully. African Americans served on both sides, Loyalist and Patriot, in the American Revolution, generally choosing the side that seemed to offer the greatest opportunities for freedom. In the South, this usually meant the British, especially once the British leader Lord Dunmore began offering freedom to slaves for military service. As the personnel situation began getting more desperate, Patriot troops also allowed black enlistment. No matter the side they chose, blacks fought in many battles in various capacities, including as privateers, spies, and soldiers.

The American Revolution also fostered a second revolution that of emancipation for slaves in the North. Fueled partially by Christian ideals, Quakers initiated an anti-slavery movement that gradually abolished slavery across the North. African Americans made qualified gains during the aftermath of the American Revolution. Certainly, the free population swelled, but African Americans even in the North continued to face significant economic difficulties in a nation espousing the belief that “all men are created equal.”

LEARNING OBJECTIVES • • • • •

Understand the origins of the American Revolution.

Understand the origins of Enlightenment thought, its influence on the Declaration of Independence, as well as its meaning to both whites and African Americans.

Understand the influence of the American Revolution on blacks.

Describe the roles and motivations of blacks serving on the Patriot and the Loyalist side of the American Revolution.

Discuss the early anti-slavery efforts, including secular and religious origins, the regional variations, as well as the effects of a growing free black population.

TOPICS FOR LECTURES/LONG ESSAYS OR PAPERS/CLASS DISCUSSIONS •

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Discuss the revolution from the standpoint not only of African Americans, but also of women and white men. How “revolutionary” was the American Revolution?

Discuss black roles and thought during the American Revolution. What does this tell us about them? How did they respond to the war?

Discuss the principles of Enlightenment thought and its products. How did the tenets as understood by its proponents differ from the Enlightenment as understood by African Americans?

Discuss emancipation. Would it have happened without the American Revolution?

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CHAPTER OUTLINE I. Introduction II. Crisis of the British empire A. French and Indian War B. Consequences of the French and Indian War 1. for Indians 2. for colonists C. British attempts to assert control over colonies 1. initial acts, 1763-1765 2. colonial reaction 3. British response, 1768-1773 4. Tea Act controversy 5. Lexington and Concord 6. revolution begins III. The Declaration of Independence and African Americans A. Meaning to elite whites B. Meaning to African Americans C. The impact of the Enlightenment 1. Newton 2. Locke 3. conspiracy theories D. African Americans in the revolutionary debate 1. source of optimism 2. effects in the South 3. effects in New England IV. Black Enlightenment A. Intellectual opportunities B. Phillis Wheatley and poetry C. Benjamin Banneker and science V. African Americans in the War of Independence A. Fighting on the side of freedom B. Outline of the war C. Black Loyalists 1. reasons for blacks to choose British side 2. Loyalist support in the South 3. Dunmore’s appeal D. Black patriots 1. black military service (to December 1775) 2. enlistment allowed 3. recruitment policies 4. demands for liberty 5. black war experiences 6. black women and war VI. The Revolution and antislavery A. Anti-slavery forces 1. Enlightenment rationalism 2. economics 3. Christianity B. The revolutionary impact 1. arguments for emancipation 2. reduction in number of slaves 3. changes in working conditions C. The revolutionary promise

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1. increase in free black population 2. urban growth 3. economic difficulty VII. Conclusion

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CHAPTER FIVE: AFRICAN AMERICANS IN THE NEW NATION CHAPTER SUMMARY Although the American Revolution spread a language of equality, the period after America won independence failed to live up to that ideal, especially for blacks. Although forces for slavery ultimately dominated, impetus for freedom gained some ground. Taking the revolutionary rhetoric to heart, New England and the mid-Atlantic states began the process of gradually abolishing slavery. Under the Articles of Confederation, Congress passed the Northwest Ordinance of 1787, which established a precedent for forbidding slavery in the new territories. In the South, a free black class also began to emerge, although in smaller numbers, as manumission and self-purchase laws became more liberal. Forces for slavery, including the weight of the U.S. Constitution, and increased racism, proved stronger than each of these anti-slavery forces. Cotton expanded as a cash crop across the South, made easier to produce with the cotton gin, and demanded much cheap labor.

After the Revolution, alongside existing racism, free black communities developed separate institutions to counter discrimination and preserve African heritage. These institutions included mutual aid societies, black churches, and schools. In aiding black people in a racist society, black leaders, dominated by clergy and businessmen, held different views and pursued different tactics. Some blacks advocated passivity, others protested, and others pushed for migration to Africa. Very few slaves took resistance a step further, using violent resistance to try to rid America of slavery. This violence, although squashed by whites, provoked significant fear among Southerners and led to crackdowns on slaves. The violence also hindered black efforts during the War of 1812, and affected life as the country began to divide sectionally over the Missouri Compromise in 1820.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES • • • • •

Describe the forces for and against slavery in the early American republic.

Describe the basic features of early free black communities in the North. Include the development of separate institutions.

Discuss the development of early black leaders in America, including their varying ideas, tactics, and solutions for the problems faced by blacks.

Understand the role and effect of slave uprisings in the first two decades of the United States.

Describe the events involving slavery during the first two decades of the nineteenth century that begin to separate the nation.

TOPICS FOR LECTURES/LONG ESSAYS OR PAPERS/CLASS DISCUSSIONS • • • • • •

Describe some of the forces and their opinions for the continuation of slavery.

Discuss some of the conditions for a movement or activism to abolish slavery. Why did the movement to abolish slavery take different forms in different places?

Discuss the role of slavery/slaveholders in the development of the Constitution.

Understand the role of skin color among African Americans at this time. What does this tell us about the influence of racism?

Discuss the changes in, and characteristics of, slave uprisings, leadership, and resistance in the United States both before and after the American Revolution.

Outline the issue of slavery in the first few decades of the American republic.

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CHAPTER OUTLINE I. Introduction II. Forces for freedom A. Northern emancipation 1. Vermont 2. Massachusetts 3. New Hampshire 4. Connecticut and Rhode Island 5. New Jersey, New York, and Pennsylvania B. The Northwest Ordinance of 1787 1. original proposal 2. final form 3. effects C. Antislavery societies in the North and the upper South 1. early groups 2. goals 3. upper South efforts D. Manumission and self-purchase 1. changes in laws 2. reasons E. The emergence of a free black class in the South 1. statistics: upper South 2. statistics: Deep South III. Forces for slavery A. The U. S. Constitution 1. origins of the Constitution 2. concessions to South B. Cotton 1. reasons for increase 2. effect on internal slave trade C. The Louisiana Purchase and African Americans in the lower Mississippi valley 1. domestic slave trade 2. free people of color 3. slaves D. Conservatism and racism 1. retreat from revolutionary ideals 2. role of French Revolution 3. scientific racism IV. The emergence of free black communities A. Geographic location B. Separate institutions 1. factors 2. mutual aid societies 3. black Freemasons C. The origins of independent black churches 1. efforts during Great Awakening 2. independent church growth D. The first black schools 1. pre-revolution schools 2. black-formed schools 3. difficulties V. Black leaders and choices A. Influential leaders 1. clergy 2. entrepreneurs

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B. Varying tactics, methods. and goals C. Migration 1. practical obstacles 2. advocates and action D. Slave uprisings 1. post-revolution characteristics 2. influences 3. Gabriel’s Rebellion 4. Louisiana Rebellion E. The white southern reaction VI. The War of 1812 A. Roots and origins B. Black role and efforts VII. The Missouri Compromise VIII. Conclusion

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CHAPTER SIX: LIFE IN THE COTTON KINGDOM CHAPTER SUMMARY As cotton grew as a cash crop across the South, slavery also expanded through the domestic slave trade, with Eastern slaves shipped South and West. Most slaves during the period of 1820 to 1860 remained agricultural workers, tending cotton, tobacco, or rice. Life varied according to the type of plantation, with rice cultivation generally allowing slaves some levels of autonomy, sugar offering the most demanding labor, and cotton being the most common. Technology of the time provided mixed results: the cotton gin allowed for more efficient production, but the steam engine aided in the spread of slavery throughout the west. About one-quarter of all slaves avoided the fields and worked as house servants or in the skilled trades. Although house or skilled work was less physically demanding, these slaves faced the constant oversight of the master and his family. Slaves also worked in urban areas, sometimes hiring themselves out and gaining freedom from their work. Others worked in Southern factories, producing textiles, chewing tobacco, iron, or lumber. Although treatment of slaves varied by the owner’s personality, the system of slavery rested entirely upon a threat of force, should assigned tasks not be carried out. Few slaves lived without whippings or some form of physical punishment. Despite difficulties, slaves formed and tried to maintain family life. Children faced short childhoods, pushed into adult labor before their teenage years. Slave women faced the danger of childbirth and high infant mortality rates, and also the constant threat of sexual exploitation. Other elements of slave life were comparatively better. Although lacking today’s standards, slave diets and general health were actually far better than slaves in other regions and generally comparable to whites. Slaves learned multiple coping skills as they moved through life, including the use of deception and adopting certain aspects of Christianity to help them cope with difficult situations.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES • • • • • •

Describe the various types of, and the variations between, agricultural work performed by slaves.

Understand the differences and similarities between the duties, difficulties, and advantages of house slaves, skilled slaves, urban slaves, and agricultural slaves.

Discuss the role of punishment in slavery, as well as the difficulties of the slave trade within the American states.

Describe some characteristics of slave families in the South. How did family roles vary by age and gender?

Compare the health and diet of American slaves from slaves of other nationalities.

Discuss the importance and development of slave culture, including folktales, the use of deception, and religion.

TOPICS FOR LECTURES/LONG ESSAYS OR PAPERS/CLASS DISCUSSIONS •

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Discuss the various elements of historiography for slavery from Reconstruction through the 1890s, including Phillips, Genovese, and Elkins. Why do these historians, supposedly looking at the same issue, come up with such different interpretations of slaves and slavery? What does this tell us about history? How does the time period in which historians write influence their work?

Discuss the variations among urban, agricultural, house servant, and skilled work among slaves.

Which was the “best” type of work? Why? Which was the “worst”?

Discuss African-American slave ownership. What does this tell us about blacks in America?

How were black slave owners different from or similar to white slave owners?

Discuss the variations of slave life by gender and age. What difficulties did these differences present for the slave family?

Discuss the development of Christianity among slaves. What were the differences between the messages sent by masters and the messages received or used by slaves?

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CHAPTER OUTLINE I. Introduction II. The expansion of slavery A. Slave population growth B. Ownership of slaves in the Old South 1. number owning slaves 2. number of slaves owned 3. African-American slave ownership III. Slave labor in agriculture A. Tobacco 1. labor 2. punishments B. Rice 1. labor 2. punishments C. Sugar 1. labor 2. conditions D. Cotton 1. importance 2. culture 3. varieties 4. effects on slavery 5. labor E. Cotton and technology 1. comparison to the North 2. impacts on slave life 3. improvements F. Other crops 1. wheat 2. hemp IV. House servants and skilled slaves A. House servants 1. work 2. advantages/disadvantages B. Skilled slaves 1. work 2. advantages/disadvantages V. Urban and industrial slavery A. Urban slavery 1. population 2. independence 3. work B. Industrial slavery 1. types 2. advantages VI. Punishment A. justifications B. resistance VII. The domestic slave trade A. resistance B. numbers C. path taken D. horrors/difficulties VIII. Slave families

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A. Reasons for development of families B. Role in slave community C. Wedding ceremonies D. Married life E. Children 1. role of extended family 2. infant mortality rates 3. care of children 4. growing up F. Sexual exploitation 1. rape 2. justifications G. Diet 1. deficiencies 2. compared with others 3. African-American cuisine H. Clothing 1. materials/allotment 2. individual clothes I. Health 1. common diseases 2. difference from Europeans 3. compared with others 4. remedies IX. The socialization of slaves A. Folktales B. Importance of deception X. Religion A. Biracial congregations B. Christianity’s message to slaves XI. The character of slavery and slaves A. Ulrich B. Phillips B. Post-1950s historians C. Stanley Elkins XII. Conclusion

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CHAPTER SEVEN: FREE BLACK PEOPLE IN ANTEBELLUM AMERICA CHAPTER SUMMARY The status, demographics, community institutions, difficulties, and advantages of free blacks varied by region in the United States during the antebellum period. The Jacksonian Era saw many improvements in life for white men, as the political process opened up and reform flourished in a variety of areas. The “Age of Democracy,” however, failed to spread equality to all races. Free blacks faced many difficulties in the North, as increased racism led to “black laws” restricting movement to certain states, disfranchisement in many Northern areas, as well as pervasive segregation in areas of transportation, education, and housing. Although life held challenges, strong, vibrant, black communities developed in the North. Black families, increasingly led by single women, struggled to make ends meet and often took in borders. Blacks remained limited to the most menial of employment, as employers frequently preferred to hire incoming white immigrant labor. The North, however, saw the development of a distinct black elite, replete with businessmen, clergy, doctors, lawyers, inventors, artists, musicians, and writers. In addition, black institutions, centered by the black church and including schools and voluntary associations, flourished and grew.

In the Upper South, whites continued to remove distinctions between free blacks and slaves, restricting their movement and constantly threatening them with being sold into slavery. Until the 1850s, however, blacks in the Upper South had more access to skilled jobs, as fewer white immigrants competed with them than in the North. In the Deep South, a distinctive caste system with whites, free blacks, and slaves emerged. Free blacks, often of mixed race formed close ties with elite whites rather than the slave population. Because of these ties, free blacks in the Deep South generally had a high literacy rate and three-quarters were employed in skilled trades.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES • • •

Understand the basic characteristics of the Jacksonian Era. How did the characteristics of the period influence blacks?

Understand the limits that were placed on free blacks throughout the North. Include the development of black laws, disfranchisement, and segregation.

