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Cheating,Corruption,andConcealment Dishonestyisubiquitousinourworld.Thenewsisfrequently filledwith high-profilecasesofcorporatefraud,large-scalecorruption,lyingpoliticians,andhypocrisyofpublic figures.Onasmallerscale,ordinary peopleoftencheat,lie,misreporttheirtaxes,andmisleadothersintheir dailylife.Despitesuchprevalenceofcheating,corruption,andconcealment,peopletypicallyconsiderthemselvestobehonestandoften believethemselvestobemoremoralthanmostothers.Thisbookaims toresolvethisparadoxbyaddressingthequestionofwhypeopleare dishonestalltoooften.Whatmotivatesdishonesty,andhowarepeople abletoperceivethemselvesasmoraldespitetheirdishonestbehavior? Whatpersonalityandinterpersonalfactorsmakedishonestymorelikely? Andwhatcanbedonetorecognizeandreducedishonesty?Thisis afascinatingoverviewofstate-of-the-artresearchondishonestywith prominentscholarsofferingtheirviewstoclarifytherootsofdishonesty.
Jan-WillemvanProoijenisassociateprofessorintheDepartmentof SocialandOrganizationalPsychologyattheVUUniversityAmsterdam andaseniorresearcherattheNetherlandsInstitutefortheStudyof CrimeandLawEnforcement(NSCR).
PaulA.M.vanLangeisProfessorofPsychologyattheVUUniversity Amsterdam,andDistinguishedResearchFellowattheUniversityof Oxford.
Cheating,Corruption,and Concealment TheRootsofDishonesty Editedby
Jan-WillemvanProoijen
VUAmsterdam
PaulA.M.vanLange
VUAmsterdam
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Firstpublished2016
AcataloguerecordforthispublicationisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData Prooijen,Jan-Willemvan,1975– editor.|Lange,PaulA.M.van,editor. Cheating,corruption,andconcealment:therootsofdishonesty/editedbyJanWillemvanProoijen,PaulA.M.vanLange. Cambridge,UK:CambridgeUniversityPress,2016.|Includesbibliographical referencesandindex.
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Listof figurespage vii
Listoftables viii
Listofcontributors ix Preface xi
1Cheating,corruption,andconcealment:anintroductionto dishonesty jan-willemvanprooijenandpaula.m.vanlange 1
3Beyond “beinggoodfreesustobebad”:moralself-licensing andthefabricationofmoralcredentials
4Deceptionasameanstoanend:aninstrumentalapproach wolfgangsteinel,lukaskoning,ericvandijk, andiljavanbeest
6Alwaystheherotoourselves:theroleofself-deceptionin unethicalbehavior
7Notformysake:preventingothersfromusingpotential beneficiaries’ benefitsasjustificationsfordishonesty scotts.wiltermuthandmedharaj
8Corruptcollaboration:abehavioralethicsapproach shaulshalvi,oriweisel,syskochavi-gamliel, andmargaritaleib
9Narcissismanddishonesty:theSACmodel w.keithcampbellandlanesiedor
10Whenbeingcreativefreesustobebad:linkingcreativity withmorallicensing
lynnec.vincentandevanpolman
11Wealthandwrongdoing:socialclassdifferencesinethical reasoningandbehavior
paulk.piff,danielm.stancato,and e.j.horberg
12Power,dishonesty,andjustice stevenl.bladerandandyj.yap
13Religion,deception,andself-deception stephanier.kramerandazimf.shariff
15Whenoppositionisbeneficial:thecaseofproductive disobedience
16Acognitiveapproachtoelicitverbalandnonverbalcuesto deceit aldertvrij,ronaldp.fisher,hartmutblank, sharonleal,andsamanthamann
5.1Exampleofamatrixusedinlaboratoryexperimentson cheating. page 78
11.1Photoseriesdepictingthecrosswalkstudywiththe confederateposingasapedestrianapproaching(top) andstandingatcrosswalk(middle)astargetvehicle failstoyield(bottom).Note:FigurereprintedfromPiff, Stancato,Côté,Mendoza-Denton,andKeltner(2012). 195
11.2Percentageofcarsthatcutoffothervehiclesatthefourwayintersection(A)orthepedestrianatthecrosswalk(B), asafunctionofvehiclestatus(1=loweststatus,5=highest status).Note:DatafromPiff,Stancato,Côté,MendozaDenton,andKeltner(2012).
