TOMIC STRUCTURE
atoms
arrangementoesareices
massnumbersatomicnumber
readingperiodictable
oareiuesmadeuporeieuronsivei.proeonsu.ve sneueronsinocharge neon neutron electron massing common xon ammo chargeice t.uoxioao.ao.io around oosition nucleus nucleus nucleus
oroeonssneutronsareneidtogeenerbyserongnuclearforceiserongerenan electrostaticforcesnoidingereceronssprotonstogeener
aeomsareneutrai.ms proeons eiecerons atomicnumberwhereasmassnumber oroeons neurons different aprotons electrons differentelement
massnumbercawaysargertnanaeomicnumber A
aemenesymbo atomicnumber z
manyelementshavemoreenanoneeypeotaeom samenumberaprotons.buedinereneneuerons isotopes soeopesbenavesamewaycnemicauybuemaynavedic.eerentphysicalpropertiessomeareradioactive as a ex Cs c
soeopee soeopez relativeatomicmass ram aerativeaeomicmassaveragemassoeanatominanaturanyoccurringsoeosicmixture massxabundance massxabundance totalabundance
massspectrometry
Ionization
successiveionizationenergies
differentisotopestypicallyidentifiedbymassspectrometry massspectrometryidentifiesmassoeseperaeeions.byionizingaeomswnicnaretnenaeerauedtowardadeee.co sample elect onisedsampe onisation Magne and acceleration I
vaccum exit
software detection u r and amplification massiamu analysis
ons.moiecueswneeeieuriocnargesdueeoiossorgainoi.ae onsces onizaeonenergy theamouneotenergyrequiredtoremoreerecerontromanatom elections.onizeaviamassspectrometryhighenergy eieceronseiredaesampier.nocr.oueieu ronseocreaeepositirecaeionssam.eu.com
Highenergyemeron e a e e Highenergoosieiver.nocnedouaea.ro ion neuron
firstionizationenergyeieuronremoved.comneutralatom exinacg nang e sit naansmoi secondionizationrequiresenergybeeiectronremovederompositivelychargedonication exinatig naztcgite sn.tusasn.mu thirdionizationrequiresevenmoreenergy exnavig nasty e si aabasimoi
ELECTRON CONFIGURATON
electromagnetic emradiation
Duaenatureotemradiation
emspectrum
LightemissionsAbsorseion
Electronarrangement
limitationsorBohrmode
treemissionstransmissionorenergyintnetormorelectromagneticwaves
cmwavestraveiaesxio.inscspeedoilight wavelength nos c w sreeuencycwavesi.me sanaisconseaneca.uaxo.su
wavespareiuecpn.com energygivenby enah
eoeindenergyinonemoioipnoeons.muuipy.byavogadro's in aounces
radiationfromdifferentregionsor.enespearumnavediteereneenergies
Gammasays
Infraredrays
Highenergy
aseiearonsabsoioenergy.eneymoveeonignerenergyieveiscgroundseaee.toexcitedstate around state iigu.cm edasenergyieveitaus ceo colorisspeciriceoquanityosenergyiose
electronsorbienuaeusaccording eopsonrmodei.orbiesoccurinsnensoeaeixeds.ae
eacnsnenrepresenesanenergyievendesignaeedin cprincipiequaneumnumber n i tneaoseraneieurorisorbie.co nucleus.eneserongereneaeeraceivetorce
theBourmodelworkswentor Hydrogen buetaiiswnenappiiedeoaeomswimoretnanoneeieu.ro theQuantummechanicalmodeproposedbyschrodingerbeeeerdescribeseiearonsmaenemaeicauyasbouwaresspareic.es
ALssounN umnum3us
electronfunction
QuantumNumbers
electronfunctionrepresentsprobabilitydistributionoeane iocaeion.ioor.siiueseanaingwareiusuauysmooth.ws probabilityincreasing aepear.s.oi.paseedgesizxcn.es ins waverunctionisrererredeoas n us Iornair wavelengths cananeumnumber un size atom
noee.aithougherougnsaboveareaezero.enisisnuaauauye.ae belowaremoreaccuratecasonedimensionalrepresentations
2 1 n z as r r r
BasedonthreedimensionalerectionmodeltherearethreeQuantumnumbers quantum_aiongradialcoordinate it e Me
quam.am sawngspnericaisuracecs subievers withineach mainenergyieveiareswbieveiss.p.d.teacnconeainingoneormoreorbieo.is increasingenergyfromssp idsssubieveisaredeeinedmaenemaeicaiy.by theangularmomentum equantumnumber
allowedwavefunctions