Discuss the development of community institutions, the impact of slavery, the relationship to dominant whites, and possibilities for employment in free black communities in the North, the Upper South, and the Deep South.

TOPICS FOR LECTURES/LONG ESSAYS OR PAPERS/CLASS DISCUSSIONS • • •

•

Discuss the disparities between the nomenclature of the “Age of Democracy” and the reality for blacks and other groups. What types of changes were taking place at this time?

Discuss limits to black freedom in the North and South, including the legalization of racial discrimination in segregation and disfranchisement laws in America.

Significant differences, and some similarities, existed between free black communities in the North, Upper South, and Deep South. Discuss these characteristics and explain why and how these similarities and differences exist.

Discuss the role gender and skin color played in the free black leadership of America’s free communities.

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CHAPTER OUTLINE I. Introduction II. Demographics of freedom A. 1820 statistics B. 1860 statistics C. Urban statistics III. The Jacksonian era A. Industrialization 1. transportation 2. factory system B. Political changes IV. Limited freedom in the North A. Fugitive Slave Law of 1793 B. Black laws 1. influence of Anglo-Saxonism 2. Ohio 3. other northern areas C. Disfranchisement 1. Old Northwest 2. Northeast reaction/arguments 3. arguments against black voting D. Segregation 1. buildings 2. transportation 3. social class 4. effects 5. neighborhoods V. Black communities in the urban North A. The black family 1. increase in single-parent families 2. boarding B. The struggle for employment 1. loss of skilled jobs to immigrants 2. menial labor C. The northern black elite 1. elite occupations 2. role of complexion 3. ties to lower classes 4. entrepreneurs 5. inventors D. Professionals 1. physicians 2. lawyers E. Artists and musicians F. Authors 1. autobiography 2. literature VI. African-American institutions A. Churches 1. role as community centers 2. African Methodist Episcopal churches 3. discrimination within white denominations 4. attendance at white churches 5. criticism B. Schools

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1. system of segregation 2. inadequate funding 3. defense of black schools 4. integration in Massachusetts 5. university education C. Voluntary associations 1. mutual aid societies 2. literary societies 3. temperance societies VII. Free African Americans in the Upper South A. Comparison with northern counterparts B. Impact of slavery C. Distinctions narrowing between free and slaves D. Employment E. Community institutions 1. effect of violent revolts 2. churches 3. schools and voluntary institutions VIII. Free African Americans in the Deep South A. caste system B. churches C. employment D. black Community IX. Free African Americans in the Far West X. Conclusion

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CHAPTER EIGHT: OPPOSITION TO SLAVERY CHAPTER SUMMARY American efforts to eradicate slavery varied geographically. In the South, slaves sought freedom through day-to-day and violent resistance. Violent slave rebellions like Gabriel's Conspiracy and Vesey's Rebellion, inspired by the language of revolution and religion, provoke a fierce response by whites. In the North, an anti slavery movement began with the Quakers, although these efforts were hardly egalitarian.

Early 19th century anti-slavery efforts developed in an era of political suspicion and great social change in America. Although the new Democratic Party gave lip service to promoting the ordinary man, they limited their actions to the white man.

A far greater democratizing influence in American society came from the force of the Second Great Awakening, which promoted equality of all in the eyes of God, as well as asserted an obligation of the converted to help others. The anti-slavery movement grew out of the Second Great Awakening’s followers desire to reform society. Early abolitionists, afraid that free blacks inspired rebellion, formed the American Colonization Society (ACS). This group concerned itself with purchasing slaves and sending them to Africa. Although some blacks supported such practices, others felt they had a right to remain in their home country and have the same privileges as whites. Free black men often formed a visible component of anti-slavery efforts, but black women also participated, despite severe gender restrictions.

Whites also began to step up abolitionist efforts in the North. Influenced by David Walker’s militant Appeal and the Nat Turner Rebellion, William Lloyd Garrison began publishing the anti-slavery newspaper the Liberator in 1831. Garrison revolutionized abolitionism by suggesting that gradual approaches were immoral and would fail, and that abolitionism should include a commitment to justice for blacks and whites. The South, however, reacted to abolitionism by tightening restrictions on free blacks and blaming them and outsiders for any revolt rather than questioning the system of slavery itself.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES • • • • • •

Discuss the beginnings of antislavery activity in the North and South in the late 1700s.

Describe the variations of anti-slavery efforts in the North and the South from 1800-1833.

Describe the origins, tactics, beliefs, and effects of the ACS. Understand the characteristics of Jacksonian America that led to the beginnings of abolitionism.

Understand the alternative visions of blacks in American society presented by black women, the Baltimore Alliance, and David Walker.

Discuss the effects of violent black resistance to slavery.

TOPICS FOR LECTURES/LONG ESSAYS OR PAPERS/CLASS DISCUSSIONS • • • •

Discuss the Second Great Awakening and its overall effect on American culture and society.

Discuss the limitations of the early abolitionist movement. What was the role of racism in the movement?

Compare the alternative interpretations of how blacks went about improving their lives? What types of support and opposition did these anti-slavery and abolitionist ideas generate among blacks?

Describe how black women contributed to the early abolitionist movement? What types of restrictions did women (both white and black) face in American society at this point? Why did more people at this point accept the idea of freeing blacks than giving women equal rights and opportunity?

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CHAPTER OUTLINE I. Introduction II. Abolitionism begins in America A. Anti-slavery in the South B. Anti-slavery in the North C. Origins in the North 1. Quakers 2. events 3. societies 4. limitations D. From Gabriel to Denmark Vesey 1. effects of Gabriel’s conspiracy 2. whites’ vision of free blacks 3. Vesey’s conspiracy 4. results III. A country in turmoil A. Changes in industry and transportation B. Political paranoia 1. formation of Democratic Party 2. Democratic Party beliefs 3. emergence of Whigs C. The Second Great Awakening 1. characteristics 2. role with black churches D. The Benevolent Empire 1. origins in Christian ideas 2. reform efforts 3. abolitionism E. Colonization 1. founding ACS 2. beliefs and supporters F. Black nationalism and colonization 1. Paul Cuffe 2. Liberia and Haiti G. Black opposition to colonization 1. James Forten and Samuel Cornish 2. reasons for opposition IV. Black abolitionist women A. gender restrictions B. Charlotte Forten C. Maria W. Stewart D. practical abolitionists V. The Baltimore Alliance A. Lundy’s influence B. William Lloyd Garrison VI. David Walker and Nat Turner A. Walker's Appeal B. Nat Turner 1. revolt 2. effects VIII. Conclusion

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CHAPTER NINE: LET YOUR MOTTO BE RESISTANCE CHAPTER SUMMARY In the period between 1833 and 1850, the abolitionist movement became increasingly more strident and militant. This change in tone and outlook occurred for a number of reasons. In response to growing abolitionist sentiment, race riots began to occur throughout America, although concentrated in the North and worse in Philadelphia. In addition, pro-slavery advocates seemed to be gaining power with the addition of the huge state of Texas to the Union. The American Anti-Slavery Society (AASS) emerged to deal with these new threats. Led by William Lloyd Garrison, the AASS advocated immediate emancipation and equal rights for blacks. However, they often failed to live up to their revolutionary rhetoric, as they denied blacks leadership positions. Women also occupied subordinate positions. They were generally allowed to raise funds, but not to lead or speak in public. Black churches and newspapers also responded to the challenge, providing forums for the spread and exchange of ideas. The AASS used a variety of tactics and methods to get their point across. They stressed the moral outrage of slavery from a Christian perspective and the complicity of the North through petitions to Congress and mass mailings.

Former slaves and whites formed effective lecturing teams, although often inciting violence and racism from audiences. In 1840, the AASS split over Garrison’s disillusionment with their lack of success, the political process, and his growing commitment to feminism. Blacks generally followed either the American or Foreign Anti-Slavery Society and the Liberty Party, rather than sticking with Garrison. For their part, black abolitionists, inspired by the repeated heroism of slaves attempting to gain freedom, began to increasingly challenge their white counterparts’ hypocrisy. Some blacks continued to work for integration into American society, like Frederick Douglass, but others advocated migration to either Canada or Africa.

Still others challenged the longstanding abolitionist notion that nonviolence would win converts to their cause.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES • • • • • •

Outline the development of various antislavery organizations, including the AASS, women’s groups, and black organizations. Include their origins, tactics, beliefs, and effects.

Describe how whites reacted to the growing abolitionist movement in the North and the South.

Describe how territorial expansion affected the controversy over slavery.

Describe the role of black institutions, specifically the church and newspapers, in the abolitionist movement.

Reflect on why the American Anti-Slavery Society split. What were the characteristics of the American and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society (AFASS) and the Liberty Party?

Discuss the changes in tactics among different groups in the abolitionist movement, both among whites and blacks.

TOPICS FOR LECTURES/LONG ESSAYS OR PAPERS/CLASS DISCUSSIONS • • • • •

• •

Describe how the AASS lived up to its stated ideals. How did it incorporate blacks and women?

Describe the overall effects of the abolitionist movement. What did it lead to?

Discuss the film Amistad. How is it a realistic portrayal of the historical events? How is it not realistic? What is the role of film in a history class? Why do you think Steven Spielberg made the film?

Discuss the myths and realities of the underground railroad.

Describe how the abolitionist movement lead to the women’s movement, What types of conditions were women under in mid-nineteenth century America, and how did some come to recognize their inequality and oppression? Why was the women’s movement not successful at the same time as the abolitionist movement?

Discuss Frederick Douglass’s views of race and how he thought black life could be improved.

Compare how the blacks’ view of abolitionism differed from the whites’ view? How did the

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tactics and solutions of the two groups differ?

CHAPTER OUTLINE I. Introduction II. A rising tide of racism and violence A. Ethnology and racism B. Antiblack and antiabolitionist riots 1. Cincinnati 2. Providence 3. New York City 4. Philadelphia C. Texas and the war against Mexico 1. Texas independence 2. war with Mexico 3. new territory gained III. The response of the antislavery movement A. Difficulties within abolitionist movement B. The AASS 1. goals 2. Garrison and interracial efforts C. Black and women’s antislavery societies 1. origins 2. interracial efforts 3. tasks 4. creation of feminism D. Moral suasion 1. arguments 2. tactics 3. reaction to efforts a. in the South b. in Congress c. in the North IV. Black community institutions A. The black convention movement 1. forum for black male abolitionists 2. first meetings 3. characteristics and agenda B. Black churches in the antislavery cause 1. clergy as leaders 2. forums C. Black newspapers 1. difficulties 2. influential papers and editors VI. The AFASS and the Liberty Party A. Old organization 1. origins and ideas 2. tactics B. Splinter groups 1. AFASS 2. Liberty Party C. Role of blacks in splinter groups VII. A more aggressive abolitionism A. Liberty Party and the Constitution B. The Amistad and the Creole

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1. Joseph Cinque 2. Madison Washington 3. effects C. The underground railroad 1. origins 2. 1840s efforts 3. 1850s efforts D. Technology and the underground railroad E. Canada West VIII. Black militancy A. Causes B. Local vigilance organizations C. Disappointment with white efforts IX. Frederick Douglass X. Revival of black nationalism A. Douglass’s view and integrationism B. Reasons for black nationalism XI. Conclusion

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CHAPTER TEN:

“AND BLACK PEOPLE WERE AT THE HEART OF IT” CHAPTER SUMMARY As the decade of the 1850s progressed, slavery and the status of America’s blacks became more and more a central dividing issue to the nation. Although deeply racist, most white Northerners despised slavery as an unfair economic advantage. It was in this spirit that David Wilmot proposed the unsuccessful Wilmot Proviso that would have forbidden slavery in the territories gained from Mexico. At this time, blacks, whites, and Asians were moving to California to participate in the gold rush, leading to concerns over slavery in California. The Compromise of 1850, which contained elements for both North and South, failed to satisfy either side. The North was especially infuriated by a new, much tougher Fugitive Slave Law within the Compromise. The new law required ordinary citizens to act as slave catchers or be punished, and also rewarded judges for returning blacks to slavery. Numerous cases of fugitive slaves, including the successful escape of William and Ellen Craft, Shadrach, and the recapture of Anthony Burns and Margaret Garner caused more Northerners to oppose the practice of slavery. In addition, the melodramatic slave novel Uncle Tom’s Cabin brought a sympathetic reaction to many Northerners as well.

In other parts of the country, namely Kansas, as well as the halls of Congress, America began to respond to the slavery issue with violence and bloodshed. The Supreme Court dealt blacks a severe setback by their decision in the Dred Scott v. Sanford case that not only stated that a black person had no rights, but that Congress had no rights to restrict property ownership, effectively spreading slavery across the United States. Politics also reflected the dominant view of racism toward blacks. Both Stephen Douglas and Abraham Lincoln asserted their racism and denounced social equality for blacks during their race for the Senate in 1858. Hastened by the violence of John Brown’s raid on Harper’s Ferry in Virginia, the South reacted to Lincoln’s election as president by seceding from the Union, and forming the Confederate States of America before he was even inaugurated.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES • • • • •

Describe events leading up to the Civil War, including the Wilmot Proviso, the Compromise of 1850 and the Fugitive Slave Laws, the Kansas Nebraska Act, the attack on Charles Sumner, and the election of Abraham Lincoln.

Comment on the sentiment towards blacks in the North. What was the role of racism, nativism, literature, and fugitive slaves on white sentiments?

Discuss the importance and ideas behind the Dred Scott decision by the Supreme Court and the John Brown raid on Harper’s Ferry.

Describe the sentiment of racism and antislavery in the Lincoln-Douglas debates? What were Lincoln’s specific views about blacks?

Describe the reaction by the South and blacks to Lincoln’s 1860 presidency election.

