Water Sensitive Urban Design

WATER SENSITIVE URBAN DESIGN as An Integrated Approach For Enhancing Climate Resilience In Urban Systems

A Case Study of Tirana, Albania

by Suela Poçi | October 2021

HafenCity University

RESOURCE EFFICIENCY IN ARCHITECTURE AND PLANNING

WATER SENSITIVE URBAN DESIGN as

An Integrated Approach For Enhancing Climate Resilience In Urban Systems

A Case Study of Tirana, Albania

by Suela Poçi | October 2021

HafenCity University RESOURCE EFFICIENCY IN ARCHITECTURE AND PLANNING This thesis was presented to HafenCity University, in fulfillment of the requirements of the Master of Science Degree Program in Resource Efficiency in Architecture and Planning

Author:

Suela Poçi - 6058004

Supervised by: Prof. Dr.-Ing. Wolfgang Dickhaut Dr. Dóra Csizmadia

Hamburg, 2021

Declaration of Authorship / Affidavit

Hereby I declare that I have written this thesis with the title: “Water Sensitive Urban Design as an integrated approach for enhancing climate resilience in urban systems. A study case of Tirana, Albania.” without any help from others and without the use of documents and aids other than those stated above. I have mentioned all used sources and cited them correctly according to established academic citation rules. In the case of group work, the explanation refers to the part of the thesis I worked on.

Hamburg, 24/10/2021 City and Date

Student’s signature

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to express my appreciation to my advisors, Prof. Dr.-Ing. Wolfgang Dickhaut and Dr. Dóra Csizmadia – their guidance and support has been crucial for the completion of this master thesis. I am lucky to have been working with them. I would like to extend my thanks to Ms. Fationa Sinojmeri, Mr. Dashnor Dervishaj and Ms. Elisabeta Poci for providing me with valuable input data for this project. Special thanks and gratitude to all the professors of the REAP Master Program and my peers for making the experience of studying at HCU more enriching and fun. I am thankful to my colleagues at Ramboll Studio Dreiseitl for giving me the opportunity to work on various projects directly related to the concept of WSUD. This has proven to be the most enlightening work-experience, that has had a major impact on this project. Lastly, I would like to thank my biggest cheerleaders: my parents and my sisters. I am grateful for their love and support during these studies.

*** This master thesis is dedicated to the beautiful, funky city of Tirana and to all those who work every day to make it a healthier place to live in. I hope that this research work gives a small contribution in this perspective.

ABSTRACT Over the last decade, the city of Tirana has been facing big challenges on the matter of urban flooding, air pollution, heat island effect and social cohesion (Municipality of Tirana, 2015). Urban flooding in particular is increasingly becoming prominent, while extreme weather events are expected to be more frequent in the coming years (World Bank Group, 2021). These flooding events are mainly attributed to the old and poorly maintained sewage infrastructure of the city, the increased development of urban areas, and lastly the climate change effects (Municipality of Tirana, 2015). Many European cities, facing the same challenges, have already acknowledged the implementation of Water Sensitive Urban Design (WSUD) as an efficient strategy to address all of the above-mentioned issues at the same time.

In Albania, the implementation of such solutions remains still an underexplored and underutilized approach (Dervishaj, 2021; Sinojmeri, 2021). In this regard, the main obstacles are the lack of experience and technical knowledge on the matter, combined with the lack of a policy framework on the local level that would ease the deployment and the maintenance of these interventions.

This master thesis aims to respond to these gaps, by proposing a number of WSUD interventions, selected to be suitable for the spatial and climate context of Tirana. The efficiency of these tools will be tested in a central area of Tirana, which has proven to be vulnerable towards urban flooding and heat island effect.

Each of the proposed interventions will be briefly described based on their design specification, maintenance, and the urban issues they address. On a certain level, this master thesis, aims to serve as a guidance for urban planners, architects, landscape architects and policy makers in Albania, to foster the application of WSUD instead, or alongside the traditional approach in the near future.

CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 10 1.1 Problem Statement 10 1.2 Research Questions and Objectives 13

1.2.1 The Research Questions 13 1.2.2 Objectives 13 1.3 Methodology 14 1.3.1 Literature Review 14 1.3.2 Climate Data Collection 14 1.3.3 Site Analysis 14 1.3.4 Interviews 14 1.3.5 Quantification of the Design Proposal 14 1.4 Limitations 16 1.5 Case Studies 16 1.5.1 Copenhagen Cloudburst Management Plan 16 1.5.2 Milan’s Vertical Forests 16

CHAPTER 2: THE EXISTING STATE 20 2.1 Introduction to Tirana 20

2.2

2.3

2.4

2.5 2.6

2.1.1 Spatial Context 20 2.1.2 Historical Context 22 2.1.3 Social Context 25 Climatic Conditions of Tirana 26 2.2.1 Basic Climate Parameters 26 2.2.2 Climate Change Scenarios 30 2.2.3 Conclusions 31 Water Infrastructure 32 2.3.1 Urban Water Cycle 32 2.3.2 Sewerage System 32 2.3.3 Flowing Water Bodies 33 2.3.4 Groundwater 34 The Legislation Framework 36 2.4.1 International Level 36 2.4.2 National Level 36 2.4.3 Local Level 37 2.4.4 Critique 38 Stakeholders Analysis 40 Challenges for Sustainable Urban Development 45

CHAPTER 3: ASSEMBLING A WSUD TOOLKIT

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3.1 Why a WSUD Toolkit? 48 3.2 Assessing the WSUD Toolkit 52 3.2.1 Green Roof 54 3.2.2 Green Facade 55 3.2.3 Urban Wetland 56 3.2.4 Bioretention Basin 57 3.2.5 Gutter 58 3.2.6 Infiltration Trench 59 3.2.7 Stormwater Tree 60 3.2.8 Stormwater Median 61 3.2.9 Stormwater Curb Extension 62 3.2.10 Bioswale 63 3.2.11 Cloudburst Road 64 3.2.12 Central Retention Area 64 3.2.13 Raingarden 65 3.2.14 Bioretention Planters 66 3.2.15 Permeable Paving 67 3.2.16 Green Bus-Stop 68 3.2.17 Island of Coolness 69 3.2.18 Stormwater Attenuation Tank 70 3.2.19 Gross Pollutant Trap 70 3.3 Recommendations 71

CHAPTER 4: CONCEPT INTEGRATION

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4.1 Spatial and Historical Context of the Focus Area 74 4.2 Selection Criteria 76 4.3 Processing of the Field Research and Input Data 78 78 88 4.4 Transformation Proposal for the Focus Area 96 4.4.1 Defining Sub-Catchment Areas 96 4.4.2 Target of the Transformation Program & Estimation of Runoff Volume 98 4.4.3 Proposal for all Focus Area 102 4.4.4 Estimation of the Proposed Transformation Program 105 4.4.5 Transformation Proposal for Sub-Area 1 & 4 110 4.4.6 Transformation Proposal for a Densely, Mixed-Use Block 120 4.3.1 Setting Up a Map Database 4.3.2 Challenges for Sustainable Development

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS 126 5.1 Discussing the Results 126 5.2 Final Thought 129 ABBREVIATIONS 130 REFERENCES 132 LIST OF FIGURES 139 LIST OF TABLES 142 APPENDIX 143

CHAPTER 1 Introduction

1.1 Problem Statement Tirana is the capital and the largest city of Albania, a small country situated in the western part of the Balkan Peninsula (Biberaj, 2021). The city has an expanse of nearly 110 square kilometres, and thanks to its proximity to the Mediterranean Sea, it is considered one of the wettest and sunniest capitals in Europe (Sustainable Cities Platform, n.d.; Osborn, n.d.). The city of Tirana has faced many heavy rainfall events in the last ten years, and the climate projections predict an increase of these occurrences in the near future (Municipality of Tirana 2015; World Bank Group, 2021). In December 2017, Tirana was hit by an extreme storm event where in 24 hours the precipitation reached a level of 150 mm (IGEWE, 2018). Large areas of the city were flooded, causing disruption of the city life for many hours and blockage of the main highways that connect the capital with the west part of the country (Davies, 2017).

These heavy rain events are not uncommon for Tirana, as the city has faced such events in the past. However, the statistics show that the number of cloudbursts has become 10

more abundant in the last 10 years, and the existing sewage infrastructure of the city is under-performing in such extreme conditions.

Furthermore, all climate projections conducted for Tirana conclude on point: the precipitation regime in the city is set to become more extreme in the upcoming years, with higher intensities on more days (Municipality of Tirana, 2015).

There are two water streams that flow within Tirana’s borders, Lana River, which crosses through the core of the city and Tirana River, which flows in the northern outskirts of the capital (Vako, 2014). The flooding events that happen around this part of the city are more of a fluvial nature; due to the excessive rain, the water level rises and overflows into the surroundings (Erebara, 2016). The lack of law enforcement, especially in the beginning of the ‘90s, has led to the construction of a lot of abusive illegal settlements, particularly in the outskirts of Tirana, close by the riverbed (Nepravishta, et al., 2015).

Figure 1 | Tirana’s Skyline & Dajti Mountain Source: Author, 2021

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Built without a proper study, these settlements are especially vulnerable and hence endangered during flooding events.

Then again, the cause of the urban flooding happening in the central part of the city, close to the Lana River, is way more complex.

The current sewage network of Tirana is a legacy of the communist times, and it collects both domestic sewage and urban runoff (TWSSC; 2020). While some improvements have been done in the last couple of years, the existing network is already undersized, considering the rapid and extreme increase of population that Tirana has seen in the last decades (Sinojmeri, 2021; Dervishaj 2021).

Furthermore, the network is unable to cope with the extreme rainfall events of the recent years. Most of the vulnerable spots regarding pluvial flooding are located in old parts of the city, however there are also residential blocks built after the ‘90s facing the problem of urban flooding. In that regard, the poor quality of construction works in these areas and the low maintenance of the sewage infrastructure is having a good deal of impact on the issue (Dervishaj, 2021). Although there is a Wastewater Treatment Plant (WTP) currently under construction, there is still sewage and storm water being discharged into the Lana River (Tirana Times, 2020). Outside the city center, the riverbanks are poorly maintained and on many occasions, there is urban waste disposed in it (Johnson, 2011). Particularly, these peripheral areas of the city are flooded regularly during the wet season. Moreover, there have been numerous occasions when during the peak flow, water overflows into both sides of the street; causing problems with the traffic and making the pedestrian bridges that cross the river inaccessible (Mapo, 2016).

Even though floods are a known part of

Tirana’s history, little has been done on establishing a holistic plan that would mitigate the flooding risk in the city. The new masterplan, ‘Tirana 2030’, emphasizes the need of increasing the greenery coverage in the city but without implying any solution of how this can be done, by addressing at the same time the urban flooding issue - considering that in the Climate Change Adaptation Action Plan of Tirana (CCAAPT), the flooding risk is acknowledged as an imminent danger (Stefano Boeri Architects, 2017; Municipality of Tirana 2015).

All climate predictions for Tirana call for the implementation of a Sustainable Urban Drainage System (SuDS) that would help the existing conventional sewage system to better cope with extreme heavy downpours (Municipality of Tirana, 2018).

Proposing a Sustainable Stormwater Management Plan for the city of Tirana would require first and foremost an analysis of best practices on this matter. In that regard, European cities like Copenhagen and Rotterdam have acknowledged cloudbursts to not be a one-off occurrence and therefore have already taken action to combat them (Hoyer et al., 2011). For instance, the ‘Copenhagen Cloudburst Plan’ launched by the city of Copenhagen in 2012 can serve as a great interdisciplinary approach to be taken into consideration.

This thesis aims to provide the first insights into the concept of WSUD - and how it can be applied in Tirana’s context. Even though the study will be focused on a specific area of the city, the information regarding technical solutions will be given in a unified structure, so they altogether can serve as a Toolkit which can later be deployed in other urban contexts.

Precipitation

Reduced

Evapotransportation large amount of untreated

Runoff

Reduced Infiltration

Figure 2 | Urban Water Cycle Source: Author, 2021

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Untreated stormwater discharge

Baseflow uced Red

1.2 Research Questions & Objectives This master thesis aims to shed some light on the possible sustainable solutions that would build a more sustainable sewage infrastructure, would increase the quality of green space, and in general would make the city more resilient towards the anticipated climate change impacts in the future. In this respect, the following research questions and objectives of this study were formulated.

1.2.1 The Research Question

How can the implementation of WSUD tools provide flooding risk mitigation while at the same time improve public life and enhance public realm - in the given context in Tirana, Albania?

Sub Questions:

1.2.2 Objectives 1.

To perform an in depth literature review on the topic of WSUD, from research papers, articles and design manuals from different countries.

2.

Based on the WUSD principles, formulate a holistic plan and WSUD toolkit that would help to combat the climate change effects in Tirana, especially the anticipated cloudburst events.

3.

Select and analyze the best WSUD practices launched by cities that share the same climate pattern as Tirana, or projects that at a certain level address the same issues as this thesis.

4.

Propose a holistic plan that would enhance the quality of public life in the area around ‘Deshmoret e Kombit’ Boulevard, including the area on both sides of Lana River, through the implementation of WSUD.

1.

Which are the most efficient measures (in the frame of WSUD) that can be deployed in the climatic and urban context of Tirana to mitigate the risk of urban flooding?

2.

How can the implementation of WSUD tools in the given urban context in Tirana, can create high quality of green space with a high quality of stay in dense urban areas?

3.

Which are the added values that the implementation of WSUD can bring in the built environment? How can WSUD infrastructure increase the value of the built environment or public area where it is implemented?

4.

How feasible is a ‘Cloudburst Management Plan’ in the Albanian context, and how does this plan comply with the existing city-plans launched by the Municipality of Tirana?

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1.3 Methodology The empirical basis for discussion in this master thesis was gained through site observations and the investigation of the available climate data.

On another step, the collection of data was supported by the interviews with two experts who represent two important stakeholders identified in this master thesis.

1.3.1 Literature Review Approximately 60 scientific papers, 5 design manuals on the topic of WSUD and NBS, and various online articles were explored prior to stating the research questions and the objectives of this thesis. Furthermore, the literature research played a key role in identifying the main WSUD tools in street and building level that were more applicable for the case of Tirana, considering here not just its urban context but especially the precipitation pattern for the city.

1.3.2 Climate Data Collection In order to investigate a climate pattern of a given location, the climate data of at least 30 years timespan should be studied. In that regard, the Climate Change Adaptation Action Plan of Tirana (CCAAPT) provided enough quantitative and qualitative data, not just about basic climate parameters but scenarios for the future climate trends as well. All the graphs shown in the paragraph that discusses climate trends, are a compilation of precipitation data retrieved from CCAAPT and from Institute for Geoscience, Energy, Water and Environment (IGEWE).

1.3.3 Site Analysis Prior to starting the master thesis, a detailed urban site analysis was developed after visiting the focus-area. Based on the site observations, this method was useful in updating the existing map database of the area and furthermore it helped in building a valuable qualitative database of images and videos which helped to provide a more accurate envision of the existing state of the study area.

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1.3.4 Interviews For a more qualitative research process, the findings from the previous research methods were mirrored by two interviews, conducted with experts mainly from the public sector as well as an international organization.

For instance, Mr. Dashnor Dervishaj, a senior water engineer of Tirana Water Supply and Sewerage Utility (TWSSC), provided detailed information on the matter of the existing sewage network of Tirana along with numeric values related to its capacity and performance under normal rain events and heavy rainfall events. Furthermore, Ms. Fationa Sinojmeri, an environmental engineer who has a background in flood risk management and is currently working as a technical advisor at German Corporation for International Cooperation GmbH (GIZ), gave valuable insights on the recent developments and reforms that Albania is undertaking with the support of GIZ in order to combat the expected climate change effects.

1.3.5 Quantification of the Design Proposal In order to evaluate the efficiency of the proposed WSUD tools in the focus area, a rough calculation based on DWA regulations was performed. Although there are softwares that offer much more precise results about the efficiency of the proposal, the available precipitation data was scarce and hence the application of such tools faced limitations.

However, these computer simulation options can be considered as a next step of this master thesis - but it is worth clarifying that for the above-mentioned reason the application of this software was not an option.

Before starting with the process of assessing the WSUD implemented tools, a map database depicting the existing state of the study area was built. This series of maps provided important insights about qualitative data regarding the types of streets, green roof potential, the existing state of the sewage

building code, the threshold capacity value of rainfall is 170 liters/sec/ha with a duration of 15 minutes. It is assumed that all rainfall events that exceed this threshold value cause flooding. Also, since there is no available data for the frequency of the cloudburst events, it is assumed to evaluate the efficiency of the proposed WSUD program for heavy rainfall events of 200, 250 and 300 liter per second in a one-hectare area for the duration of 20 minutes, events that have respectively a repetition period of 5 years, 20 years and 50 years. These normatives are used for defining the capacity of the new sewage infrastructure constructed during road constructions.

The results of this assessment and the necessary comments are further developed in the fourth chapter of this master thesis.

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network, the uses of buildings, as well as quantitative data about the existing share of permeable and impermeable surfaces in the area. After this step, the quantitative process of estimating the potential of the proposed WSUD program/ tools to mitigate flood risk in the study area starts. The calculation of the surface runoff, inflow and surface percolation capability is based on DWA-A 138E, DWA-M 153 E, DWA-A 117E and ATW-DVWK-M 153.

Based on the algorithms provided by the DWA normative, a rough estimation of the efficiency of the WSUD proposed program to mitigate flood risk in the study area was conducted.

The result of the potential runoff reduction was compared with the existing sewage system capacity. In that regard it must be noted that based on the given sewage infrastructure

NS

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DATA Figure 3 | Methodologies Applied and the Research Process Source: Author, 2021 // Based on: Donelson, 2016

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1.4 Limitations

1.5 Case Studies

The development of this master thesis faced some constraints in its early phase. First, the process of collecting quantitative climate data was limited, since Albania is not adhered to the European Union (EU), therefore the online publication of climate data is not yet mandatory (Poci, 2013). In order to find this kind of data, one needs to directly contact people in charge of this matter, and this is a process that may take a long time, and possibly without any feedback. Furthermore, the Institute for Geoscience, Energy, Water and Environment (IGEWE), which is the institution in charge of monitoring and publishing climate data, offers online climate data of just the last 4 years, making it difficult to draw conclusions for the future climate trends. Therefore, most of the graphs depicting the annual precipitation are a compilation of quantitative data retrieved from more than one source.

The first project chosen to be examined further as a case study is the Copenhagen Cloudburst Management Plan, a strategic plan that addresses the issue of flood management and water quality in urban areas. Considering the scope of this masterplan, the topics being addressed and the Blue Green (BG) implementation strategy - this project serves as a good point of reference in this master thesis. The second case study was chosen from Milan - Italy, a city that shares almost the same precipitation pattern with Tirana, recording an annual precipitation amount of 1162 mm while Tirana reaches annually 1270 mm of precipitation (Climate-Data.org, n.d. b; Municipality of Tirana, 2015).

Secondly, the process of literature research, in regard to investigating case studies and individual projects from cities that share the same precipitation pattern with Albania, also faced shortcomings. Milan is the only city in Europe that has approximately the same mean annual precipitation value as Tirana (Climate-Data. org, n.d. a & Climate-Data.org, n.d. b). One of the case studies presented further in this report discusses the implementation of nature-based solutions in order to reach the environmental goals set by the city of Milan.

Thirdly, as it was mentioned beforehand, expert interviews were conducted as part of the research methods. However, some statements and information provided especially by government officials tend to be subjective and political, hence this process might be biased.

All these limitations were identified and taken into consideration during the research process. In order to mitigate them, other methods were applied when possible.

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1.5.1 Copenhagen Cloudburst Management Plan In the summer of 2011 Copenhagen was hit by an extreme storm event, causing flooding of large areas of the city. This event was followed by other heavy rainfalls, which led to understanding that cloudbursts were not an on and off occurrence and an imminent solution to this issue had to be found. Ramboll Studio Dreiseitl, together with Ramboll Group, were chosen to develop a Cloudburst Management Action Plan for 8 central city catchment areas, that alltogether include up to 34 sq. km. The whole masterplan consists of 300 projects in total that are planned to be implemented within the next 20 years (Oppla, n.d. a; Ramboll Studio Dreiseitl, 2014). The implementation of Blue Green Infrastructure (BGI) was formalized as a six-step procedure, starting with data collection and investigation, modelling and mapping the focus areas, developing a Cost-Benefit Analysis (CBA), developing a universal applicable ‘cloudburst’ toolkit, establishing a platform to enhance public participation in the project, and lastly the project strategy included an even further socio-economic CBA of the two tested masterplan options (Oppla, n.d. a).

The cloudburst toolkit includes a variety of infrastructure interventions, from cloudburst

boulevards, cloudburst parks, cloudburst plazas, detention, and green streets. Figure 5 depicts the distribution of each of the tools in 8 of the catchment areas. One of the most sensitive catchment areas, located in the center of Copenhagen, was selected as the first hotspot area to test the relevance of the Cloudburst Toolkit.

In order to assess all possible advantages and disadvantages of the proposal, two masterplan options were developed: the Conventional and the Blue-Green option. The difference between the two proposals stands on the strategy that they chose to mitigate the flood by using an existing lake in the area, and on how much additional green space both masterplan variations propose. The Conventional option considers the historical background of the lake and proposes to retain it as it is, even though it lays above the street level, hence the flood risk point. Furthermore, this option provides limited additional green space and considering all the technical engineering works, the calculated cost is twice as much as the other option. On the other hand, the Blue-Green option tends to have more positive sides. It proposes to lower the lake level by 3 meters, in order to create a new cloudburst storage volume and to revitalize and reconnect the lakeside with the surrounding streets. This option combines the green solutions with the existing, conventional pipe system, and altogether it ensures a better performance of the infrastructure under unusual rainfall events (Oppla, n.d. a; Ramboll Studio Dreiseitl, 2014).

Furthermore, considering the heavy planting, Arup performed extra engineering studies in order to ensure the feasibility of the project. Each tower equals on flat land the amount of trees of a 20,000 square meters forest (greenroofs.com, n.d.). This not so conventional type of green facade serves as a great model which ensures urban biodiversity through vertical forestation in dense metropolitan areas. This dense vegetative cover provides green respite, absorbs CO2, mitigates the heat island effect, limits the energy consumption and most importantly, serves as a biodiversity system as it hosts a vast variety of species and plants (Lubell, 2020; Oppla, n.d. b).

1.5.2 Milan’s Vertical Forests

Lastly, the model of Vertical Forests seems to be more efficient on newly constructed units rather than implementing them on the facades of existing buildings. If not constructed and maintained properly, a vertical forest might serve as just a showcase of a green building rather than actually functioning as one.

Therefore, its implementation in the focus area of this master thesis has some limitations in order to be considered.

This case study investigates the concept of Vertical Forests; a model of sustainable residential buildings designed by Boeri Architects office. The first model of a vertical Forest consisted of two residential towers, built in the center of Milan. Once completed, the towers were covered with a combination of 800 trees and 5000 shrubs (Lubell, 2020).

The choice of species and their distribution according to the orientation and height of a building was a complicated task handled by a group of botanists and other experts.