Quantum values numberorindices orincipie I probabledise.oresrromnuaeusirowsonpeabiennauaneum iz.si angular ndirrereneeindicesrorea.hn l momentum o.i.zn.cnncie.irnz.ecanbeo.ru waeestosnapeotorbiea magnetic www.r r erenemeindicestor me oiuaneum eeoeeacnecie.ire.i.me ion relaeeseoorbieuorientationinspace
orbitals n e me energysubieve orbitals electrons2ns e o o is a 2 z o o zs e z e no i zp 3 a 3 o o s e z n o i sp s ee z 2 ionz 3d is to 4 o o us 1 2 e no i up 3 a o z zii.o.ir ud s z s 2 ion.az ut r i
Fourenauaneum spin two ooss.bievaiues.ms z ms E
Pauli'sexclusionorincipie noewoesinanaeomcannavesameseeorquanc.am s.soesinsameorbioamusedr.rerinmsva.us
Afbauorincipiefiningorbitals eieceronsrinioweseenergyieveisa.rs as as as as as as r r iisi e u as as as as as as n n n n iiisus v Beeszzs v t
und'srace maximumnumber a unpairedesistoweseenergyarrangement is as as as as as r n n n n n n n n caszzszzpz v t I n 1szzszzps v t
vaence ceatirons
ondingsoueeane
ypesosBonds
Lewisstructures
ceceronscaneinerbecoreorvalenceoutermostelectrons are valence ex s eszzszz.az p
valenceesoccusyhighestenergytowershe saremostmanytobeinvolvedwhenbondingoccurs
on noblegassesoccurasfreeatomsduetooutersirenarrangement a sesexceptHeymakingthemextremestable atomsorotherelementsareoccurbondedtootheratomstoachieveouteroctet ises senusseability energ istypicallyreleasedorevolvedwhenbondsareformedhenceenergylieneatmustbeaddedtobreakthem
Ionicbondsinvolvetransferofesbetweenmeeainosesesis anonmetalgainses at a
11es i ties
compoundshaveagiant crystalstructurecanedanioniclatticenerdtogetherb electrostaticattraction thustypicallysolidcatroomtemp wverhighmeltingsoinessboiingsoinesconduceelectricitywhenmueensaqueous
covalentbondsinvolvesnaringaessetweennonmetals canhavesinglebondiipairestdoublebondupairsestorripebondpairses onlycno ssandsometimesasformmultiplebonds covalentmoleculesdirr.ecinsolaritybasedondifferenceinelements electronegativityabilityofatomtoattractes increases r s c topbottomacrosspeablefromvalueso u basedonpawingelectronegativityscale thuscovalentmoleculescanbegenerallyclassifiednonpolarcovalentor polarcovalentcwpolarityvaluesvaryingacrosselectronegativitygradient
metaicebondsinvolvedelocalizedes i donotbelongtooneatomoranotherbetweenmetals escanbepassedthroughcaecericanyconductive a a a a a ag ag ag ag ag
metallicanybondedmoleculesarehighdensityshavehighmatingsboiingpointsductilemoveableshiny
Lewisdoesymbolsrepresentelementsw theirvalencees ex c c a z i Nig s iii5 crisscrosstricktodeterminingionicchargese.g a 0 Ago iionecompoundreduceto owesewhole ration o mgaoz mgzoi.mg
GeneralLewisstructureGuidelines addauvalence es
2makeaskeletalstructurebyconnectingeachelementw z esrepresentedasaine
3Distributeremainingestosatisfyou.eerule commonlyhave.se checkforcommonexceptionstooctetrulespxeBeBai souenc secondperiodelementsneverexceedsesbutthirdperiodisbelowcanbetheyhaveaorbitalsthatcanbeusedforbonding 4cheerformalcharges
masspercent
Empiricalformula
combustionanalysis
molecularformula
percentageofeachelementinacompoundbymass masspercenec massorcinemacompound tooa massor imoicompound
seeerminemaarmasscontributionoreachaemene ex c no massotc amoicxiz.orgmoi moose mass izmanxi.oosgima iz.oaagnmassoaoamoioxia.oogimoi 96cogo
2 sumforeoeumassoecompound sosaguaro
3cacuatemasspercenetoreacneumene masspercent c n.oagcxioo.a uo.ooi iso.iagcut.ae
masspercent noaces nooo a ai iso www.oamassperceneor.o aa.oogoxiooios.za.i isoiaganzo
simpiesepossibleformulatoracompoundsnowingrelativenumberofdifferenttypesoratoms ratios asopposedtomolecularformula typicallycalculatedfromanalyticaldataliemassspectrometrydoesnottakeintoaccountstructureisomerismorabsoueenumber aatoms
ex acommonwhitepigmentisacompound iandow.sa.at bymass assumeoogacompoundsoso.agisenusuo.igor.co
2 convereeomois sa.agiixi.mui moi 47.88gi maarmass
nogo imao aoogo 2s mao maarmassoeo
3userelativeamountstodetermineempiricalformula moii aus io 2simao