TOPICS FOR LECTURES/LONG ESSAYS OR PAPERS/CLASS DISCUSSIONS • • • •

Discuss Abraham Lincoln’s views of slavery and blacks. How has he gained a reputation as the “Great Emancipator”?

Discuss the sentiment of how many in the South continue to believe that the Civil War had nothing to do with slavery. How did the Civil War happen? Discuss some of these events and the war’s primary causes. How was slavery at the heart of the origins of the war?

Discuss the differences between the North and the South in the decades leading up to the Civil War, in ideology, culture, economy, and resources.

Explore how nativism and the conditions of early nineteenth-century immigrants could be seen as the North’s version of slavery.

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CHAPTER OUTLINE I. Introduction II. The lure of the West A. Free labor versus slave labor B. The Wilmot Proviso 1. reasons 2. southern reaction 3. Free-Soil Party C. African Americans and the gold rush 1. demographics 2. technology of mining D. California and the Compromise of 1850 1. gold in California 2. Clay’s original compromise 3. southern reaction 4. passage E. Fugitive slave laws 1. earlier laws: 1793 2. southern anger at lack of enforcement 3. personal liberty laws 4. Fugitive Slave Law of 1850 III. Fugitive slaves A. reaction by the North B. William and Ellen Craft C. Shadrach Minkins D. The battle at Christiana 1. conflict 2. federal government response E. Anthony Burns 1. recapture 2. role of federal government 3. results F. Margaret Garner IV. The Rochester Convention, 1853 V. Nativism and the Know-Nothings A. Origins B. Beliefs C. Uncle Tom’s Cabin VII. Kansas-Nebraska Act A. Stephen Douglass’s solution B. Results in Kansas VIII. Preston Brooks attacks Charles Sumner A. Attack B. Effects IX. The Dred Scott decision A. Circumstances B. Case history C. Questions for the court 1. citizenship rights of blacks 2. property rights versus freedom D. Reaction to the Dred Scott decision 1. whites 2. blacks E. White northerners and black Americans

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X. The Lincoln-Douglas debates A. Issues B. Douglas’s position XI. Abraham Lincoln and black people A. Democrats’ image of Republicans B. Lincoln’s racism XII. John Brown and the raid on Harpers Ferry A. Planning the raid 1. gathering support 2. assembling the army B. The raid C. The reaction 1. by the participants 2. by the North 3. by the South XIII. The election of Abraham Lincoln A. Four candidates in 1860 B. Lincoln’s views C. Southern interpretation of Lincoln D. Black people respond to Lincoln’s election 1. lack of enthusiasm 2. abolitionist beliefs XIV. Disunion A. Secession B. Lincoln’s reaction XV. Conclusion

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CHAPTER ELEVEN: LIBERATION: AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE CIVIL WAR CHAPTER SUMMARY In 1861, Lincoln’s primary aim was to restore the Union, without regard to freeing the slaves. In fact, Lincoln did not want to frighten the four remaining slave states into the Confederacy. Union policy toward blacks reflected this caution. Initially, Union officers returned slaves to their masters, or treated them as “contraband” of war. Lincoln, meanwhile, continued to advocate colonization as an option for blacks. By the summer of 1862, however, Lincoln’s thinking had changed, and he decided to free certain slaves, primarily in an effort to hurt Southern resources under the Emancipation Proclamation. The Emancipation Proclamation, effective January 1, 1863, met with severe Northern opposition and cost Lincoln’s party significant political power in Congress. Although limited, the Emancipation Proclamation had a dramatic effect on the South, eliminating chances of foreign support and undermining their labor source. Lincoln’s ideas about black military service also changed. With the Emancipation Proclamation, he authorized black military enlistment as well. Blacks enthusiastically joined the First and Second South Carolina Volunteers, the 54th Massachusetts, and the Navy, although they continued to encounter racism and discrimination throughout their service. Although many Northern whites felt that blacks were incapable of anything but menial labor, the 54th Massachusetts in the bloody assault on Battery Wagner proved the bravery and heroism of black soldiers to many whites. Confederates were hardly as charitable, refusing to treat captured blacks as prisoners of war and even engaging in abusive behavior and murder, as seen at Ft. Pillow. Some Northern responses, such as the violent New York City Draft Riot, proved just as brutal as the South. Blacks also played a role on the Confederate side. Slave labor helped the Confederacy, in industry as well as in agriculture. Although rare, blacks also fought for the Confederacy.

Often forced into service, the Confederacy began to contemplate the use of black soldiers as their manpower and prospects deteriorated. Some blacks, however, who had their economic interests tied to the Southern system, did voluntarily serve. Southerners highly publicized such efforts as proof of the loyal and happy slave. In reality, though, few blacks supported the Confederate cause.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES • • • • • •

Discuss Lincoln’s early policies toward slaves and black military service.

Discuss the terms, effect of, and reaction to the Emancipation Proclamation.

Describe the role of black men in the northern military. What difficulties did they face?

Discuss the Confederate and Union white reaction to blacks gaining in status and being allowed in the northern military.

Understand the role blacks played in gaining freedom themselves.

Understand the role of slaves and blacks in fighting for the Confederates.

TOPICS FOR LECTURES/LONG ESSAYS OR PAPERS/CLASS DISCUSSIONS • • • • •

Discuss the real meaning and effect of the Emancipation Proclamation and Lincoln’s view of blacks. Why do many people think that Abraham Lincoln freed the slaves, which has given him the reputation of the Great Emancipator?

Discuss Lincoln’s views of blacks, slaves, and their role in society and how his views changed over the course of the Civil War. What made his ideas change? What does this tell us about him?

Describe how blacks freed themselves during the Civil War. What does this tell us about the attitudes of blacks to freedom?

Discuss the role of blacks in the Civil War for the North, including their military participation, use as menial labor, and the effect of discrimination.

Rationalize why some blacks fought for the South. How did the South change its ideas about black military service over the course of the war? What does this tell you about the South?

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• •

Discuss the film Glory. How is it an accurate or inaccurate portrayal of the actual situation of the 54th Massachusetts? Why do you think the film was produced at the time it was?

Describe the types of opposition to blacks from white Northerners and Southerners over the course of the war.

CHAPTER OUTLINE I. Introduction II. Lincoln’s aims A. Initial goals B. Call for service III. Black men volunteer and are rejected A. Military efforts B. Government reaction IV. Union policies toward Confederate slaves A. Protection of slaveholders’ property B. “Contraband” 1. origins of policy 2. First Confiscation Act 3. black reaction 4. white opposition to Lincoln’s actions C. Lincoln’s initial position 1. original plans 2. actions of border states 3. reactions of blacks D. Lincoln moves toward emancipation 1. July 1862 decision 2. postponement E. Lincoln delays emancipation 1. black reaction 2. journalists’ reaction 3. Lincoln’s explanation F. Black people reject colonization 1. Lincoln’s suggestion 2. blacks’ response 3. early government attempts V. The preliminary Emancipation Proclamation A. terms B. Lincoln’s intentions C. Northern reaction to emancipation 1. black and abolitionist response 2. white Northerners D. Political opposition to emancipation 1. northern Democratic reaction 2. northern Democratic political gains VI. The Emancipation Proclamation A. Change in goals of war B. black reaction C. Limits of the proclamation 1. dry language 2. geographical limitations D. Effects of the proclamation on the South 1. foreign alliances 2. loss of labor source

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VII. Black men fight for the Union A. Northern efforts to 1863 B. Difficulties in decision C. The First South Carolina Volunteers 1. recruitment 2. dispersal D. The Second South Carolina Volunteers 1. enlistment 2. goals of Montgomery E. The 54th Massachusetts Regiment 1. The Black Committee 2. Lincoln’s enthusiasm 3. leadership F. Black soldiers confront discrimination 1. racism of whites 2. segregation 3. white leadership 4. pay 5. protest over discrimination 6. partial resolution G. Black men in combat 1. Island Mountain and Missouri 2. other early efforts H. The assault on Battery Wagner 1. fighting 2. effects 3. Olustee 4. the crater VIII. The Confederate reaction to black soldiers A. The abuse and murder of black troops 1. Seddon’s order 2. 54th Massachusetts prisoners B. The Fort Pillow Massacre 1. events 2. retaliation IX. Black men in the Union Navy A. History of service B. Discrimination and admiration X. Liberators, spies, and guides A. Robert Smalls and The Planter B. Harriet Tubman C. Other efforts XI. Violent opposition to black people A. The New York City draft riot 1. origins 2. outcomes B. Union troops and slaves 1. violent acts 2. sympathy XII. Refugees XIII. Black people and the Confederacy A. Importance of slave labor B. Skilled and unskilled slaves in southern industry C. The impressment of black people 1. reluctance of owners 2. labor

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D. Confederates enslave free black people 1. counter to Emancipation Proclamation 2. effect E. Black Confederates F. Personal servants G. Black men fighting for the South 1. examples 2. southern reaction H. Black opposition to the Confederacy I. The Confederate debate on black troops 1. desperation 2. Cleburne’s suggestion 3. reaction of the South 4. decision of Lee 5. March 1865 decision XIV. Conclusion

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CHAPTER TWELVE: THE MEANING OF FREEDOM: THE PROMISE OF RECONSTRUCTION CHAPTER SUMMARY African Americans went to great lengths to change and improve their lives after freedom.

Families remained an important priority, and blacks frequently expended great effort to locate relatives separated by slavery over the years. Economic needs were also a priority. Some government policies, including Special Field Order #15 and the experiment at Port Royal, South Carolina, proved beneficial to blacks in gaining property. The Freedman’s Bureau, although often a conservative force with insufficient resources, assisted the newly freed slaves with labor contracts, food, medical care, and obtaining land. The Freedman’s Bureau also assisted with education, which, along with establishing separate churches, remained an important priority for African Americans. Although many blacks decided to become teachers, black schools suffered because teachers frequently lacked an education and had to face a rising tide of violence by whites in the South. After Lincoln’s assassination, however, Andrew Johnson proved very reluctant to assist blacks in any way, allowing southern states to establish a discriminatory legal system.

Although the “black codes” gave blacks some legal rights, its primary purpose was to institute a harsh, subordinate economic status on blacks. As a reaction against Johnson’s policies, the Republicans gained control of both houses of Congress, and pushed through legislation and the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution, guaranteeing black rights. Radical Reconstruction also contained elements allowing blacks political participation, both through voting and holding office. White Southerners, however, refused to allow even temporary black gains to stand.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES • • • • • •

Understand the differing reactions of former slaves to freedom.

Understand the methods the military and the federal government employed with respect to newly freed slaves during the war.

Describe the role of the Freedman’s Bureau in former slaves’ movement to freedom.

Discuss the realities of black life in the South during Reconstruction, including aspects of sharecropping and the development of churches and schools.

Discuss Reconstruction under Lincoln, Johnson, and the Radical Republicans, as well as the South’s reaction to their plans.

Understand black efforts to participate in politics and gain civil rights through the Republican party and direct action tactics.

TOPICS FOR LECTURES/LONG ESSAYS OR PAPERS/CLASS DISCUSSIONS • • • •

Describe how Reconstruction can be seen as a tug-of-war between the North, the South, the president, and Congress over who controlled the future of the country. Who do you think won each struggle? How and why?

Describe the terms and limitations of the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments to the Constitution. Who was left out of these amendments and why?

Describe how the Freedmen’s Bureau was both a positive and a negative influence for the newly freed blacks. Why did they seem to want blacks to stay in agricultural positions?

Discuss blacks’ reaction to freedom. How did they work to gain civil rights in the wake of the Civil War? What does this tell us about them?

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CHAPTER OUTLINE I. Introduction and meaning of freedom II. The end of slavery A. New attitudes B. Differing reactions of former slaves C. Reuniting black families 1. importance of advertisements 2. varying results III. Land A. Special Field Order #15 1. directive 2. effect B. The Port Royal Experiment IV. The Freedmen’s Bureau A. Responsibilities B. Limitations C. Accomplishments D. Land grants E. Reversal by Johnson F. Reaction by Freedmen G. Southern Homestead Act H. Sharecropping 1. contracts 2. terms of agreements V. The black church A. Development of separate institutions B. Content of sermons C. African Methodist Episcopal growth D. Methodist split E. Class and color differences VI. Education A. Importance B. Early efforts C. Freedman’s Bureau influence D. Black teachers 1. preference over whites 2. motivations 3. lack of formal education 4. frustration of students E. Black colleges 1. by church or religious society 2. by military F. Response of white southerners 1. negative views 2. violence and destruction of property 3. refusal to integrate VII. Violence A. Reasons for its widespread nature B. Large-scale violence VIII. The crusade for political and civil rights A. Syracuse Convention B. 1864 Republican national convention C. Lincoln’s reaction IX. Presidential Reconstruction under Johnson A. Promises

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B. Views of blacks C. Pro-secessionist actions X. Black codes A. Labor restrictions B. Rights and limitations XI. Black conventions A. Membership B. Requests XII. The radical Republicans A. Disagreement with Johnson B. Radical proposals 1. land 2. voting 3. reaction 4. northern objections to white southerners C. The Freedman’s Bureau Bill and the Civil Rights Bill D. Johnson’s vetoes XIII. The Fourteenth Amendment A. Terms B. Opposition XIV. Radical Reconstruction A. Gaining political power B. Universal manhood suffrage C. Black politics 1. enthusiasm 2. union leagues D. Sit-ins and strikes 1. increase with expectations of vote 2. protests XV. Reaction of white southerners XVI. Conclusion

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CHAPTER THIRTEEN: THE MEANING OF FREEDOM: THE FAILURE OF RECONSTRUCTION CHAPTER SUMMARY As Radical Reconstruction progressed in the South, black leaders found roles in political life for the first time. Initial efforts at new state constitutions led to elections of blacks across the South in a variety of offices. Generally, the higher the black population of a state, the more blacks became officeholders.