Since the Boeri office is responsible for planning the new masterplan of Tirana, a similar model of Vertical Forest is currently under construction in Tirana as well (Stefano Boeri Architetti, 2019). Despite the similarities of the climate patterns of Milan and Tirana, hence the high level of applicability that this model has in Tirana’s urban context, there are some shortcomings that need to be mentioned (Climate-Data.org, n.d.b). First, these showcase, vertical forests have to be kept alive at a high expense - which may make their implementation challenging or not well executed. Furthermore, once the construction is finished, it requires continuous high maintenance, which means other extra costs. To cover the extra maintenance costs, each tennant has to pay 1500 euro monthly (Willenbrock, 2020).

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CASE STUDY

Copenhagen Cloudburst Management Plan

Objectives

The objective of the Cloudburst Management Plan is to mitigate the impacts of pluvial flooding caused by heavy rainfall events, which according to climate predictions are expected to increase in intensity and frequency.

The Plan aims to address at the same time the topics of mobility, safety, biodiversity, by providing long-term resilience and economic stability (Climate Adapt, 2021).

Solutions Figure 4 | Copenhagen Cloudburst Plan-Retention Area Source: Ramboll Studio Dreiseitl, 2014

The implementation is planned in 300 projects, which will be undertaken in a time span of 20 years, through a prioritization assessment.

The Cloudburst Toolkit identifies 8 types of interventions, applied in roads, parks and squares.

The interventions aim to: // retain water in the upper catchment; // provide resilient and flexible drainage network in the low laying areas; // increase the implementation of green and blue features in existing projects (New European Bauhaus, 2021)

Relevance

Figure 5 | Copenhagen Cloudburst Plan-Toolkit Source: Oppla, n. d. a

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The strategy of Cloudburst Toolkit presented in this project is developed as a palette of universally applicable tools, therefore its concept is borrowed and adapted in the study area presented in this master thesis.

Each of the selected tools for Tirana, will further be described in Chapter 3.

Milan’s Vertical Forests

CASE STUDY

Figure 6 | Milan’s Vertical Forest Source: Oppla, n.d. b

Objectives

Vertical Forests, are a model for sustainable urbanization, that contribute to the regeneration of the environment, CO2 sequestration and biodiversity enhancement through reforestation of densely metropolitan areas (Oppla, n.d. b).

Strategy

The design consists of an integrated green façade with the construction of a high-rise building. This type of façade includes a variety of plant species, from trees to shrubs and smaller plants – all chosen and distributed according to the orientation, height of the building and to the climate parameters of the place (Lubell, 2020)

Relevance

This project was selected as a case study, due to the similar climate patterns that Tirana and Milan share.

Moreover, the concept of Vertical Forest is recently being developed in Tirana as well, therefore the analysis aims to assess on a certain level the limitations that this NBS might face.

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CHAPTER 2

The Existing State

2.1 Introduction to Tirana Chapter 2 aims to give a broad overview of Tirana, by focusing on the key moments that have shaped the public space and urban life of the city - from the early pre-war times until the nowadays capitalist area. The analysis will focus on the most predominant urban trends that have contributed to the design of the current urban pattern of the city - by also mentioning the existing challenges and limitations that the city is facing while growing and developing as the capital of a country that aspires to be part of the EU in the near future.

2.1.1 Spatial Context Tirana is the capital of Albania, a small country situated in the Western Balkans.

Conventionally located in the center of the country, Tirana enjoys a typical Mediterranean climate, with hot and dry summers and cool and wet winters (Climate Change Post, 2021).

On level ground, the city is bounded by Lana and Tirana Rivers (Nepravishta et al., 2015), enclosed by the mountains and hills in the 20

east side and opened toward the Adriatic west coast, while being just half an hour east of the Port of Durrës (Biberaj, 2021). Influenced by these geographical settings and the proximity to the Adriatic Sea, Tirana is ranked among the wettest and sunniest cities in Europe (Osborn, n.d.). This central location has longestablished it as an integral point connecting the capital on a national and international level with other parts of Albania and with the neighbouring countries as well. Mother Teresa Airport - the premier getaway of the country, is just a 20 minutes’ drive from the city center (Ministry of Environment, 2016).

Tirana is the heart of the economy of Albania and the most industrialized region in the country. Furthermore, the city is considered the cultural and educational center of the country, as it homes a high number of museums, galleries, and public universities (Municipality of Tirana, n.d.).

Figure 7 | Skanderbeg Square, Tirana Source: Dujardin, 2019

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2.1.2 Historical Context A city’s morphology often reflects the type of government in power and at the same time in most of the cases is a result of physical remains of its political past (Capolino, 2011; Dino et al., 2017). Therefore it is important to lay down the political circumstances and the main political ideologies that have influenced the configuration of cities in Albania in general and Tirana in particular. Three are the predominant time-spans that will be further elaborated: the pre-war era, the development of the city during the communist regime, and the early capitalism after the 90s.

// Pre-War Times

The city was declared the capital of Albania almost a century ago in 1920, thus making it one of the youngest capitals in Europe (Yunitsyna et al., 2021). In principle, urbanization started as Tirana was claimed a capital (Dino et al., 2017). Before this point, Tirana was nothing but a small Ottoman town, with an irregular street network and where the few residential buildings didn’t exceed two or three stories (Göler & Doka, 2020).

The population at that time was just 17000 inhabitants (Pojani & Maci, 2015). The break from these irregular urban systems came after the ‘20s, under the Italian influence and later its occupation (Göler & Doka, 2020).

Besides the negative impact that the Italian occupation had on many levels, on a positive note, the Italian architects were the ones who initiated a more regulated urbanized expansion of the city (Capolino, 2011). For instance, until WWII Tirana was transformed into a colonial modern city with a ring-radial road system, a north-south main Boulevard and a well-structured riverbed (Pojani, 2010).

The main urban axis was later marked by a number of public buildings along it, like the Ensemble of Ministries, the Presidency and the campus of Polytechnic University of Tirana (Capolino, 2011) - all included in the study area of this master thesis. With the start of WWII, the Italian influence shifted, however the vast Italian program in Albania helped in consolidating a good base of what would later be the modern era of Tirana.

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// Communism Regime

After 1945, Albania entered the Eastern Bloc and therefore the communist ideology ruled Albania as the rest of East European Countries (Pojani, 2010). The repressive communist regime, led by Enver Hoxha, lasted for almost five decades and is considered among the harshest and severest in Europe (Lula, n.d.). The aftermath of it is still indisputable in Albania on so many levels. The communist government applied an obsessive and highly centralized control over it, that left an undeniable mark on the urban pattern of Tirana. Almost all religious and ethnic buildings were demolished. The city center was planned as a showpiece of Hoxha’s government, used as a dreary parade ground of the regime (Pojani & Maci, 2015). Therefore, the core of the capital appeared to be a momentous mono-functional space, occupied only with public and administrative buildings (Pojani, 2010).

As in most East European countries at that time, the government adopted a standardized construction design of low rise residential buildings, some of them with prefabricated panels. This uniform housing typology was driven not only by the minimization of costs but was an expression of eliminating the differences between social classes - a common manifesto of the communist ideology (Pojani & Maci, 2015).

During these five decades of dictatorship, Tirana developed into a compacted (not dense), car-free city since the private ownership of cars was prohibited. Hence, the city was relatively clean and quiet. On the other hand, pedestrian traffic was abundant as people spent a good amount of time outdoors especially in the summer months - encouraged by the hot Mediterranean climate, the lack of cars and a standardized working schedule of the population from 8am to 3pm. After all, Tirana of that time was considered the most attractive and desirable city to live in Albania (Pojani, 2010).

THE CURRENT STATE OF TIRANA present

Population x 1 sq. km

Informal Tirana

AFTER THE 1990s - CAPITALIST ERA 1990-present Population x 1 sq. km

COMMUNIST ERA 1945-1990 Population x 1 sq. km

PRE WAR ERA 1920-1945 Population x 1 sq. km

Figure 8 | Timeline of Tirana’s urban expansion through years Source: Author, 2021 // Based on Spaan, (2018)

23

// After the 1990s

The fall of communism in the ‘90s was nothing but a chain reaction of a movement initiated in other East European countries, fueled as well by the resistance of students in Albania (Binder, 1990). The painful transformation journey from a centralized economy to a free-market economy led to drastic physical, social and economic changes (Pojani, 2010). Considering the limited resources of a country that had just left communism, a sustainable transition into a capitalist system was impossible (Göler & Doka, 2020). Two were the most striking phenomena that dominated and shaped the years of transition: the mass migration of the population from rural areas to the cities and the increased number of commercial activities - encouraged by the free, open market of capitalism (Pojani & Maci, 2015). The first phenomenon is perhaps the one that had the biggest impact on shaping the existing urban pattern of the capital. The urban growth in the metropolitan area of Tirana was particularly intense and chaotic (Dino et al., 2017; JICA, 2012). Due to the lack of law enforcement, many residential neighborhoods built during the transition years have serious infrastructure related issues, as some of them still present an unsolved issue for the current government. Likewise in most post-communist East European countries, the car invasion phenomenon that took place right after the communist regime collapsed, overwhelmed the road network in the city (Pojani & Maci, 2015) - causing other issues related with the noise pollution, misuse of public space and lack of parking areas.

On the other hand, the open market system encouraged the phenomenon of ‘kioskisation’ - a term used to identify the informal, spontaneous urban development trend that took place after the ‘90s in the city (Göler & Doka, 2020). This trend was represented by illegal, small-scale retail units that ‘mushroomed’ all over Tirana, occupying even the banks of Lana River or other open public areas that used to be parks (Pojani, 2010; Pojani; 2011b). It was only until 2000, when Tirana under the governance of Edi Rama (Mayor of Tirana from 2000-2011) experienced a drastic transformation. Rama undertook a 24

campaign of demolishing hundreds of illegal constructions and restoring all the urban area along the Lana River into its previous state. He initiated the ‘Return to Identity’ urban-renewal program during 2002-2005, by inviting acclaimed painters from all over the world, who turned the facades of many soviet buildings into their canvas by painting them. Rama gained especially recognition for changing the face of the capital, from a dull, grey ex-communist city into a colorful, unique, funky one - by opening the city as a tourist attraction (Makgetla, 2010; Howden, 2002; Pojani, 2010).

// Tirana of nowadays

The urban model that Tirana offers today is far from that turbulent, unstable version of the early ‘90s. The governance system as well, has come a long way since that turmoil state during transition years. More consolidated is especially the local sector in Tirana, as the municipality is bringing forward regulations and a better management approach that aims to transform the city into a decent European capital. Some remarkable initiatives are: the construction of an orbital forest, which will serve as a green belt to prevent the urban sprawl of the city (Sustainable Cities Platform, n.d), the establishment of Green City Action Plan, which aims to support a sustainable growth of the city (Municipality of Tirana, 2018); and perhaps the most obvious improvement is the expansion of a cycling network in more areas of the city, which by all means is fighting the car addiction of the inhabitants (SUTi, 2021). Lastly, the transformation of the city center into a pedestrian zone, was a project that has had a positive impact in the public life of the city during these last three years. This project won in 2018 the European Prize for Urban Public Space, a biennial competition honoring projects that create, recover, and improve plazas and squares in European cities (Ruby Press, 2018).

However, in the frame of the European aspirations of the country, despite these little victories, Tirana remains a European capital of many ills. Public space has been, and remains, on a large scale, neglected, attacted

and in some cases misused (Spaan, 2018; Pojani & Maci, 2015). Pocket parks in housing blocks are poorly maintained and in other cases turned into open parking areas.

The population has become increasingly more individualist and less community oriented as it was during communism (Pojani & Maci, 2015).

Furthermore, the car obsession, emblem of capitalism in Albania, has come at a high price (Pojani, 2010). According to the latest report of Co-Plan, the amount of air pollutants measured in the metropolitan area of Tirana exceeds the limit values set by the EU. Moreover, in the last decade Tirana has lost 52.8 ha of green areas, ranking it as one of the European capitals with the lowest amount of green space per inhabitant (Co-Plan, 2020).

The lack of greenery is expressed in the high percentage of sealed surfaces in the city; an indicator that contributes to heat island effect and urban flooding. Both these effects are well described on CCAAPT and GCAP as climate change future risks that call for imminent actions.

second most drastic transformation (after the economic transformation) that the fall of communism brought. Compared to the rather stable and tranquil public life during the communism time - which was strictly controlled by the system, the streets of Tirana nowadays buzzle from cafés, shops, restaurants, and offices, by making Tirana the most vivid city in Albania (Pojani, 2010; European Youth Forum, n.d.). Moreover, the social life of the city is strongly linked with the coffee culture - a typical old social activity in the Balkan region that most of the foreigners find unique (Happy Wanderess, 2019). According to the latest report from the Institute of Statistics in Albania (INSTAT), Albania is ranked among the countries with the highest number of bar-cafés per inhabitant (Ceta, 2021). No matter what time of the day, the coffee places in Tirana are always packed. Needless to say, cafés have become an essential part of public life in Tirana for all generations, where one can go not only to socialize but even to do business.

2.1.3 Social Context

Thanks to the integral migratory wave that took place in early ‘90s, the population of Tirana nowadays is estimated to be homogenous, apart from the Roma community that makes up less than 5% of the population.

No major differences or conflicts based on ethnic or cultural background of different population groups can be mentioned (Pojani, 2010).

Urban culture and public life in general have played a key role in shaping the public space over the years. Public life is strongly influenced by the warm Mediterranean climate, which encourages outdoor gatherings and activities. The social life that Tirana manifests today, was perhaps the

Rapid urbanization

Heavy use of concrete

Expansion of impermeable surfaces

ENVIRONMENTAL Decrease of green areas

Increased ambient temp.

SOCIAL System collapse

Population growth

Illegal urban sprawl

Lack of law enforcement

Car invasion

Neglected public spaces

Open market economy

Reface of public life

GOVERNANCE Lack of law enforcement

Increase of private sector

Lack of trust on government

Social apathy

Neglected infrast. and public spaces

Figure 9 | The Interlocking Crisis of the State of Infrastructure and Public Spaces in Tirana After the Fall of Communism Source: Bufi, 2019

25

2.2 Climatic Conditions of Tirana Albania is situated in southeastern Europe, in the western part of the Balkan Peninsula, with a length of about 340 km and a width of 150 km. It shares borders with Montenegro and Kosovo in the north, with North Macedonia in its western part with Greece in the south and from its western point, Italy lies 50 km across the Adriatic Sea. The country has a mountainous topography, where almost 70% of its territory is covered by mountains and hills, and with an average altitude of 700 m above the sea level. The mountain areas are located in the northern, central and eastern part of Albania, while the western region of the country, along the Adriatic coast has a much lower elevation (World Bank Group, 2021; Ministry of Environment, 2016).

2.2.1 Basic Climate Parameters Albania With its long coastline facing the Adriatic and Ionian Sea, Albania has a variety of climates, even though having an expansion of approximately just 29 square kilometers (Tonbul et al., 2012). According to the Köppen Geiger climate classification, Albania’s territory is divided into six climate areas that manifest the following climates: a Hot Mediterranean climate, Warm Mediterranean climate, Warm Humid Continental climate, Subtropical climate, Oceanic climate, and Subarctic climate (Climate-Data.org, n.d. a; Porja 2010). The distribution of these climate types across the country is depicted in Figure 10. As it can be noticed from the same figure, the climate typology that prevails is a typically Mediterranean one (Csa), characterized by mild winters with abundant precipitation and hot and dry summers. The average mean temperatures hover around 17ºC in south to 7ºC in the north part of the country. The lowland have a stable mean temperature of 14-16ºC. Because of its geographical position, the rainfall in Albania is abundant, however it occurs unevenly across the county. Most of the rainfall occurs during November-March, 26

while June-September is the driest period of the year. Albania has a mean precipitation value of 1019.8 mm (Ministry of Environment, 2016).

Tirana The climate content of this chapter is based on data received from the Institute for Geoscience, Energy, Water and Environment (IGEWE) in Albania, from the Climate Change Adaptation Action Plan of Tirana (CCAAPT).

Table 1 shows a compilation of the basic climate parameters of Tirana.

The lowest mean monthly temperature is recorded in January (6.9 ºC), while the highest mean monthly temperatures are recorded in July and August (23.8 ºC). The mean annual temperature amounts to 15.1 °C. Recent trends in Tirana have shown a substantial growth in annual mean temperature during the last 10 years (Municipality of Tirana, 2015).

Figure 10 | Köppen Climate Types of Albania Source: Wikipedia, n.d.

Location: Tirana

Feature 1

Mean annual temperature 15.1 °C

2

Highest mean daily temperature in summer

29.9 °C

3

Highest absolute temperature recorded

42.2 °C

4

Lowest mean daily temperature in winter

6.7 °C

5

Lowest absolute temperature recorded -10.4 °C

6

Mean annual rainfall 1270 mm

7

Highest annual rainfall 1770 mm

8

Lowest annual rainfall 773 mm

9

Average annual relative humidity

70 %

10

The average relative humidity in summer

63 %

11

The average relative humidity in winter

73 %

12

Average number of days with precipitation

> 0,1 mm 129 days

13

Average number of days with precipitation

> 1 mm 100 days

14

Average number of days with precipitation

> 5 mm 64 days

15

Average number of days with precipitation

> 10mm 45 days

Table 1 | Basic climate parameters of Tirana Source: Municipality of Tirana, 2015

Precipitation Regime In terms of precipitation, Tirana is ranked as one of the wettest cities in the European continent, with an average of 1270 mm annual precipitation (Osborn, n.d.& Municipality of Tirana, 2015). The highest rainfall is expected to be in November, while the driest month

is July. Table 2 shows the maximum daily precipitation values for different months, recorded for Tirana since 1950. As it can be seen, the highest daily rainfall ever recorded is 237 mm, in October (Municipality of Tirana, 2015).

Months

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

Rainfall [mm]

85

89

65

77

123

103

59

79

98

10

11

12

237

194

130

Table 2 | Maximal daily rainfalls in Tirana according to different months 1951-2007 Source: Municipality of Tirana, 2015

27

The table below shows the yearly number of days with registered rainfall from the amount of 0.1mm to 10mm Rainfall

> 0.1mm

Number of days

> 1mm

129

> 5mm

100

> 10mm

64

45

Table 3 | Frequency of Occurrence of Rainfalls in Tirana 1951-1990 Source: Municipality of Tirana, 2015

The information and data given in this section are provided by IGEWE and some graphs and tables are obtained from the CCAAPT, a plan established in 2015, as part of the regional GIZ program “Adaptation to Climate Change through Transboundary Flood Risk Management in the Western Balkans” that initiates a framework for the integration of Climate Change Adaptation (CCA) in the management and planning processes in the cities of Tirana, Podgorica and Belgrade.

The plan has been led since 2015 by the Ministry of Environment in collaboration with the Municipality of Tirana; with the technical support of GIZ and UNDP (United Nation Development Program). In a nutshell, the plan addresses the topic of climate change in the city by providing information regarding the climate trends, the future scenarios of

[mm]

climate change and lastly by identifying the most sensitive areas in the city through a vulnerability assessment (GIZ, 2012).

The graph below (Figure 11), depicts the precipitation value, for each month for the last ten years (2010-2020), compared with the average value (1961-1990). As it can be seen, the distribution of the precipitation is quite uneven from one year to another, therefore no solid comments and conclusions can be drawn from it. Moreover, the time frame span in this graphic is just 10 years, which is considered too short when it comes to understanding the climate and precipitation pattern of a place. In that regard, climate trends should be described by long-term statistical values. In the context of climate, long term means a time span of at least 30 years (Municipality of Tirana, 2015).

AVERAGE MONTHLY PRECIPITATION IN TIRANA (2010-2020)

300

200

100

0

Jan.

Feb.

March

average (’60 -’90)

April 2010

May 2011

2012

June 2013

July

2014

Aug. 2015

Sept.

2016

2017

Oct. 2018

Figure 11 | Comparison of the Average Precipitation Value with the Precipitation of the Last Ten Years in Tirana Source: Author 2021 // Based on Municipality of Tirana, 2015; IGEWE, 2020

28

Nov. 2019

Dec. 2019

In that regard, the graph, shown in Figure 12, depicts the annual precipitation values of Tirana registered from 1931 until 2020.

The information provided by the graph indicates a decreasing trend in the precipitation value from 1200 mm to

[mm]

1000 mm annually nowadays. In order to better distinguish the trend, the time span is divided into three time frames (see Fig. 13), where the decreasing trend in the annual rainfall is more obvious - especially for the last 30 years.

ANNUAL PRECIPITATION IN TIRANA (1931-2020)

2500

2000

1500

1000

500

0

1930

1940

1950

1960

1970

1980

1990

2000

2010

2020

Figure 12 | Annual Rainfall of Tirana (1931-2020) Source: Author 2021 // Based on Municipality of Tirana, 2015; IGEWE, 2020

years

1198

average

mm

1931-1960

1216

mm

1961-1990

1220

mm

1015

1991-2020

mm [mm]

0

300

600

900

1200

1500

Figure 13 | Changes in Annual Precipitation of Tirana (1931-2020) Source: Author 2021 // Based on Municipality of Tirana, 2015; IGEWE, 2020

29

years

2.2.2 Climate Change Scenarios The main data source regarding the future climate scenarios is provided by three reports: The Third National Communication of the Republic of Albania under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, Climate Risk – Country Profile Albania by The World Bank Group and CCAAPT. The first two reports describe countrywide climate trends. On that regard, the temperatures in Albania are projected to continue to increase, with extreme heat waves increasing in intensity, duration, and frequency. Furthermore, a decrease in precipitation is expected, which leads to more extreme heavy rainfall events therefore certain areas of the country might be especially vulnerable to experience flooding events or extreme droughts (World Bank Group, 2021 & Ministry of Environment, 2016).

CCAAPT addresses climate parameters as temperature, precipitation, precipitation extremes and wind, for the context of Tirana.

The future climate scenario in this report, predicts that the mean annual and mean seasonal precipitation for Tirana, is expected to decrease for all time horizons. On the other hand, an increase of precipitation intensity is expected (Municipality of Tirana, 2015).

Based on the available data, the CCAAPT deduces climate change trends for Tirana only. A climate change projection is the

change between a model simulation of present climate (period 1961-90 is considered as climatic baseline in the report) and the model climate projection for a period in the future, under a specific emission scenario (Municipality of Tirana, 2015). The changes in annual and seasonal patterns of temperature and precipitation are generated for every ten years starting with 2020 up to 2100.

Based on these projections, the report points out potentially vulnerable areas in Tirana, regarding climate change effects.

The projections for future mean precipitation trends are not very significant (see data and interpretation above). However, there is an expected decreasing trend for summers.

The intensity of precipitation on the other hand is expected to increase. Even in areas where the mean precipitation will decrease, the intensity of precipitation will increase, and there will be longer periods between rain events. In combination with higher air temperatures and thus higher evaporation rates, the consequence could be longer and more frequent droughts (Municipality of Tirana, 2015). Also, during autumn and winter a deficit is expected more frequently, although these consequences are not as intensive as in summer. In contrast, the consequences for droughts are expected to be indifferent during winter and autumn, due to higher groundwater level (Municipality of Tirana, 2015).