196
Contributors C.DanielBatson,UniversityofKansas,Lawrence,KS,USA
StevenL.Blader,NewYorkUniversity,NewYork,NY,USA
HartmutBlank,UniversityofPortsmouth,Portsmouth,UK
PieroBocchiaro,UniversityofPalermo,Palermo,Italy
W.KeithCampbell,UniversityofGeorgia,Athens,GA,USA
DanielA.Effron,LondonBusinessSchool,London,UK
RonaldP.Fisher,FloridaInternationalUniversity,Miami,FL,USA
FrancescaGino,HarvardBusinessSchool,Boston,MA,USA
E.J.Horberg,StanfordUniversity,Stanford,CA,USA
SysKochavi-Gamliel,Ben-GurionUniversityoftheNegev,BeerSheva, Israel
LukasKoning,UniversityofAmsterdam,Amsterdam,TheNetherlands
StephanieR.Kramer,UniversityofOregon,Eugene,OR,USA
SharonLeal,UniversityofPortsmouth,Portsmouth,UK
MargaritaLeib,Ben-GurionUniversityoftheNegev,BeerSheva,Israel
SamanthaMann,UniversityofPortsmouth,Portsmouth,UK
CeliaMoore,LondonBusinessSchool,London,UK
PaulK.Piff,UniversityofCalifornia,Irvine,CA,USA
EvanPolman,UniversityofWisconsin-Madison,Madison,WI,USA
MedhaRaj,UniversityofSouthernCalifornia,LosAngeles,CA,USA
ShaulShalvi,Ben-GurionUniversityoftheNegev,BeerSheva,Israel
AzimF.Shariff,UniversityofOregon,Eugene,OR,USA
x Listofcontributors
LaneSiedor,UniversityofGeorgia,Athens,GA,USA
DanielM.Stancato,UniversityofCalifornia,Berkeley,CA,USA
WolfgangSteinel,LeidenUniversity,Leiden,TheNetherlands
IljavanBeest,TilburgUniversity,Tilburg,TheNetherlands
EricvanDijk,LeidenUniversity,Leiden,TheNetherlands
PaulA.M.vanLange,VUUniversityAmsterdam,Amsterdam, TheNetherlands
Jan-WillemvanProoijen,VUUniversityAmsterdam,Amsterdam, TheNetherlands
LynneC.Vincent,SyracuseUniversity,Syracuse,NY,USA
AldertVrij,UniversityofPortsmouth,Portsmouth,UK
OriWeisel,UniversityofNottingham,Nottingham,UK
ScottS.Wiltermuth,UniversityofSouthernCalifornia,LosAngeles, CA,USA
AndyJ.Yap,INSEAD,Singapore
Preface Protagonistsinfolkloreor fictionthatfaceamoraldilemmaarefrequently displayedwithtwometaphysical figuresontheirshoulders.Onone shoulder,they findalittleAngeltellingthemtomakeamoralchoice, whichinvolvesbeinghonest,truthful,andmindfuloftheinterestsof others.Ontheothershoulder,they findalittleDeviltellingthemto makeanimmoralchoice,whichinvolvesbeingdishonest,deceptive, andmindfuloftheirself-interestevenifitbringsaboutsubstantialharm toothers.Likeinreallife,sometimestheprotagonistfollowstheAngel’s adviceandmakesanhonestchoice,andsometimestheprotagonist followstheDevil’sadviceandmakesadishonestchoice.Thereisalso amarkeddifferencebetweenrealityand fiction,however.Whereasin fictionitisofteneasytoseewhichchoicerepresentstheAngelandwhich representstheDevil,inreallifepeopleoftenseemtolacktheabilityorthe motivationtorecognizetheDevilforwhatheis.Indeed,acorethemeof thisbookisthatpeoplehaveastrongtendencytojustifytheirown immoralactionstothemselvesandtopersuadethemselvesthatthedishonestythattheycommittedactuallywasquitehonestoratleast legitimate.
Thisbookfocusesontherootsofdishonesty.Astheaboveexample illustrates,dishonestyinvolvesmorethanonlyselfishmotivation.Italso involvesarangeofothercomplementarypsychologicaldynamicssuchas self-justification,self-deception,impressionmanagement,feelingsof entitlement,personality,interpersonaldynamics,situationalinfluences, andsometimesevenprosocialmotivation.Foracompleteunderstanding ofthequestionastowhypeopleoftenaredishonest,appreciatingallthese factorsisnecessary.Furthermore,thecomplexityoftheseissuesconstitutesachallengeforeffortstopreventorreducedishonesty.Inorderto successfullyinduceanti-corruptionmeasures,reliableliedetection,and socialmonitoringthatiseffectivewithoutbeingintrusive,itisessentialto takethesemicro-levelprocessesunderlyingdishonestbehaviorinto account.
Dishonestyisnotonlypsychologicallycomplexbutalsoomnipresentin society.Almostonadailybasisonecanreadnewsreportsofcheating, corruption,andconcealment,includinglyingpoliticians,corruptofficials andbusinesspeople,bribedpublicemployees,cheatingsportsmen,and prolificlawyersdoingillegalbusinesswithcriminals.Moredisturbingly, thereismuchmoredishonestythatnevermakesittothenewsandthat oftengoesunpunished.Indevelopingcountries,corruptionissometimes soingrainedinpoliticalinstitutionsthatitisjustanormalpartofeveryday lifeforcitizens.Largenumbersofpeopleadmitinanonymoussurveysto havingcheatedontheirspouses.Also,inourownacademicworksituationweoccasionallyencounterdishonesty,suchasthewell-documented casesoffraudamongcolleaguesinthe fieldorthelesswell-documented casesofstudentswhoplagiarizeapaperfromtheInternet – andnodoubt sometimesstudentsmanagetosuccessfullydeceiveus.Whetheritis throughcheating(i.e.,individuallybreakingrules),corruption(i.e.,collaborativelybreakingrules),orconcealment(i.e.,deliberatelydeceiving others),atalllevelsandinallsettingsdishonestycan,andsometimes does,occur.
Thisbookoncheating,corruption,andconcealmentwasinspiredby thetwonotionsthat(1)dishonestyisamultifacetedpsychologicalphenomenonand(2)itoccursfrequentlyinsocietyandcanbearealproblem withfar-rangingconsequences.Furthermore,thepastdecadehasseen asurgeofempiricalresearchonthepsychologyofdishonestbehavior. Wethereforedecidedtoaskprominentscholars,whoconductstate-ofthe-artresearchonthistopic,tocontributeachapterinwhichthey describetheirviewsonthisphenomenon.Manyofthemsharedour enthusiasmforthisprojectandgenerouslycontributedachapterwith theirideas.Weareextremelygratefultoallthesescholarsfortheirefforts; withoutthem,thisprojectwouldnothavebeenpossible.Weorganized theircontributionsinthebookbydividingthemintofourpartsthat addressthefollowinginterrelatedquestions:(1)Whatmotivatesdishonesty?(2)Howdopeoplejustifydishonestytothemselves?(3)What individualandinterpersonalfactorsinfluencedishonesty?(4)Whatcan bedonetoreducedishonesty?Thesefourpartsallaredesignedtoinform thereaderofthebroaderissueofwhycheating,corruption,andconcealmentaresuchaprevalentphenomenoninourworld.