These new politicians, sometimes stymied by their white Republican colleagues, worked for better schools, civil rights, and economic issues, including gaining black access to land ownership and fair labor practices.

Black politicians’ success, however, was heavily tempered by a wave of violence sweeping through the South. Led by the Ku Klux Klan (KKK), southern whites engaged in terrorism, murder, and other violent acts in an attempt to prevent blacks from using their political rights. In response to this violence, Republican leaders pushed through the Fifteenth Amendment, guaranteeing black men the right to vote, and the Enforcement Acts, giving the President additional powers to cut down on Klan violence. By the mid 1870s, however, Northern leaders began to lose interest in blacks. Southern leaders then stepped up their violence, “redeeming” their states for Democratic Party rule and removing threats of sharing power racially. The controversy over the election of 1876 and the subsequent Compromise of 1877 proved Republican candidate Rutherford B. Hayes willing to cede the South to the Democrats in exchange for the presidency, all but negating any political gains blacks had seen over the past decade.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES • • • • •

Discuss the development of black political power during Reconstruction. Include the types of issues with which blacks leaders were concerned, as well as the results of their attempts to change America.

Describe how the South reacted to changes for blacks during Reconstruction.

Discuss the origins and effects of the Fifteenth Amendment, the Enforcement Acts, and the Civil Rights Act of 1875.

Consider why Reconstruction ended.

Describe the methods the South used in an attempt to “redeem” southern states,

TOPICS FOR LECTURES/LONG ESSAYS OR PAPERS/CLASS DISCUSSIONS • • •

•

Discuss the ultimate results or consequences of Reconstruction. Was it a failure or success?

Look at the issue from the point of view of abolitionists, blacks, the South, and the North. What more do you think should have been done?

Discuss how blacks attempted to work within the political system during Reconstruction to effect change. How were they limited?

Describe the origins of the KKK. How is the KKK of the Reconstruction period similar to, or different from, the KKK of the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries? From the KKK of the 1920s? How did whites justify the existence of such terrorism? How have views of terrorism changed?

Discuss the differences between looking at only legal evidence to note changes – for example, seeing the passage of the Thirteenth, Fourteenth, and Fifteenth Amendments, the Enforcement Acts, and the Civil Rights Act of 1875 – versus incorporating social evidence for changes, such as black resistance and civil rights efforts, the development of the KKK, and the violence of redemption. How would the stories differ if only legal evidence or only social evidence were considered? What does this tell us about historians’ jobs? Did Reconstruction lead to change?

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CHAPTER OUTLINE I. Introduction II. Constitutional conventions A. Republican domination B. Black representation and demographics C. Terms of constitutions D. Elections E. Black political leaders 1. numbers elected 2. qualifications 3. professions III. The issues A. Education and social welfare 1. increases in schools 2. problems 3. higher education 4. public welfare institutions B. Civil rights 1. fighting segregation 2. opposition IV. Economic issues A. Labor protection B. Property protection C. Land 1. South Carolina Land Commission 2. high taxes D. Business and industry V. Black politicians: an evaluation A. Achievements B. Reasons for lack of greater success VI. Republican factionalism A. Disagreements on issues B. Lack of party cohesion C. Results VII. Opposition VIII. The KKK A. Whites’ justification B. Founding C. Geographic strength D. Violent actions E. Attempts to control violence IX. The West X. The Fifteenth Amendment A. Content B. Black reaction XI. The Enforcement Acts A. Content B. Actions by government XII. The North and Reconstruction A. Effect of KKK violence B. Other issues

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XIII. The Freedmen’s Bank A. Background B. Failure XIV. The Civil Rights Act of 1875 A. Terms B. Effect XV. The End of Reconstruction A. Redemption by Democrats B. Violent redemption 1. Alabama 2. Louisiana C. The “shotgun policy” 1. Campaign of violence 2. Lack of federal help D. The Hamburg Massacre 1. events 2. shotgun policy 3. black reaction E. The “Compromise” of 1877 1. election of 1877 2. redemption complete XVI. Conclusion

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CHAPTER FOURTEEN: WHITE SUPREMACY TRIUMPHANT: AFRICAN AMERICANS IN THE SOUTH IN THE LATE NINETEENTH CENTURY CHAPTER SUMMARY After Reconstruction, whites in “redeemed” southern states worked diligently to return blacks to a place of subordination socially and politically. Whites took steps to remove black influence in politics.

Even when Populism, a farmers’ movement, grew in influence, blacks were forced into segregated groups.

Whites also invented very creative ways around the Fifteenth Amendment, including the development of literacy tests, poll taxes, and grandfather clauses. These new pieces of legislation effectively disfranchised black voters. In addition to taking away voting rights, whites also devised ways to keep the “inferior” race separate, developing extensive Jim Crow segregation laws for transportation and public facilities. Blacks refused to accept these new conditions of life, protesting through sit-ins, boycotts, and filing legal cases.

Their efforts were generally in vain, however, especially with the Supreme Court’s decision in the 1896 Plessy v. Ferguson case, that made “separate but equal” facilities acceptable under the law. To enforce these new rules, whites instigated a dramatic level of violence often aimed at those blacks who attempted to compete economically or politically. Lynching continued through the 1890s and early 1900s as a form of mob violence against blacks for trivial or even no reason. As they had with segregation, blacks protested new conditions in many ways. A minority of blacks chose to leave the South, mainly headed to the West or Liberia. Most, however, stayed on familiar territories, although they began to encounter more economic discrimination and hard physical labor in their efforts at farming. The justice system, as well, became increasingly white-oriented, punishing blacks more harshly and often refusing to punish white crimes against blacks at all. Overall, southern society began a successful attempt to circumvent the Thirteenth Amendment and practically re-institute slavery in all but name.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES • • • • •

Describe the role of blacks in the Farmer’s Alliances and the Populist Party.

Describe the steps the South took to limit and turn back black gains after Reconstruction.

Explain how violence played a role in the South as a way of limiting black power and civil rights.

Describe how blacks responded to conditions in the South.

Describe some of the discriminatory characteristics of black life in the “New South.”

TOPICS FOR LECTURES/LONG ESSAYS OR PAPERS/CLASS DISCUSSIONS • • • • •

Describe the role of blacks in the Populist Party. What were the links between the development of the Populist Party and the increase in lynching in the South?

Discuss how southerners worked to remove black rights after Reconstruction. Why was it important to them to work around the Reconstruction constitutional amendments?

Discuss the outbreak of lynching across the South after Reconstruction. What were its causes?

How did whites at the time justify it? Discuss the development of the anti-lynching movement among black and white women.

Discuss the case of Plessy v. Ferguson. What does this Supreme Court decision tell us about America at this time? What does it tell us about blacks’ reaction to segregation?

Discuss black migration during the late nineteenth century. Where did they go? What did they expect to find and what reality did they find? Why didn’t more blacks leave, since conditions in the South seemed so poor?

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CHAPTER OUTLINE I. Introduction II. Politics A. Steady disfranchisement B. Paternalism C. Black congressmen 1. redrawing district lines 2. accomplishments and limitations D. Democrats and farmer discontent 1. redeemer disunity 2. problems of farmers 3. political organization E. The Colored Farmers’ Alliance 1. formation 2. difficulties over economic differences F. The Populist Party 1. origins and views 2. efforts at interracial unity 3. Democratic reaction III. Disfranchisement A. Intimidation and injustice B. Evading the Fifteenth Amendment C. Mississippi 1. 1889 constitutional convention 2. terms to vote D. South Carolina 1. 1895 constitutional convention 2. ideas of fairness E. The grandfather clause F. Effects of new laws G. The "Force bill" IV. Segregation A. Development of laws B. Jim Crow 1. origin of term 2. gradual evolution C. Segregation on the railroads 1. treatment 2. first laws D. Plessy v. Ferguson 1. case facts 2. decision E. Streetcar segregation 1. laws 2. protest F. Segregation proliferates V. Racial etiquette VI. Violence A. Washington County, Texas B. The Phoenix riot C. The Wilmington riot D. The New Orleans riot

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E. Lynching 1. statistics 2. nature of crimes 3. attacks on black women F. Rape 1. white men’s harassment of black women 2. black men’s powerlessness 3. white justification for sexual abuse VII. Migration A. Reaction to conditions in South B. The Liberian Exodus 1. supporters 2. effort C. The Exodusters 1. 1879 Nashville convention 2. movement west 3. promoters of movement 4. opponents of movement D. Migration within the South 1. urban areas 2. gender differences VIII. Black farm families A. General conditions B. Cultivating cotton C. Sharecroppers 1. characteristics 2. unfairness of system D. Renters E. Crop liens F. Peonage G. Black landowners H. White resentment of black success 1. reasons 2. examples IX. African Americans and southern courts A. Segregated justice 1. white court system 2. blacks as defendants 3. juries and jurors 4. justice for a “white man’s nigger” 5. punishments B. The convict lease system 1. prison conditions 2. labor for businesses X. Conclusion

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CHAPTER FIFTEEN: AFRICAN AMERICANS CHALLENGE WHITE SUPREMACY CHAPTER SUMMARY Black southerners refused to allow the growing tide of racism and segregation to overwhelm them.

They adapted with a variety of responses to white supremacy in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century. Blacks continued to believe in the power of an education, often enduring horrible conditions to obtain one. Schools in the south were segregated, and almost no high school-level schools existed for blacks. Many whites and blacks, led by Booker T. Washington and the Tuskegee Institute, firmly believed that the most appropriate type of education for blacks was vocational and agricultural training. Elite blacks like W. E. B. Du Bois, argued, however, for the necessity of a broad liberal arts education with an emphasis on critical thinking. The church, with Baptists leading the pack, also remained very important to black lives, providing an outlet for emotionalism and an escape from the dreariness of everyday life. Holiness churches and the Pentecostal movements also gained in popularity among many blacks dissatisfied with the formality and stiffness of some Methodist and Baptist congregations.

In an attempt to prove their patriotism and courage to whites, blacks continued to serve in the armed forces both as “buffalo soldiers” fighting Indians in the West, as well as fighting in the Spanish American War and the Filipino Insurrection. For the first time, during the Spanish American War, black officers led black regiments. Ironically, blacks rarely objected to their roles in subjugating other people of color for the benefit of a country that blatantly discriminated against them. This racism was subtly apparent at the Chicago World's Fair in 1893, although blacks found no explicit segregation and even saw several exhibits documenting racial progress. Other gains were also apparent during this difficult period.

Some blacks gained wealth by forming successful businesses or becoming professionals, almost always catering exclusively to other blacks. The majority of blacks, however, toiled in dirty, menial work. Even when they attempted to form unions to better their working situation, striking proved ineffective. The development of music, including ragtime, jazz, and the blues, as well as playing sports provided another outlet for blacks’ talent and creativity. Sports, in particular, suffered from the growing trend of segregation through the South and generally limited black opportunities.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES • • • •

• •

Discuss the background and intellectual content of racism during the late nineteenth century.

Explain the main components of Booker T. Washington's ideas for the improvement of blacks.

How did his critics respond?

Discuss the role of churches, including new Protestant movements, in the fight against segregation and discrimination.

Discuss the role of blacks in the military during the late nineteenth century. Discuss their role as buffalo soldiers in the West, and as soldiers in the Spanish American War and Philippine Insurrection. Include both the elements of discrimination and gains made in each of those conflicts.

Describe the types of developments made among black businesses, labor unions, and for professionals in the struggle for equality.

Discuss the developments in music and sports for African Americans at the time.

TOPICS FOR LECTURES/LONG ESSAYS OR PAPERS/CLASS DISCUSSIONS • •

Discuss the development of Booker T. Washington’s views on blacks and education. Would you consider his philosophy realistic, taking into account what was going on in the South at the time?

How did other blacks criticize him?

Describe the role of religion in the fight against discrimination at the time, and in the changes blacks were going through at the time?

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• •

Discuss the role of blacks in the military during the late nineteenth century. Why did blacks not object to fighting and subjugating other dark-skinned races at this time? What does this tell you about them and about idea of “colored” people?

Listen to several examples of early ragtime, jazz, and blues music. How are they similar or different? Compare them to several examples of contemporary white music.

CHAPTER OUTLINE I. Introduction II. Social Darwinism A. Origins B. Effect III. Education and schools A. Difficulties in going to school B. Segregated schools 1. lack of high schools 2. modest private efforts C. The Hampton model 1. belief in vocational education 2. dominance of Armstrong D. Booker T. Washington and the Tuskegee model 1. Washington’s background 2. years at Hampton 3. founding Tuskegee 4. beliefs about education 5. reaction from whites 6. Morrill Act 7. black colleges E. Critics of the Tuskegee model 1. emphasis on liberal arts 2. private black colleges 3. Washington v. Du Bois IV. Church and religion A. establishment of separate churches B. dominance of Baptists C. meaning in black life D. church services E. black ministers F. The church as solace and escape 1. role of services 2. message relayed G. The Holiness movement and the Pentecostal church 1. origin of the Holiness churches 2. beliefs and appeal 3. origins of the Pentecostal churches 4. beliefs and appeal H. Roman Catholics and Episcopalians 1. prominent black Catholics 2. class differences V. Red versus black: the buffalo soldiers A. The army after the Civil War B. Black military assignments C. Discrimination in the army 1. poor conditions

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2. origins of the "buffalo soldiers" D. The buffalo soldiers in combat 1. thoughts about role 2. campaigns E. Civilian hostility to black soldiers VI. Brownsville affair A. Discrimination by whites and Mexicans B. Blacks blamed for violence VII. African Americans in the navy VIII. The black cowboys IX. The Spanish-American War A. Push for additional territory B. War with Spain C. Critics of war D. Black service E. Black officers 1. leadership 2. racial discrimination F. “A splendid little war” G. After the war X. The Philippine Insurrection A. Background B. Would black men fight brown men?