Change of

2015 - 2045

2065 - 2095

mean annual precipitation (%)

-3,8

(-35,4 - +27,7)

-14,4 (-78,6 - +81,1)

winter

-6,0

(-15,9 - +4,0)

-14,3 (-44,7 - +16,1)

spring

-2,5

(-11,9 - +7,0)

-14,3 (-45,1 - +16,6)

summer

-10,4 (-12,8 - +7,9)

-41,9 (-49,2 - -34,5)

autumn

0,5

-6,9

mean seasonal precipitation (%)

(-10,1 - +11,1)

Table 4 | Projection of Average Precipitation Change in Tirana Related to 1961-1990 Source: Municipality of Tirana, 2015

30

(-38,1 - +25,2)

2.2.3 Conclusions Gathering from the previous analysis and data collected regarding climate models of Albania, upshots of these climate projections would be summarized as following:

/// The mean precipitation value for Tirana will slightly decrease in the upcoming years, especially during summer (Municipality of Tirana, 2015).

/// The precipitation regime on the other hand will be more extreme, which means the cases of intensive rains will be intensified, hence there in an increased risk for hazardous rainfall.

This means that the city of Tirana will be more vulnerable and therefore more likely to experience urban flooding events and heat waves, not only more frequently, but more intense as well (Municipality of Tirana, 2015).

Key parameter

Summer

Winter

Air temperatures and number of hot days

Incresing

Incresing

Precipitation

Decreasing

Droughts Decreasing reinforcing in summer

Heavy precipitation/ number of days with heavy precipitation

Incresing

Storm/ Wind

No data available

Incresing

Consequences for weather events - spring/summer

Consequences for weather events - autumn/winter

Heat waves reinforcing in summer

Cold balancing in winter

Heavy precipitation/ Floods - increase in intensity on relatively more days: reinforcing in summer

Droughts indifferent in winter Heavy precipitation/ Floods - increase in intensity on relatively more days: reinforcing in winter

Table 5 | Conclusions for Climate Change Impacts for Tirana for Period 2071-2100 Source: Municipality of Tirana, 2015

31

2.3 Water Infrastructure

2.3.1 Urban Water Cycle and Water Supply

2.3.2 Wastewater and Stormwater Network

Tirana Water Supply and Sewerage Utility (TWSSU) is the company responsible for providing water supply and wastewater services to the entire municipality of the capital, from the households to the private and public sector (TWSSU, 2020). Over the last ten years, the geographic area that includes the service areas of TWSSU has experienced a remarkable growth, fueled by the rapid urbanization that took place in Tirana after the ‘90s (Emiri et al., n.d.).

According to the latest business plan report of TWSSC, the existing sewerage network of Tirana is a combined, gravity system, which means that there are no plumbing stations or other kinds of mechanical lifting. The same collectors and pipes are used for transmitting the sewage and the rainwater. The sewerage network constructed in the last ten years is separated from the rainwater network, however at some point they still connect with the existing collector (JICA, 2012; TWSSU, 2020; Dervishaj, 2021).

Three are the main sources that supply the TWSSU: natural springs originating from karstic mountains in the east of the city, and which offer a clean water source, with an intensity of 390 l/s in summer and 1,300 l/s during winter; groundwater wells which produce from 280 l/s in summer to 440 l/s in wintertime and the last source is Bovilla Water Treatment Plant (WTP) which provides 1800 l/s water (TWSSU, 2020). The network includes a variety of transmission pipes, from different materials and diameters, which serve not only to supply water to the customers, but they distribute water from one reservoir to another as well. There are 23 reservoirs within the Municipality of Tirana, with a volume capacity ranging from 100 m³ to 10,000 m³ and with ground level from 110 to 447 meters above sea level (TWSSU, 2020).

The water distribution system includes an open network and a ring network. In most parts of the municipality, the system is an open one, and only in a few parts of the city can be found a ring network. In total, the water distribution network consists of 1,8 million meters of pipelines, where some pipes date back to 1940 and a part of the network was replaced with new pipes just a couple of years ago (TWSSU, 2020).

32

The total length of the sewage network is 590 km and based on its connections it is divided into primary (30%), secondary (50%) and tertiary (20%) networks. For the metropolitan area of Tirana, the sewage gets discharged in two main points: Lana River and Tirana River; causing discomfort and risks for the pedestrians and the people who live nearby.

The discharges are made through concrete collectors and ducts with pipe dimensions ranging from DN 1000 mm to 2000 m - for the primary network. The secondary and tertiary network includes PE concrete pipes with smaller dimensions varying from DN 1000 mm to 200 mm (TWSSU, 2020).

All the investments and updates, made until 1997, were conducted based on a detailed plan projected back in 1962. From 1997 on, following the uncontrolled urbanization that took place in Tirana, the sewerage network needed to expand to face these rapid developments (TWSSU, 2020). During these years, no specific plan was followed in the implementation of the new sewerage infrastructure. This led to many issues; from unfinished sewage works to the damage and blockage of the existing collectors because of abusive constructions (JICA, 2012).

The consequences of these irresponsible behaviors are still a big unresolved issue

nowadays. As it was mentioned beforehand, currently all the sewage is discharged untreated in the Lana and Tirana River. In 2014, as part of a project funded by the Japanese Bank for International Cooperation (JICA), started the design of a Wastewater Treatment Plant (WTP) in the outskirts of the city. The construction is expected to finish soon, and once the WTP starts functioning, no more sewage will be discharged in Lana River (JICA, n.d.). This will open a range of opportunities for reclaiming the public space around the river.

as it emerges in the urban areas - especially because of sewage discharge and solid waste accumulation along the riverbank. Tirana River crosses an area of the city, which is known for its informal settlements, built in the early ‘90s with a low budget and with no considerations to any existing urban law in that time (Nepravishta et al., 2015). Therefore, the flooding events that take place along Tirana River are attributed to these abusive developments that have had a huge impact on the water stream. Tirana River has an average inflow of 2.47 m³ /sec (Vako, 2015).

2.3.3 Flowing Waters

Lana River originates from the mountains located in the far western part of the city. It flows through the city center, in a concrete riverbed, to connect further with the stream of Tirana River (Vako, 2015). Although once a clear river, nowadays Lana contains sewage (JICA, n.d.). Moreover, the abusive urban development that took place with the fall of communism, had consequences for this water stream as well (Pojani, 2010).

The main water streams that flow within Tirana’s borders are Lana and Tirana River (Nepravishta et al., 2015). The latter originates in the north-eastern part of Tirana, and it flows along the northern peripheral area of the city (see Fig. 14). Although in its upper stream the river has crystal clear waters, rich in biodiversity, the stream becomes polluted

2 Surface water & drinking WTP - Bovilla

2400 l/s

WTP for sewage - Kashar Tirana River

Groundwater Wells 3

390-310 l/s

Lana River

Artificial Lake of Tirana

1 Natural Resources - from mountains in the east

390-1300 l/s

Flowing Water

Urban Area Reservoirs

1

2 km

N

0

Sewarage Discharge Point

Figure 14 | Urban Water Cycle in Tirana Source: Author, 2021 // Based on TWSSU, 2020

33

2.3.4 Groundwater Albania is very rich in groundwater aquifers, considered with a high importance as they represent the main source of drinking water supply (Selenica, n.d.). However, not much information regarding the groundwater extraction capacity and availability is known, which has led to many issues especially in the coastal region and in low areas of the country (Selenica, n.d.).

Around Tirana’s alluvial basin, groundwater extraction started in 1961 with a daily extraction quantity of 2500 l/s. Different studies indicate problems regarding

sw 112

the pollution, flooding risk and possible salinization of the groundwater, especially in the Adriatic coastal part (Eftimi et al., 2006).

In the metropolitan borders of Tirana, the most problematic area on this matter is in the northern part of the city, around Tirana River. As a combination result of intense rainfall events and the soil types, often the groundwater gets polluted by interfering with surface waters (Vako, 2014). In the inner city of Tirana, the groundwater level is less problematic regarding flooding risk (see Fig. 17).

FOCUS AREA

Lana River

CITY CENTER

Tirana River

NE

110 100 90 80 70

LEGEND

60

Figure 15 | Section a-a Source: Author, 2021 // Based on Vako, 2014

34

Aquifer Layer of Gravel Sandstones and Conglomerates with clay mixes Argiles and Sandstone with Conglomerates

0

0.5

1 km

Tirana River

CITY CENTER

LEGEND

Focus Area

Lana River

Water Bodies Focus Area Tirana’s Artificial Lake

Alluvial Deposits; Sand & Gravel Evaporite; Sand & Clay Marlstone; Sand & Clay Flysch sandy soil with layers of limestone 1

2 km

N

0

Figure 16 | Geology Map of Tirana (Types of Soils) Source: Author, 2021 // Based on Vako, 2014

a

65

Tirana River 70

75

80

85

90

95

100

CITY CENTER

87 Lana River

Focus Area

LEGEND

a

Water Bodies Focus Area

Tirana’s Artificial Lake

Argiles and Sand Aquifer Layer of Gravel Sandstones and Conglomerates with clay mixes 0

1

2 km

N

Figure 17 | Hydrogeology Map of Tirana Source: Author, 2021 // Based on Vako, 2014

35

2.4 The Legislation Framework Developments on Climate Change Legislation and Institutional Reforms in Albania.

Formulating and implementing a proper climate change legislation can put the climate change response in the main political agenda.

However, to reach this step, first and foremost a clear plan for adaptation and mitigation should be established, followed by building the right institutions and legal frameworks.

Only this way, the planned strategies can be translated into real actions that can actually deal with the issues caused by climate change.

This part of the chapter provides a brief overview regarding the Paris Agreement, Kyoto Protocol and other policy decisions taken at an international, national, and local level in order to combat climate change in Albania. Furthermore, it presents a set of recommendations, based on the best practices for the legislative system and institutions in the frame of climate change.

2.4.1 International Level // United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) In 1992, countries around the world joined the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change - an international treaty, which aimed to find solutions to limit the average global temperature increase and deal with other climate change impacts which were more relevant at that time. The UNFCCC entered in 1994, and since then has had an almost universal membership. The ultimate objective of the treaty is to balance the greenhouse gas emission to a level that won’t have a negative impact on the climate system (Ministry of Environment, 2016). Based on this goal, the member countries that have different contributions are categorized in three groups: Annex I - Industrialized countries & Economies in Transition (EITs); Annex II - Industrialized countries and Non-Annex 36

I - Developing countries. Albania is classified under Non-Annex I countries and thus is not yet subject to any mandatory greenhouse gas emission obligation (UNCC, 2018) // Kyoto Protocol As of 2005 Albania has joined the Kyoto Protocol as well, which extends the plan set by UNFCCC. Albania is again classified under the developing countries group and does not have a mandatory obligation toward the reduction of any quantity of greenhouse gas emissions. The Ministry of Environment, Forests and Water Administration of Albania is the governmental agency responsible for the implementation of UNFCCC and Kyoto Protocol (UNCC, 2018). // Paris Agreement In September 2016, Albania ratified the Paris Agreement as well. Unlike the Kyoto Protocol, which has a more top-down approach, the Paris Agreement requires that not only developed countries, but all countries should commit the same for the decrease of global warming (Denchak, 2021). Starting from 2024, member countries, hence Albania as well, are required to report on the actions undertaken to mitigate climate change (Ministry of Environment, 2016).

2.4.2 National Level // National Adaptation Plan (NAP) In 2014, Albania established its Inter Ministerial Working Group on Climate Change (IMWGCC) which aims to ease the integration of the climate change issue into existing relevant policies and regulations, and to coordinate the work of all institutions associated with the issue of climate change mitigation and adaptation. The IMWGCC is chaired by the Ministry of Environment, which also is the leading institution when it comes to NAP development and its implementation (Dibra et al., 2019). Albania launched its NAP in 2015, aiming to mainstream the climate change discourse into the relevant sector

policies and plans, by first identifying the institutional gaps and development needs.

The plan addresses and observes especially the following topics: heat waves, floods, rainfall variability, increasing temperatures and droughts (NAP Global Network, 2016). Based on the observation, the plan has evaluated the following sectors as the ones in need for adaptation measurements are: Water, Energy, Tourism, Settlements, Agriculture and Forestry (Ministry of Environment, 2016). // National Communication of the Republic of Albania under the UNFCCC This report is developed in the context of Albania’s membership in the UNFCCC, and aims to give an overview of the commitment done for mitigating climate change impacts and more specifically the greenhouse gas emission. The latest was published almost three years ago, and it gives a detailed analysis of the observed indicators in the waste, energy and transport, industry sectors.

The report continues with a GHG Inventory, depicting the share of the emissions for each sector. Even though Albania is a country with a low-carbon economy, it is committed to decrease the carbon dioxide emissions (compared to the baseline scenario) by 11,6% until 2030 (Ministry of Environment, 2016).

2.4.3 Local Level // Climate Change Adaptation Action Plan of Tirana The CCAAPT is developed under the Climate Change Adaptation in Western Balkans, a project implemented with the support of GIZ. It was launched in 2015 and provides a vulnerability assessment of different urban sectors, evaluates the risks, and proposes a set of adaptive options to be integrated within the existing instruments and policies.

The main purpose of this plan is to create and document adaptive options in order to manage risks and build up climate resilience across different sectors. The vulnerability assessment is based on observed climate change conditions and climate change scenarios for the future (Municipality of Tirana, 2015).

// Green City Action Plan of Tirana In 2018, with the support of Arup, the Municipality of Tirana launched its Green City Action Plan (GCAP). Again, the plan affirms the adaptation deficit that the city of Tirana has regarding climate change, and it points out the need for a more sustainable use of resources. To ensure the smart growth of the city, the plan prioritizes clear objectives in these five fields: 1. Sustainable Mobility; 2.

Green Spaces & Biodiversity; 3. Sustainable Energy; 4. Resource Management; 5. Climate Change Resilience & Adaptation. Actions taken within these goals aim not only to improve the legislative measurements and the policy frameworks in regard to sustainable development, but to increase the capital investment programs and projects from the private and public sector. Other short term planned actions include: planning of sustainable urban drainage solutions to manage surface water and prevent flooding; planning of buildings with heat adaption designs such as white facades, use of blinds, green roofs, efficient cooling technologies, planning of green spaces and trees that absorb the most CO2 and are able to adapt to Tirana’s climate to ensure longevity through the year (Municipality of Tirana, 2018). // Tirana 2030 - Master Plan Tirana 2030 is the Master Plan of the capital of Albania, developed by Stefano Boeri Architects, and has its main vision toward reclaiming the natural landscape of the city. Ten are the main themes that the plan tackles: biodiversity, polycentrism, widespread knowledge, mobility, water, geopolitics, tourism, accessibility, agriculture and energy.

The plan recognizes the fact that Tirana is one of the densest cities in Europe, with a very compressed public area. Therefore, the plan proposes the exploitation of the vertical context in order to save up public space, and moreover it suggests the integration of green facades and roofs on a large scale. Regarding the reclamation of the natural dimension in the city, the plan introduces a continuous orbital forest in the outskirts of the city, by creating this way new ecological corridors along Lana and Tirana River (Stefano Boeri Architects, 2017).

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2.4.4 Critique In the last ten years, the issue of climate change has been addressed more frequently by the Government of Albania and especially by the Municipality of Tirana. Good indicators are the above-mentioned frameworks, which besides their different scopes and strategies, they all call for the implementation of a sustainable urban development approach in the coming years, that would mitigate the anticipated climate change effects - such as cloudburst events and heat island effect.

However, in regard to the deployment process of these plans, there are some points that need to be taken into consideration. In Albania, the National Territorial Council (NTC), chaired by the Prime Minister, is responsible for the approval of these large-scale projects with a considerable impact on society (AKPT, n.d.). The existing gap between the executive and local government doesn’t ease the implementation process. Therefore, most of these plans fail to deliver the expected output. On the other hand, public awareness and exchange of information are elements that need to be considered for a successful implementation of mitigation & adaptation plans in the climate change context. Despite all this, the topic of climate change is still

poorly understood and underrated among the public. This lack of public awareness towards climate change has caused low pressure on the government to act (Pojani et al., 2013). Even though Albania has adhered to many international treaties that aim to mitigate climate change effects, there is a lack of commitment by the institutions in charge in Albania when it comes to respecting the deadlines set in these regulations. For instance, Albania was one of the few countries in the Balkans, that failed to send their nationally determined contributions to the secretariat of the UNFCCC, hence violating the commitment of all 191 signatories of Paris Agreement (Spacsic, 2021). In order to comply with the demands of the UNFCCC, more significant efforts are still required to boost the country’s monitoring, verification and reporting capacity. The climate data provided by the responsible institutions is still very scarce and not continuous, especially for the years after the fall of communism.

These issues present a big obstacle for the researchers and planners who want to work on the topic of climate change mitigation and adaptation.

INTERNATIONAL LEVEL

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)

NATIONAL LEVEL

National Adaptation Plan (NAP)

Kyoto Protocol and

Paris Agreement

National Communication of the Republic of Albania under the UNFCCC

LOCAL LEVEL

Climate Change Adaptation Action Plan of Tirana (CCAAPT) Green City Action Plan of Tirana (GCAPT)

Figure 18 | Climate change legislation hierarchy in Albania Source: Author, 2021

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Tirana 2030 Master Plan

Figure 19 | Skanderbeg Square, Tirana Source: Dujardin, 2019

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2.5 Stakeholder Analysis This part of the chapter identifies all actors involved in the project proposal described in this master thesis, be they the ones who potentially will support the case discussed or the ones who might back down the project.

As an important tool of project management, a stakeholder analysis helps in identifying, prioritizing and understanding all the stakeholders involved. However, knowing your stakeholders is only the first step toward conducting a good stakeholder analysis. After listing all the stakeholders, who presumably will have an interest and power towards the topic of WSUD implementation in Tirana, they were categorized in three groups: 1 Public Entities; 2 Individuals; 3 Organizations

The next step of the analysis would be mapping all the stakeholders, based on their level of interest and needs on the matter.

They are further analyzed in a tabular form, which helps to identify their concerns and respectively the way of dealing with each of them. For each of the identified stakeholder, their level of interest and power on the matter is categorized as low, medium, high, or very high.

The stakeholders that are classified under the ‘Public Entities’ group, are the ones that have the highest power into the topic of flooding risk adaptation and WSUD project implementation, but not necessarily the highest level of interest. The Municipality of Tirana is the entity responsible for proposing and implementing any project or regulation that concerns the quality of public spaces in Tirana. However, the implementation of such big scale projects needs the approval of the National Territory Council (AKPT, n.d.), where the chairman is Prime Minister, Edi Rama. Based on previous cases, the approval of these projects goes not

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without a big discussion regarding the fairness of the competition. Moreover, considering the fact that this large-scale intervention in the city is especially presumed to come with a high cost for the budget of a developing country like Albania, it might face shortcomings in its early phase, if the government fails to find the right investors. Therefore, the interest of public institutions on initiating the implementation of WSUD infrastructure as a solution for tackling flooding risk and other climate change effects in the capital, might be lacking.

On the other hand, all the citizens of Tirana, from the ones that are residents in the study area to the visitors, students, workers or even tourists, are the ones who presumably have the highest interest on the topic. The deployment of WSUD infrastructure in urban systems has benefits on many levels, which, directly or not, impact the everyday life of all residents. However, their voice on initiating such large-scale transformations in the city is not always heard. Even though public hearings are conducted, most of the time they lack transparency, are just a formality and fail to voice the actual needs of the public.

There have been cases where the citizens have been protesting projects approved by the government without the consent of the public and without a transparent competition process (Block, 2020). Unfortunately, almost in all these cases the government’s will has won.

The third group includes all NGOs and mass media entities. These stakeholders have power over the matter. By mainstreaming topics related to sustainability at an urban level, people become more aware about the impact that a more sustainable city will have on their everyday life, hence they might become more responsible and engaged in such topics. This way, the public pressure on the government might increase.

Table 6 depicts in a compacted way all the identified stakeholders supposedly involved in the proposal of this master thesis.

1. Public Institutions

Stakeholder

Interest

Power

Their responsibilities/ Their concerns

How to deal with them/ How to satisfy them

Government

Medium

Very High

Improve the life quality of its citizens // Provide public goods

Provide a comprehensive and feasible study that would make the government include the topic of WSUD in their agenda

Municipality of Tirana

Medium

Very High

Local authority, responsible for the implementation of any policies, plans and projects that serve to the well-being of Tirana’s citizens

Provide a comprehensive and feasible study that would make the Municipality include the topic of WSUD in their agenda

Tirana Water Supply and Sewerage Utility

Very High

High

Provides water supply and wastewater services for the city (including the periphery of Tirana)

Provide a comprehensive and feasible study that emphasizes the impact of WSUD tools on mitigating flooding risk and other ways of improving the existing sewerage network into a more sustainable one

National Territory Council (NTC)

Medium

Very High

Collegial body that determines the national importance of a project, and accordingly has the power to approve or not such big scale projects (AKPT, n. d)

Develop a study that will emphasize the importance of a WSUD transformation in the city and how it will improve the life of all the citizens of Tirana in many levels

City Council

Medium

Medium

Legislative body of the city

Keep them informed

The National Territorial Planning Agency (NTPA)

Medium

High

Responsible for ensuring the sustainable territorial development, guided by well-planned strategies and medium- or long-term programs (AKPT, n. d)

Develop a study that will emphasize the importance of a WSUD transformation in the city and how it will improve the life of all the citizens of Tirana in many levels

Ministry of Infrastructure and Energy

Medium

High

Responsible for the financing, maintenance and development of infrastructure projects on a national level

Provide a comprehensive and feasible study that emphasizes the impact of WSUD tools on mitigating flooding risk and other ways of improving the existing sewerage network into a more sustainable one, get in contact with advisors who work near the minister

Polytechnic University of Tirana

Medium

Medium

Public university that offers degrees in architecture, engineering and other related fields

Provide a strategy on how to include WSUD topics in the study curriculums

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1. Public Institutions 2. Individuals 42

Stakeholder

Interest

Power

Their responsibilities/ Their concerns

How to deal with them/ How to satisfy them

Institute of Geosciences, Energy, Water and Environment (IGEWE)

High

Medium

Research institute responsible for collecting and analyzing climate data

Keep them informed about the ways WSUD and climate data analysis connect

Public Transport Sector

Low

Medium

Offering transport service for the citizens of Tirana

Provide them with information regarding ways of adapting a sustainable approach in the existing sector (e.g., Green bus stops, green buses)

Citizens of Tirana

High

Medium

They have the power of choosing their leaders as well as monitoring the local government

Organize meetings, public hearings; raise awareness about the foreseeable climate change effects in Tirana, and how it will affect their everyday life

Residents of the study area

Very High

High

They are responsible for voicing and raising the issues related with the quality of public space and the poor performance of the sewage network in their district

Organize meetings, public hearings in order to better understand their concerns, introduce the topic of WSUD in a comprehensive and simplified way to the public. Clarify the role of the residents in maintaining this kind of infrastructure

Visitors/ Tourists

Medium

Very Low

Due to its historic background, the tourists are especially attracted by this part of Tirana, included in the focus area of this study

Consider implementing features (info-points in the mobility hubs) that would serve the interest of tourists. Also, with an improved infrastructure and better quality of public space, the interest in visiting the district would certainly increase

Employees

Very High

Medium

Traffic and public life that is not disrupted by weather events

Include them in the public hearings and meetings with the residents of the area

Seniors

Very High

Medium

More green areas in the city, public space that is more inclusive

Keep them informed, include them in public hearings

Teenagers

Very High

Low

Public space that meets their everyday needs

Design public areas that would encourage outdoor activities for teenagers

Children

Very High

Very Low

More playing areas

Design playgrounds which are safe and constructed with natural material

2. Individuals

Stakeholder

Interest

Power

Their responsibilities/ Their concerns

How to deal with them/ How to satisfy them

Private Investors

Very High

Medium

The focus area in this study is especially attractive for private investors

Provide a comprehensive and feasibility study that emphasizes the profits that private investors will with the implementation of WSUD

Business Owners of the Study - Area

Very High

Medium

Almost all businesses (especially those in underground level) are flooded during heavy rainfall events

Keep them informed about the benefits that will follow by implementing WSUD, and especially how the issue of urban flooding will be mitigated

Academics

Medium

High

They lead the scientific research agenda in universities

Provide a strategy on how to include WSUD topics in the scientific research agenda of universities

Engineers, Architects & Urban Planners

Very High

Medium

Responsible for ongoing and future construction projects

Keep them informed about benefits of WSUD and how these tools can be integrated in a building or street level. Involve them in the project

Bikers

Medium

Low

Concerned about having a well-established bike infrastructure in the city

Keep them informed, include them in public hearings and meetings

Pedestrians

High

Low

Concerned about increasing the amount of pedestrians zones in the city

Keep them informed, include them in public hearings and meetings

Pedestrians

High

Low

Concerned about increasing the amount of pedestrians zones in the city

Keep them informed, include them in public hearings and meetings

Car Owners

Low

Low

Concerned about a mobility network dominated by motorized vehicles. Also interested on increasing the amount of open parking areas in the inner city

Avoid them

Environmental Activists

Very High

Medium

Concerned about topics related with climate change, and its effect on public life in many levels

Keep them informed, include them in public hearings and meetings

National Architecture and Urban Planning Offices

High

Medium

Responsible for ongoing construction projects in the city and interested about upcoming project competitions

Keep them informed about benefits of WSUD and how these tools can be integrated in a building or street level 43

3. Organizations

Stakeholder

Interest

Power

Their responsibilities/ Their concerns

How to deal with them/ How to satisfy them

International Architecture and Urban Planning Offices

Medium

Low

Interested on large scale architectural projects in the city, with a large impact on Tirana’s public life

Keep them informed

Mass Media (TVs, Online, Press)

Medium

High

Responsible for disseminating news to the masses

Provide them information emphasizing the importance of a WSUD transformation in the city and how it will improve the life of all the citizens of Tirana in many levels. Work with them to mainstream this topic in the public

EcoVolis

High

Medium

Community bike sharing program

Keep them informed about the added value of WSUD on providing a coherent bike infrastructure

GIZ

High

High

German development agency that provides services in the field of international development cooperation, especially with developing countries (GIZ, n.d.)