Besidesthescholarsthatcontributedachapter,wealsowouldliketo thankHettyMarxfromCambridgeUniversityPressforembarkingwith usonthisproject.Furthermore,wethankJankaRomero,whotookover Hetty’stasksduringhermaternityleave,aswellasotheremployeesfrom CambridgeUniversityPressthatcontributedtothebook.Moregenerally put,thisisoursecondbookprojectwithCambridgeUniversityPress,and
forasecondtimetheyprovedtobeapleasantandprofessionalpublisher toworkwith.Atourowndepartment,wewouldliketoparticularlythank FrancescaRighettiandNilsKöbis.Withthem,wecurrentlyworkon aresearchprojectoncorruption(fundedbytheDutchnationalscience foundationNWO,grantnumber406-12-003)whichwillformthebasis ofthePhDbyNilsKöbis.Ourextensivediscussionswiththemonthis topicwereofinvaluablehelp,andarichsourceofinspiration,when preparingtheproposalthatultimatelyledtothisbook.
Whileitisclearthattherearemanynegativeaspectsassociatedwith dishonesty,perhapsweshouldendbyalsonotingoneofitspositive features:Thereislittleasfascinatingasthedarksideofhumannature, andscholarswillcontinuetobeinterestedintherootsofdishonestyinthe comingdecades.Theinsightsthatareofferedinthisbookareareflection ofthecurrentstateoftheartofthisresearchdomain.Theseinsightsmay helpresearchersandstudentsinthesocialsciencescomeupwithnew theoriesandresearchideastofurtherexplorethedynamicsofdishonesty. Practitionersmaybenefitfromsomeoftheinsightsthatthisbookoffers bybetterunderstandingwhypeoplesometimesaredishonest,whenone canexpectmostcheating,corruption,andconcealment,andwhatcanbe donetoreducethelikelihoodofsuchdishonesty.Whetheryouare aresearcher,student,practitioner,orareaderthatisgenerallycurious aboutthistopic,wehopethatyouconsidertheinsightsthatthepresent bookoffersnotonlyintriguingbutalsousefulinpursuingyourhonest goals.
Cheating,corruption,andconcealment Anintroductiontodishonesty Jan-WillemvanProoijenandPaulA.M.vanLange
Peoplecanbedishonestcreatures.Manyexaggeratetheirachievements,downplaytheirmoralfailures,lieaboutthenumberofhours theyhaveputintoacollaborativeproject,andcheatontheirspouses. Whenreportingincometaxes,manypeoplearetemptedtostrategically “forget” theirsourcesofincome.Treasurersofprofessional organizationsarefoundtotransfercollectivefundstotheirprivate account.Also,prominentpeopleinsocietyareregularlycaughtperformingdishonestbehavior.Thepastdecadehasseenvarious instancesofhigh-pro fi lecorporatefraudcases,inwhichpowerful managersembezzledlargesumsofmoneyordeliberatelymisrepresentedtheirpro fi tstostakeholders.Politiciansthatpubliclystandup fortraditionalfamilyvalueshavebeendiscoveredinshadyhotel roomswithprostitutes.Proli fi cscientistshavecommittedplagiarism ordatafraud.Infact,atthemomentofwritingthischapter,the FédérationInternationaledeFootballAssociation(FIFA)corruption scandalisstillunfolding,andmanyhigh-rankedof fi cialshavebeen arrestedunderthechargeofacceptingbribeswhenallocatingimportantsoccertournamentstocompetingcountries.Clearly,dishonestyis partofhumannatureandcanbefoundinalllayersofsociety.
Dishonestycanhurttoo.Inmanyinterdependentsocialsituations, pursuingself-interestisattheexpenseoftheinterestsofothers(Van Lange,Balliet,Parks,&VanVugt, 2014),andhencedishonestycan substantiallyharmitsvictims.TheinfamousformerNational AssociationofSecuritiesDealersAutomatedQuotations(NASDAQ) ChairmanBernardMadoffrobbedmanypeopleoftheirlifesavings withhisPonzischeme.Nationalgovernmentsmissoutonvaluable resources – whichcouldbeusedtoimprovehealthcare,education,social security,infrastructure,ordevelopingaid – duetowidespreadtaxevasion ofcitizensandcompanies.Corruptionisamajorimpedimenttoeconomicprogress,particularlyindevelopmentalcountries – therebyperpetuatingpovertyamongthemostvulnerablepeopleintheworld.Finally, impactful,high-profileincidentsofdishonestycauseanerosionofpublic
trust,leadingtonegativeemotionsanddestructivebehaviorsamong citizens(VanProoijen&VanLange, 2014).