1. criticism 2. black service in Philippines XI. African Americans and the World's Columbian Exposition A. Chicago Fair B. Exhibits: African culture C. Exhibits: African American universities XII. Black businesspeople and entrepreneurs A. Lack of opportunity B. Black businesses XIII. African Americans and labor A. General labor B. Unions 1. Knights of Labor 2. American Federation of Labor 3. International [Industrial?] Workers of the World 4. National Colored Labor Union C. Strikes 1. general results 2. examples XIV. Black professionals A. Exclusion from white facilities B. Medicine 1. schools 2. statistics 3. contraction of profession 4. nursing C. The law 1. discrimination within white system 2. law schools XV. Music A. Roots of black music B. Ragtime 1. definition

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2. Scott Joplin C. Jazz 1. definition 2. early forms 3. Jelly Roll Morton D. The blues 1. Origins and W.C. Handy 2. Influence of Mississippi Delta 3. “Ma” Rainey XVI. Sports A. Segregation of athletics B. Jack Johnson C. Baseball 1. initial interracial efforts 2. exclusion from major league play 3. black teams D. Basketball and other sports E. College athletics 1. participation in North 2. intercollegiate athletics 3. black athletic conferences XVII. Conclusion

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CHAPTER SIXTEEN: CONCILIATION, AGITATION, AND MIGRATION: AFRICAN AMERICANS IN THE EARLY TWENTIETH CENTURY CHAPTER SUMMARY The early twentieth century provoked a great variety of responses from blacks to their situation.

As leadership evolved and developed, blacks discussed different ways of improving the status of their race.

Booker T. Washington was probably the most influential black leader during the first decade of the twentieth century. He stressed an acceptance of subordination and segregation, while hoping blacks would work toward economic opportunity as a way to prove themselves. Other black leaders, led by W. E. B. Du Bois, harshly criticized Washington’s approach, feeling instead that the elite of black society should agitate, protest and fight within the system to change American society. Du Bois saw voting rights as a preeminent need of black citizens, forming the Niagara Movement and assisting with the formation of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) to further his goals. Washington retaliated quickly against these rival groups, sending in spies to meetings, paying for negative publicity, and even filtering information to racist whites to further his cause. Despite these tactics, the NAACP flourished and gained members in the early twentieth century, especially following Washington’s death in 1915. Other groups also formed to assist blacks in various struggles. Black women formed numerous clubs, assisting the poor and ill and providing living accommodations for working class women as well. Another element of the black elite, inventors, began to receive some credit for their work as well. Frustrated with Republican Party inattention, blacks also attempted to find a more suitable party, but neither the Progressives nor Woodrow Wilson lived up to expectations.

In another attempt to resist and defuse racism, blacks also served in World War I in large numbers, although they continued to encounter racism and difficulties. Blacks also reacted during the decade around World War I by moving North in huge numbers, both to escape conditions in the South and for better economic opportunities, forming vibrant communities in areas like Chicago and Harlem. This migration produced widespread racial tension and rioting throughout the North and South. Cities like Houston, Chicago, and East St. Louis experienced riots over conflicts for job resources, white racism, and segregation. The tense events proved that violence, racism, and discrimination were certainly not limited to the rural South.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES • • • • •

Describe the views, approach, and background of Booker T. Washington for advancement of blacks in early twentieth century America.

Describe the views, approach, and background of W. E. B. Du Bois for advancement of blacks in early twentieth century America.

Discuss the origins and tactics of early civil rights groups. Include the Niagara Movement, the NAACP, the Urban League, the women’s club movement, as well as the development of the black elite.

Describe the role of black men in the military during World War I. How did white society react to blacks in the early twentieth century?

Understand why blacks migrated in large numbers during the early twentieth century. Discuss conditions they encountered in urban areas such as Chicago and Harlem.

TOPICS FOR LECTURES/LONG ESSAYS OR PAPERS/CLASS DISCUSSIONS • •

Discuss the views of Booker T. Washington and W. E. B. Du Bois. How were their ideas each a product of their background, education, and times? What limitations do you see in each man’s view of how to advance black people? Who ultimately prevailed?

Discuss some of Washington’s tactics to maintain leadership and control of white resources.

What type of a leader was he?

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• • • • •

Discuss the early role of the NAACP. What were they working for? Would you consider them “radical”? Discuss the meaning of the word “radical” and how it might apply differently in different time periods.

Discuss the role of black women in Progressive Era reform. What types of activities were they in and why? Why aren’t they discussed in more detail in history classes?

Discuss the continued difficulties of blacks in the military in the early twentieth century, including World War I. Discuss the race riots of the early twentieth century. What were the specific causes, and what came out of them? How did people explain them at the time?

Discuss why blacks left the South and rural areas in the early twentieth century? What reality did they find in urban communities?

CHAPTER OUTLINE I. Introduction II. Race and the progressive movement A. Origins of the reform movement B. Reasons for hope III. Booker T. Washington’s approach A. 1895 speech and ideas B. Supporters and critics C. Washington’s influence 1. political ability 2. support from white businessmen D. The Tuskegee Machine 1. Washington’s political role 2. influence with Roosevelt 3. secret political activities 4. National Negro Business League IV. Opposition to Washington 1. Afro-American League 2. William Monroe Trotter V. W. E. B. Du Bois A. Background B. Differences with Washington C. The Souls of Black Folk D. The Talented Tenth E. The Niagara Movement 1. background and views 2. Washington’s reaction 3. internal dissent VI. The NAACP A. Whites’ roles B. Origins with Villard C. Using the system 1. court cases and voting 2. segregation and lynching D. Du Bois and The Crisis 1. role with the NAACP 2. assertive language E. Washington versus the NAACP 1. mild attempts at reconciliation 2. attempts to destroy 3. results VII. The Urban League

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VIII. Black women and the club movement A. Early social clubs B. Efforts to solve social problems C. Origins of the National Colored Woman’s League D. The National Association of Colored Women: “Lifting as We Climb” 1. growth 2. goals and problems E. Phillis Wheatley clubs F. Anna Julia Cooper and black feminism G. Women’s suffrage 1. historical support 2. support in state campaigns IX. The black elite A. The American Negro Academy B. The upper class 1. black aristocrats 2. social organizations C. Fraternities and sororities X. African American inventors A. Shelby Davidson B. Granville Woods C. Lewis Latimer XI. Presidential politics A. Historical support of Republicans B. Frustrated by the Republicans 1. Republican actions 2. Progressives’ actions C. Woodrow Wilson 1. black expectations 2. reality XII. Black men and the military in World War I A. The punitive expedition to Mexico 1. background 2. actions B. World War I 1. black support 2. white reaction to black service C. Black troops and officers 1. statistics 2. black officer training school 3. Young’s experiences D. Discrimination and its effects 1. poor conditions 2. menial tasks 3. poor performance: 368th Infantry 4. distinguished performance: 369th Infantry 5. reaction of French 6. return home E. Du Bois’s disappointment 1. “close ranks” speech 2. come back fighting attitude XIII. Race riots A. Backlash against blacks B. Atlanta, 1906 1. background 2. events

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3. black leadership’s reaction 4. results C. Springfield, 1908 D. East St. Louis, 1917 1. background 2. events 3. reaction from NAACP E. Houston, 1917 1. segregation 2. treatment by police 3. outcome F. Chicago, 1919 1. background 2. Eugene Williams’s death 3. outcome G. Elaine, 1919 H. Tulsa, 1921 I. Rosewood, 1923 XIV. The Great Migration A. Statistics B. Why migrate?

1. push and pull 2. reaction against white southerners 3. reaction of blacks 4. advantages of the North 5. individual decisions C. Destinations 1. common paths 2. reality of new homes D. Migration from the Caribbean XV. Northern communities A. Legal versus actual conditions B. Chicago 1. black opportunities 2. surge of black population 3. black institutions 4. blacks in politics 5. racial tensions C. Harlem 1. over building in area 2. influx of blacks 3. black institutions D. Families 1. strains 2. opportunities for men 3. opportunities for women XVI. Conclusion

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CHAPTER SEVENTEEN: AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE 1920s CHAPTER SUMMARY The 1920s saw resurgence and an increase in white racism. Intellectuals supported theories describing blacks as inferior, and the general white public flocked to see the film The Birth of a Nation.

The film, depicting blacks as either stupid or criminal in Reconstruction South Carolina, grew alongside the growth of the KKK. The 1920s KKK expanded its lists of hatreds to include immigrants, Jews, and Catholics, along with blacks, but stepped into mainstream politics with a huge membership and following.

As before, blacks had many different responses. The NAACP expanded and continued its attempts to chip away at racism through the legal and political system. New leaders also emerged. Marcus Garvey attracted large numbers of loyal followers by preaching black pride and self-sufficiency. He also supported a movement back to Africa, although it never really materialized. Garvey was castigated by both other prominent black leaders as well as the government, who eventually had him deported. Blacks in industrial occupations responded to discrimination and poor working conditions by attempting to form labor unions, like the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters (BSCP), to improve their working lives. In addition to efforts in civil rights and labor issues, the twenties saw an explosion of literature and art among blacks, centered in Harlem. The Harlem Renaissance, however, failed to unite blacks. Some thought the purpose of literature should be to present a positive view of blacks to improve race relations while others focused on a more accurate, realistic portrayal of black life. Black music, namely jazz, became immensely popular, as whites flocked to the Cotton Club for lavish productions and famous names. Black sports figures were not as fortunate as their artistic counterparts in recognition, as they continued to experience exclusion for the most part from professional sports and discrimination at the amateur level.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES • • • • •

Describe the atmosphere of increased racism during the 1920s affecting black Americans.

Describe how blacks tried to improve their situation in the 1920s. Look at the actions of the NAACP, Marcus Garvey, and pan-Africanism.

Describe some of the difficulties with the organizing of working-class blacks.

Discuss some of the important works, authors, and artists, of the Harlem Renaissance.

Describe the role that blacks played in sports during the 1920s. What difficulties did they face?

TOPICS FOR LECTURES/LONG ESSAYS OR PAPERS/CLASS DISCUSSIONS • • • • • •

Watch the film, The Birth of a Nation. Discuss the elements of the film and how it portrays blacks as well as the process of reconstruction. How does it fit into the spirit of the 1920s?

Discuss the activities of the NAACP and A. Philip Randolph at this time. How do the actions of the two groups fit together? How do they reflect differing ideas? Who do you think was more influential?

Pick several of the works produced during the Harlem Renaissance, including literature, art, and music. Discuss how they fit into the period, the views they demonstrate, and how they would be received today.

Discuss the issue of race among blacks, as illustrated by works such as Color Struck and The Blacker the Berry. . . What do they reflect about blacks in America?

Discuss the views of Marcus Garvey. Why was he so popular among working-class people?

Why was he criticized by many other blacks? What does his controversy tell you about the nature of black leadership during the 1920s?

Explain why whites tried to keep blacks out of sports. How might sports have been different if they had not been segregated? Do you think this would have affected attitudes of racist whites?

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CHAPTER OUTLINE I. Introduction II. Strikes and the Red Scare A. Labor activity B. Actions of political leaders C. Xenophobia III. Varieties of racism A. Scientific racism 1. “academic” studies 2. immigration restriction B. The Birth of a Nation 1. content and popularity 2. NAACP reaction 3. white reaction 4. results of protest C. KKK 1. reemergence 2. views and support 3. decline IV. Protest, pride, and pan-Africanism: black organizations in the 1920s A. NAACP 1. expansion of membership 2. crusade against lynching 3. Walter White 4. campaign for the Dyer bill 5. campaign against “white primaries” 6. Sweet trial B. “Up you mighty race”: Marcus Garvey and the Universal Negro Improvement Association 1. benefits 2. background 3. views 4. pageantry and ceremonies 5. establishment of businesses 6. plans for Africa 7. opposition to Garvey a. government b. other black leaders 8. attitude toward the KKK 9. legal problems and downfall 10. legacy C. The African Blood Brotherhood D. Pan-Africanism 1. European colonialism 2. Pan-African Congress, 1900 3. Pan-African Congress, 1919 V. Labor A. General 1. job statistics 2. union status 3. efforts of the NAACP and Urban League B. BSCP 1. black Employees of Pullman Company 2. duties and difficulties 3. organization C. A. Philip Randolph

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1. background 2. leadership of BSCP 3. opposition and support 4. difficulties VI. The Harlem Renaissance A. American trend in literature B. Before Harlem 1. literature and fine arts 2. academics 3. poetry C. Writers and artists 1. educational background 2. emergence and early works 3. publishers 4. disagreements over purpose of literature D. White people and the Harlem Renaissance 1. Carl Van Vechten 2. support of black literature 3. continued elements of racism 4. white patronage 5. social gatherings VII. Harlem and the Jazz Age A. Greater popularity of musicians and singers B. Centrality of Harlem C. The Cotton Club D. Connie’s Inn E. Black establishments F. Song, dance, and stage 1. female singers 2. black playwrights 3. Paul Robeson VIII. Sports A. Expansion of black athletics B. Black baseball C. Rube Foster 1. baseball career 2. Negro National League D. College sports 1. segregation 2. discrimination against blacks IX. Conclusion

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CHAPTER EIGHTEEN: BLACK PROTEST, THE GREAT DEPRESSION, AND THE NEW DEAL CHAPTER SUMMARY The Great Depression and the 1930s in America simultaneously witnessed great economic difficulties for many blacks and yet also saw increased opportunities and gains on multiple levels. Since the majority of blacks made a living from agricultural work, they were especially hard hit during the depression. Black families in both the city and country relied extensively on sharing goods and tasks to get through the crisis. Although President Herbert Hoover did little to stem the tide of economic disaster, President Franklin D. Roosevelt’s efforts proved somewhat helpful. Some of his programs, especially the Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA), proved discriminatory in effect, especially when left in the hands of racist whites in the South. Many of his programs, however, like the welfare programs, literally kept blacks from starving. In addition to economic help, Roosevelt appointed numerous blacks to federal government positions, increasing their visibility and influence.