Keep them informed and seek to work closely with them in order to ensure not expertise support on the matter of urban flooding

Co-PLAN

High

Medium

Non-profit organization focused on tackling key environmental issues, by enabling sustainable urban development, regional governance and promoting community participation (Co-PLAN, n.d.)

Keep them informed about the project, how WSUD tackles the topic of urban sustainable development.

Seek for expertise support from them

Water Supply and Sewerage Association of Albania

Very High

Medium

Non-profit association of water supply and sewerage professionals, who intend to improve the management of water sector in Albania (SHUKALB, n. d.)

Keep them informed about the project, how WSUD enables the development of a sustainable sewerage network in the city. Seek for expertise support from them

Albanian Architects Association

Medium

Low

Non-profit association of Albanian architects and urban planners

Keep them informed

Table 6 | Stakeholder Analysis Source: Author, 2021

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2.6 Challenges for Sustainable Urban Development The main findings from the previous analysis, from the conducted experts’ interviews and from site observations are further summarized. The establishment of a sustainable urban development future is related with the following four key topics:

// Climate Resilience

Due to the fact that Tirana is dealing more often with extreme heat and cloudburst events (Municipality of Tirana, 2015), there is an urgent need for redesigning the public spaces that can deal with abundant rainfall events by providing more retention areas for stormwater, and at the same time balance the microclimate in the city. The existing sewerage network of the city, built in the early years of communism, has shown to

be underperforming during such extreme events. The existing situation calls for the implementation of sustainable sewerage infrastructure that would work well along the existing one (Dervishaj, 2021).

While there are some green areas in the city, there is a lack of sufficient green coverage that would have an impact on mitigating climate change effects, and especially that of air pollution - since Tirana is still ranked among the most polluted capitals of Europe (Co-PLAN, 2020; Taylor, 2019).

On an institutional level, the municipality is not implementing enough strategies to mitigate climate change effects (Sinojmeri, 2021). The current use of construction materials and the lack of permeable surfaces is not sustainable and if it is not addressed soon, will produce long-term issues for the city.

Figure 20 | Skanderbeg Square, Tirana Source: Dujardin, 2019

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Figure 21 | Dëshmoret e Kombit Boulevard from Mother Teresa Square Source: Author, 2021

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// The Built Environment

The construction wave that took place in Tirana after the ‘90s, was uncontrolled and manifested the lack of law enforcement during those years. The results are shown in neighbourhoods built with no consideration to urban laws, with poor design standards, lack of maintenance and with many issues related to the water infrastructure (Pojani, 2010; Emiri, n.d.). Finding a solution to this matter has been a challenge and an unresolved issue for many governments.

On the other hand, the predominant construction trend of nowadays, is of another nature. Undoubtedly unprecedented for the urban pattern of Tirana is the construction of high-rise buildings with 20 to 30 floors and up to 80 meters high (Doka & Göler, 2020).

Ten of these towers are in construction or in the process of being constructed within the city center area (Doka & Göler, 2020). In terms of scale, this kind of ‘vertical urbanism’ represents a completely new phenomenon for a compact, low rise city as Tirana - therefore their development has conceived unattractive public areas that lack the human scale and the proper sunlight.

// Public Life

Even though citizens of Tirana enjoy spending time outside, and the city itself has a vibrant public life, the quality of public areas doesn’t always seem to cater to the people’s desired activities. For instance, the few parks of the city are mostly visited by seniors and children, as the younger generation prefers to spend time in the vast outdoor areas offered by cafés and bars (Pojani, 2010).

While a rich public life does exist, there is a general need for reclaiming, maintaining and upgrading the existing network of public areas. On this matter a good start would be on purposely planning parks, equipped with cross-generation activities, which aim to make people spend more time in nature - while actually enjoying it.

// Mobility Network

Although the mobility network of Tirana is getting more diverse, it remains on a large scale dominated by cars, encouraged by the poor quality of public transport. Tirana is a walkable city and on a decent level the pedestrian routes are safe and indeed many people choose to walk on their way to work, school, shop, or other daily destinations (Pojani, 2011a; Anciaes, n.d.). However, from the site observations, it was noted that there are parts of the focus area where the pedestrian paths are narrow and mixed with the car lane, making it an uninviting and not safe route for pedestrians.

On a more positive note, there is growing interest for cycling, but not on a level of having a significant impact, since the biking infrastructure is lacking coherence (SUTi, 2021). To make people abandon their private cars, the public transport must provide a better service, the routes should be revised and should be considered the implementation of another public transport service as it is a tram. On the other hand, safer bike lanes, and the expansion of the bike infrastructure in a larger scale of the city would have an impact on making the existing mobility network of the city far more sustainable.

The proposed implementation of WSUD tools in this master thesis, aims to address primarily the topic of climate resilience in general and urban flooding in particular, in the study-area described further. On a second level will be tackled the identified issues related with the topic of Built Environment, Public Life and Mobility Network. The selection of the WSUD tools will be in consideration with the identified challenges on all these three themes / categories.

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CHAPTER 3

Assembling a WSUD Toolkit

3.1 Why a WSUD Toolkit?

Gathering from the previous analysis, it is fair to conclude that the urban infrastructure of Tirana has an adaptation deficit toward extreme precipitation events and heat waves, which by all future climate predictions are expected to become more frequent and intense (Municipality of Tirana, 2015).

WSUD is the practice that addresses the challenges of sustainable growth in urban systems. The application of WSUD tools instead or alongside the existing conventional sewage system provides a more sustainable and reliable sewage network. It integrates at the same time principles of sustainable stormwater system with components of urban planning and landscape design. Therefore, the deployment of such measures establishes a stormwater network that does not only deal better with overwhelming precipitation events but responds better to the demands of urban planning as well (Hoyer et al., 2011; Dickhaut, 2019).

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A variety of terms for stormwater management have emerged in the past years, such as Blue-Green Infrastructure (BGI), Sustainable Drainage Systems (SuDS), Water Sensitive Urban Design (WSUD) and Nature Based Systems (NBS). Furthermore, in some Asian countries, the terminology of ‘Sponge-City’ is used as a counterpart to WSUD, an acronym originating from Australia’s stormwater sector (Zevenbergen, 2018). In this report, the term WSUD will be used to identify all the intervention and tools that are implemented in an urban area to manage stormwater (through detention, harvesting, infiltration, evaporation or transport), while at the same time adding extra value such as improved quality of public space, mitigation of urban heat-island effect and an improved mobility network (ArnbjergNielsen et al., 2015).

In order to better understand the numerous benefits of WSUD, table 7 depicts in a summarized way the downsides of the conventional stormwater system and how the WSUD discipline responds to each of them.

Figure 22 | The Square in Front of the Sport Arena - Pictured from Mother Teresa Square Source: Author, 2021

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Topics addressed

Conventional Network

WSUD

1

Urban Flooding

Conventional systems increase the chance for flooding during cloudburst, as the network usually gets overwhelmed and hence unable to perform well under extreme rainfall events.

WSUD aims to attenuate the peak runoff during cloudburst events, by managing the runoff at its place.

2

Heat Island Effect

It reduces infiltration and evaporation and has a negative effect on the climate by increasing the risk of heat island effect.

WSUD increases infiltration and evaporation, therefore it mitigates heat island effect by creating pleasant microclimates within the city.

3

Water Scarcity

It doesn’t contribute to groundwater recharge. The stormwater doesn’t get treated; therefore, it is not reused for other purposes.

It enhances groundwater recharge through soil moisturizing. The runoff treatment allows the reuse of it for non-potable purposes.

4

Urban Growth

The conventional stormwater networks are centralized, rigid systems and unable to adapt to the conditions of a growing city or to unforeseen climate change effects.

Promotes a decentralized stormwater network, which can easily adapt with the growing demands of a developing city.

5

Biodiversity

The lack of stormwater treatment presents a risk for the ecosystems and the biodiversity.

Enhances biodiversity, supports ecosystems and provides connection between habitats.

6

Landscape Design

Stormwater is often not visible. It creates dead and unattractive spaces, lacking aesthetic and comfort for the public.

Uses the stormwater as a combining element of urban planning and landscape design. The result is vibrant, attractive and multifunctional public areas, easily accessed by the public.

7

Water Bodies

Often the water bodies and water courses get polluted due to untreted stormwater discharge.

Celebrates watercourses and water bodies. Fosters their value through improvments in water quality and integration of landscape design.

Table 7 | Comparison Between WSUD and the Conventional Network Source: Author 2021 // Based on Dickhaut, 2019 and CIRIA, 2013

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Figure 23 | Urban, Natural and WSUD Water Balance Source: Author, 2021

URBAN DESIGN microclimate and human comfort

urban gardening

local identity community engagement

sustainable buildings

sustainable water supply

water features and art

carbon reduction

greywater and wastewater recycling

rainwater and surface runoff recycling

PLACE MAKING

lush landscapes

PRODUCTIVE LANDSCAPE

WSUD

open spaces and recreation

runoff reduction & treatment, flood water integration

reduced pollution and flood risk

wastewater reduction & treatment

affordable water and good service

local resource managment

local infrastructure efficiency

flood pathway integration streets and highway design

habitat creation and enhancement

URBAN PLANNING

Figure 24 | Concept diagram for WSUD Source: CIRIA 2013 // Graphic: Author, 2021

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3.2 Assembling a WSUD Toolkit for Tirana The aim of this chapter is to serve as a small manual, depicting how the information regarding WSUD tools can be given in such a way that it can ease their integration in different urban areas in Tirana. Therefore, a so-called WSUD Toolkit has been developed in a summarized, flexible, multi-functional way. By all means, the number of tools and intervention that a proper WSUD manual would include are numerous, however in this chapter will be introduced only those that are presumed to be more applicable for the urban and climate pattern of Tirana. There is no unequivocal or single standard classification of WSUD tools. Depending on the processes that each of the tools performs, they are often classified under measures that ensure infiltration, evaporation, filtration, retention, detention and so on. However, in this case, the chosen tools will be categorized based on their scale of implementation and the existing infrastructure where they are integrated to.

From the vast variety of WSUD tools, a few were selected to be included in this chapter the ones that are considered more applicable for Tirana’s urban and climate settings.

discharging it in a controlled, riskless manner.

These are usually large-scale interventions that require a large site to be implemented (e.g. wetlands). Can work separately as well as combined with other tools from the Toolkit.

Four are the identified categories:

// Complementary Devices

// Buildings-Scale Interventions

In this category are grouped all interventions (tools) that are integrated with the structure of an existing or new construction. They have a positive impact on moderating the velocity of stormwater by retaining a lot of water during storm events. The combination of these tools with other interventions from the toolkit is limited.

// Interventions in Water Bodies and Drainage infrastructure

The interventions in this category have a significant impact on the drainage system.

They decrease the risk of urban flooding, by conveying stormwater, collecting, treating, and 52

// Street-Scale Interventions

In this category are grouped tools implemented as an additional feature, to improve or replace existing components of the street infrastructure. Thus, turning them from a traditional infrastructure of the cityscape into a sustainable one that can perform many functions; from transport, mitigation of urban flooding risk, and overall upgrading the urban environment. Combined with one another, these tools create the concept of Green Streets.

// Public-Scale Interventions

Interventions grouped under this category have not just a positive impact on providing climate resilience, but combined with one another they all improve the quality of public space, by providing public realm, and overall upgrading the cityscape.

In this category are grouped integrated systems with the above-mentioned WSUD tools, to support them on better performing their functions, such as filtration, stormwater harvesting and collecting for a limited time.

All selected tools are assessed individually in order to give the most essential information for each of them, in terms of their technicality, maintenance, field of application, compliance with other tools, costs and the benefits they have on mitigating climate change effects and the main urban challenges that each of them addresses. The data for each tool is given in a summarized, unified structure, to ease the comparison in between them while at the same time optimize their application in another site.

Building-Scale Interventions green roof

green facade

urban wetland

bioretention basin

gutter

infiltration trench

stormwater tree

stormwater median

stormwater curb extension

bioswale

Interventions in Water Bodies and Drainage Infrastructure

Street-Scale Interventions

Public-Scale Interventions

cloudburst road

H central retention area

raingarden

stormwater attenuation tank

gross pollutant trap

bioretention planters

permeable paving

green bus stop

island of coolness

Complementary Tools

Figure 25 | The WSUD Toolkit Source: Author, 2021

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GREEN ROOF

Figure 26 | An Example of Green-Active Roof in Rotterdam Source: Rotterdam Innovation City, n.d.

Description

Maintenance

// Green roofs are roof areas covered fully or partially with vegetation planted in a growing substrate. They are perhaps the most popular WSUD intervention, used increasingly in heavily built-up areas by introducing more greenery. They have numerous benefits when it comes to climate change mitigation and flood protection. Green roofs cool, humidify and improve the quality of the surrounding air (Iwaszuk et al., 2020). They reduce urban heat island effect, improve the energy performance of the building and more importantly, increase rainwater retention by providing up to 70%of the runoff reduction volume (DWA-A 138E, 2005). // Two are the most distinguished types of green roofs; extensive and intensive.

Extensive green roofs consist of a thin layer of subtract cover in low-maintenance vegetation. Intensive green roofs are more expensive to install. They consist of a thicker substrate layer covered in different varieties of plants and are more suitable for social activities such as gardening (Iwaszuk et al., 2020).

/Extensive green roof requires less maintenance, only twice a year inspection to ensure that the growth of vegetation is healthy and for other cleaning tasks.

Intensive green roofs are more complex, hence need regular maintenance to inspect planting scheme, the design of the roof & other tasks related with garden maintenance (Iwaszuk et al., 2020).

Design requirements // Extensive green roofs: depth: 7 cm; weight: 80 kg/m2; water storage: 25 l/m2 // Intensive green roofs: depth: 125 cm; weight: 570 kg/m2; water storage: 160 l/m2 The roof structure should be pitched up to 5 degrees (Schwarz-v. Raumer, 2019; Atelier Groenblauw, 2019a).

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Place of application A green roof can be applied to any new construction: public, private, residential and commercial buildings. Applied in existing buildings, it should be considered that the construction must withstand the weight of the green roof.

Potential costs // Extensive green roofs / capital costs: 50 - 225 €/m²; maintenance costs: 0.50 3.00 €/m²/year (Iwaszuk et al., 2020). // Intensive green roofs / capital costs: 60 and 150 €/m²; maintenance costs: 2.50 4.00 €/m²/year (Iwaszuk et al., 2020).

Potential challenges // High cost of intensive roofs. // The structure of some existing buildings my not support the weight of the roof, especially the intensive ones. // The roots of the plants may damage the water-proofing layers of the roof.

Challenges addressed Runoff pressure on the drainage system Flood resilience Heat island effect Ecological connectivity Cooling and insulation Air pollution Urban upgrading Lack of green spaces Water scarcity

Added values CO2 sequestration Improved mobility network Promotion of sustainable behaviors Use of low carbon materials Preseve of the historical background Property value increase

Can be combined with // Green facades // Walls // Livingwalls // Vertical gardens

GREEN FACADE

Figure 27 | A Green Facade Combinate with Green Roof Source: semper green wall, n.d.

Challenges addressed Runoff pressure on the drainage system Flood resilience Heat island effect Ecological connectivity Cooling and insulation Air pollution Urban upgrading Lack of green spaces Water scarcity

Added values CO2 sequestration Improved mobility network Promotion of sustainable behaviors Use of low carbon materials Preseve of the historical background Property value increase

Can be combined with ///Green roofs

Maintenance

Description

Green facades need little maintenance.

An annual inspection to check the supporting system, the materials of the wall and clean the storm drains and gutters. However, the ground based green facade, recently constructed, shall be monitored more often to check the plants are growing in the right direction.

In case of extreme dry season, irrigation of the green facades might be required (Iwaszuk et al., 2020).

// Green facades are systems that are partially or completely covered by greenery, provided by self-climbing plants that grow from pots attached to the facade or other features connected with the ground. // At an urban level, the green walls can control the temperature by reducing the need for cooling and heating. At a neighbourhood level they mitigate the urban heat island effect and at a building level, green facades improve thermal insulation. Furthermore, these systems insulate sounds, bring aesthetic values, improve the indoor and outdoor air quality, and promote biodiversity (Atelier Groenblauw, 2019d).

Place of application They can be integrated in heavily built-up areas, since they occupy minimal space in the ground, ensuring however that the roots of the plants are safe. If applied in existing buildings, the condition of the wall/facade where the vegetation will be attached to, should be considered.

Potential costs The cost estimation of a green façade depends on the size of the wall, the type of vegetation being used, the type of the green façade – direct or indirect, and the maintenance required (Iwaszuk et al., 2020).

Potential challenges If the façade already has damage on its surface, the vegetation might cause further deterioration. The green façade provides a good habitat for insects, which might be disturbing for residents (Schwarz-V, Raumer, 2019).

Design requirements // Two are the main elements that need to be addressed on designing a green façade: the type of vegetation used and the structure that support the plants. // In direct ground based green façades, no supporting system is required since plants are directly planted in the soil or in a planting box. The climbing vegetation in this case might need only suckers and tendrils to be attached in the façade (Atelier Groenblauw, 2019d). // The indirect green façade needs a supporting system to help the vegetation grow vertically. This structure should be a light one, such as a wire-rope system (Atelier Groenblauw, 2019d). // Vegetation used in a green façade should reflect the type of climate conditions and the orientation of the façade (Iwaszuk et al., 2020).

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URBAN WETLAND

Figure 28 | Tanner Springs Park, Portland, Oregon Source: Ramboll Studio Dreiseitl, 2010

Description

Maintenance

// Urban Wetlands are areas filled with a permanent pool of water that provides attenuation and treatment of the surface stormwater runoff. Attenuation storage is reached above the permanent water level. During heavy rainfalls, a flow control system controls the rate of water discharge. The collected stormwater is detained and treated in the pool (CIRIA, 2015). Well-designed wetlands can bring added aesthetic value and can work as an ecosystem.

Regular inspection and maintenance is crucial for the effective operation of wetlands. The design of the pond should consider the maintenance access. For landscape contractors the maintenance of wetlands is usually a straightforward procedure, as it includes a few extra works of what is typically required for maintaining standard public open spaces (CIRIA, 2015; GSWCD, 2009).

Design requirements // Wetlands can be constructed using an existing depression or by excavating a new one. The design should avoid the creation of a dead zones and should optimize the sedimentation process by maximizing the flow path (CIRIA, 2015). // The catchment area: from 25ha to 2-4ha (Atlanta Regional Commission, 2016). Inlets and outlets should be placed in such a way that maximizes the flow rate in the pond, where the ratio of flow path length to width should be at least 3:1 (NWRM, 2013a). // The normal permanent depth of the pond is 1.2 m, and should never exceed 2 m, to allow oxygen to reach the bottom of the pond (NWRM, 2013a). // The temporary water storage above the permanent one should have a depth not more than 0.5 m - however this depends on the scale of the size of the wetland. // Health and safety risk management design guidelines should be considered carefully in the design process (CIRIA, 2015).

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Place of application // Large green areas // Parks ///Existing depression areas

Challenges addressed Runoff pressure on the drainage system Flood resilience Heat island effect Ecological connectivity Cooling and insulation Air pollution Urban upgrading Lack of green spaces Water scarcity

Potential costs

Added values

The costs of a constructed wetland vary in a large scale from one case to another. However, comparing the costs’ data of 9 different wetlands built in various conditions, the approximate total construction costs are: 1mln euro/1 ha active area (Gkika et al., 2014).

CO2 sequestration

Potential challenges

Preseve of the historical background

// Constructed wetlands require a relatively large land area (CIRIA, 2015). // Pests and odors might create an unpleasant public space around the wetland (CIRIA, 2015). // Constructed wetlands need several growing seasons to fully perform according to their design specifications (Griffith, 1992).

Improved mobility network Promotion of sustainable behaviors Use of low carbon materials

Property value increase

Can be combined with // Infiltartion trenches // Bioswales.

BIORETENTION BASIN

Figure 29 | Detention pond in Ohlsdorf, Hamburg Source: Author, 2019

Challenges addressed Runoff pressure on the drainage system Flood resilience Heat island effect Ecological connectivity Cooling and insulation Air pollution Urban upgrading Lack of green spaces Water scarcity

Added values CO2 sequestration Improved mobility network Promotion of sustainable behaviors

Maintenance

Description

// Detention ponds require less maintenance work than retention ponds. For the retention pond, monthly and annual maintenance is required. The removal of trash, floating debris and leaves are tasks that should be done monthly. On the other hand, a more detailed inspection for any occurring erosion or damaged structure should be done annually (Iwaszuk et al., 2020).