Thereisaparadoxintheprevalentandperniciousnatureofdishonesty though:Mostpeopleclaimthatmoralityisaprimarymotivationoftheir behavior.Specifically,peoplehavebeenfoundtocaresubstantiallyabout justiceandfairness,astheydisplaystrongemotionalandbehavioral reactionswhentheybelievethemselvestobeunfairlytreated(Van Prooijen,VandenBos,&Wilke, 2004),aswellaswhentheybelieve thatotherswereunfairlytreated(Kahneman,Knetsch,&Thaler, 1986). Ininterdependentsocialsituations,peoplestabilizecooperationand group-orientedbehaviorsbypunishingselfishness,aresponsethatis drivenbyanger-basedemotions(Fehr&Gächter, 2002).The “betterthan-average” effectisparticularlystronginthemoraldomain,asmost peoplebelievethemselvestobemorelikelytodisplaymoralbehaviors thanothers(Allison,Messick,&Goethals, 1989;VanLange, 1991). Finally,peoplefrequentlyactmorally,astheydisplayaltruistic,otherorientedbehavior,helpothersinneed,anddisplaysubstantialprosocial motivation(e.g.,Sober&Wilson, 1998).Allinall,peoplearemoral beings,haveadesiretoseethemselvesasmoral,claimnottocommit dishonestythemselves,andresentdishonestycommittedbyothers.How canwereconciletheseinsightswiththenotionthatdishonestyissuch awidespreadphenomenonintheworld?
Onesteptowardresolvingthisparadoxisbyrecognizingthatdishonestyismorecomplexthantheassertionof “HomoEconomicus” that people’sbehaviorismotivatedsolelybythepursuitofmaterialselfinterestandarationalcalculationofcostsandbenefitsinsocialexchanges (seealsoSteinel,Koning,vanDijk,&vanBeest, Chapter4,thisvolume). Indeed,dishonestyismorelikelytobeamultifacetedphenomenonthat involvesacombinationofself-interest,self-justification,self-serving biases,moralconcerns(suchasfeelingsofentitlement),andarangeof personalityandsituationalinfluences.Thus,atamacro-levelitisundeniablethatdishonestyoccursfrequently,butitisnotfullyclearwhy,at amicro-level,peoplegiveintothetemptationofdishonestyalltoooften. Inthepresentbook,ourmaingoalwastoscrutinizethecomplex dynamicsregardingthepsychologyofdishonestbehavioratthemicrolevel.Forthispurpose,weinvitedprominentsocialscientists,withsubstantialresearchexpertiseonthistopic,tocontributeachapterinwhich theysharetheirviewsonthenature,origins,andinfluencesofdishonest behavior.Thesechapterswereorganizedinfourpartswithinthebook,in ordertoaddressfourinterrelatedquestionsaboutdishonesty:(1)What motivatesdishonesty?(2)Howcanpeoplecommitdishonestywhile maintainingthattheyaregood,moralpersons?(3)Whatindividualor 2
situationalfactorsmakedishonestbehaviormorelikely?(4)Whatcanwe dotoreducedishonesty?
Inthefollowing,wewill firstconceptualizedishonestyandilluminate thevariouswaysinwhichpeoplecanbedishonest.Althoughitmaybe difficult,ifnotimpossible,tocaptureallthepossibleactsofdishonestyin acomprehensivetaxonomy,wewillmakethecaseforaparsimonious approachinwhichweproposethreecomplementarydishoneststrategies: “Cheating” (i.e.,individuallybendingorbreakingrulestogainanunfair advantageforselforothers), “Corruption” (i.e.,bendingorbreaking rulesincollaborationwithotherstogainanunfairadvantageforselfor others),and “Concealment” (i.e.,misrepresentingorwithholdinginformationtomisleadothers).Wespecificallyarguethatmostactsofdishonestycontainatleastone,andoftenmore,oftheseelements.After that,webrieflyintroducethefourpartsinthebook,alongwithallthe chapters.
Cheating,corruption,andconcealment Althoughtherearemanywaysinwhichonecanbedishonest,most actsofdishonestyarecharacterizedbyasetofstructuralelements. Wetrytocapturetheseelementsbyidentifyingthreeinterrelated strategiesthatpeoplemayendorsetoacquireanunfairadvantagefor themselvesorothers,namelycheating,corruption,andconcealment. Importantly,thesearenotmutuallyexclusivecategoriesofdishonesty: Oftenpeopleusemultipledishoneststrategiesintandemtoreach theirgoals.Forinstance,manyactsofcheatingalsocontain anecessaryelementofconcealment.Acaseinpointistaxevasion, whichclearlyisanactofcheatingasitinvolvesindividuallybreaking rulesandnormsimposedbyone’snationalgovernmentregardingthe requirementtopayincometax.Atthesametime,taxevasionalso utilizesthestrategyofconcealment,asitinvolvesamisrepresentation ofinformation(inthiscase,theactualincomeonehasearnedover ayear).Anothercaseinpointisbribery:Engaginginsuchacorrupt collaborationdoesnotexcludethepossibilitythatoneofthepartners violatesthecorruptagreementatsomepoint(i.e.,individuallycheatingonthecorruptionpartner).Moreover,successfullymaintaining suchacorruptcollaborationinthelongrunmaynecessarilyinvolve amisrepresentationofinformationtowardtheoutsideworldinorder toavoidsuspicion(i.e.,concealment).Assuch,cheating,corruption, andconcealmentshouldberegardedasinterrelatedelementsofdishonesty,andfrequentlypeoplecombinemultiplestrategiestoreach theirgoals.
Thestrategyofcheatingisbasedontherecognitionthatrules,regulations,andinformalnormsconstrainpeople’spossibilitiestogetaheadin theirpursuitofwealth,pleasure,fame,andsuccess.Suchformalor informalrulesareinplaceforvariousreasons,onebeingtoensure alevelplaying fieldwherealltherelevantpeoplehaveequalchancesof success.Utilizingperformance-enhancingdrugsisforbiddeninprofessionalcycling,astheyprovideanillegitimateadvantageovercycliststhat refrainfromsuchdrugs.Cheating,thus,isthedishoneststrategyof gettingaheadbybreakingtherules – inthiscase,byusingforbidden drugstowinaprofessionalcyclingcompetition.Otherexamplesofdishonestythatclearlyincorporatecheatingarestealing,illegitimateabuseof power,theuseofforeknowledgetogetabusinessadvantage,anddata fraudamongscientists.