Blacks also continued protesting segregation and other racial injustices. The NAACP, aided by black women as well as men, continued to challenge racism in court cases, winning a significant victory over the white primary in 1944. The established civil rights organizations encountered some competition from the Communist Party in the 1930s. The Communist Party attracted some blacks because it consistently renounced racism, worked on economic issues, and pursued legal equity and social justice for blacks. The Communist Party garnered significant sympathy, although never significant membership, through its dedicated commitment to the Scottsboro Boys case. No one, however, became an advocate for more than 400 black men involved in a “study” of untreated syphilis, one of the worst examples of discrimination in American history.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES • • • • •

Discuss the causes of the Great Depression. How did government respond?

Describe the economic effects of the Great Depression on blacks in the cities and rural areas.

Discuss the political realignment of blacks during the New Deal. What were the positive and negative features of Roosevelt’s plans for blacks?

Describe the types of protests blacks undertook during the Great Depression. What issues were important to them?

Explain the role and influence of the Communist Party on blacks at this time.

TOPICS FOR LECTURES/LONG ESSAYS OR PAPERS/CLASS DISCUSSIONS •

•

• •

Discuss several facets of the New Deal. Explain why and how some of the programs, like the AAA and the Civilian Conservation Corps, were either explicitly or implicitly discriminatory.

Discuss the origins of the Social Security Act, as well as its effect on blacks. How did Social Security reveal that many people still thought “welfare” was something to be avoided? How did that program reveal that whites often wanted to keep poor white women and blacks in subservient positions?

Discuss the gains made by the NAACP during the 1920s through the 1940s. Which cases were important and why? What were they working toward? Was this the most effective way of doing things? What did the “Scottsboro Boys” case illustrate, both for blacks in general and regarding the NAACP? Discuss the role of the Communist Party during the 1920s and 1930s. What are the general characteristics of communism? Why did some blacks find communism appealing? How did the communists affect civil rights activism? What else was going on in labor organizing at the time?

Have the students read Bad Blood by James Jones, a history of the Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment (there are also several film/television versions of the story). How did this happen? What was the role of the black nurse, Eunice Rivers, in this study? How did most of the blacks feel about the experiment at the time?

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CHAPTER OUTLINE I. Introduction II. The cataclysm, 1929-1933 A. General 1. economic disaster 2. causes B. Harder times for black America 1. problems in agriculture 2. problems in urban areas 3. loss of menial labor 4. gender differences 5. survival skills C. Black businesses in the Depression: collapse and survival 1. banking 2. insurance 3. medicine D. The failure of relief 1. relief prior to the Great Depression 2. Hoover’s inaction a. reluctance to have federal government act b. racist agenda III. Black protest during the Great Depression A. Inequality of New Deal as spur to action B. The NAACP and the civil rights struggles 1. Walter White 2. campaign against Parker nomination C. Du Bois ignites a controversy 1. criticism of lack of economic aims 2. response of other black intellectuals D. Challenging racial discrimination in the courts 1. Charles Houston 2. Thurgood Marshall 3. focus on educational inequalities 4. fight against white primary E. Black women and community organizing 1. within the NAACP a. Daisy Adams b. Juanita Mitchell c. Ella Baker 2. outside the NAACP IV. African Americans and the New Deal A. Roosevelt’s election B. Shift in black voting patterns C. Roosevelt and the first New Deal, 1933-1935 1. experimentation and federal relief effort 2. AAA a. theory b. positive impact on blacks c. unfair administration in the South 3. National Industrial Recovery Act a. terms b. resistance and racism 4. Welfare programs

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a. positive effect for blacks b. racial differences D. Black officials in the New Deal 1. new opportunities 2. role of Eleanor Roosevelt 3. administration’s actions V. The rise of black social scientists A. Roosevelt's black cabinet B. Social science and the New Deal C. African Americans and the second New Deal 1. new legislation 2. 1936 landslide and new coalition 3. black political consciousness in the North 4. anti-lynching legislation 5. reasons for black political shift 6. reactions of white Democrats 7. Works Progress Administration example VI. Organized labor and black America A. Committee for Industrial Organization 1. formation 2. organization B. BSCP C. Black women and union involvement VII. The Communist Party and African Americans A. Views of racism B. The International Labor Defense and the “Scottsboro Boys” 1. background of case 2. important legal precedents 3. final outcome C. Debating Communist leadership 1. NAACP and CP [Communist Party?] differences 2. black public opinion of Communist Party a. praise b. contempt D. The National Negro Congress 1. origins 2. failure VIII. Misuses of medical science: the Tuskegee Study A. Origins B. Effects C. Outcome IX. Conclusion

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CHAPTER NINETEEN: MEANINGS OF FREEDOM: CULTURE AND SOCIETY IN THE 1930s, 1940s, AND 1950s CHAPTER SUMMARY Although the 1930s and 1940s were difficult times for many African Americans, they continued to develop their own distinctive culture, especially in urban areas. In music, blacks had to rely frequently on whites for publishing. However, the black form of bebop emerged from an impatience with the lack of improvisation in the big band swing music. Charlie Parker led the bebop sound, which included its own culture and fashion. Other aspects of popular culture during the 1930s and 1940s, on the other hand, failed to incorporate blacks, yet often provided at least some element of escapism. Radio almost completely eliminated blacks from any role, even to the point of casting two white men as the black characters in the popular Amos ‘n’ Andy series. Most blacks criticized the show heavily for stereotyping blacks, and allowing whites to laugh at black efforts. Movies were little better for African Americans. Although some achieved fame and rewards, roles remained limited to the buffoon or servant, especially before World War II. Some black filmmakers attempted to cater to blacks, with more sophisticated roles and stories. The 1930s and 1940s also saw a continuation of black literature, art, and music with the Chicago Renaissance. Louis Armstrong and Billie Holiday pushed jazz limits, Thomas Dorsey popularized gospel, and Katherine Dunham choreographed for blacks. Many of the artists also incorporated critiques of racism and white society in their work. In literature, three authors, Richard Wright, James Baldwin, and Ralph Ellison, published significant, sophisticated works reflecting their views of the black experience. In sports, through men like Jesse Owens, Joe Louis, and Jackie Robinson, blacks demonstrated a talent when allowed to compete without discrimination. Two new religious movements also emerged during the 1930s and 1940s, each a reaction to continued racism and each an attempt to bring power, understanding, and control back into black people’s lives.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES • • • • •

Discuss the development and importance of swing, big band, and bebop in music for blacks.

Describe how blacks were presented in popular culture sources at the time.

Discuss the development of the Chicago Renaissance. How did some participants actively attempt to better conditions for blacks as a whole?

Discuss how sports figures contributed to black culture during the period.

Discuss the developments of black religious culture during the 1930s and 1940s, including the Nation of Islam and the Peace Mission Movement.

TOPICS FOR LECTURES/LONG ESSAYS OR PAPERS/CLASS DISCUSSIONS •

• • •

Listen to an episode of The Amos ‘n’ Andy Show. How did it portray black people? Can you understand how blacks would be upset, or does the issue of discrimination seem blown out of proportion? How relevant is the show today? How are conditions for blacks actors, writers, directors, etc. different today?

Pick several different examples of art and literature from the Chicago Renaissance. How do they fit into the 1930s and 1940s? How were they different from art and literature before? What types of views did the participants have, and how did they attempt to change attitudes toward blacks?

Listen to several examples of bebop, jazz, and gospel from the period. What was the music like?

What types of characteristics did it have? Why was each important to blacks?

Describe the types of religious movements that emerged in the 1930s and 1940s for blacks. Why did they emerge where they did? What does this tell us about the nature of religion and its importance in American and black society?

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CHAPTER OUTLINE I. Introduction: role of cultural power II. Black culture in a midwestern city A. Classical music interest B. Institutional support C. Legend singers III. The black culture industry and American racism A. Reliance on others to publish B. Political content of black art C. Marketing IV. The music culture from swing to bebop A. Importance of music B. Effect of Great Depression on music industry C. Importance of New York City D. Development of big band swing E. Development of bebop F. Resistance to bebop G. Bebop culture H. Waning of bebop V. Popular culture for the masses: comic strips, radio, and movies A. Role of mass culture B. The comics 1. role of humor 2. “The Jones Family” C. Radio and jazz musicians and technological change 1. technology in music 2. radio and black disc jockeys 3. radio and race a. Amos ‘n’ Andy b. black reaction c. TV show 4. effect of Amos ‘n’ Andy 5. Eddie Anderson 6. radio and Destination Freedom D. Race, representation, and the movies 1. general roles 2. Gone with the Wind 3. post-World War II films 4. Oscar Micheaux 5. attitude in Hollywood for marginalized groups VI. The Black Chicago Renaissance A. Differences from Harlem Renaissance B. Prominent people C. Critics of Chicago artists D. Class structure of Chicago E. Black institutions and music F. Jazz in Chicago 1. prominent artists 2. spread across America G. Gospel in Chicago: Thomas Dorsey 1. definition and place 2. characteristics 3. prominent singers H. Chicago in dance and song: Katherine Dunham and Billie Holiday 1. importance of dance

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2. Katherine Dunham a. training b. characteristics of choreography c. success and political protest 3. Billie Holiday a. career b. protest VII. Black visual art A. Social realist school B. Criticism of capitalism C. Harmon Awards D. Effect of Federal Aid [Art?] Project VIII. Black literature A. Evaluation B. Richard Wright’s Native Son 1. storyline 2. analysis C. James Baldwin challenges Richard Wright 1. criticism 2. Wright’s response 3. second response D. Ralph Ellison and Invisible Man 1. storyline 2. views of blacks IX. African Americans in sports A. Possibilities without racism B. Jessie Owens and Joe Louis 1. Owens and the 1936 Olympics 2. Joe Barrow and boxing C. Breaking the color barrier in baseball 1. pre-World War II segregation 2. Jackie Robinson 3. Larry Doby X. Black religious culture A. Definition of the “black church” B. Relationship between religious and secular culture C. The Nation of Islam 1. origins 2. beliefs D. Father Divine and the Peace Mission Movement 1. origins 2. beliefs and appeal 3. move to Harlem XI. Conclusion

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CHAPTER TWENTY: THE WORLD WAR II ERA AND THE SEEDS OF A REVOLUTION CHAPTER SUMMARY World War II and the decade following witnessed many efforts by African Americans come, or begin to come, to fruition. As America prepared to enter World War II in 1941, African Americans faced continued exclusion from the job market. The NAACP quickly picked up on the idea of a “Double V” campaign to fight for victory over fascism in Europe and racism at home. This increased militancy, aptly demonstrated by A. Philip Randolph and the March on Washington Movement, led to Roosevelt’s desegregation of defense industries in 1941. Roosevelt, however, refused to desegregate the armed forces, which continued to relegate blacks to menial non-combat roles based on stereotypical, racist views.

Soldiers and civilians protested the policy, as did many black women excluded from nursing for the War Department. With this continued protest, and as the war went on, the government began to change its position. Black workers, moving North and West to find higher paying industrial positions, continued to face discrimination, but did find jobs in areas once exclusively reserved for whites. As during World War I, racial conflicts and protest at home could lead to violence, as in Detroit in 1943 when more then 30 people were killed in a bloody race riot. Blacks and whites also began to form new racial protest groups with new tactics and goals, including the Southern Regional Council (SRC) and Congress of Racial Equality (CORE).

The aftermath of the war brought the onset of the Cold War and a tide of anti-communist hysteria, including targeting those associated with the search for African-American rights. On the other hand, the Cold War also brought positive benefits for blacks, as politicians adjusted to new voting realities. Harry Truman officially desegregated the armed forces and advocated numerous other pieces of civil rights legislation. The Supreme Court also proved helpful, with the forceful presence of multiple NAACP cases.

These cases initially focused on obtaining equal graduate level education for blacks, but spread by the early 1950s to grade school desegregation. The NAACP culminated several decades of legal work in 1954 with the Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas case, which declared segregation in public education unconstitutional and paved the way for a full scale change in black life in America.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES • • • • •

Describe how World War II started. How did America become involved?

Discuss the changes and discrimination for blacks in the military during World War II. Describe the roles blacks played in America during the war.

Discuss the positive and negative effects of the Cold War on blacks. Discuss both in politics and social life.

Explain how Brown v. Board of Education developed. What is its importance and place in NAACP activism?

TOPICS FOR LECTURES/LONG ESSAYS OR PAPERS/CLASS DISCUSSIONS •

• • •

Discuss the differences in black military service and attitudes toward the war, comparing the Spanish American War and World War I, to World War II. What was different? Why was there protest against service in World War II? How were World War I and II similar for blacks?

Discuss both military service and white reaction during and after the wars.

Explain why the military was desegregated. Who was responsible for this action? Be sure to stress both the role of politics and black activism.

Explain what the Detroit race riot indicated about black and white relations in the 1940s. How did it start and how did each group interpret the riot? What came out of it?

Discuss how the Cold War affected the black civil rights movement. What role did the struggle between the United States and the Soviet Union play in improvements in race relations? How was the attack on communism negative for blacks?