// Bioretention basing are heavy vegetated landscaped depressions that reduce the peak flow rate by slowing and treating on site stormwater (LSS, 2019a). Thanks to the depression and other drainage tools, the stormwater gets collected to the basin where it is treated as infiltrates the layers of soil. // Bioretention ponds can be dry and wet. They are usually dry, except after or during heavy rain, when the pond collects the stormwater and holds it for a limited time (Iwaszuk et al., 2020). // On the other hand, wet basins or retention ponds differ from detention ponds as they are permanently filled with water, and they have an additional storage capacity to keep and treat stormwater following extreme rainfall events (Iwaszuk et al., 2020).

Place of application // Areas with little pervious surface // Parking lots // Parks // Existing depression areas

Potential costs The construction increases when the basins are designed for larger areas.

Capital costs: 25–135 EUR/m2 (LSS; 2019a).

Use of low carbon materials Preseve of the historical background Property value increase

Can be combined with // Biosales // Ditches // Raingardens // Permebale paving

Potential challenges // In case of contaminated runoff, and if the design construction requirements of the basins are not properly followed, the infiltration of runoff can contaminate groundwaters (CIRIA, 2015). // Requires small to limited drainage area, hence the potential for providing aesthetic value through design, it is limited (Iwaszuk et al., 2020).

Design requirements // Both types of ponds can be constructed in an existing depression or by excavation of a new one. // They have a minimum drainage area of 3-10 ha (Aver, 2012). // The pond area should be not more than 3-7% of the catchment area and can be designed as a single pond or several pools with an average depth of 1 m (Woods-Ballard et al., 2015). // In case of contaminated runoff, the bottom of the basin should be treated with an impermeable layer in order to prevent the contamination of groundwaters (LSS, 2019a).

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GUTTER

Figure 30

| A Drainage Gutter in a Sealed Plaza

Source: Author, 2021

Description

Maintenance

// Gutters are a wide and shallow type of channel, placed above the ground; during excess storm runoff it serves as a small drainage system as it carries the water from streets and squares to discharge it in the nearest surface water or to infiltrate it in the ground utilizing an infiltration system. // Different manuals address it as curb or inlet. // The design of the channel is prone to collecting solid waste from streets and plazas, hence causing dysfunction of the gutter. Therefore, a proper maintenance work is required (Morello et al., 2020).

// The design of the channel is prone to collecting solid waste from streets and plazas, hence causing dysfunction of the gutter. A regular maintenance and inspection regime should include litter debris and sediment removal. // If applied in areas where the access of large vehicles is permitted, the maintenance work should include regular inspections, repairs and replacements in case of damages.

Design requirements // The usual width is 30 cm // max length 50 m and width 5 cm. // The slope of the ground where the gutt is placed should be up to 0.5% (Morello et al., 2020).

Can be combined with // Sustainable urban drainage systems (SUDS) and various elements of Blue green infrastructure (BGI) // Raingardens // Stormwater Medians // Bioswale

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Place of application // Plazas & Squares // Parks // Tree pits // Blue Green streets // Sidewalks

Challenges addressed Runoff pressure on the drainage system Flood resilience Heat island effect Ecological connectivity Cooling and insulation Air pollution Urban upgrading Lack of green spaces Water scarcity

Added values CO2 sequestration

Potential challenges // The gutters are sensitive to blockage and dysfunction as can easily trap solid waste. // The design has to be durable in order to resist the weight of large vehicles. // The inlet of the gutter should be placed in the right slope in order to catch the upstream water. This can cause limitations design wise.

Improved mobility network Promotion of sustainable behaviors Use of low carbon materials Preseve of the historical background Property value increase

INFILTRATION TRENCH

Figure 31 | An Infiltration Trench Integrated in a Park Area Source: Berges du Vauziron, 2009

Challenges addressed Runoff pressure on the drainage system Flood resilience Heat island effect Ecological connectivity Cooling and insulation Air pollution Urban upgrading Lack of green spaces Water scarcity

Added values CO2 sequestration Improved mobility network Promotion of sustainable behaviors Use of low carbon materials Preseve of the historical background Property value increase

Can be combined with // Bioswales // Vegetated areas // Bioretention basins // Permeable paving

Maintenance

Description

// A regular maintenance regime should include litter and debris removal, trimming roots and checking for clogging that may cause blockage (Susdrain, 2019). // The inlets and catch basins require cleaning and inspection twice a year. // During the first month after construction, the trench should be inspected after each storm event to ensure it works efficiently (Iwaszuk et al., 2020).

// Infiltration trenches are shallow excavations filled with rubble and stone, that allow water to infiltrate into the surrounding soils from the bottom and sides of the trench (Iwaszuk et al., 2020). // They reduce the velocity of surface runoff, mitigate the risk of flooding and treat runoff water through physical filtration of the pollutant and sediments.

Infiltration trenches can be integrated with existing sites and work more efficiently combined with other drainage tools (NWRM, 2013b).

Place of application // Lawns, parks // Parking lots // Playing fields, playgrounds // Recreational areas, public open space

Potential costs // Construction costs depend on the depth, geometry and underlying geology conditions. // Capital costs: €70-€90 /m3 stored volume // Maintenance costs: €0.25-€4.00/ m2 surface area (NWRM, 2013b)

Potential challenges // Should not be placed near buildings, to avoid damage of foundation (Iwaszuk et al., 2020). // Are ineffective in areas with high or uneven slope and limited to small catchments (Susdrain, 2019).

Design requirements // Infiltration trenches should strictly be placed in flat sites (NWRM, 2013b). // The depth should be an average of 1-2 m and the width 1-2.5 m (NWRM, 2013b). // The top layer of the trench can be filled with gravel or other stone and is recommended to be 1.8 m deep (NWRM, 2013b). // To control the velocity of the runoff, the longitudinal slope of the trench is recommended not more than 2% (NWRM, 2013b). // The drainage area should not be more than 5 ha (Dublin, 2019). // The surface of the infiltration trench should be design to allow the infiltration of rainwater through for 24h, in case of medium-sized rain (Iwaszuk et al., 2020).

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STORMWATER TREE

Figure 32 | Stormwater Tree Pits Integrated in an Urban Plaza, Montreal Source: Webb, 2013

Description

Maintenance

// Stormwater trees, are a system of trees connected by an infiltration structure placed below the ground. They have proven value on reducing runoff, by collecting, using and treating rainwater.

The essential part is the porosity of the infiltration trench, which allows an efficient management of runoff and provides the necessary growing substrates for the tree. The underground infiltration structure includes a suspended pavement, structural soils and a drain pipe that connects pits before connecting with the sewage network (NACTO, 2017). // In addition to their aesthetic value, they contribute significantly to mitigating the flood risks, moderating peak flow and increasing air quality through transpiration, interception and increased infiltration (Grohmann&Menconi, 2016).

// During dry seasons, especially in hot climates, the trees should be provided with irrigation if necessary. // Regular inspection of mulch and soil in to ensure the healthy growth of trees. // Twice a year, the mulch should be removed. // Regular cleaning of inflow and outflow mechanisms (Andrukovich, 2019).

Design requirements // The placement of trees at ground level is flexible. They can either appear as a series of disconnected trees in a lawn or lined on the street side (Grohmann&Menconi, 2016). // The soil volume should be sufficient and compact enough to allow infiltration and root growth. Based on the dimension of the tree crown and size of the leaves, some trees are more adequate for stormwater management than others. Planting trees in walled planters requires sufficient space for the tree to grow until maturity. // As the trees age, some roots may grow toward the ground surface, causing problems with the pavement. Therefore, the root barrier should be used to direct the growth of the roots (NACTO, 2017).

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Place of application

Challenges addressed Runoff pressure on the drainage system Flood resilience Heat island effect Ecological connectivity Cooling and insulation Air pollution Urban upgrading

// Parks // Bioretention planters // Lawns // Streets // Gardens, Courtyards

Potential costs Capital installation costs: $4000 to $8000 Maintenace costs: Annually $200 to $560 for each tree pit (UrbanWater, 2015).

Potential challenges // Placing trees in dense urban environments can have its limitations and requires proper storm water trees program and a long-term support (EPA, 2016). // Trees planted in tricky urban areas may have a short life span or can experience difficulty on growing properly (EPA, 2016). // Some species of trees are limited for certain climate conditions.

Lack of green spaces Water scarcity

Added values CO2 sequestration Improved mobility network Promotion of sustainable behaviors Use of low carbon materials Preseve of the historical background Property value increase

Can be combined with // Bioretention planters // Detention & retention ponds // Blue Green streets // Curb Extentions

STORMWATER MEDIAN

Figure 33 | Depressed Stormwater Median During a Rain Event Source: NACTO, 2017b

Challenges addressed Runoff pressure on the drainage system Flood resilience Heat island effect Ecological connectivity Cooling and insulation Air pollution Urban upgrading Lack of green spaces Water scarcity

Added values

Maintenance

Description

// A regular maintenance work is required to remove trash, leaves and other sediments from the retention area (Andrukovich, 2019). // Also, the growth of the vegetation should be inspected, so the plants grow healthy and under the given limits of height (Andrukovich, 2019). // Periodic cleaning of inlets, outlets and other structural features (Andrukovich, 2019).

// Stormwater medians are used not only as traffic separators, but they contribute to stormwater conveyance and infiltration. // These WSUD tools are implemented in a potentially unused space of the street, by repurposing it and turning it into a green area with numerous benefits. // If the width of the street is enough, a stormwater median can be coupled with bike lanes and pedestrian routes, by providing an increased aesthetic value to the public space (NACTO, 2017).

Place of application // Streets // Highways

Potential challenges

CO2 sequestration Improved mobility network Promotion of sustainable behaviors Use of low carbon materials Preseve of the historical background Property value increase

Can be combined with

// The technical components of the street, located in or near the median may challenge the design process of the median. // The collection of snow or water in cold season, can damage the vegetation and potentially influence the durability of the median system (Andrukovich, 2019). // The vegetation of stormwater medians, placed in harsh urban environments, might require extra maintenance work to ensure its healthy growing.

Design requirements // Stormwater medians tend to be in a high point of the street cross slope, which does not help the street water runoff.

Therefore, it is recommended that the street slope should be reversed, in order to ensure that the runoff gets collected in the median (NACTO, 2017). // The vegetation planted in the median should not grow more than 0,6 m, in order to not disturb the visibility for drivers, bikers and pedestrians (NACTO, 2017). // The vegetation used should resist the harsh urban environment, especially in roads with heavy traffic (NACTO, 2017).

// BG streets // Stormwater trees // Cloudburst roads // Raingardens

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STORMWATER CURB EXTENSION

Figure 34 | Stormwater Curb Extension in Portland’s Central Industrial District // Source: Green Works, n.d.

Description

Maintenance

// Stormwater curb extensions can be integrated in intersection roads or midblocks in low-speed neighbourhoods, by providing narrower and safer crossings for pedestrians and traffic-calming benefits (NACTO, 2017). // The area of the curb can be utilized for bioretention, urban furnitures or for planting trees. // They have numerous benefits, from creating safer public space for pedestrians to the collection and treatment of the stormwater (NACTO, 2017). // Since curb extensions are placed at the end of the flow rate, it is relatively easy to direct the runoff flow into the retention area of the curb (NACTO, 2017).

// A regular maintenance work is required to inspect the conditions of inlets & outlets as well as to remove trash, leaves and other sediments from the retention area. // Also, the growth of the vegetation should be inspected, so the plants grow healthy and under the given limits.

Design requirements // The width of the curb depends on the dimensions of the street, however typically they are placed 50 cm from the edge of the right busier lane. The curb return from bump out to the original edge of the street should have an angle between 30-60 degrees (NACTO, 2017). // The width of the curb should be enough to accommodate emergency and large vehicles. Inlets and outlets may be easily damaged by vehicles, especially during parking maneuvers, therefore metal lids should be placed to block vehicle entry. // The vegetation in curbs placed in road intersections must be high enough to maintain sight clearance for the drivers (NACTO, 2017).

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Place of application // Along streets, within the parking zone // Midblocks // Intersection of streets

Potential costs // The construction cost will vary depending on the site preparation required and the type of vegetation selected.

Challenges addressed Runoff pressure on the drainage system Flood resilience Heat island effect Ecological connectivity Cooling and insulation Air pollution Urban upgrading Lack of green spaces Water scarcity

Added values CO2 sequestration Improved mobility network

Potential challenges // The implementation of a curb extension might require the removal of a few parking places. // A new curb extension might create conflict with the bike lane; therefore a holistic study of the mobility network should be considered in the design process. // A new curb extensions might conflict with other utilities of street/sidewalk such as a fire hydrant.

Promotion of sustainable behaviors Use of low carbon materials Preseve of the historical background Propety value increas

Can be combined with // BG streets // Stormwater trees // Cloudburst roads // Raingardens

BIOSWALE

Figure 35 | Bioswale in the Ohlsdorf District, Hamburg Source: Author, 2019

Challenges addressed Runoff pressure on the drainage system Flood resilience Heat island effect Ecological connectivity Cooling and insulation Air pollution Urban upgrading Lack of green spaces Water scarcity

Added values CO2 sequestration

Design requirements

Description

// Bioswales should be placed in e terrain with a slope not higher than 5% (NRC, 2019). // The minimum size of the swale should be at least 1% of the catchment drainage area (Morello et al., 2019) // The highest level of groundwater where a bioswale would be an option is between -1.5 m to 2 m (Atelier Groenblauw, 2019b).

// Bioswales are vegetated ditches, soil depressions that imitate the natural soil drainage processes by collecting, slowing down, and treating surface runoff the pressure on existing sewer systems by collecting, hence slowing down, and treating surface runoff (NRC, 2019). // Bioswales offer a variety of benefits, from more efficient urban water systems, small impact on improving air quality, to biodiversity boosting and improved aesthetic of landscape areas (Iwaszuk et al., 2020). There are three types of swales: // Conveyances and attenuation swales collect and direct the stormwater to the destination point, which might be a wetland or retention pond. The processes of infiltration and treatment in the swale depend on the velocity and intensity of waterflow (CIRIA, 2015). // Wet swales consist of a permanent water level, covered with wetland planting.

This type has proven to be more efficient for flat areas where the soil has low infiltration capacity or where the groundwater level is high (CIRIA, 2015). // Dry swales consist of a soil layer placed above the underdrain layer filled with gravel. This system provides the additional volume for collection stormwater (CIRIA, 2015).

Place of application // Streets // Pedestrian & bike routes // Sport fields // Parks // Parking lots

Potential costs

Improved mobility network Promotion of sustainable behaviors Use of low carbon materials Preseve of the historical background Property value increase

Can be combined with // BG streets // Permeable paving // Cloudburst roads // Bioretention basins

// Capital costs: between 50–230 EUR/ m2 - streets and parking lots // Maintenance costs: between 0.58–2 EUR/m2 /year - streets and parling lots (Iwaszuk et al., 2020).

Potential challenges // Bioswales can become less effective over time (Iwaszuk et al., 2020). // Are not recommended in areas with steep slope. // Difficult to be incorporated in dense urban areas.

Maintenance // Bioswales with grass mixtures require mowing every half month. // They should be observed as all other landscape features which includes damage reparation, removal of sediments, control of vegetations, replacement of gravel (Iwaszuk et al., 2020).

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CLOUDBURST ROAD

Figure 36 | Sankt Annæ Plads in Copenhagen - Cloudburst Street Source: State of Green, n. d.

Description

Design requirements

Challenges addressed

According to Copenhagen Cloudburst Plan, cloudburst roads are used to channel and direct the cloudburst water, through their non-conventional V shaped profile. Thanks to this not standard engineering practice, the water flows and eventually will be collected in the middle of the road, away from the buildings and leaving the pedestrian routes safe and still accessible. Channels and swales can be placed along the edges so the waterflow gets more organized. It is combined with a cloudburst pipe placed below the street to provide more communication with the existing sewage network or other WSUD tools (Ramboll, 2014).

// Cloudburst Road // The street slope should be reversed, in order to ensure that the runoff gets collected in the middle. // The design of the road (size wise & WSUD solutions included) and the presumed runoff scenario should consider avoiding flooding in the downstream area – which should be able to deal with large loads of sediments, debris (Andrukovich, 2018). // Central Retention Area The design of the central retention area, is limited by the size of the street and should consider the runoff scenario.

Hence, it should be able to collect and treat large amount of stormwater.

Runoff pressure on the drainage system

Cooling and insulation

Potential challenges

Added values

// Cloudburst Road // Accumulated water in the middle of the street affects traffic. // The technical components and other utilities of the street, that are in or near the median, may challenge and limit the design of the cloudburst road. // Central Retention Area The collection of snow or water in cold season, can damage the vegetation and potentially influence the durability of the infiltration system.

CO2 sequestration

CENTRAL RE(DE)TENTION AREA

Central retention areas are areas proposed in plazas and parks, so the cloudburst roads can be smaller in size. They can be established as open areas of depression with sitting elements or other urban furniture on their highest point.

The working principle is the same as rain gardens. Typically, they are placed next to a cloudburst road (Ramboll, 2014).

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Place of application // Boulevards // Avenues // Arterial street

Flood resilience Heat island effect Ecological connectivity

Air pollution Urban upgrading Lack of green spaces Water scarcity

Improved mobility network Promotion of sustainable behaviors Use of low carbon materials Preseve of the historical background Property value increase

Can be combined with // Bioswales // Detention & retention ponds // Raingardens // Infiltration Trenches // Urban Furnitures

RAINGARDEN

Figure 37 | A Raingarden in a Depressed Green Area Along a Highway - Melbourne Source: Volkening, 2017

Challenges addressed Runoff pressure on the drainage system Flood resilience Heat island effect Ecological connectivity Coling and insulato Air pollution

Maintenance

Description

// The regular maintenance should include: removal of litter, sediments, and hazardous species; inspection of the filter media and the other underlying components; observing the vegetation growth and irrigation during dry season (Melbourne Water, 2020).

// Raingardens, also referred to as bioretention systems, are specially designed garden beds that storage and filter surface runoff (NWRM, 2013c). // They use soil, microbes, and plants to biologically treat stormwater. // Four are the main stages that dictate how a raingarden works: First, rainwater collects on the garden surface; Water infiltrates through the soil and filter media, leaving sediments on the surface; Toxins stick to the soil and plants use only the nutritions of the stormwater; Lastly the soils and plants naturally filter and remove pollutants from the water (Melbourne Water, 2020).

Place of application

Urban upgrading Lack of green spaces Water scarcity

Added values CO2 sequestration Improved mobility network Promotion of sustainable behaviors Use of low carbon materials Presv of the historcal background

// Plazas // Parks // Along streets & boulevards // Along pedestrian & bike routes // Gardens & Courtyards

Design requirements Potential costs // The construction cost of raingardens will vary depending on the site preparation required and the type of vegetation selected. // Generally, if the terrain is excavated and new growing plants are planted the costs are higher than using an existing planted area (NWRM, 2013c).

Propety value increas

Can be combined with // BG streets // Permeable paving // Cloudburst roads // Bioretention basins

Potential challenges // Raingardens can treat runoff from a relatively small drainage area. // Are prone to clogging due to sediments and debris loads.

// Rain gardens are typically small since they are usually suited to drainage areas of a property level. The size of the raingardens varies from 1 to 100 square meters, where the minimum width required is 0.6 m and maximum length 40 m. // The area of the raingarden should be 5% to 10% of its drainage area (CIRIA, 2015). // When designing a raingarden, it should be ensured that the base of it is above the groundwater level. // Raingardens should not be placed too close to a property (NWRM, 2013c). // Native plants should be selected.

(NWRM, 2013c). // Raindardens require specific plants, with roots that keep the filter media dry, and that can tolerate the sandy soil and dry conditions (CIRIA, 2015; Melbourne Water, 2020).

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BIORETENTION PLANTERS

Figure 38 | Flow-Through Planters On the Campus of Portland State University // Source: Blackburn, 2008

Description

Maintenance

// Bioretention planters are basins with concrete walls that capture and treat stormwater before releasing it to underlaying soil (NACTO, 2017). // There are two types of bioretention planters, the filtration and infiltration based. The first one, has an impermeable bottom which relates to an under draining pipe. The second type has an open bottom, allowing the water to go through the underlying soil. // Their key advantage is that it can be integrated in various urban contexts and size can be flexible (Iwaszuk et al., 2020). // They offer more capacity for stormwater treatment per m2 compared with rain gardens or bioswales. The planters increase the aesthetic value of the public space where they are being integrated (NACTO, 2017).

// Regular inspection should be conducted especially after the construction, the vegetation should be watered regularly to ensure the proper growth of the roots. // After the first heavy rain event, the planter should be inspected for proper drainage and if the inlets and outlet are functioning (Iwaszuk et al., 2020). // The plants should be cleaned regularly from dead plants, debris in inlets and other sediments (Cuaran&Lundberg, 2015; Massachusetts, 2019).

Design requirements // The dimension of the planters determines its retention capacity and will vary depending on drainage area. // Generally, the size of the planters should be 2-5% of the catchment area (Iwaszuk et al., 2020). // The depth of the pond should be between 15-30 cm and there are no limits for the length of the planters (NACTO, 2017). // The bottom layer should be not less than 120 cm to support the growth of the vegetation (NACTO, 2017). // It should be ensured that planters are placed above the groundwater table and not too close to the properties (NACTO, 2017).

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Place of application // Open Public Space // Plazas // Pedestrian streets

Potential costs

Challenges addressed Runoff pressure on the drainage system Flood resilience Heat island effect Ecological connectivity Cooling and insulation Air pollution Urban upgrading Lack of green spaces Water scarcity

Added values CO2 sequestration Improved mobility network

Example capital costs: from 230 EUR/m2 Example maintenance costs: 0.3 EUR/ m2/year (Iwaszuk et al., 2020).

Promotion of sustainable behaviors Use of low carbon materials

Potential challenges // Stormwater might flow through the sides of the concrete walls as it infiltrates, and might enter the basement structures close with the bioretention planter (Iwaszuk et al., 2020). // Recently built planters might require irrigation up to 3 years after construction (Iwaszuk et al., 2020).

Preseve of the historical background Property value increase

Can be combined with // BG streets // Stormwater trees // Bioswales // Raingardens

PERMEABLE PAVING

Figure 39 | Permeable Paving Integrated with Landscape Design, in Barcelona Source: Landscape Architecture Built, 2020

Challenges addressed Runoff pressure on the drainage system Flood resilience Heat island effect Ecological connectivity Cooling and insulation Air pollution Urban upgrading Lack of green spaces Water scarcity

Added values CO2 sequestration Improved mobility network Promotion of sustainable behaviors Use of low carbon materials Preseve of the historical background Property value increase

Can be combined with // Stormwater trees // Bioswales // Infiltration trenches // Bioretention basins

Maintenance

Description

// To ensure the longevity of the pavement, monthly maintenance work should include the removal of grass clippings and leaves, trash and sediments in the openings, so the structure doesn’t get blocked. // Twice a year, the permeable paving should be vacuumed sweeped (Iwaszuk et al., 2020). // During the cold season, the snow must be removed from the gaps and using sand in case of ice formation is highly not recommended (Iwaszuk et al., 2020).

//Permeable paving allows the water runoff to penetrate in the ground soil thanks to its porous materials or small opening of its design. (Atelier Groenblaw, 2019c). // The design can be flexible and easy to adapt in various areas like gardens, playgrounds, parking lots, parks. // Permeable paving brings numerous benefits such as the reduction of surface runoff, the filtration of stormwater from sediments and solids, the recharge of groundwater and when applied in larger spaces they reduce the need for retention basins and wetlands (Iwaszuk et al., 2020).