Thestrategyofcorruptionisalsobasedontherecognitionthatoccasionallybreakingtherulesmaybeinstrumentalinhelpingonetogainan unfaircompetitiveadvantage.However,frequentlycheatersneedthe helpofotherstobesuccessfulatthis.Afteraprofessionalcyclisthas decidedtocheatthecompetitionbyutilizingperformance-enhancing drugs,hemayrealizethathewillneedthehelpofadoctorwhohasaccess tosuchdrugsandwhoisknowledgeableaboutissuessuchaswhento administerthedrugs,whattheappropriatedosesare,andhowtoavoid gettingcaught.Theintroductionofsuchacorruptcollaborationintroducesnewdynamicsintothedishonestact,suchastrustandloyalty betweencorruptionpartnersandtheexpectedpayoffforeachcorruption partner(e.g.,thedoctorisunlikelytohelpthecyclistforfree;moreover, thereismoreriskinvolvedforthecyclistasthedoctormightblowthe whistleeventually).Corruptionextendsthestrategyofcheatingbycreatingafunctionalnetworkofmultipledishonestactors.Otherexamplesof dishonestythatinvolvecorruptionarebribery,organizedcrime,and large-scaleformsoffraudthatnecessarilyinvolvemultipleaccomplices (e.g.,riggedelections).
Thestrategyofconcealmentisbasedontheideathatonepersonoften hasinformationthatotherslack,andpeoplecanstrategicallyusesuch informationasymmetrytotheirbenefit.Whereaspassivelyconcealing informationmaynotconstitutedishonestyinallcases(e.g.,in negotiationsitcanbedefensible,andevendesirable,tonotbetooopen aboutthemaximumpriceoneiswillingtopayforaproduct),itcanbean actofdishonestywhenoneusessuchinformationasymmetrytointentionallymisleadothers.Oftendishonestcyclistsareabletopassivelyhide theiractssimplybynottalkingabouttheiruseofperformance-enhancing drugs.Sometimes,however,theyneedtoresorttoamoredeceptiveform ofconcealmentbyexplicitlylying,exacerbatingthedishonestythatthey
werealreadycommitting.ForyearsLanceArmstrongwassubjectto allegationsofusingperformance-enhancingdrugs,andforyearshe activelydeniedtheseallegations(untilfurtherdenialwasnolongercredibleinlightofanenormousamountofincriminatingevidence) – heeven pressedlegalchargesagainsttheUnitedStatesAnti-DopingAgency (USADA)forslander.Intheend,thisgavehimthereputationofbeing aliar,aboveandbeyondbeingacheater.Concealment,thus,referstothe actofdeceptionbydeliberatelymisrepresentinginformation.Other examplesofdishonestythatincorporatetheelementofconcealmentare politiciansnotsharingcrucialinformationwiththeparliament,notdisclosingdefectswhensellingaproduct,exaggeratingone’sachievements, ormisinformingstakeholdersofcompanies.
Overviewofthebook Throughoutthebook,prominentscholarswilladdressthepsychologyof dishonesty,characterizedbytheelementsofcheating,corruption,and concealment.Thebookissubdividedintofourparts.Inthe firstpart, “Motivationsfordishonesty,” threechapterswillexaminethequestionof howdishonestyemerges.Arepeopletrulymorallymotivated,ordothey justwanttoappearmoral?Canevidencesuggestingthatoneisamoral personactuallymotivatesubsequentdishonestbehaviors,byproviding amoralself-license?And,whatgoalsdopeoplehaveinmindwhen deceivingothers – arethesegoalsnecessarilyalwaysselfish?
Inthesecondpart, “Justifyingdishonesty,” fourchaptersaddressthe questionofhowpeopleareabletoreconciletheiractsofdishonestywith theirperceptionofthemselvesasamoralperson.Tothisend,various aspectsofsuchaself-justificationprocessarehighlighted.Howmorally flexiblearepeople?Howdopeopledeceivethemselvesintobelievingthey actedmorally,despitethefactthattheiractionsactuallywerequite dishonest?Towhatextentdopeopleutilizethebenefitsforothersto justifyactsofdishonesty – andwhatdoesthisimplyfortheemergenceof corruptnetworks?
Thethirdpart, “Influencesondishonesty,” addressesthequestionof whatindividualandinterpersonalvariablesarelikelytoincreasethelikelihoodofdishonesty.Howexactlyisnarcissismrelatedtodishonesty?Are creativepeoplemorelikelytobedishonest?Canweexpectmostdishonestyamongthewealthysocietal “elites” (i.e.,highsocial-economicstatus) oramongpeoplewithrelativelylowsocial-economicstatus?Doespower corrupt – andifso,whyexactly?
Thefourthpart, “Reducingdishonesty,” examinesfactorsthatmight decreasetheprevalenceofdishonestyinsociallife.Howeffectiveis
religion,andreligiousactivity,inreducingdishonestbehavior?Canpeoplebe “nudged” towardmoreethicalbehaviorbyimplementingminor changesinthedirectphysicalenvironment?Whatcanwedotoincrease people’scapacitytoresistimmoralnorms?Andhowcaninterviewers find outifpeoplearelyingortellingthetruth?Inthefollowing,theindividual chaptersofthesefourgeneralpartsareintroducedinmoredetail.