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CHAPTER OUTLINE I. Introduction II. On the eve of war, 1936-1941 A. Origins of World War II 1. Germany and Italy 2. war in Europe 3. Japanese activities B. U.S. entry 1. Pearl Harbor 2. isolationism C. African Americans and the emerging world crisis 1. Ethiopia 2. Spanish Civil War D. A. Philip Randolph and the March on Washington Movement (MOWM) 1. mobilization over past discrimination a. labor b. military 2. “Double V” campaign a. origins b. criticism of discrimination c. inaction of Roosevelt 3. MOWM a. goals and tactics b. results E. Executive Order 8802 1. terms 2. effect III. Race and the U.S. armed forces A. Early efforts to end segregation B. Institutional racism in the American military 1. imbedded racism 2. American War College study 3. War Department policies 4. Dorie Miller C. The costs of military discrimination 1. treatment at training camps 2. comparison to Germans POWs 3. black service during war 4. Fort Chicago base mutiny D. Soldiers and civilians protest military discrimination 1. black leadership 2. examples of protest 3. soldiers and sailors protest E. Black women in the struggle to desegregate the military 1. general role of black women 2. Staupers and quota elimination for nurses F. The beginning of military desegregation 1. propaganda a. films b. use of prominent African Americans 2. loosening of racism 3. expanded military options 4. changes for nurses G. The Tuskegee Airmen 1. training

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2. record H. Technology: the Tuskegee planes I. The transformation of black soldiers 1. differences from World War I 2. effects of service IV. Black people on the home front A. Black workers: from farm to factory 1. reasons for leaving farms 2. demand for labor 3. directions of migration 4. unions B. The FEPC during the War 1. Executive Order 9346 2. resistance by the South C. Anatomy of a race riot: Detroit, 1943 1. origins 2. events and outcome 3. interpretation by whites and blacks D. The G.I. Bill of Rights and black veterans E. Old and new protest groups on the home front 1. NAACP a. success b. internal disputes 2. SRC 3. CORE 4. black women’s organizing 5. black college students V. The transition to peace VI. The Cold War and international politics A. Origins and influences B. African Americans and world affairs: W. E. B. Du Bois and Ralph Bunche 1. criticism from Du Bois 2. working within the system C. Anticommunism at home 1. origins 2. attack on Du Bois D. Paul Robeson 1. pro-Soviet views 2. reaction from government and whites 3. travel ban E. Henry Wallace and the 1948 Presidential Election 1. emergence of the Progressive Party 2. response of Truman 3. reaction of white southerners F. Desegregating the armed forces 1. increasing tensions in Europe 2. black resistance to segregated military service 3. Executive Order 9981 4. Korean War VII. Conclusion

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CHAPTER TWENTY-ONE: THE FREEDOM MOVEMENT CHAPTER SUMMARY Armed with the significant changes made during and after World War II, civil rights activity culminated during the period from 1955 to 1965. Even with directions from the Supreme Court, Southern whites resisted school desegregation in every way possible, including violence. Inspired by the Brown decision, women in Montgomery, Alabama began organizing a protest against the city’s segregated buses.

The arrest of seamstress Rosa Parks provided the spark for a year-long boycott, ending segregation in that city, galvanizing other communities, and thrusting Martin Luther King Jr. into the national spotlight. The bus boycott success, however, failed to translate to easy victories elsewhere, especially when national politicians remained unconcerned. President Dwight David Eisenhower proved reluctant to act in civil rights, passing a weak civil rights law and only acting in Little Rock when his authority was directly challenged.

Beginning in 1960, students began more direct action tactics, such as sit-ins spread across the South, which proved effective at gaining desegregation. Students also encountered widespread violence and white resistance, especially with their Freedom Rides. President John F. Kennedy proved somewhat more willing to assist blacks with vocal support and appointments, but rarely acted unless forced, as with the Ole Miss and University of Alabama incidents. After disappointments in Albany, Georgia, in 1961 and 1962, King organized a massive protest in Birmingham, Alabama, chosen partially because of its violent and racist Sheriff “Bull” Connor. Violence ensued when King put children in the marches, although the violence provoked Kennedy to step in and push the city toward desegregation. Civil rights activities culminated with the Civil Rights Act of 1964, an important piece of legislation that banned discrimination in any public facility.

The students then turned to voting rights with the Freedom Summer project in Mississippi. After obtaining only limited goals and suffering violence, murder, and intimidation in Mississippi, many students began to reject many of King’s philosophies. Additional activities in Selma, Alabama, followed by additional violence, led to the passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965. The media proved an effective ally in gaining the most significant achievements of the civil rights movement. Sympathy and support from Northern liberal whites followed each incident of violence against civil rights workers. The racial violence that followed 1965, however, stemmed from different sources and led to far different outcomes for blacks.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES • • • • • •

Describe how the conditions of the 1950s contributed to the emergence of the national civil rights movement.

Discuss the origins, participants, facts, and outcome of the Montgomery Bus Boycott. How was this protest different from, or similar to, earlier civil rights activism?

Discuss the early activism by students. How did they differ in tactics and methods from earlier activism?

Outline the facts, leadership, tactics, and effects of each of the following: the Little Rock incident, the sit-ins, the Freedom Rides, the Albany Movement, the March on Washington, Freedom Summer, and Bloody Sunday.

Explain how African Americans political positions changed from the 1950s to the early 1960s.

Discuss the origins and results of the civil rights movement up to 1965.

TOPICS FOR LECTURES/LONG ESSAYS OR PAPERS/CLASS DISCUSSIONS • •

Discuss the strategy and tactics of the NAACP leading up to the Brown decision. How did that case happen? How important was that case? What did it lead to?

Discuss the changes in focus, leadership, tactics, and goals of the civil rights movement from 1950 to 1965. Were blacks generally united, working toward one goal? What were their

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•

• • •

differences? How do these changes reflect earlier ideas about how to improve the situation of blacks in America? How are they original or old ideas?

Explain why Martin Luther King Jr. is often seen as the only face of the civil rights movement.

Why was he important? Who else was important? What challenges did he have to face? Who criticized him and why? Were they valid criticisms? How can he be seen as a “middle road” between the NAACP and the students?

Describe the role of the various branches and levels of the government at this time. Make sure you discuss local, state, and federal government. Who was the greatest help? Who was the greatest hindrance?

Discuss the role of violence and the media during the civil rights movement. Discuss the development of television during the 1950s and 1960s. How did television help or hinder blacks’ goals? How did leaders learn to play to television audiences?

Explain why the civil rights movement is often called a “second Reconstruction.” How accurate do you think that statement is?

CHAPTER OUTLINE I. Introduction II. The 1950s: prosperity and prejudice A. Economic prosperity for whites B. Reality for black Americans III. The road to Brown A. Foundation of the NAACP: Legal Defense and Educational Fund (LDEF) B. Constance Baker Motley and black lawyers in the South 1. background 2. education 3. work for the NAACP-LDEF 4. Sipuel case 5. Sweatt case C. Brown and the coming revolution 1. difficulties faced by lawyers 2. Briggs v. Elliot 3. Brown case IV. Brown II A. Massive white resistance B. The lynching of Emmett Till V. New forms of protest: the Montgomery Bus Boycott A. The roots of revolution 1. black institutions and protest groups 2. effect of Brown 3. test case delayed B. Rosa Parks 1. act of resistance 2. plans for boycott C. Montgomery Improvement Association 1. origins 2. leadership of Martin Luther King Jr. D. Martin Luther King Jr. 1. background 2. leadership ability E. Walking for freedom 1. strategies for boycott 2. effect on bus company 3. legal action needed F. Friends in the North

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1. Rustin and Levinson 2. role of the FBI G. Victory 1. long ordeal 2. court decision 3. results VI. No easy road to freedom: 1957-1960 A. Martin Luther King and the Southern Christian Leadership Council (SCLC) 1. goals of the organization 2. tensions with the NAACP B. Civil Rights Act of 1957 C. Little Rock, Arkansas 1. Faubus’s actions 2. Eisenhower’s response VII. Black youth stand up by sitting down A. Sit-ins: Greensboro, Nashville, Atlanta 1. Greensboro a. actions b. planning and support 2. Nashville a. leadership b. effects 3. Atlanta B. The Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) 1. origins and Ella Baker 2. North Carolina student conference 3. reaction of SCLC C. Freedom Rides 1. background 2. southern reaction 3. importance of media 4. outcome VIII. A sight to be seen: the movement at high tide A. The election of 1960 1. blacks’ initial support of Nixon 2. Kennedy’s actions B. The Kennedy administration and the civil rights movement 1. limitations 2. aid for civil rights 3. Ole Miss action C. Voter registration projects 1. Robert Kennedy’s suggestion 2. student action IX. The Albany Movement A. Background B. Sheriff Pritchett C. King’s support D. Outcome X. The Birmingham confrontation A. Need for action B. Choice of Birmingham C. Project C D. “Letter from Birmingham Jail” E. Children’s crusade F. Outcome G. Increasing activities and violence

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XI. A hard victory A. The March on Washington 1. Kennedy’s civil rights address 2. Plans for march 3. King’s “I Have a Dream” speech 4. Reaction of the South B. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 1. President Johnson’s support 2. provisions C. Mississippi Freedom Summer 1. voter registration drive 2. SNCC in Mississippi 3. participation of northern white students 4. increased violence 5. effect on civil rights workers D. The Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party 1. challenge to all-white party 2. compromise at 1964 Democratic National Convention E. Selma and the Voting Rights Act of 1965 1. voting activity in Selma 2. police resistance 3. “Bloody Sunday” 4. march rescheduled and compromise XII. Conclusion

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CHAPTER TWENTY-TWO: BLACK NATIONALISM, BLACK POWER, BLACK ARTS CHAPTER SUMMARY The period between 1965 and 1976 saw black Americans shift the civil rights movement in goals and tactics, and also recognize some significant gains. As with other periods, these gains were tempered by white backlash and retreat. Even after his death, Malcolm X proved a great influence on the emerging “black power” movement of the late 1960s. Led by young black men like Stokely Carmichael and H. Rap Brown, black power activists advocated black pride, militancy, and separate institutions. The Black Panther Party, the most militant of the black power groups, suffered from increased repression by police and other authorities, although they began several useful programs for the poor, inner city blacks. The late 1960s also saw large numbers of urban areas erupt in violence as blacks became increasingly frustrated by economic disparity and discrimination by police. Some politicians, namely Lyndon Johnson, worked to improve conditions for blacks. Johnson’s War on Poverty, dramatically reduced and eventually destroyed by the war in Vietnam, provided numerous useful programs for black economic, social, and political opportunities. The riots and continued problems also forced Martin Luther King to reevaluate his tactics and ideas. Shortly before his death, he focused energies on economic issues as well as opposition to the war in an effort to maintain gains for blacks.

Blacks made some gains politically, including election to political office in greater numbers. The civil rights movement in the 1970s, in fact, moved away from direct action tactics and more toward the electoral process as a way of change. Students also had an increasing role in civil rights again from 1968 to 1975, protesting continued racism, but also pushing universities to accept black studies as a legitimate scholarly endeavor. The presidents of the 1970s would prove less helpful than Johnson. Richard M. Nixon proved a mixed bag, pushing some beneficial possibilities, but also opposing desegregation by bussing.

Jimmy Carter, although he approved many blacks in government positions, also eliminated important programs benefiting blacks and failed to stop the economic downturn of the 1970s that hurt many poor and working-class blacks.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES • • •

Discuss the origins, ideas, personalities, and effects of the black power movement. What effects did the inner city riots in the late 1960s have on the movement?

Describe the main points of Johnson’s War on Poverty. How did it affect blacks?

Discuss how the civil rights movement changed in the late 1960s.

Discuss the political and cultural developments for blacks during the late 1960s and 1970s.

TOPICS FOR LECTURES/LONG ESSAYS OR PAPERS/CLASS DISCUSSIONS •

• • • •

Discuss the changes in focus, leadership, tactics, and goals of the civil rights movement from 1965 to 1980. Were blacks generally united, working toward one goal? What were their differences? How do these changes reflect earlier ideas about how to improve the situation of blacks in America? How are they original or old ideas?

Discuss the origins of Malcolm X and his ideas for the advancement of blacks. How did those ideas change over time? What types of actions did Malcolm X participate in? Why was he criticized? How were his ideas changing shortly before his death?

Discuss “black power”? Where did it come from? What did it lead to? What types of concrete projects and activities was the movement involved in? What was the result of these projects or activities?

Discuss the role of “radical” groups in the civil rights movement. How did groups like the Black Panthers make people like Martin Luther King Jr. appear?

Discuss various developments in the 1960s, including Johnson’s War on Poverty and the recommendations of the Kerner Report. How were images of blacks and the problems they faced changing in the 1960s?

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• • •

Explain how the Vietnam War affected blacks. Be sure to discuss both its social and domestic effects at home, as well as the results and consequences for black soldiers.

Describe the role of the various branches and levels of the government at this time. Make sure you discuss local, state, and federal government. Who was the greatest help? Who was the greatest hindrance?

Discuss the presidencies of Johnson, Nixon, and Carter. How did each of these men help or hurt blacks? Why did they take the actions they did? What were the results? How were blacks’ political powers changing during this period?