Place of application // Plazas & open public space // Parks // Parking lots // Pedestrian & bike routes

Potential costs Capital costs: Approx. 43–86 EUR/m2 Maintenance costs: Approx. 0.05–0.21 EUR/m2/year (Morello et al., 2019).

Potential challenges // Because of durability concerns, the implementation of pervos pavement is not recommended for high traffic areas (LSS, 2019b). // Construction costs are more expensive than traditional paving (LSS, 2019b).

Design requirements // The design consists of the following layers: // The top cover differs with the type of paving used. It can be permeable concrete, permeable asphalt, permeable interlocking concrete pavements, plastic reinforcement grid pavers, woodchip or gravel. //Gravel under the top layer, which support the vehicles and retains water during and after rain events. // Sub-base of native soil under the gravel layer. A sandy sub-base provides more support and better infiltration than a clay sub-base. // The layer of underdrains is optionally incorporated. It consists of small pipes used to transport water into stormwater network (Hunt&Collins, 2008).

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GREEN BUS STOP

H Figure 40 | Green Stop in Bialystok, Poland Source: Jakowiak, 2019

Description

Maintenance

Challenges addressed

// Green bus shelters are urban furniture that contribute to the stormwater management while providing a pleasant time for the passengers waiting for the next connection. // The area is provided with a plant based green roof, which retains almost 90% of the stormwater falling on its surface. // During the dry season, part of the water evaporates, and the rest is used by the plant on the roof. The excess water gets collected with the rest of excess stormwater from the sidewalk in a vegetated retention box; placed in the back wall of the bus shelter. This box supports the growth of climbing vegetation in the back side of the structure. The excess water from this box can be used by nearby trees or other green areas. // Green bus shelters mitigate local flooding, heat island effect, and have a small impact on increasing biodiversity (Iwaszuk et al., 2020).

// For the first 3 months of operation, green roof should be watered daily, especially in hot and dry climates. After this period, the roof should be watered weekly (Iwaszuk et al., 2020).

Runoff pressure on the drainage system

Design requirements

Potential challenges

// The size of a green bus shelter is approximately the same as the size of a standard bus stop: length 5,4 m, width 2 m (Morello et al., 2020).

// High construction and maintenance costs; // The selection of plants is limited, since it is recommended the usage of native species.

Place of application // In urban areas reached by public transport

Flood resilience Heat island effect Ecological connectivity Cooling and insulation Air pollution Urban upgrading

Potential costs // Capital costs: 18,000 EUR/item including metallic structure construction, green roof, vegetation layers, green wall and additional elements (Iwaszuk et al., 2020). // Maintenance costs: 3,000 EUR/year (Iwaszuk et al., 2020).

Lack of green spaces Water scarcity

Added values CO2 sequestration Improved mobility network Promotion of sustainable behaviors Use of low carbon materials Preseve of the historical background Property value increase

Can be combined with // Stormwater trees // Extensive roofs

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ISLAND OF COOLNESS

Figure 41 | Oasis of Freshness Skycooling Installed On Plaza Carpeaux - Paris Source: Engie Solutions, 2021

Challenges addressed Runoff pressure on the drainage system Flood resilience Heat island effect Ecological connectivity Cooling and insulation Air pollution Urban upgrading Lack of green spaces Water scarcity

Added values CO2 sequestration Improved mobility network Promotion of sustainable behaviors

Benefits

Description

// Social These structures serve as comfort spots during hot and dry season to escape the heat waves, which are experienced more intense in urban areas (engie, 2019). // Health The increasing health impact of heat waves on the most vulnerable group of people, is an indicator for planning cities to be more resilient toward these extreme events. The cool islands can help reduce the health-related risks of heat waves among the population, by providing benefits as well (engie, 2019). // Environmental Island of coolness have an impact on reducing air pollution and on CO2 sequestration. The structure is made of sustainable material, with e low impact on environment. Moreover, this urban furniture encourages people to spend more time outside, by increasing the value of public space (engie, 2019).

// Urban modular furniture that has a simple design of a concrete bench and a wooden pergola. They can connect to the cooling system of the city via a concrete heat exchanger installed inside the bench. As soon as the temperature exceeds 28 degrees Celsius, the exchanger gets activated automatically and starts pumping chilled water (Morello et al., 2020). // Even Though the technology requires electricity to function, it consumes half of what is required for air conditioning. // Moreover, the system works as a cycle, as the water used can be recycled stormwater which at the end of the process can be discharged to the river (Morello et al., 2020).

Potential challenges

Use of low carbon materials Preseve of the historical background Property value increase

Can be combined with // Stormwater trees // Central Detention Areas

Place of application // Plazas // Open public space // Parks // Boulevards // Parks, Lawns

// Although there is no available information about the cost of each structure, considering the design and all its technical features, the construction and maintenance cost is expected to be high.

This may be a potential limitation for its implementation. // The technology of the structure requires electricity to function, which means other extra costs.

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STORMWATER ATTENUATION TANK

Description

Design requirements

Maintenance

// These systems are used to temporarily storage stormwater prior to infiltration, whether the water is later reused or discharged in a controlled way. The stored water is released via a flow control chamber, by either pumping it or through a gravity system. Before the stored runoff is discharge into the local stormwater network, the runoff is slowed down by effectively avoiding any risk of local flooding (Cotterill Civils, n. d.).

// Attenuation tanks can be placed underground, above or on rooftops. Their size is flexible and depends on the size of drainage area where they are integrated in. Generally, the underground tank storages water from heavy rainfall events and can be integrated underground various public areas and streets. Their main function is storage; hence, the stormwater treatment facility must be developed as an integrated system for the overall site (Andrukovich, 2019).

// Underground tanks should be regularly inspected for damage caused by tree roots. The placement of a root barrier should be considered. // Regular inspection for clogging, especially after heavy rain events. // Regular removal of litter, debris and sediments (Andrukovich, 2019).

GROSS POLLUTANT TRAP

Description

Design requirements

Maintenance

// Gross pollutant traps (GPT) are pretreatment devices used in stormwater harvesting systems, that are design to intercept the flow of water and trap any litter, debris or sand. They act like a filter, that retain any solid waste from stormwater before it enters the water network (Melbourne Water, 2017).

// There are a variety of GPTs, however all of them are designed to trap sediments and litter above 5 mm in size.

GPTs have proven not be effective on removing nutrient from runoff. Therefore, they are often referred to as a pretreatment fancily, that performs just a task of the numerous stormwater treatment measurements required (Melbourne Water, 2017).

// Should be cleaned regularly, to remove debris that can potentially build up over time. // The cleaning operation is conducted manually, using a vacuum cleaner and a crane, which retrieves the solid waste collected in a basket or a net. // Considering the necessary regular inspection and cleaning of GPTs, the maintenance cost of this device is estimated high.

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3.3 Recommendations

The gradual implementation of WSUD, establishes a city that is more resilient and sustainable. However, to ensure the implementation of WSUD in an efficient and sufficient manner, it is important to narrow down some points that, if not being properly addressed, can influence the performance of the interventions.

As a first step, it is important to conduct a well-established CBA of the WSUD measures.

The cost analysis should include the implementation and maintenance costs, both equally important. In other words, this analysis should decide whether the cost of ‘doing nothing’ surpasses the cost of taking action.

If that were to occur, the deployment of WSUD should be considered.

The WSUD measures rarely do work separately. Most of the time, several tools are interconnected with one another to ensure the best performance of the system. Therefore, the types of tools selected, should refer to a specific scenario, which combines the measures with one another. For instance, the rainwater falls into a sealed surfaced; through gutters it is conveyed to a water plaza where it is temporarily stored; then through an underground pipe it is discharged to the retention pond where it is treated; the treated water it is reused for non-potable purposes and the excess of it is discharged in the sewage network or in the river. All these chain reactions should be built in a small scale, and also by considering a bigger picture, as at the

end all the chain components (WSUD tools) should function together as an ensemble.

The selection of the WSUD tools, and the combination in between them, depends on the climate and local settings of each site.

Lastly, it is essential to identify the precipitation targets that the WSUD scenario should respond to. In other worlds, each city has its specific threshold values for normal rain events and heavy rainfall events. The heavy rainfall events are characterized based on the rain intensity and the return period. In most of the cases, a WSUD intervention is undertaken, aiming for a heavy rainfall event with a 20-30 years return period. A rainfall event with a larger return period (70 - 100 years), it is not recommended being taken as a reference, since the climate predictions for such a time span can be not consistent enough. However, proposing a WSUD intervention for a heavy rain event with 20-30 years return period, should be done with a clear vision plan for other possible interventions in the future, that will aim to deal with stormwater from a rainfall event with a bigger return period.

In the case of Tirana, the capacity of the existing sewage system can manage rainfall events with an intensity of up to 170 l/sec x ha in 15 minutes (Dervishaj, 2021). The WSUD proposal, in this master thesis, will aim to respond to a heavy rainfall event with a return period 20 years and with an intensity of 250 l/ sec x ha in 20 minutes.

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CHAPTER 4

Concept Integration

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Figure 42 | Elbasani Street Source: Author, 2021

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4.1 Spatial and Historical Context of the Focus Area The focus area for the implementation of the stormwater concept is located in the southwestern part of Tirana, less than one kilometer from the city center and easily accessed from different parts of the city. In the north, it borders with the stream of the Lana River and in the south with the Grand Park of the city.

The area is cut through by the main artery of the city - the ‘Dëshmoret e Kombit’ Boulevard’.

On the left side of the main Boulevard, lies the Blloku area, a neighbourhood that during the Communist rule was a restricted residential area to members of the politburo only (see Fig. 43). The former residence of the dictator still stands nowadays.

After the fall of the regime, the district experienced a dramatic growth, with new construction up to 12 floors height, which combined with the existing low-rise buildings inherited from the communism time, resulted in an unattractive mixture. The redevelopment process of the neighbourhood after the ‘90s, was carried out mostly by the public sector, in a spontaneous manner and without a proper vision for the future. The aftermath of this process is a place where cafés, bars, pubs, restaurants, shops and boutiques have occupied the ground floors of almost all buildings and where the pedestrian activities go on until late hours. Nevertheless its chaotic brought up, without a doubt Bllok remains the most youthful and the main entertainment district of Tirana (Pojani & Maci, 2015).

The part of the focus area, lying in the farright side of the main Boulevard, has followed almost the same development language as the Bllok area after the ‘90s. The similarities can be easily distinguished just by looking at the urban pattern of the districts - dense and irregular building blocks lacking green areas.

The low-rise buildings in this district represent some of the oldest in Tirana to date - single family villas constructed during the ‘20s-’40s (Stafa, 2014; Resuli & Dervishi, 2014).

Needless to say, that the construction trend of the transition years altered the built environment of this neighbourhood as well.

On the other hand, the buildings along both 74

sides of the Boulevard shape a much more regular urban pattern, followed by more green amenities. Some of the most important state offices are located along it, such as the office of the Prime Minister and the President.

However, the building that triggers the most tourists’ interest is the Pyramid of Tirana, a landmark for the city. Built in the mid ‘80s as a mausoleum for the dictator, it became the center of discussion among urban planners, architects, politicians and historians after the change of regime, due to its ties with the legacy of communism. After many political discussions, mostly aiming its demolition, this peculiar building is currently under reconstruction to be soon transformed into a youth-multimedia center, based on the winning design of MVRDV - an acclaimed Dutch architecture office (MVRDV, 2021; Patricolo, 2019).

The Boulevard is the genesis of the city, built in the ‘30s according to the Italian master plan as a showpiece of the Italian occupation during that time. Grotesquely, it represents perhaps the first boulevard in history to be constructed without an existing urban setting since the city grew eventually from scratch, as an extension along it (Adam & Kuch, 2019).

Even though the Boulevard is not classified as a monument, any kind of interventions along it should be proposed considering its historical background.

Gathering from the previous paragraphs, it is safe to conclude that the urban developments in this area of the city are nothing less but a mirror of the political change that Albania has experienced through the years. As per words of the Albanian Prime Minister, Edi Rama: “Tirana’s center is like looking at a collection, or a historical diary of political affairs and political love stories (Adam & Kuch, 2019).”

Figure 43 | Orthophoto of Downtown, Tirana Source: ASIG, 2018

N

0

200

400

600

800 m

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4.2 Selection Criteria According to the climate projections described in CCAAPT, the precipitation regime is expected to be more intense. The temperature projections as well are not so promising, as it is expected a rise of air temperatures and an increasing number of hot days. Based on these indicators, the CCAAPT has developed a Vulnerability Assessment Plan, which has pointed out areas in the city that are expected to be more vulnerable towards heat waves, droughts and flooding in the future. Three of these spots are included in the focus area.

For instance, the area around the Palace of Culture is expected to be more sensitive toward flooding events, Mother Theresa Square and the area around Elbasani Street are predicted to experience more heat waves and droughts (Municipality of Tirana, 2015).

On the other hand, there are cases where the flooding is not so much attributed to the intensity of precipitation, rather to the poor performance of the sewage system, even during normal rain events. The intersection between ‘Deshmoret e Kombit’ and ‘Gjergj Fishta’ Boulevard is in particular sensitive when the main collector of this artery has a blockage and fails to perform properly. The pocket parks in residential blocks and the 76

street inside the focus area are exposed to pluvial flooding as well. In such cases, especially vulnerable are the shops located in the underground level of the buildings (Shqiptarja.com, 2018).

The proposed focus area has all the likelihood of becoming a frontrunner on the implementation of WSUD. Being the most frequented district of the city, with a central location easily from different parts of the city, this area has a reputation for setting trends when it comes to the public life in the city.

In such cases, the WSUD implementation can be an indicator for promoting healthier communities. Furthermore, the Bllok district is especially visited by tourists. Improving the quality of public life and space through WSUD implementation would transform the district into an even more attractive touristic spot in the city.

The focus area has potential on increasing the quality of public space, improving the mobility network, becoming more pedestrian friendly, eliminating the flooding events, and offering a better quality of life to its residents and the inhabitants of Tirana. On different levels, all these issues can be addressed at the same time by WSUD.

Figure 44 | Orthophoto of Focus Area Source: ASIG, 2018

N

0

200

400

600

800 m

77

Softscape

1%

4.3 Processing of the Field Research and Input Data Green Area

18%

4.3.1 Setting Up a Map Database The first step toward the project proposal, was the establishment of a map database of the focus area, using the input map-data obtained from ASIG Geoportal – an online map database of Albania that provides orthophotos and other thematic maps from different years.

Furthermore, the latest map of the area and of the sewage network, was provided by contacting people in charge in Municipality of Tirana and in TWSSC. The set of maps, helps building a broad picture of the existing situation of the focus area, by providing insights on different topics, such as: topography, typology and functions, altimetry of the built pattern, types of surfaces (ratio of softscape and hardscape), types of streets, green roof potential and the existing sewage network. Based on the information provided by the map database, were defined the sub catchment areas followed by the Transformation Program of the whole focus area.

36%

Green Area Softscape (natural soil) Green Roofs

Figure 45

27%

Streets

18%

Hardscape (pavement, concrete) Streets (asphalt) Built Up

| Distribution of Surfaces, Existing Situation Source: Author, 2021

Table 8, depicts the numerical value of the area occupied by all types of surfaces identified in the focus area. Each of the materials is further described based on the characteristics identified from site observations. The graph in figure 45 depicts the share of each type of coverage, and it is obvious to note that hardscape in the existing state, has the highest share.

Type of Surface

Specifications/ Characteristics

Area [m²]

Built - Up Area

Roof area of all constructions without a green roof (flat & pitch roof included)

206244,7

Streets

Vehicle and bike lanes with an asphalt coverage

136480,5

Hardscape

Pathways, pavements, parking lots covered with concrete, asphalt and any other imperemable material

277346,5

Vegetated Area

Parks, pocket parks, vegetated river banks and all other green surfaces

149747,3

Green Roofs

Roof area of constructions with an extensive or intensive green roof

0

Softscape (Natural Soil)

Roof area of constructions with an extensive or intensive green roof

4056,6

TOTAL AREA Table 8 | Types of Surfaces - Existing Situation Source: Author, 2021

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Hardscape

Built -Up

773875,6 [77,4ha]

Figure 46 | Figure-Ground and Topographic Map Source: Author, 2021

79

Figure 47

80

| The Existing Green Coverage and Trees Map

Source: Author, 2021

Figure 48 | The Existing Street Network Map Source: Author, 2021

81

Figure 49

82

|

The Distribution of Functions Map Source: Author, 2021

Figure 50 | The Altimetry Map Source: Author, 2021

83

Figure 51

84

|

The Typology of Green Areas Source: Author, 2021

Figure 52 | Green Roof and Green Areas Potential Source: Author, 2021

85

Figure 53

86

|

The Share of Hardscape and Softscape Source: Author, 2021

Figure 54 | The Existing Sewage Network Source: Author 2021 // Based on TWSSC, 2021

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4.3.2 Challenges for Sustainable Development - Focus Area This part of the chapter aims to help the understanding of how the public life and space of the focus area functions daily. Four are the key themes that address the main issues in Tirana today: Climate Resilience, Mobility Network, Public Life and Built Environment. At the same time, these topics serve as guiding lines for a sustainable development of the city. Each of them is assessed individually by pointing out key challenges that the existing situation in the focus area brings, followed by a set of proposed actions to overcome them for the future development of the area.

This structure of the site analysis is a research method borrowed and adapted from the ones that Gehl Institute* has developed to ease the understanding of the public life and space of a specific place. Gehl Institute is a Danish urban planning office and research institute, with an international expansion, focused on transforming the way cities are shaped by making public life an international driver for design, policy and governance (Gehl - Making Cities for People, n. d.).

Gehl Institute is a Danish urban planning office and research institute, with an international expansion, focused on transforming the way cities are shaped by making public life an international driver for design, policy and governance (Gehl - Making Cities for People, n. d.).

88

Figure 55 | Bajram Curri Boulevard Source: Author, 2021

89

fIooding during a heavy rain event

dense urban environment

Figure 57 | Deshmoret e Kombit Boulevard Flooded Source: Periskopi, 2018

sewage discharged in Lana River

Figure 56

| Bllok district - Sami Frasheri Street

Source: Author, 2021

high percentage of sealed surfaces Figure 58 & 59 | Concrete Banks of Lana River // Mother Teresa Square Source: Author, 2021

1

Climate Resilience

Challenges // The built environment promotes air pollution and enhances the effects of heat island. // High percentage of sealed surfaces (asphalt & concrete). // The dense urban pattern provides difficult conditions for micro-climate formation.

Opportunities // The focus area already has some green and blue amenities. // High potential on transforming existing sealed surfaces into permeable surfaces (e.g. cobblestone, grass, turf, brick paving). // High potential on proposing a stormwater management strategy that addresses the effects of climate change on many levels.

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ACTIONS // Adapt the existing streets into green streets and transform the public areas into vibrant multifunctional spaces, capable of dealing with the effects of climate change by improving the microclimate and enhancing biodiversity. // Harness access to nature, by proposing not only green areas that serve the concept of sustainable stormwater system but provide a connection with the existing green areas of the city and significantly enhance biodiversity.

entrance of Blloku district

poor quality of green areas, lack of activities

Figure 61 & 62 | Entrance of Blloku District; Art Installation in one of the Parks Source: Author, 2021

vibrant public life in Blloku district public space that excludes pedestrian activities

Figure 60 | Bar Cafe in Blloku District Source: VisitTirana, n. d.

2

Figure 63 | Bridge Over Lana River Connecting Bllok With the Center Source: Author, 2021

Public Life

Challenges // The existing public spaces do not encourage outdoor activities or public gatherings. // At a certain level, the public space and life is exclusive - doesn’t celebrate all users. // Especially in the Bllok district and in some other streets, from afternoon on public life belongs to the young generation only.

Opportunities

ACTIONS // Provide streets and open spaces that offer outdoor activities and ‘staying’ options for residents, workers and tourists. // Provide public areas that promote sustainability and a healthier -social community. // Propose a WSUD concept that prioritizes the pedestrian areas through a coherent network.

// There is an already existing rich and vibrant public life on many streets and public areas of the district.

91

existing bike network

narrow sidewalks - undignified pedestrian experience Figure 65 | Mustafa Matohiti Street Source: Author, 2021

Figure 64 | Deshmoret e Kombit Boulevard Source: Author, 2021

3

Figure 66 | Vaso Pasha Street Source: Author, 2021

Mobility Network

Challenges // Undignified pedestrian experience on many streets, expressed by narrow pedestrian paths and an incoherent pedestrian network. // Motorized vehicles dominate the existing network.

Opportunities // There is an existing bike infrastructure. // The area (especially Bllok) is packed with pedestrian activity constantly.

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cars dominate public space

ACTIONS // Integrate the WSUD concept proposal in a way that provides a balanced street layout, which accommodates different modes of mobility in a space-efficient and sustainable way.

underground retail activities especially prone to fIooding lack of human scale

Figure 68 | Underground Retail Activity / Source: Author, 2021

Figure 70 | Deshmoret e Kombit Boulevard Source: Tres Passer on Earth, n d.

pocket parks used as open parking areas

parked cars dominate public space Figure 67 | One Way Street - Neighborhood Level Source: Author, 2021

4

old vs. new unattractive building pattern Figure 69 | Mother Teresa Square Source: Author, 2021

Built Environment Figure 71 | An Open Parking Area in a Residential Block Source: Author, 2021

Challenges // Parked cars dominate the public space especially in dense residential blocks. // The area along ‘Deshmoret e Kombit’ Boulevard lacks human scale. // The combination of the building pattern inherited from communism, with the construction developments of capitalism provides an unattractive built environment.

ACTIONS // Propose a set of WSUD interventions that would enhance the historic character, the identity of the streets, and would upgrate public space - while preserving the character of the area.

// Neglected public space in residential blocks.

Opportunities // The district already has an identity, and it is rich with historical buildings with a unique architecture. // There is a high potential for transforming several existing roofs into green roofs.