sampieisweignedsenenburned inpresenceorexcessoxygen acarbonisconvertedtocoz anowsfordeterminationoranempiricalformula
methodsmolecularformula
excombustionanalysisofhydrocarbons c yes nozig sicozig z 20cg sina.answe.snowidbewn.ie
Ef.ekf.nm x y combustionearn
theactualformulabasedonactualnumberofatomsinthecompoundsameo.muuip.euempiricalformula ex examempiricalformulae molecularformulacan tofindmolecuartormucatromempiricaladditionalinformationneededliedensityormoecuarmassinr.co exmassoro.z.muoracompound empiricalformulac isasog molarmass asog o mo zaogmoi
2molarmassaempiricalformula 3gmoi
3actualmassis a molarmassaempiricalformulathusmolecularformulacut
andempiricalformulascompaniesmass computeratioaceuaemocarmass multiplyempiricalformulaby correspondingtothatratio empiricalformulamass 2assumei mancompound determine i contributionaelements mueipybymoiarmassorcompound divideeachaemenebyiesmolarmass eximesimacompoundcemp.rorm.c.to cnn.saoi.o.uisaoxnagms.o.ge sago mac repeaeeormoisoritsoz.orgmac
Balancing equations
stoichiometry
easemeenod
i Determinewhatreactionisoccurring writeformulas sphysicaiseaees Forreaceanesandproduces
2writetheunbalancedequation
3Balanceseareingwimostcomplicatedmolecule ex NHubcrzo is Nzlg i zoigiicrzo.is
fromgramstomous mois toealmassigi molarmassigimon
Frommolestograms toeaimasscgi moiarmasscgimonxmc.is
stoichiometriccalculations
1Baanceequationforthereactioninquestion
2convertknownmassor reactaneororoduce tomolesofthatsubstance ex msgcnn.hcr.co moHutzerzo o.osasmoiinnuhcr.co 252iginanzerzo
3usingbalancedequationgeecorrecemocaatios ex ima cnn.yszcrzozcssmav.es manz g moi 20cg macro is
4useratiostocaculatenumberosmoesotreactaneororoductorinterest eiio.osa moicnit.hcr.co manz o.osssmoinzimacnit.hcr.co
o.osasmoicnit.hcr.co matzo o.usmoiHao macnamara
a enecessaryconvertbacktograms
combinedcalculationsarequicker
ex www.massoastcnazizcizcanbemadetromoogoekzstcu oogkzpecu mockite moisten3124 300ogstlnaskazn.sgn.cn zhcz4s.ogkzptc4moikzstcumoistcnH3izazfromg moi moicompounds frommas g oroduct moicompound
solutions asolutionconsistsof asolventw a solutedissovedinie concentration moles1m04 noeeicubicdecimeereldmsj ooc.cm litreu volumeidms
imitingsExcessreagents
identifyingreagentsfromamounts
sescent eid
awhendoreactionsstop Awhenoneathereactantsrunsout In ex candlecombustionreacton us a sso za zo coz inthisscenariothehydrocarbonwaxismostlikelytorunoutfirst waxiseneimitingreagent reaceaneereoveriseneexcessreagent
determinemoreratioinbalancedequationbasedon infront aeachreactant eg Givens.ogmgsrs.ogzreauing.mg sis mg.is moingima 2 moreratios 2comparewauuaimoiecu.io basedonamountsgiven o.ogmgxmoimgo.zoamo.mg 24.3gmg iog more o.zaamoi zzss.sgzmoieraeio o.zoamoimg o.ua mgislimitingreagentbicactuaimaeratiocratioorbalancedee o.zaumor zz.aaceuaimoieraeiocbaiancedeq.moiesu.ionumerator'slimitingreagent taceuaimoieraeiosbaiancedeq.saeio.denom.naeo.islimiting
ied Actualyield
Basedonactualamount neoreticalyield 3asedonbalancedequation
AQUEOUS SOLU ONS
Aqueous aqueous cancer.erstoasoiutionwwaterastnesowenelaissoning medium
oroperties awater
sombiityinwater
ciectroites
nonelecesoites
molarity
knownconcentration volume
wateriseneuniversalsolventbootiessolarity set
a o.O covalentbondiesnaredi.bueoxygenaeomismoreeieuronegaeirecaeerause.sithaneither fractional charge atom.enustneiresspendmoretimeaeeneoxygenfacingsideoetheHaeomsorinoener st wordsmoretimeonoxygen
solarcompoundslieionicreadilydissolveinwaternonpolarcompoundshaveoursolubilityinwater