PartI:Motivationsfordishonesty Inthe firstpartofthebook, “Motivationsfordishonesty,” threechapters willilluminatesomeoftheunderlyingpsychologicalprocessesthatdrive peopletowarddishonestbehavior.In Chapter2,C.DanielBatson addressesthebasicquestionofwhypeopleoftenfailtoactmorally throughamotivationallens.Specifically,heposesthequestionasto whetherpeoplearemotivatedbymoralintegrity(i.e.,adesiretobe moral)orwhethertheyaremotivatedbymoralhypocrisy(i.e.,adesire to appear moralwhile,ifpossible,avoidingthecostofactuallybeing moral).Thechapterpresentsanoverviewofalineofresearchwhere peoplearefacedwithamoraldilemmathatprovidesthemwiththe opportunitytodisplayeithermoralintegrityormoralhypocrisy. Theevidencethatemergesfromthislineofresearchsupportstheidea thatpeoplearemotivatedbymoralhypocrisy,butitofferslittlesupport fortheideathatpeoplearemotivatedbymoralintegrity.Batsonsubsequentlyoffersvariousexplanationsforthese findings.
In Chapter3,DanielA.Effronexaminesthepossibilitythatevidence thatoneisamoral,virtuouspersonmayactuallymotivatesubsequent actsofdishonesty.Specifically,peopleoftenfabricatemoralcredentials –thatis,evidencethattheyhaveavirtuouscharacter – whichinturngives themalicensetodisplayanincidentofdishonestbehavior.Putdifferently,ahistoryofgooddeedsinducesthefeelingthatoneshouldbe allowedtocommitasinglebaddeed.Effronarguesthat,besidesactual gooddeeds,peoplehavevariousalternativesourcesofmoralcredentials attheirdisposalthatfreethemtobedishonest.Specifically,peoplecan createamorallicenseforthemselvesbecausetheyintendtodogood deeds,becausetheyhavenotcommittedbaddeedsintherecentpast, becausetheywouldhavedonegooddeedsifthesituationhadbeen different,orbecausetheyidentifywithpeoplethatcommittedgood deeds.Thechaptercloseswithadiscussionofvariousstrategiesfor creatingsuchmoralcredentialsandbroaderimplicationsoftheprocess ofmorallicensing.
ThecontributionbySteinel,Koning,vanDijk,andvanBeest (Chapter4),then,specificallyfocusesonthemotivationsthatbargainers
havetodeceiveothers.Arethesemotivesnecessarilyalwaysselfishin nature?AccordingtoSteinelandcolleagues,pureself-interestisatoo narrowapproachforacompleteunderstandingofdeception.Instead, theyofferaninstrumentalapproachthatpositsdeceptiontobeafunction ofthegoalsthatbargainershaveandthemeansthattheyhaveattheir disposaltopursuethesegoals.Forinstance,sometimesdeceptionmaybe usedtoattainprosocialinsteadofselfishgoals;moreover,deceptive bargainingstrategiesmayvaryintheireffectivenessacrosssituations, whichinfluencesbargainers’ tendencytoconsideralternativemeansto reachtheirgoals.
PartII:Justificationsofdishonesty Oneoverarchingthemethatstandsoutinsomeofthechaptersof PartI is atensionbetweenadesiretobeamoralpersonontheonehandand adesiretoreapthebenefitsofdishonestyontheotherhand(e.g.,see Batson, Chapter2;Effron, Chapter3,thisvolume).Thechaptersin Part II zoominonthistensionbetweentheseseeminglyincompatiblemotives. Howcanpeoplemaintaintobemoraliftheycommitdishonesty?
In Chapter5,FrancescaGinointroducestheconceptofmoral flexibility: thatis,people’s “abilitytojustifytheirimmoralactionsbygenerating multipleanddiverserationalesforwhytheseactionsareethicallyappropriate.” Inthechapter,Ginoilluminateshowskilledpeopleareat finding justificationsfortheirdishonestbehavior.Moreover,sheintroducesfactorsthatfacilitatepeople’scapacitytoself-justifyunethicalactsand proposesavenuesforfurtherresearchonmoral flexibility.
In Chapter6,CeliaMoorefocusesontherelatedphenomenonofselfdeceptioninunethicalbehavior:Throughbiasedreasoningprocesses, peopleareabletoperceivethemselvesasthe “heroesoftheirownnarratives,” despitetheirdishonestactionssuggestingthecontrary.Moore specificallyfocusesonthreestrategiestodeceivetheselfintobelieving onehasactedmorallyafteranactofdishonesty.Thesethreestrategiesare motivatedattention(i.e.,selectivelyattendingto,orignoring,informationtoupholdamoralviewoftheself),motivatedconstrual(i.e.,redefiningone’simmoralactionstomakethemjustifiable),andmotivatedrecall (i.e.,selectiveforgetting,remembering,orinventingofinformationto upholdaviewoftheselfasmoral).Thechapterconcludesbyaddressing thequestionastowhatextentself-deceptionisadaptive.
Whereastheprevioustwochaptersfocusontheself(throughmoral flexibility,orself-deception)injustifyingdishonesty,thenexttwochaptersextendtheseinsightsbyincorporatingthequestionofhowpeople mayutilizetheoutcomesofotherswhenjustifyingtheirdishonest
behaviors.In Chapter7,WiltermuthandRajmakethecasethatpeople aremorelikelytodisplaydishonestbehavioriftheycanplausiblypersuadethemselvesthatothersbenefittedfromtheirdishonesty.Besides relativelyinnocent “whitelies,” suchdishonestycanalsotakeonmore perniciousforms,aspeoplemayjustifydishonestythatbene fitsthemselvesthroughthecognitionthatitalsobenefitsothers.Theauthorsthen extensivelysuggestremediestopreventother-benefittingdishonesty.