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underground shops - vulnerable to fIooding

Lana River

Tirana during a normal rain event Figure 75 | Active Basemenet / Sami Frashëri Street Source: Author, 2021

ex Dictator’s villa Figure 73 | Lana River after a Rain Event Source: Author, 2021

Figure 72 | Tirana During a Rain Event Source: Author, 2021

Figure 76 | Ex Dictator’s Villa, Main Entrance / Source: Author, 2021

sealed pedestrian sidewalk Figure 74 | Sami Frashëri Street Source: Author, 2021

Photos of the area - after a rain event Taken on 20th of May, 2021

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stormwater accumulated in the sideroad

stormwater accumulated in the sidewalk

stormwater accumulated in the sideroad - blocked drain

Figure 79 | Deshmoret e Kombit Boulevard Source: Author, 2021

Figure 77 | Blocked Drain / Blloku District Source: Author, 2021

blocked drain - damaged sidewalk

missing trees - stormwater accumulated in the sidewalk

Figure 82 | Blocked Drain Source: Author, 2021

Figure 80 | Blocked Drain - Damaged Sidewalk / Source: Author, 2021

Figure 78 | Accumulated Water in the Sidewalk / Source: Author, 2021

damaged asphalt - stormwater accumulated in dhe sideroad stormwater accumulated in the sidewalk Figure 83 | Damaged Sidewalk / Blloku District / Source: Author, 2021

Figure 81 | Blloku’s Streets After Rain Source: Author, 2021

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4.4 Transformation Proposal for the Focus Area 4.4.1 Defining Sub-Catchment Areas As it was mentioned in Chapter 3, most of the WSUD measures rarely do work separately. Usually, a variety of measures are connected with one another as a series of chain reactions, for example: green roofs discharge the excess water to raingardens, raingardens to the wetland for treatment and from there the water is discharged to the sewer. This way it is ensured the efficiency of the decentralized system provided by WSUD. Following the logic of chain reactions, the focus area is divided in smaller sub catchment areas – which allow to better identify, manage, and size the WSUD measures for each sub area. Nevertheless, the identification of the sub catchment areas was done considering a range of other factors, such as: topography, land use, types of streets and the functions in the area.

there. However, it is safe to conclude that the change in elevation is not very significant, so on that regard it doesn’t present a serious issue on the matter. Secondly, the distribution of the green coverage on the area is quite uneven (see Fig. 51). Moreover, in some blocks, the green area is fenced and classified as private space. This is especially the case of green areas around embassies or other institution of a high importance. Unfortunately, there are identified at least 4 buildings of this type in the focus area. This presents a limitation regarding the proposed retention areas. Figure 51 identifies the status of all green areas, categorizing them in private, semiprivate, and open public space. The center of the focus area has a higher potential on converting some of the existing green areas into retention ones.

However, it is important to mention a few limitations that the process of sub catchment areas identification experienced. First, as it can be seen from Figure 84, the morphology of the terrain doesn’t provide the best and easiest conditions for dividing the focus area into sub areas. Based on the topography, the runoff flows in one direction, from east to west and with small alterations here and

On a more positive note, the focus area has a clear street network, and a distinguishable built-up pattern and share of uses for each block, which makes it easier to structure the focus area into 4 sub catchments. Figure 84 depicts the identified sub catchments areas.

The topography of the terrain, as well as the runoff flow are shown in the map as a complementary information.

Sub-Catchment Area

Area [ha]

Sub - Catchment

1

270696,7

27,07

Sub - Catchment

2

288454,6

28,85

Sub - Catchment

3

142565,8

14,26

Sub - Catchment

4

72158,4

7,22

TOTAL AREA Table 9 | Sub-Catchment Areas Source: Author, 2021

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Area [m²]

77,4

Figure 84 | Sub-Catchment Areas Source: Author 2021 // Based on TWSSC, 2021

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4.4.2 Target of the Transformation Program & Estimation of Runoff Volume The first step, on developing the Transformation Program for the whole area, would be on defining the heavy rainfall event that the Transformation Program should respond to. In the climate context of Tirana and based on the normative used for the construction of streets, heavy rainfall events are the ones with a 200 l/sec*ha, 250 l/sec*ha and 300 250 l/sec*ha, duration 20 minutes and with a return period of respectively 5, 20 and 50 years (Municipality of Tirana, 2019).

The transformation proposal will aim to provide a solution that will deal with a heavy rainfall event that has a return period of 20 years.

that has been identified in the focus area.

After performing all the algorithms depicted in page 100, it is estimated the amount of surface runoff that needs to be managed by the Transformation Program. The difference between the sewage capacity and the heavy rainfall event determines the exceed surface runoff volume that will be reduced by the WSUD measures, be they retention areas, raingardens, stormwater trees, bioretention planters etc. The combination between these measures, is a task that does involve at the same time the concept of sustainable stormwater design systems, landscape design and urban planning.

After defining this target, started the calculation of the retention volume for each of these heavy rainfall events. Prior to that, was calculated the capacity of the existing sewage system. The capacity is calculated based on a rainfall event repeating on average each year and with a duration of 15 minutes. For Tirana, the intensity of this reinvent is given 170 l/ sec*ha, duration 15 minutes (Dervishaj, 2021).

If a rain event exceeds this threshold value, the sewage network is overwhelmed and, in such conditions, it is assumed that the risk for flooding is high.

After concluding this step, the Transformation Program enters another stage, where the right combination between the WSUD tools should be found, in order to satisfy not only the results of Table 11, but to propose a solution that addresses also issues related with the mobility, public space and the built environment in general.

All the results depicted in Table 11 are calculated based on the DWA German technical rules and standards. The algorithms for the calculation of the surface runoff shown in page 98, are based on DWA-A-138E, DWA-M-153E, DWA-A-117E and ATVDVWK-M 153. After listing the areas (m²) of each of the identified materials in the focus area (Ac), the calculation of the impermeable surfaces (Aimp), and the precipitation inflow (Qin) is performed. The numerical value of the impermeable surface is calculating by multiplying the area of each of the materials with the runoff coefficient. The runoff coefficient has different values for different materials. Table 10 shows the corresponding value of the runoff coefficient for each material 98

On that regard, it is important to lay down some observations and results that were obtained from developing the analytical maps of the study area, prior in this chapter. Due to its location and the high percentage of green coverage, sub catchment area 1 has a high potential for developing large scale WSUD tools, that have a significant impact not only on mitigation of the attenuation peak, but on upgrading the existing public space. On the other hand, sub catchment areas 2 & 3 are denser in terms of built environment and lack green coverage. However, on a more positive note, these areas have a high potential for converting existing roofs into green roofs and have a regular street network. Considering these positive characteristics, the WSUD tools proposed in these areas will be on street and building level. The proposed measures on sub catchment 4 should consider the strong impact that the Sport Arena has on this part

of the city, as well as the fact that this sub area has the least amount of green coverage, compared with the other sub catchments.

And lastly, the proposed WSUD tools along Lana River should promote the area around the river and make it more welcoming for the inhabitants. Considering that the runoff discharged in Lana will be cleaner, and the fact that the WTP which is soon to be finished will solve the issue of sewage discharge in the river, the green area along Lana is expected to be more attractive and open for people

Softscape

1% Green Area

18%

– and this is a positive side that should be considered in the Transformation Program.

The following part of this chapter gives more insights about the development of the Transformation Program in sub catchment areas 1 & 4, and in a densely residential block of sub catchment 2. In a nutshell, the following graphs (Fig. 85 & 86) give a broad picture of the impact that the proposal in the whole focus area will have on providing more green area, increasing the permeable surfaces and decreasing the hardscape coverage.

Softscape

Green Roofs

5%

3%

Built -Up

Built -Up

27%

24%

Green Area

28%

Streets Hardscape

36%

Green Area Softscape (natural soil) Green Roofs

15%

Streets

18% Hardscape (pavement, concrete) Streets (asphalt) Built Up

Figure 85 | Distribution of Surfaces, Existing Situation Source: Author, 2021

Hardscape

25%

Green Area Softscape (natural soil) Green Roofs

Hardscape (pavement, concrete) Streets (asphalt) Built Up

Figure 86 | Distribution of Surfaces, Proposal Source: Author, 2021

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Numerical value of impermeable surface area: Aimp

= Σ AC, i · Ψm, i

[m²] mean runoff coefficient

numerical value of impermeable surface area [m²]

catchment area [m²]

Runoff inflow: -7

Qin = 10 · rD(n) · Aimp

[m³/s] numerical value of impermeable surface area [m²]

runoff inflow [m³/s]

rainfall intensity for duration D and frequency n [l(s * ha)]

The percolation capability of the surface:

(Aimp

-7

+ Ap) · rD(n) · 10 = Ap · kf / 2 rainfall intensity for duration D and frequency n [l(s * ha)]

numerical value of impermeable surface area [m²]

coefficient of hydraulic conductivity of the saturated zone [m/s]

percolation area [m²]

Runoff volume:

V

-7

= [(Aimp + Ap) · 10 · rD(n) - Ap · kf / 2] · D · 60 · fs

runoff volume numerical value of impermeable surface area [m²]

rainfall intensity for duration D and frequency n [l(s * ha)] percolation area [m²]

100

[m³]

duration of the dimensioning rainfall [min] Surcharge factor in accordance with DWA-A 117E (1,2)

Type of surface

Material

Ψm

Pitched roof

metal, glass, slate, fibre cement tiles, roofing felt

0,9 - 1,0 0,8 - 1,0

Flat roof slope up to 3° or ca. 5%

metal, glass, fibre cement roofing felt gravel

0,9 - 1,0 0,9 0,7

Green roof slope up to 15° or ca. 25%

as humus < 10 cm build up as humus > 10cm build up

0,5 0,3

Roads, paths and squares (flat)

asphalt, seamless concrete pavement with seal joints firm gravel covering pavement with open joints loose gravel covering, ballast grass compound blocks with joints, filtration blocks grass paver blocks

0,9 0,75 0,6 0,5 0,3 0,25 0,15

Slopes, shoulders and trenches with stormwater runoff into the drainage system

clayey soil loamy sandy soil gravel and sandy soil

0,5 0,4 0,3

Gardens, meadows and arable land with possible stormwater runoff into the drainage system

flat terrain steep terrain

0,0 - 0,1 0,1 - 0,3

Table 10 | Recommended Mean Runoff Coefficients According to DWA-A 117E and ATV-DVWK-M 153 Source: DWA-A 117E and ATV-DVWK-M 153, n. d.

Existing sewerage system

Heavy rainfall events

170 l/sec*ha in 15min (normal rain event) Type of surface

Ac [m²]

200 l/sec*ha in 20min (5 years event)

Ψm

Aimp [m²]

Qin [m³/c]

Vs [m³]

Ψm

Aimp [m²]

Qin [m³/c]

V200 [m³]

206244,7

4,12

4949,9

250 l/sec*ha in 20min (20 years event)

V200 -Vs [m³]

Qin [m³/c]

V250 [m³]

V250 -Vs [m³]

2109,9

5,16

6187,4

3347,4

300 l/sec*ha in 20min (30years event) Qin [m³/c]

V300 [m³]

V300 -Vs [m³]

6,19

7424,8

4584,8

Built -Up Area

206244,7

0,9

185620,2

3,16

2840,0

1

Vegetated Area

149747,3

0

0

0

0

0,1 14974,7

0,30

359,4

359,4

0,37

449,2

449,24

0,45

539,1

539,1

Roads (Asphalt)

136480,5

0,9

122832,5

2,09

1879,3

1

136480,5

2,73

3275,5

1396,2

3,41

4094,4

2215,1

4,09

4913,3

3034,0

Hardscape

277346,5

0,9

249611,9

4,24

3819,1

1

277346,5

5,55

6656,3

2837,3

6,93

8320,40

4501,33

8,32

9984,5

6165,4

4056,6

0,6

2433,9

0,04

37,2

0,6 2433,9

0,05

58,4

21,2

0,06

73,02

35,8

0,07

87,62

50,4

560498,5

9,53

8575,6

12,75

15299,5

15,94

19124,4

19,12

22949,3

14373,7

(Asphalt, Concrete, Paving splabs)

Softscape (gravel, natural soil)

TOTAL

773875,6

637480,4

6723,9

10548,8

Table 11 | Calculation of the Runoff Volume - Defining the Targets Source: Author, 2021

101

4.4.3 Proposal for all Focus Area The Transformation Program for the whole focus areas is represented by seven strategies that in a nutshell, propose the integration of WSUD tools on a street level, on a building level and interventions

1

2

3

102

applied in larger public areas (plazas, parks, boulevards). The Transformation Program for all area is shown in Figure 87.

Each of the strategies is elaborated separately as following:

// Retention Boulevard Dëshmoret e Kombit Boulevard is proposed to be transformed into a retention boulevard, by incorporating a green strip in the middle of the existing street profile, thus reducing the car lanes from 4 to 2 in each direction. The green strip is proposed as a series of retention ponds, by allowing the accumulation of water and at the same time providing dry green areas that can be accessed by the public. Considering the scale of this intervention, its implementation should be preceded by a feasibility study, which will tackle the existing underground infrastructure and the historical background of the boulevard.

// Cloudburst Boulevard This intervention is proposed for Bajram Curri Boulevard.

The street on both sides of Lana River should have a profile that directs the water in the middle, by avoiding the flooding of the retail activities, placed in the underground floor of the buildings along the other side of the street.

The next step of this strategy implies a series of interventions along the riverbed, that aim to enrich the area around it and to increase the infiltration. Such interventions require the demolishing of the concrete slabs along the riverbed and the incorporation of bioswales next to the bike lanes in both sides of the river.

// Green Street This strategy encompasses a variety of WSUD tools applied in a street scale that aim to reduce the share of hardscape, regulate the flow of traffic, provide safer sidewalks and pedestrian crossings and overall upgrading the aesthetic of streets. A green street can be a combination of the following WSUD measures: medians, curb extensions, raingardens, permeable paving, vegetative covers and stormwater trees.

// Green Coverage This strategy aims to increase the share of softscape, by converting the sealed plazas and some existing parking lots in the residential quarters in pocket parks, lawns or community gardens.

Other complementary measures include gutters, infiltration trenches and stormwater trees.

// Multifunctional Area This strategy is proposed as a complementary measure for the retention areas and water plazas – aiming to provide public realm in these areas through the implementation of urban furniture, playgrounds and outdoor fitness appliances. These interventions provide not only areas that fully serve the WSUD concept, by integrating the areas for collecting and treating stormwater with the concepts of landscape design.

// Cleansing Area This strategy includes the constructions of a wetland near the Pyramid, a retention pond in the green area also located in the intersection of Deshmoret e Kombit Boulevard, and a water plaza in the square in front of the sport arena. The latest will serve as a detention pond, by collecting and storing temporarily the runoff before discharging it in the Retention Boulevard for treatment.

As additional values, these measures improve the microclimate, mitigate the heat island effect and enhance the overall aesthetic of public areas by providing an inviting and distinctive public space, anchored by the presence of water. // Green Building This strategy implies the integration of green roofs and green facades in buildings with an existing construction that supports such interventions. Green roof is proposed especially in the densely built-up area, as a way of compensating the lack of green areas in these neighbourhoods. Moreover, the concept of active roofs is proposed in some office buildings along the boulevard. An active roof incorporates a green roof with rooftop areas that can be accessed and used by the public.

4

5

6

7

103

104

Figure 87 | The Transformation Program for All Focus Area Source: Author 2021

4.4.4 Estimation of the Proposed Transformation Program The proposed Transformation Program should encompass a variety of WSUD tools that in total would provide a retention volume of around 10548,8 m³ - in order to meet the target of the program: aiming to respond to heavy rainfall event with a frequency of one to 20 years. Each of the WSUD tools has been assessed individually.

1

Retention Boulevard

The Retention Boulevard is the intervention assumed to be more significant cost-wise and on the of the impact that will have on controlling the attenuation peak. Deshmoret e Kombit Boulevard is proposed to be converted in a Retention Boulevard, by reducing the car lanes to 4 (2 in each direction), and therefore providing the necessary space for a green strip with a width of 10 meters, which accommodates bike lanes in both directions.

The morphology of the green retention area, is composed of a series of retention ponds that in case of cloudburst events, allow the stormwater to flow from a pond to another.

The alteration of relief provides enough retention capacity for dealing with heavy rainfall events and at the same time provides safe, higher green areas that can be accessed by the public even when the retention ponds 2

Information regarding their application in the given urban situation is provided, followed by the calculated retention volume that each tool provides in all focus area. Lastly, the total retention volume of the proposed WSUD scenario is estimated, as a final step that proves the efficiency of the program.

have reached their maximum capacity.

Inserting a green strip in between both sides of the boulevard, transforms the public area around into an innate human scale.

However, the transformation of the boulevard on this level, might face some limitations and shortcomings. Reducing the car lanes into 4, calls for a mobility network that will support this intervention, without causing disruption.

Furthermore, considering its historical background, the deconstruction of the existing boulevard might be, initially, not well received by the public. Lastly, the infrastructure situated underground the street (drinking water, electricity, internet) should be considered as a constraint in the design process of the retention area. // Retention volume [m³]: 980

Water Plaza

The water plaza in front of the national stadium is proposed in a constructed depression, designed as a place that will encourage gatherings and a variety of public activities. The design process should consider the underground parking area of the stadium, located nearby the proposed water plaza. A rainwater tank will be installed to temporarily retain the collected stormwater,

which will be later discharged in the retention boulevard for further treatment before being finally discharged in the sewage network and in Lana River. The water Plaza will have a regular shape, with a maximum depth of 45 cm and with a retention volume of 280 m³. // Retention volume [m³]: 280

105

3

Constructed Wetland Near the Pyramid

The Urban Wetland is proposed in the public area nearby the Pyramid, serving not only as retention and treating the stormwater runoff, but as an urban feature that will provide public realm, by increasing the quality of the public space. This retention area will collect and treat the runoff from sub-area 3. It is proposed in a partially constructed depression area, with an expansion of approximately 2130 square 4

microclimate and enhancing the biodiversity.

The pond has an expansion of around 1800 square meters and a maximum depth of 30 cm. It will be connected with the retention area of the Boulevard, for discharging the exceeded amount of water in the retention Boulevard for further treatment. // Retention volume [m³]: 528

Raingardens

Raingardens are proposed around the National Stadium area, along Lek Dukagjini Street and in two multifunctional areas (near the Pyramid and Tre Vellezerit Frasheri Square) along Lana River and also in front of the of Prime-minister office building.

This measure has been implemented as well in small lawns near the Presidency and sub area 2 & 3. According to CIRIA, the retention depth of raingarden is up to 15 cm, therefore the additional retention provided is around 1512 m³. Considering the gravel drainage layer with a 20 cm depth and 30% porosity, there is an added retention volume of 432 m³. The dimensions vary from 3 m width up to 15 m, always considering the existing state of the site and the design requirements.

In case of large raingardens, a pedestrian

106

// Retention volume [m³]: 1200

Retention Pond

This Retention Pond is proposed in an existing park, in a constructed depressed area. The pond will serve as a buffer retention area of Mother Teresa Square, by collecting the runoff from these part of the focus area through an underground overflow pipe. Besides providing retention and treatment of the harvested stormwater, the pond upgrades the quality of the existing green area by improving the 5

meters and a maximum depth of 60 cm. When the volume of the stormwater runoff exceeds the capacity of the wetland, the extra amount of water will be discharged in the Retention Boulevard for further treatment before being discharged to the existing sewer and to Lana River.

cut thorough path can be integrated with the landscape design. Gutters, inlets and outlets will be installed in accordance with the design requirements to ease the inflow and outflow of the water. In some raingardens can be applied a mulch layer above the filter, to help moisturize the soli, hence providing better conditions for shrubs and trees to grow.

For larger raingardens, a rainwater tank can be installed where the excess harvested rainwater can be temporarily stored.

Otherwise, the remaining stormwater can be either discharged to the soil, to the wetland and retention areas and further to the existing network and to Lana River. // Retention volume [m³]: 1512

6

Bioretention Planters

Bioretention planters are proposed in to be implemented in the water plaza near the sport arena, in the pedestrian area in front of the President’s Office Building and in the ‘Tre Vellezerit Frasheri’ Squared - providing not only mitigation of the attenuation peak but increased aesthetic value of the public space where being integrated. According to 7

above the trench structure, which provides additional treatment and supports the growth of vegetation (NACTO, 2017).

The retention capacity is ensured thanks to the underlaying geocelullar units, each with a 1.5 m width and 1.2 height and a 95% retention capacity. One unit has the following flowing parameters: 1000 mm long, 500 mm wide and 400 mm height (Andrukovich, 2019). Considering these given technical specifications, the retention capacity of the proposed stormwater medians in is around 1496 m³. // Retention volume [m³]: 1496

Vegetated Curb Extentions

The curb extensions will be proposed in both sides of Gjergj Fishta Boulevard, integrated with the parking lane and in the pedestrian crossings in between both sides of Deshmoret e Kombit Boulevard. The ponding depth and the technical considerations are the same 9

// Retention volume [m³]: 122

Stormwater Medians

Medians are proposed for Abdyl Frasheri, Elbasani, Ibrahim Rugova and Papa Gjon Pali II steets. The median is a percolation strip with low vegetation on both sides. The width of the medians varies from to 3 meters, depending on the existing width of the street sections.

In order to help the runoff accumulation in the center of the median, the street should have a slope of 3% toward the percolation trench in the middle. On both sides of the trench, there are the green strips that filter the water from sediments, hence providing the treatment of the runoff. Other features of the median include a 15 cm additional soil layer 8

NACTO, 2017, the ponding depth is 15.24 cm for bioretention facilities placed in areas with moderate to high pedestrian activity. The total area of bioretention planters in the focus area is around 800 m², therefore the retention volume provided is calculated to be 122 m³.

as for raingardens. The additional retention volume provided by vegetated curb extensions is 172 m³ and for the gravel drainage layer holds 70 m³. // Retention volume [m³]: 242

Bioswales

Bioswales are proposed to be constructed in both sides of Lana River. During heavy rainfall events, a part of runoff harvested from the street and which is usually destined to be discharged in the river, can be collected and treated in the bioswales. Furthermore, the cleansing biotopes planted in the bioswale,

not only contribute to the stormwater treatment, but they also provide a green buffer zone in between the bike lane and the car road, therefore assuring a more pleasant and safe route for bikers. The Bioswale has a trapezoid shape in cross-section, with 3 meters the largest width and the slope of 107

sides have a ration 3:1 ration. According to DWA-A 138E, the maximum recommended ponding level is 30 cm. Therefore, the above 10

Green Roofs

Intensive green roofs are proposed to be implemented in 6 civic buildings along Deshmoret e Kombit Boulevard and in other residential building with an existing flat roof. In some buildings, the green roofs are designed as active roofs, a combination of green roofs and dedicated areas suitable for other activities that can take place in a rooftop.

The thickness of the system depends on the selected vegetation. In this case, the selected thickness > 150 mm with a load from 190 g/m³ allows the growth of bushes and small shrubs (Free and Hanseatic City of Hamburg, 2018).

11

volume of 12 m³ and 25% storage capacity, the stormwater trees provide in total 750 m³ additional retention capacity (Andrukovich, 2019). // Retention volume [m³]: 750

gravel drainage layer, with 30% porosity. The total area of infiltration trenches is 760 m², therefore the additional retention volume is calculated to be 342 m³. // Infiltrated volume [m³]: 342 // Area [m²]: 760

New Green Areas

The area is upgraded by around 8900 m² of new green areas, distributed as pocket parks in residential blocks, new lawns or green areas that connect the existing greenery.

New green areas are proposed especially in residential quarters as interventions that 108

// Retention volume [m³]: 396

Infiltration Trenches

Infiltration trenches are placed in two existing lawns and one proposed green area next to the Pyramid building. It is particularly important for the efficiency of the system, that the area where the infiltration trench is implemented is flat. The width of the trench is 2 m, and the chosen depth is 1,5 m of 13

The rainwater infiltrates through the system and gets collected to the storage rainwater tank. In this case, the ponding capacity of each proposed green roof, is measured based on the size of rainwater tank, chosen for each building. The green roof area for each building varies from 2500 m² to 3500 m², therefore the installation of a rainwater tank with three segments and a total capacity of 18 m³ for each building, is considered sufficient to hold a 5 mm rain event (Andrukovich, 2019).