someionswhighconcentration ordissovedonsareserongelecerontesiconducecurrenewen soiubiesa.es completeyionizeinwaeerbeiowsaeuraeioniimie.donoesponeaneousiysecrysea.eeoncedissolved exinacies 2 nature cue strongacids aimosecompietendissolvedissocaeeineontions anionsdonotspontaneouslyrecombine ex ccg 20 can a iag strongbasesamostcompletelydissolvedissociateneoon ons cationsdonotspontaneouslyrecombine ea.nao.is 20 native on soutionswww.onceneraeonor dissoved.onsareweaueieceroitescconduceeiecericiey butnotverymuch weauacidsiomypareiauydisso.ve dissociateinto onssanionsdospontaneouslyrecombine on ex czscream cantoso.ae reverswe www.basesionypareiauydissowedissociaeeineooi ionsscationsexin scae azoic nituteae onrace severs.ae
noneleceroneesdissoweinwaterbueproducenoionsiennstormingnonionic solutions exmale.eu cnn.a.is cnn.a.ae doesnoespiiebuecnangespnasesromsoiidisitoaeueou.ae so doesnoecnangecnemicauybueomsicau.siencapsulated water
dilution
concentrationor soiuees.nasoiueionisder nedtnrougniesnoia.it mmoiariey moesossolute cmon itersoesolution volume exwhatistheconcentration oeeacnionwnendissowingzs.agoi.cocno.izino.io solution setermineamouneosmoiesoesolute zz.agcocno.izxmoicocnozho.zamoicoino.is sz.aagcocno.ie 2determinemoiratiosbetweenreactants.roduces cocnozi.is 20 coaiaeitzno.ca tnuseori.moioecoino.si i moicoztszmoino.ca roduced 3 caicuiaeemoiaiiey.tar.ingineoaccounetnemoiesu.io
o.zamoicocno.mx moicoat azam moicocnosxo.su
o.zamoicocno.mx amano o.szmmoicocnosxo.su
amountscanbedeterminedfromknownconcentration ex omanez.oisoiueionoi.o.omnasou.nowmucnnasoumuu.be weighedout seterminemoieso somerequired z.oisoiueionxo.omoinaso.o.ro manasa solution
2Determinemassasome
o.zomoinasoyxuz.us zs nasa manasa volumecanaisobedeterminedbyfinding oemoiesoisoiueeseeuaeingtovxmoi.co solutionrearranged v maxima
onutionietastoadditionoesowenewnochangeinamouneosomeecsuchenaries concentrationdecreases thusmoiesorsoiueeaeeudiiue.on moiesoesoiueebeeored.ution.andgivenu.ae mon.mn mini man
3ECIPTATION REACTONS
orecipitationssolubility
apes of cquaeons
occurwhenaftermixingtwosolutions asolidinsolublesubstanceformsleanedprecipitates sauswiiowsoiubiiiyn.veatendencytoprecisitate
soube Exceptions
u alkalimetalonecompounds
ignaninitytorwater s i na n abest smaucationsenusesses 8 ammoniumcompounds nai thananionssinglecharge nitratesno acarbonates co E chlorates no e aides car aidesbondedwas gii.it suratesso sulfatesbondedwascasa sa gii.it
Insoluble Exceptions carbonates co z chromates era compoundswww.aiimeeaonsor I onosphatesso.is anammoniumon s suedessa
www.einityeorwaeer ydroxides on compoundswww.aiimeea onsorsa a nsoiubie
compoundshavebondingforces bondingforces www.enceowsoiubiiitysausreaaiiyprecipieaeewnen.combinedbcbondingforcescaneasilyexceedthoseaH2o exwhatistheprecipitateturnedwhenvzero Bano solutionsmixed
Identityanionsinthesolution acan aoi Baano
2Identitypossibleprecipitantscombinationsoecationswanionstotormneueracompounds reaceane reaceane muonanos sacro salmon
3 useadda.ineotorueoueonesdeeermineau.ua precipitate
Basedon soiubiiinauescabovetabiei.anozissoiubie.aeioieaeemusebezac.ro nusazuacan sainoshiae ssacrouis zunosiae butformedaqueous
nreetes aequationstodescribereactionsinsolutions molecularequation correceseoianiomeer butnoeaonstormedarerepresentedthosethataredissolved I r can abno can zanocap 3 is
2competeionicequationrepresentsactualformsareaceanesssroducesa strongelectioneesresreseneedasons nodissoved.donoisp.it
2kcan 2 canmacau znocaa 2kcan zno caa 5 is 3neeionicequationonlythosecomponentsundergoingchangeincludedspeceaeorionsremoved spectatorion spectatorion r
2kcan a canmacau zno caa 2kcan zno caa oozes obacaei a lace 3 is a spectatorion spectatorion
oxidationstate oxidation numberisanumberassignedeoaneiementinchemical combinationrepresentingnumberosesosicveigainedi.ve oxidation stateoeatomineiementaiformisaiwayszeroioxidationseaeeoraeomincompoundisgenerauynonzero typicauycorrospondseoorouponpeabiecseeperiodicit.peab.es
soecies oxidation state Examples