CHAPTER OUTLINE I. Introduction II. The fading dream of racial integration: black nationalism A. Backlash against civil rights gains 1. in states 2. in national politics B. Search for new tactics C. Malcolm X 1. background 2. dismissal of nonviolence and integration D. Malcolm X’s new departure 1. conflict with Elijah Muhammad 2. new organizations 3. new views E. Stokely Carmichael and Black Power 1. expulsion of many whites from Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) 2. origins and meaning of black power 3. SNCC’s decline 4. reaction of King 5. H. Rap Brown and militancy F. The National Council of Churches 1. origins 2. Benjamin Payton 3. changes with black power movement III. The Black Panther Party A. Origins B. Leadership C. Police repression and the FBI’s COINTELPRO 1. The Panthers’ beneficial programs 2. reaction to militancy by FBI D. Prisoners’ rights 1. black prison population statistics 2. Angela Davis and Soledad Brothers 3. Attica uprising IV. The inner-city rebellions A. Blacks in cities: economic statistics B. Effects of poor conditions in cities C. Watts 1. origins 2. results D. Newark 1. effects of white flight 2. origins 3. outcome E. Detroit

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1. image of city 2. reality for blacks 3. origins of riot F. The Kerner Commission 1. members 2. recommendations 3. outcome V. Difficulties in creating the Great Society A. Johnson’s concern for the disadvantaged B. War on Poverty C. Community involvement D. Opposition to Great Society E. Other priorities VI. Johnson and the war in Vietnam A. Background B. American involvement: Eisenhower and Kennedy C. Johnson and escalation D. Black Americans and the Vietnam War E. Project 100,000 VII. Johnson: Vietnam destroys the Great Society A. Violence and backlash B. Congress abandons civil rights 1. “civil rats” bill 2. expulsion of power C. Johnson’s continued efforts D. Tet Offensive E. Johnson’s reaction to Tet VIII. King: searching for a new strategy A. Civil rights in the North B. Important lessons C. King on the Vietnam War D. King’s assassination 1. goal in Memphis 2. assassination 3. effects IX. The black arts movement and black consciousness A. Influence of black power B. Ethos of the black arts movement C. Criticisms D. Literature E. Historic links to other black art F. Importance of James Baldwin G. Poetry and theater 1. publishers 2. new elements of poetry 3. theater 4. West Coast literature H. Music 1. centrality of jazz 2. rhythm and blues/gospel/soul 3. Berry Gordy and Motown

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X. The second phase of the black student movement A. The Orangeburg Massacre 1. background 2. event and outcome B. Black studies 1. entrance for blacks at white colleges a. Rutgers University b. national statistics 2. first black studies department 3. student actions and demands 4. goals of new field XI. The Election of 1968 A. Candidates B. Outcome XII. The Nixon presidency A. Progressive policies B. The “Moynihan Report” and the Family Assistance Plan (FAP) 1. views of report 2. criticism of report 3. FAP C. Busing 1. growing conservatism of Republican Party 2. battle over busing 3. Boston: case study and opposition D. Nixon and the war 1. Vietnamization 2. escalation of war 3. university antiwar protests E. Nixon’s downfall 1. law and order 2. effects of personality 3. resignation and effect XIII. The rise of black elected officials A. Education of black voters B. Political power in the North C. The Gary convention and the black political agenda 1. origins and leadership 2. lack of consensus 3. importance D. Black people gain local offices XIV. Economic downturn A. Economic statistics: negative factors B. Economic statistics: positive factors XV. Black Americans and the Carter presidency A. Black support B. Black appointees C. Carter’s domestic policies 1. benefits for black Americans 2. overall evaluation XVI. Conclusion

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CHAPTER TWENTY-THREE: AFRICAN AMERICANS AT THE MILLENIUM CHAPTER SUMMARY As over 400 years of African-American history come to a close, blacks have recorded incredible achievements and gains, and yet continue to face ongoing problems of racism, poverty, and other social ills.

Gender and sexuality issues, especially, have captured the attention of many African Americans, causing both conflicts and greater inclusion.

As a notable gain, many African Americans stand in better economic conditions: a notable few, including Oprah Winfrey, have even joined the ranks of the ultrarich. Others, like Mark Dean, have contributed significantly to technological advances. Poverty continues, however, exacerbated by disease, educational problems, and economic restructuring within the United States. Black women, increasingly heading single-parent families, experience poverty at a higher rate than the general population. Education shows similar trends: more blacks gain an education, yet funding problems plague inner city schools.

African-American culture, on the other hand, leapt to the forefront of American culture beginning in the late twentieth century. Rap music, especially, has become an extremely popular and varied art form, stressing urban roots and African-American culture. More than ever before, African Americans have gained recognition in film and theater. Both African-American art and religion have struggled with issues of gender – and, based on the individuals involved, sometimes seeking to reform to include more diversity, as with the AME Church, and sometimes reinforce traditional ethnic and gender stereotypes, as with gangsta rap and Louis Farrakhan.

As the twenty-first century begins, issues for African Americans seem to be complicated even further, not necessarily negatively, by biracial and multiracial categorization, black feminism, and struggles for gay and lesbian rights. For many African Americans, the struggle for civil rights has led them to incorporate other disadvantaged groups in the struggle for equality as well.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES • • •

Discuss some of the basic social and cultural developments among blacks around the turn of the twenty-first century, including the impact of economics, education, health, and religion, as well as black art, music, literature, black feminism, and Afrocentricity.

Discuss the origins, depth, and limitations of the fragmentation of the black community around the turn of the century.

Discuss how issues of gender and sexuality have affected modern African Americans.

TOPICS FOR LECTURES/LONG ESSAYS OR PAPERS/CLASS DISCUSSIONS • • • •

Explain why many people assume blacks are united on all issues. Has this ever been the case in American history? Discuss other differences and conflicts among blacks over how to improve their situation. How did this split show up in the 1980s and 1990s?

Discuss the views of Louis Farrakhan and the Nation of Islam. Do you think he has been helpful or harmful to most blacks? What are his positive and negative views? What has he been instrumental in doing for blacks?

Discuss the origins, development, and ideas of black feminism. How is it different from, or similar to, white feminism? What problems have black women specifically had to face and attempted to overcome?

Describe what remains to be done to improve blacks’ situation in America. Do you think that can be accomplished? How? Based on historical examples, what type of resistance do you think will occur?

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CHAPTER OUTLINE I. Introduction A. Gains made B. Progress needed II. Progress and poverty: income, education, and health A. High-achieving African Americans B. Information technology: Mark Dean’s computer inventions C. African Americans’ growing economic security 1. income statistics 2. benefits of economic boom and civil rights 3. comparison with whites III. The persistence of black poverty A. Statistics B. Effect on children C. Reasons for persistence: Oakland, California D. Impact of the 2008-2009 economic recession on employed black women E. Racial incarceration F. Education one-half century after Brown 1. statistics 2. continuing problems G. Challenging Brown H. The health gap 1. statistics 2. health problems 3. HIV/AIDS 4. sexual identity issues IV. African Americans at the center of art and culture A. General developments B. Black playwrights C. Differences from earlier movements D. Black novelists E. Recognition in stage and film F. The hip-hop nation G. Origins of a new music: a generation defines itself 1. origins 2. first hits 3. subject matter H. Rap music goes mainstream 1. early leaders I. Gangsta rap 1. shocking topics 2. different views J. African-American intellectuals 1. members 2. achievements K. Afrocentricity 1. definition 2. views and defense 3. criticism from blacks and whites L. African-American studies matures 1. different views 2. influence by gender assumptions 3. other pictures V. Black religion at the dawn of the millennium A. Continued importance of church

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B. Important leaders C. Black Christians on the front line D. Tensions in the black church 1. gender problems within the churches 2. AME reform 3. issues of sexuality E. Black Muslims 1. statistics 2. tensions after Sept. 11 VI. Louis Farrakhan and the Nation of Islam A. Background B. Changes in the Nation of Islam 1. Farrakhan assumes leadership 2. anti-Semitic rhetoric VII. Millennium marches A. The Million Man March 1. purpose 2. goodwill dissipates 3. criticism B. Women respond VIII. Complicating black identity in the twenty-first century A. Census numbers and changes B. Biracial and multiracial issues C. Immigration and African Americans 1. from the West Indies 2. from Africa D. Black feminism 1. gains of women’s rights movement 2. involvement of black women in feminism 3. black women’s achievements E. Gay and lesbian African Americans 1. early civil rights efforts 2. African American support IX. Conclusion

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CHAPTER TWENTY-FOUR: THE TRIUMPH OF BLACK POLITICS: 1980 TO THE PRESENT CHAPTER SUMMARY Gains made by African Americans from the 1950s to the 1970s failed to produce a consensus for goals and tactics for the end of the millennium. The black community continued with serious divisions, and continued to be affected by a white backlash against black progress. Nationally, politics in the 1980s and early 1990s indicated trouble for African Americans with the ascendancy of the conservatives Ronald Reagan, the New Right, and George H. W. Bush. Reagan and Bush proved willing to dismantle or render ineffective key elements of the civil rights program of the Great Society. Although they appointed some African Americans in their administrations, they were generally token blacks, whose views differed greatly from the majority of blacks. Affirmative action, especially on college campuses, proved a viable target during this period, as whites reacted against what they saw as preferential policies for minorities and women. Blacks hailed the 1992 election of William Clinton as the “first black president,” and his economic boom caused many blacks to find jobs and go off poverty rolls.

African Americans continued to have political influence during the 1980s and 1990s, especially during the Clinton years. They pressed for additional legislation, a national holiday commemorating Martin Luther King, and fought successfully against apartheid in South Africa and for fairer treatment by police and representation in police departments. In the late 1990s, HIV/AIDS in the United States and Africa became an increasingly visible cause for blacks, as did the issue of reparations. Blacks continued to make political gains: the 1980s also saw the serious political presidential candidacy of Jesse Jackson, in both 1984 and 1988, while the election of 2004 saw the electrifying emergence of Barack Obama for the Democrats. Divisions in America deepened with the highly contested election of George W. Bush in 2000, despite opposition from blacks. Although Bush appointed several African Americans to his cabinet or as advisors, his policies generally failed to take into account the concerns of many blacks in America. Despite these great differences within the country, the tragedy of September 11, 2001, seemed to bring all Americans, black and white, rich and poor together in an outburst of patriotism and sympathy for those who lost their lives. Bush shattered this unity with his divisive and difficult war in Iraq, beginning in 2003.

Following Bush’s reelection in 2004, his popularity declined, due to both problems with the war in Iraq and the effects of Hurricane Katrina. In 2008, the Democrats, led by presidential candidate Barack Obama, criticized the Republicans on a variety of fronts, including the economy. Obama decisively defeated opponent John McCain in the election as was later sworn into office as the first African-American president.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES • • • • •

Discuss the origins, depth, and limitations of the fragmentation of the black community during the 1980s to the present. [Revise bullet size to match others.]

Describe the overall economic condition of blacks during this period. How did the presidencies of Reagan, George H. W. Bush, Clinton, and G. W. Bush affect blacks?

Describe the types of black activism visible during the 1980s to the present. What was the backlash against progress?

Discuss the origins, goals, and development of black political power and candidacies and positions, as well as the changing role of African Americans within the Democratic Party.

Explain how Barack Obama became president. Discuss the role of African Americans in the election of Obama.

TOPICS FOR LECTURES/LONG ESSAYS OR PAPERS/CLASS DISCUSSIONS •

Explain why you think many people assume that blacks are united on all issues. Has this ever been the case in American history? Discuss other differences and conflicts among blacks over how to improve their situation. How did this split show up in the 1980s and 1990s? [Repeat point from previous chapter.]

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• • • •

Explain why a black person would vote for Ronald Reagan. Why would one vote for Clinton?

What did both of these men do for blacks? For other minority groups or women?

Discuss arguments both for and against reparations. How do people justify reparations? Who are these people? How do people criticize the policy? How does the argument take into account historical events? How does each side manipulate history to its own end?

Explain what remains to be done to improve blacks’ situation in America. Do you think that can be accomplished? How? Based on historical examples, what type of resistance do you think will occur?

Discuss if the election of Barack Obama indicated the “triumph of black politics”? What types of opposition did Obama face as president and why?

CHAPTER OUTLINE I. Introduction A. Increasing division during the 1980s B. Rise of the “Rainbow Coalition” II. Ronald Reagan and the conservative reaction A. Reagan’s policies and support B. Dismantling the Great Society 1. inner cities 2. trickle-down economics 3. appointment of black conservatives 4. U.S. Commission on Civil Rights: opposition to Reagan C. Black conservatives 1. role within Republican Party 2. power compared to black Democrats D. The Thomas-Hill controversy 1. background 2. problems with Hill nomination 3. gender conflict revealed E. Debating the “old” and the “new” civil rights 1. definitions 2. affirmative action a. debate b. development 3. backlash a. educational institutions b. Regents of the University of California v. Bakke c. Proposition 209 d. University of Michigan cases III. Black political activism in the age of conservative reaction A. black political power within the Democratic Party B. legislation passed by Congress C. The King holiday D. TransAfrica and the antiapartheid movement 1. facets of apartheid 2. origins of TransAfrica 3. antiapartheid movement 4. results IV. Jesse Jackson and the Rainbow Coalition A. Shirley Chisholm’s 1972 campaign B. Jackson’s background C. Response to Reagan presidency D. Plans and support E. Results at convention

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F. Defeat in 1984 G. 1988 attempt at presidency H. Stereotypical perceptions of black men I. Prison reform activism V. Policing the black community A. Rodney King 1. incident 2. verdict and results B. Human rights in America 1. Amnesty International report 2. issue of brutality 3. crime and African Americans 4. effect of crime on black neighborhoods VI. The Clinton presidency A. The election of 1992 1. reaction of blacks to Clinton 2. general policies and views B. “It’s the economy, stupid!”

1. general objectives 2. specific policies C. Clinton signs the Welfare Reform Act 1. terms of act 2. limitations 3. reasons for Clinton’s support D. Republicans challenge Clinton 1. 1994 gains 2. Starr investigation and impeachment VII. Black politics in the new millennium: the contested 2000 presidential election A. Gaps in American society B. Gore v. Bush 1. decision 2. implications for African Americans VIII. Republican triumph A. President George W. Bush’s black cabinet 1. Colin Powell 2. Condoleezza Rice B. Education reform: No Child Left Behind Act C. Reparations 1. origins of idea 2. resurrection and attention 3. criticism by blacks D. September 11, 2001 E. War IX. The 2004 presidential election A. Role of African Americans B. Bush’s second term C. The Iraq War D. Hurricane Katrina and the destruction of black New Orleans 1. New Orleans’s geography 2. racial effect of Katrina 3. Bush’s (in)action 4. individual aid X. Barack Obama, President of the United States A. Obama versus McCain B. 2008 election results XI. Conclusion

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