Chapter8 byShalvi,Weisel,Kochavi-Gamliel,andLeibextendsthese insightsbydiscussingtheimplicationsofsuchother-benefittingdishonestyinthecontextofcorruption.Whydopeopleformcorruptnetworksin whichtheycooperatetoachievegoalsthatharmthecollectiveinterest? Shalviandcolleaguesarguethatoneimportantfactoristherecognition thatcorruptionservestheinterestofthecorruptionpartner.Ifpeople believethatdishonestybenefitsnotonlythemselvesbutalsotheircorruptionpartner,thentheyarebetterabletojustifysuchdishonesty. Asaconsequence,theexpectedbenefitsfortheoutcomesofotherscan motivatepeopletoengageincorruptcollaborations,byreinforcing abeliefthattheyareservingagreatergood.
PartIII:Influencesondishonesty The first and second parts ofthebookdescribethebasicpsychological processesunderlyingdishonestbehavior.Itstandstoreason,however, thatnotallindividualsareequallysusceptibletotheseprocesses,and henceonecanexpectsubstantialvariationinthetendencytobedishonest.The thirdpart ofthebookisdesignedtoexamineindividualand interpersonalvariablesthatarelikelytopredisposepeopletowarddishonesty.In Chapter9,CampbellandSiedorfocusonnarcissism, apersonalitytraitthatfrequentlyhasbeenlinkedtodishonesty.They describethebasicprocessesassociatedwithnarcissismanddishonesty, andprovideanoverviewoftheliteratureonthislinkinappliedsituations. Attheendofthechapter,theauthorspresentanovelmodel – theSAC (Self-enhancing,Adaptive,andCallous)model – toilluminatehowthree keyfactorsmoderatethelinkbetweennarcissismanddishonesty.
In Chapter10,VincentandPolmanexplorethedarksideofcreativity byexaminingthequestionastowhatextentitleadstodishonesty(seealso Gino, Chapter5,thisvolume).Theyspecificallyarguethatinoursociety creativityisconsideredavaluableattributethatisnecessaryforinnovation,whichprovidescreativepeoplewithasenseofstatusandentitlement.Asaconsequence,creativityprovidespeoplewithamorallicenseto behavebadly.VincentandPolmanthenaddressthequestionofwhether
creativitywithoutdishonestyispossibleandsuggestavenuesforfurther research.
Whereas Chapters9 and 10 addressindividualattributesthatinfluence dishonesty, Chapters11 and 12 addressinterpersonalattributes. In Chapter11,Piff,Stancato,andHorbergexaminethequestionof howsocialclass(theextenttowhichoneiswealthy,educated,and employedinaprestigiousjob)isrelatedtodishonesty.Theirbasicargumentisthatpeoplehighinsocialclasstendtobemoreorientedtoward theirowninternalstatesandgoalsandthatpeoplelowinsocialclasstend tobemoreorientedtowardthesocialcontextandotherindividuals. Asaconsequence,highsocialclassisassociatedwithmoredishonesty. Piffandcolleaguesextensivelydiscusstheevidenceforthisassertionand establishboundaryconditionsandmitigatingfactorsforthiseffect.
In Chapter12,then,BladerandYapfocusonsocialpower.They first focusonthequestionastowhetherpowercorruptsandreviewevidence thatitoftendoes.Themainissue,then,ishowtoexplainthislink:How canpowerleadtodishonesty?Contrarytothecommonviewthatpeople highinpowerlackamotivationforjustice,BladerandYaparguethat powerholdersareconcernedaboutjusticeasmuchaspeoplewholack power.However,duetothepsychologicaldynamicsthatareassociated withsocialpower,powerholdersconstruejusticedifferently,leadingto dishonestactsthattheythemselvesbelievetobefair.Putdifferently, powercancorruptnotdespitepowerholders’ justicemotivesbutbecause oftheirjusticemotives.
PartIV:Reducingdishonesty Understandingtherootsofdishonestyisonething;understandinghowto reducedishonestyisquiteanotherchallenge.Thechaptersinthe fourth part ofthebookaddresstheissueofhowtoreduce,standupagainst,or recognizedishonesty.In Chapter13,KramerandShariffexaminethe relationbetweenreligionanddishonesty.Religionsoftenplace apremiumonhonestyasacorevirtue,andpeoplefrequentlyassume thatreligiouspeoplearemorehonest.Theauthorscriticallyexaminethis claim.Theyrevealthatreligiousprimingandreligiousactivitydecrease dishonesty,butonlyintheshortrun.Furthermore,contrarytocommon assumptions,intrinsicreligiousnessisnotassociatedwithdecreased dishonesty.Religiouspeopleself-reportmorehonesty,butacloserexaminationoftheevidencerevealsthatthisismainlyduetoincreasedselfenhancementmotives,involvingeitherunconsciousself-deceptionor evenadeliberatelymisleadingformofimpressionmanagement.
In Chapter14,AndyYapexamineshowordinaryaspectsofthephysicalspacethatpeoplefunctionincaninfluencetheirethicalorunethical behaviors.Yapspecificallydiscussestheeffectsofillumination(i.e.,the influenceofdarkvs.lightenvironments),physicalspaciousness(e.g., workspacesthatyieldexpansiveorcontractedbodilypostures),density (i.e.,overcrowding),physicalcleanliness,andorderlinessofthephysical environmentonthelikelihoodofhonestversusdishonestbehaviors.He furtherdiscussespotentialmoderatorsoftheseeffectsandprovidesavenuesforfutureresearch.Theseinsightsmayprovidepracticaltools, whicharerelativelyeasytoimplement,toreducedishonesty.
In Chapter15,PieroBocchiarofocusesonthequestionastowhen peopleareinclinedtoresistdishonesty.Hespecificallyfocusesonproductivedisobedience,whichhedefinesasa “peacefulnoncompliance withnormsorlawsthat,iffollowed,wouldhinderthemoralprogressof society.” Examplesarewhistleblowingorrefusingtocomplywith immoralnorms,laws,orrequests.Bocchiarodiscussesthedistinctions betweenproductiveversuscivildisobedienceandpresentsanovellineof researchthatinvestigatesthisphenomenoninthelab.Hethendelineates situationalfactorsthatincreasepeople’scapacitytoresistdishonesty throughproductivedisobedience.
Inthe finalchapter,Chapter16,Vrij,Fisher,Blank,Leal,andMann examinethephenomenonofliedetection.Specifically,whatcaninterviewersdoto findoutifsomeoneistellingthetruth?Theseauthors introducethecognitiveliedetectionapproach,whichinvolvesthecomplementarytechniquesofimposingcognitiveloadoninterviewees, encouragingthemtoprovidemoredetailthroughvariousmethods,and askingunexpectedquestions.Liars findithardertocopewiththese techniquesthantruthtellers.Theauthorsalsopresentaqualitativereview ofrelevantstudiesandconcludethatthecognitiveliedetectionapproach ismoreeffectiveinelicitingcuesthatindicatedeceitthanastandard approach.
Concludingremarks Takentogether,thechaptersinthisvolumeallseektosolvepartofthe puzzleofwhypeopleareoftendishonestthroughcheating,corruption, andconcealment.Admittedly,manyoftheinsightsprovidedheremay giverisetopessimismabouthumannature,anditisunderstandableif readingthisbookdecreasesthetrustthatoneiswillingtoplaceinothers. Perhapsweshouldthereforeconcludethisintroductorychapterbyreiteratingthatbesidescheating,corruption,andconcealment,honesty,justice,andaltruismarealsopartofbeinghuman.Indeed,throughoutthe
ageshumanityhasmadesubstantialmoralprogress,andpeopleofthe presentaremoreconcernedwithavoidingharmandincreasingthewellbeingofothersthanpeopleofthepast(Pinker, 2011).Nevertheless,in ordertocontinuemakingmoralprogress,athoroughunderstandingof thepsychologyofdishonestyisessentialtodevelopscientifically groundedinterventionsthatstimulatetruth,justice,andmoraldecisionmaking.Withthiseditedvolume,ourintentionwastocontributetothis broadergoal.Weparticularlyhopethatthechaptersinthisbookmay stimulatescientists,practitioners,andthegeneralreadertonotonly appreciatehowpowerfulthetemptationofdishonestycanbebutalso comeupwithnewresearchquestions,theoreticalideas,orpractical interventionsthathelptomaketheworldamorehonestplace.
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VanLange,P.A.M.,Balliet,D.P.,Parks,C.D.,&VanVugt,M.(2014). Social dilemmas:Thepsychologyofhumancooperation. OxfordUniversityPress. VanProoijen,J.-W.,VandenBos,K.,&Wilke,H.A.M.(2004).Theroleof standinginthepsychologyofproceduraljustice:Towardstheoreticalintegration.InW.Stroebe&M.Hewstone(Eds.), Europeanreviewofsocialpsychology (Vol. 15,pp.33–58).EastSussex,England:PsychologyPress. VanProoijen,J.-W.,&VanLange,P.A.M.(Eds.)(2014). Power,politics,and paranoia:Whypeoplearesuspiciousoftheirleaders. Cambridge,UK:Cambridge UniversityPress.
PartI Motivationsfordishonesty 2 Moralmotivation Acloserlook C.DanielBatson
Scienti ficexplanationsofourmoralfailurestendtobeoftwotypes. Thosewhoapproachtheproblemfromtheperspectivesofsociallearning,characterdevelopment,moralreasoning,ormoralintuitionarelikely toblamebadjudgment.Ifaperson’sbehaviorisnotadequatelycontrolledbyhisorherstandards,heorshemustnothavelearnedthe standardswellenough(Bandura, 1991;Burton&Kunce, 1995)orin therightway(Hoffman, 1977),ormustnothavereachedthenecessary levelofmoralreasoning(Kohlberg, 1976).Orperhapsthispersonhas adeficientmoralfaculty,failingtoheedtheintuitivevoiceofmoral feelingandsentiment(Damasio, 1994;Greene, 2013;Greene, Sommerville,Nystrom,Darley,&Cohen, 2001;Haidt, 2001, 2012; Prinz, 2006).
Thosewhoapproachtheproblemfromasocial-influenceperspective arelikelytoblamesituationalpressures:ordersfromthoseincharge (Milgram, 1974),pluralisticignorance(Latané&Darley, 1968),diffusionofresponsibility(Darley&Latané, 1968),organizationalnorms (Darley, 1992),andthelike.Combinethesesituationalpressureswith (a)thegeneralityandabstractnessofmostmoralprinciples(befair;dono harm)and(b)thewell-knownhumancapacitiesforselectiveperception andrationalization,andtheresultislikelytobe moralexclusion (Staub, 1990) – excludingcertainpeoplefromthosedeservingmoraltreatment –or moraldisengagement (Bandura, 1999) – deactivationofmoralselfregulatorymechanisms.Theproblemisnotbadjudgment;itisthe strengthofcountervailingpressure.
Lookingatmoralmotivation Ibelievethereistruthineachofthesestandardexplanationsofmoral failure.Atthesametime,Ibelievethatneither,northetwocombined,is thewholetruth.Weneedtoconsiderthenatureofmoralmotivationas well.Incontrasttotheoptimisticassumptionthatmoralindividualsare motivatedtoactinaccordwithmoralprinciplesasanultimategoal,