Stormwater Trees

250 stormwater trees are proposed to be planted in the focus area. The tree pits are planted in a group of three or more trees, in order to ensure a flexible growth of the roots and to in-crease the efficiency of the system. Considering that each tree has a 12

ground volume provided by bioswales is 1080 m³. // Retention volume [m³]: 1080

will reclaim the area from parking lots to recreational pocket parks that will serve directly to the inhabitants. // Area [m²]: 11256

Permeable Paving

14

The transformation program of the focus area, plans to increase the softscape coverage by 5% - by proposing the implementation of pervious pavement in plazas, squares, open parking areas and partially in sidewalks. The existing asphalt and concrete pavement in these areas can be replaced with porous asphalt, interlocking pavers or pavement with open joints. Therefore, the project proposal provides around 26500 m² permeable area,

which can be translated as additional area for infiltration. Based on the normative from DWA-A-117E and ATW-DVWK-M153, the runoff coefficient for permeable paving varies from 0.1 to 0.73. The volume of runoff infiltrated is calculated by multiplying the area with a reduced value of the runoff coefficient. /// Infiltrated volume [m³]: 26500 // Area [m²]: 1590

1

Retention Boulevard 980

2

Water Plaza 280

3

Constructed Wetland 1200

4

Retention Pond 528

5

Raingardens 1512

6

Bioretention Planters 122

7

Stormwater Medians 1496

8

Vegetated Curb Extentions 242

9

Bioswales 1080

10

Green Roofs 396

11

Stormwater Trees 750

12

Infiltration Trenches

14

Permeable Paving 1590

342

TOTAL VOLUME 10’518 [m³] Table 12 | Calculation of the Runoff Volume Provided by Transformation Program of all Focus Area Source: Author, 2021

The quantification process of the Transformation Program, included the calculation of the retained volume for each of the proposed interventions. No calculation of the infiltration has been performed for the tools (despite the permeable paving, where the infiltrated runoff volume has been calculated by simply reducing the runoff coefficient). However, considering the soil type of the focus area (Sandstone – see page 35), the infiltration is expected to be on decent levels, which serves as a positive factor for the WSUD scenario. Furthermore, evaporation

has not been included in the calculations.

In a nutshell: the quantification of the WSUD scenario is built on a simple logic, by calculating just the retention volume and the infiltration of the permeable paving. For more precise results, a stimulation of the area can be built with softwares like STORM. Due to data scarcity, this was not an option for this research work.

The following part of the chapter describes visually the proposed Transformation Program in the focus area.

109

4.4.5 Transformation Proposal for Sub-Area 1 & 4

Figure 88 | The Transformation Program for Sub-Catchment Area 1 & 4 Source: Author 2021 // Based on TWSSC, 2021

110

111

Figure 89 & 90 | Square In Front of The Sport Arena Source: Author, 2021

112

SECTION 1-1 The plaza in front of Sport Arena

Added Values: Increased Quality of Public Realm / Reuse of Stormwater / Microclimate & Human Comfort / Sustainable Buildings / Local Identity / Water Features / Social Cohesion / Preserve of Historical Background

Figure 91 | Section 1-1 // Existing Situation Source: Author, 2021

~ 45m

Figure 92 | Section 1-1 // Proposal Source: Author, 2021

0

57m

2,5 2,5

12m

2

4

2

4

7m 0

6

8 10m

2,5 6

113

8 10m

Figure 93 & 94 | Deshmoret e Kombit Boulevard From the Prime Minister’s Office; Deshmoret e Kombit Boulevard, Viewing Polytechnic University Source: Author, 2021; Redford, 2009

114

SECTION 2-2 Dëshmorët e Kombit Boulevard

H Added Values: Reduced Car Traffic / Increased Quality of Public Realm / Reuse of Stormwater / Microclimate & Human Comfort / Sustainable Buildings / Local Identity / Social Cohesion / Preserve of Historical Background

6m

2m 2,85m

2,85m

2,85m

2,85m

8m

2m

0

2

4

6

8 10m

0

2

4

6

8 10m

3m

Figure 95 | Section 2-2 // Existing Situation Source: Author, 2021

4m

2

2,5

2,5 1,3

10m

1,3 2,5

2,5

2

6m

3m

Figure 96 | Section 2-2 // Proposal Source: Author, 2021

115

Figure 97 & 98 | Visualization of the Revitalization Project of the Pyramid; Pyramid of Tirana, Aerial Drone Footage // Source: MVRDV, 2021; Hoffer, n. d.

116

SECTION 3-3 Pyramid Park

Added Values: Reduced Car Traffic / Increased Quality of Public Realm / Reuse of Stormwater / Microclimate & Human Comfort / Local Identity / Water Features / Social Cohesion / Preserve of Historical Background

Figure 99 | Section 3-3 // Existing Situation Source: Author, 2021

~120m

0

55m

2

4

6

7

4,5m

8 10m

2

Figure 100 | Section 3-3 // Proposal Source: Author, 2021 0

2

4

117

6

8 10m

Figure 101 | Lana River & Bajram Curri Boulevard Source: Nathan, 2012

118

SECTION 4-4 Lana River, Bajram Curri Boulevard

H Added Values: Safer Bike Routes / Reduced Car Traffic / Increased Quality of Public Realm / Microclimate & Human Comfort / Sustainable Buildings / Local Identity / Water Features / Social Cohesion / Active Ground Floors / / Preserve of Historical Background / Revitalization of the River Bed

0

2

4

6

8 10m

0

2

4

6

8 10m

Figure 102 | Section 4-4 // Existing Situation Source: Author, 2021

3m 2

2,8

3

3

3

2,7 1,2

33m

1,2 2,7

3

3

3

2,8 1,3

2,9m

Figure 103 | Section 4-4 // Proposal Source: Author, 2021

119

4.4.6 Transformation Proposal for a Densely, Mixed-Use Block zoom area 1

zoom area 2

Figure 104 | The Transformation Program for a Densely, Mixed-Use Block // Sub-Catchment Area 2 Source: Author 2021

120

zoom area 1 0

25m

50m

zoom area 2 0

25m

50m

Figure 105 & 106 | Orthophoto of Pjeter Bogdani Street; Orthophoto of Abdyl Frasheri Street Source: Author, 2021

121

Figure 107 & 108 | Pjeter Bogdani Street Source: Author, 2021

122

SECTION 5-5 Pjetër Bogdani Street

Added Values: Safer Pedestrian Routes / Reduced Car Traffic / Increased Quality of Public Realm / Microclimate & / Human Comfort / Sustainable Buildings / Local Identity / Social Cohesion / Active Ground Floors

2

0

4

6

8 10m

Figure 109 | Section 5-5 // Existing Situation Source: Author, 2021

0

4m

3

3

3

2

4

6

8 10m

6

Figure 110 | Section 5-5 // Proposal Source: Author, 2021

123

Figure 111 & 112 | Abdyl Frasheri Street Source: Author, 2021; Wikimapia, n.d.

124

SECTION 6-6 Abdyl Frashëri Street

Added Values: Reduced Car Traffic / Increased Quality of Public Realm / Microclimate & Human Comfort / / Sustainable Buildings / Local Identity

2

0

4

6

8 10m

Figure 113 | Section 6-6 // Existing Situation Source: Author, 2021

0

5m

3,25 3,25 2

3,25 3,25

2

4

6

8 10m

6,10

Figure 114 | Section 6-6 // Proposal Source: Author, 2021

125

CHAPTER 5 Conclusions

The challenges that Tirana is facing today are multifaceted, and yet almost all of them wind up on the topic of Tirana’s sustainable growth. The development of Tirana as an ex-communist capital during these 30 years of capitalism has manifested the lack of law enforcement in urban planning - therefore, causing serious issues related with the infrastructure of the city and the built environment in general. On the other hand, all climate predictions conducted for Tirana conclude on point: the precipitation regime is set to become more intense and abundant 126

and the temperatures in summer are expected to continue rising. Given the existing urban situation of Tirana, these climate change predictions will exacerbate the ongoing challenges that the city if facing nowadays.

Furthermore, the expert interviews conducted early in this master thesis, support these findings, mentioning the issues related with the existing sewage network of the city and its adaptation deficit to cope with the growing demands of the city and with the inevitable predicted climate change effects.

Figure 115 | Tirana’s Skyline After a Rain Event Source: Author, 2021

127

5.1 Discussing the Results This research investigated the potential of WSUD measures, as a possible solution to combat the beforehand mentioned urban challenges. The efficiency of the WSUD tools was tested in a selected area, centrally located in Tirana, which encompasses the stream of Lana River - a densely built-up area and the main Boulevard of the city. The results of the Transformation Program depict the way WSUD measures tackle the issue of urban flooding and that of public space quality.

The proposed WSUD scenario for the study area, aimed to respond to a heavy rainfall event with a frequency of 20 years, and with an intensity of 250 l/sec*ha in 20min (see Tab. 13). In other words, the proposed WSUD interventions are expected to manage well the calculated, exceeded surface runoff volume of a heavy rainfall event with a frequency of 10 and 20 years, and partially reduce the exceeded amount of runoff for a heavy rain event with a larger frequency; like 30 years or 50 years. In order to ensure the implementation of the WSUD tools in an efficient and sufficient manner, the retention volume of each of the proposed tools was calculated (see Tab. 12) as the last step of the quantification part of the Transformation Program. The quantification process of the proposed WSUD scenario can be further elaborated for achieving more precise results and stimulations using the software STORM. Due to data scarcity, the use of these tools in this research was excluded.

The WSUD Transformation Program is expected to have benefits on improving the existing conditions of public space, by providing safer, well-designed, more aesthetically pleasing public areas that can be enjoyed even during extreme hot waves of summer. For instance, the transformation of the pocket parks in the densely quarters, from dull, concrete areas used as parking lots only, into permeable surface or in other cases in a vegetated area, reclaims the public space

128

to the inhabitants of the area - while at the same time significantly reduces the share of sealed surfaces. Furthermore, the proposal to transform some streets of Blloku area into pedestrian routes, enhances and celebrates the already existing characteristics of the district, as a part of Tirana with the highest pedestrian activity, night and day.

However, the issue of urban flooding in Tirana should be seen in a broader picture, by considering other vulnerable parts of the city facing far more serious issues. In that regard, the implementation of a Cloudburst Plan has been proposed in this research, as a holistic plan that would tackle the issue of urban flooding in a city level. Nonetheless, its proposal should be followed by a detailed CBA, which will provide valuable information about the costs of doing nothing and the costs of taking action. This research does not include a proper CBA of the WSUD implementation in the Albanian context.

The implementation of such measures should be supported by the proper legislation.

The Masterplan of Tirana should integrate WSUD tools as a crucial part of urban design. A Cloudburst Plan in the context of Tirana can be considered in a long run, and its implementation can start with small interventions in a district, neighbourhood, street and building level. The latest can be achieved by establishing a building code that regulates the share of impermeable surfaces, by sanctioning the use of permeable materials instead of asphalt in parking lots, increasing the share of green areas per residential quarter and by promoting the application of green roofs in new or existing constructions, especially in dense built-up areas.

5.2 Final Thought Nonetheless, the changes in the legislative framework should include the cooperation between various stakeholders from private and public sector, who may not share the same interest and influence on the matter.

Moreover, the topic of WSUD should be mainstreamed not only among policymakers, but within architects, urban planners, academics and engineers, in order to foster the application of WSUD instead or alongside the traditional approach.

Lastly, it is important to mention a few limitations that constrained this research work. The biggest one was data scarcity.

There is no climate data for Tirana published online. Although there is an online platform established for publishing climate data, the information provided there is incoherent and published for the recent years only – which makes a short time span for understanding the climate pattern of a place. Therefore, the climate data provided in this research was built as a compilation of many sources.

Likewise, shortcomings were faced on finding data concerning the existing electricity and telecommunication infrastructure.

This information concerns especially the interventions proposed on a street level, such as the retention area along Deshmoret e Kombit Boulevard.

It appears likely that Tirana will resemble more and more, each year, like other European cities – in the context of public services, infrastructure and lifestyle (Pojani, 2010). Both, the Masterplan of Tirana and the GCAP manifest this point of view, by accentuating the purpose of building a green, resilient and more inclusive city, that makes smart use of resources (Municipality of Tirana, 2018). This master thesis offers a forward-looking proposal for how liveable places can be achieved in problematic urban situations, by integrating the concept of WSUD within the already existing regulations, legislation and masterplans of Tirana. In the context of Albania, this transformation can be established in the real practice with a government that is less reluctant, and more consistent and willing to implement projects that indeed serve to building a more resilient and livable city. At the same time, the public pressure on governments to act should be higher, and this calls for an increase of public awareness toward the effects that climate change has on their everyday life and in the long run. Unfortunately, the public perception and reaction on this matter is still insignificant.

Heavy rainfall events 200 l/sec*ha in 20min

(5 years event)

Exceeded Runoff Volume

existing sewage network Exceeded Runoff Volume

WSUD scenario

6723,9 m³ Managed by WSUD scenario

250 l/sec*ha in 20min

(20 years event)

300 l/sec*ha in 20min

(30 years event)

10548,8 m³

14373,7 m³

Managed by WSUD scenario

3715,7 m³

Table 13 | Exceeded Runoff Volume for Heavy Rainfall Events and the Performance of the Proposed WSUD Scenario // Source: Author, 2021

129

Abbreviations BGI CBA CCA

CCAAPT DSM DWA EIT

EU GCAP GIZ GPT

GHG HCU IGEWE

IMWGCC JICA NAP

NBS

NGO NTC

Blue Green Infrastructure Cost Benefit Analysis Climate Change Adaptation Climate Change Adaptation Action Plan of Tirana Decentralized Stormwater Management German Association for Water, Wastewater and Waste Economies in Transition European Union Green City Action Plan German Corporation for International Cooperation Gross Pollutant Trap Greenhouse Gas Hafencity University Institute for Geoscience, Energy, Water and Environment Inter Ministerial Working Group on Climate Change Japan International Corporation Agency National Adaptation Plan Nature Based Solutions Non-Governmental Organization National Territorial Council

NSPA

National Spatial Planning Agency

(in Albanian: AKPT – Agjensia Kombëtare e Planifikimit të Territorit)

REAP SuDS

TWSSC UN UNCC

UNFCCC WSUD WTP

130

Resource Efficiency in Architecture and Planning Sustainable Drainage Systems Tirana Water Supply and Sewage Company United Nations United Nation Climate Change United Nation Framework Convention on Climate Change Water Sensitive Urban Design Wastewater Treatment Plant

Figure 116 | Graffiti Art in the Streets of Tirana Source: Author, 2021

131

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List of Figures Figure 1: Tirana’s Skyline & Dajti Mountain // Source: Author, 2021

Figure 2: Urban Water Cycle // Source: Author, 2021 Figure 3: Methodologies Applied and the Research Process

11 12 15

// Source: Author, 2021 // Based on: Donelson, 2016 Figure 4: Copenhagen Cloudburst Plan-Retention Area

18

// Source: Ramboll Studio Dreiseitl, 2014 Figure 5: Copenhagen Cloudburst Plan-Toolkit // Source: Oppla, n. d. a

Figure 6: Milan’s Vertical Forest // Source: Oppla, n.d. b Figure 7: Skanderbeg Square, Tirana // Source: Dujardin, 2019 Figure 8: Timeline of Tirana’s urban expansion through years

18 19 21 23

// Source: Author, 2021 // Based on Spaan, (2018) Figure 9: The Interlocking Crisis of the State of Infrastructure and Public Spaces

25

in Tirana After the Fall of Communism // Source: Bufi, 2019

Figure 10: Köppen Climate Types of Albania // Source: Wikipedia, n.d.

Figure 11: Comparison of the Average Precipitation Value with the Precipitation

26 28

of the Last Ten Years in Tirana // Source: Author 2021 // Based on Municipality of Tirana, 2015; IGEWE, 2020 Figure 12: Annual Rainfall of Tirana (1931-2020) // Source: Author 2021

29

// Based on Municipality of Tirana, 2015; IGEWE, 2020 Figure 13: Changes in Annual Precipitation of Tirana (1931-2020) // Source: Author 2021

29

// Based on Municipality of Tirana, 2015; IGEWE, 2020

29

Figure 14: Urban Water Cycle in Tirana // Source: Author, 2021 // Based on TWSSU, 2020

33

Figure 15: Section a-a // Source: Author, 2021 // Based on Vako, 2014

Figure 16: Geology Map of Tirana (Types of Soils) // Source: Author, 2021 // Based on Vako, 2014 Figure 17: Hydrogeology Map of Tirana // Source: Author, 2021 // Based on Vako, 2014 Figure 18: Climate change legislation hierarchy in Albania // Source: Author, 2021

Figure 19: Skanderbeg Square, Tirana // Source: Dujardin, 2019 Figure 20: Skanderbeg Square, Tirana // Source: Dujardin, 2019

Figure 21: Deshmoret e Kombit Boulevard from Mother Teresa Square // Source: Author, 2021

Figure 22: The Square in Front of the Sport Area - Pictured from Mother Teresa Square

34 35 35 38 39 45 46 49

// Source: Author, 2021 Figure 23: Urban, Natural and WSUD Water Balance // Source: Author, 2021

51

Figure 24: Concept diagram for WSUD // Source: CIRIA 2013 // Graphic: Author, 2021

51

Figure 26: An Example of Green-Active Roof in Rotterdam

54

Figure 25: The WSUD Toolkit // Source: Author, 2021 53 // Source: Rotterdam Innovation City, n.d.

Figure 27: A Green Facade Combinate with Green Roof // Source: semper green wall, n.d.

Figure 28: Tanner Springs Park, Portland, Oregon // Source: Ramboll Studio Dreiseitl, 2010

55 56 139

Figure 29: Detention pond in Ohlsdorf, Hamburg // Source: Author, 2019

57

Figure 30: A Drainage Gutter in a Sealed Plaza // Source: Author, 2021

58

Figure 31: An Infiltration Trench Integrated in a Park Area // Source: Berges du Vauziron, 2009

59

Figure 32: Stormwater Tree Pits Integrated in an Urban Plaza – Montreal // Source: Webb, 2013 Figure 33: Depressed stormwater Median During a Rain Event // Source: NACTO, 2017b

60 61

Figure 34: Stormwater Curb Extension in Portland’s Central Eastside Industrial District

62

// Source: Green Works, n.d.

Figure 35: Bioswale in the Ohlsdorf District, Hamburg // Source: Author, 2019

Figure 36: Sankt Annæ Plads in Copenhagen - Cloudburst Street // Source: State of Green, n. d.

Figure 37: A Raingarden in a Depressed Green Area Along a Car Road – Melbourne

63 64 65

// Source: Volkening, 2017 Figure 38: Flow-Through Planters On the Campus of Portland State University

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// Source: Blackburn, 2008 Figure 39: Permeable paving integrated with landscape design – Barcelona

67

// Source: Landscape Architecture Built, 2020 Figure 40: Green stop in Bialystok in Poland // Source: Jakowiak, 2019 Figure 41: Oasis of freshness sky cooling installed on the Place Carpeaux – Paris

68 69

// Source: Engie Solutions, 2021 Figure 42: Elbasani Street 77 Source: Author, 2021

Figure 43: Orthophoto of Downtown, Tirana // Source: ASIG, 2018

Figure 44: Orthophoto of Focus Area // Source: ASIG, 2018 Figure 45: Distribution of Surfaces, Existing Situation // Source: Author, 2021 Figure 46: Figure-Ground and Topographic Map // Source: Author, 2021

Figure 47: The Existing Green Coverage and Trees Map // Source: Author, 2021

Figure 48: The Existing Street Network Map // Source: Author, 2021

73 75 77 78 79 80 81

Figure 49: The Distribution of Functions Map // Source: Author, 2021

82

Figure 51: The Typology of Green Areas // Source: Author, 2021

84

Figure 50: The Altimetry Map // Source: Author, 2021 83 Figure 52: Green Roof and Green Areas Potential // Source: Author, 2021

Figure 53: The Share of Hardscape and Softscape // Source: Author, 2021 Figure 54: The Existing Sewage Network // Source: Author 2021 // Based on TWSSC, 2021

Figure 55: Bajram Curri Boulevard // Source: Author, 2021

Figure 56: Bllok district - Sami Frasheri Street // Source: Author, 2021 Figure 57: Deshmoret e Kombit Boulevard Flooded // Source: Periskopi, 2018

Figure 58: Concrete Banks of Lana River // Source: Author, 2021 Figure 59: Mother Teresa Square // Source: Author, 2021

Figure 60: Bar-Cafe in Blloku District // Source: VisitTirana, n. d.

Figure 61: Entrance of Blloku District // Source: Author, 2021 Figure 62: Art Installation in one of the Parks // Source: Author, 2021 Figure 63: Bridge Over Lana River Connecting Bllok With the Center // Source: Author, 2021

Figure 64: Deshmoret e Kombit Boulevard // Source: Author, 2021

Figure 65: Mustafa Matohiti Street // Source: Author, 2021 Figure 66: Vaso Pasha Street // Source: Author, 2021 Figure 67: One Way Street - Neighborhood Level // Source: Author, 2021

Figure 68: Underground Retail Activity // Source: Author, 2021

Figure 69: Mother Teresa Square // Source: Author, 2021 Figure 70: Deshmoret e Kombit Boulevard // Source: Trespasser on earth, n.d.

Figure 71: An Open Parking Area in a Residential Block // Source: Author, 2021

Figure 72: Tirana During a Rainevent // Source: Author, 2021 140

85 86 87 89 90 90 90 90 91 91 91 91 92 92 92 93 93 93 93 93 94

Figure 73: Lana River after a Rainevent // Source: Author, 2021

Figure 74: Sami Frashëri Street // Source: Author, 2021 Figure 75: Active Basemenet / Sami Frashëri Street // Source: Author, 2021

Figure 76: Ex Dictator’s Villa, Main Entrance // Source: Author, 2021 Figure 77: Blocked Drain / Blloku District // Source: Author, 2021 Figure 78: Accumulated Water in the Sidewalk // Source: Author, 2021

Figure 79: Deshmoret e Kombit Boulevard // Source: Author, 2021 Figure 80: Blocked Drain - Damaged Sidewalk // Source: Author, 2021

Figure 81: Blloku’s Streets After Rain // Source: Author, 2021 Figure 82: Blocked Drain // Source: Author, 2021 Figure 83: Damaged Sidewalk / Blloku District // Source: Author, 2021

Figure 84: Sub-Catchment Areas // Source: Author 2021 // Based on TWSSC, 2021

Figure 85: Distribution of Surfaces, Existing Situation // Source: Author, 2021

Figure 86: Distribution of Surfaces, Proposal // Source: Author, 2021 Figure 87: The Transformation Program for All Focus Area // Source: Author 2021

Figure 88: The Transformation Program for Sub-Catchment Area 1 & 4 // Source: Author 2021

Figure 89: Square In Front of The Sport Arena // Source: Author, 2021 Figure 90: Square In Front of The Sport Arena // Source: Author, 2021 Figure 91: Section 1-1 // Existing Situation // Source: Author, 2021

Figure 92: Section 1-1 // Proposal // Source: Author, 2021

Figure 93: Deshmoret e Kombit Boulevard From the Prime Minister’s Office // Source: Author, 2021 Figure 94: Deshmoret e Kombit Boulevard, Viewing Polytechnic University

94 94 94 94 95 95 95 95 95Figur 95 95 97 99 99 75 110 112 112 113 113 114 114

// Source: Author, 2021; Redford, 2009 Figure 95: Section 2-2 // Existing Situation // Source: Author, 2021

Figure 96: Section 2-2 // Proposal // Source: Author, 2021 Figure 97: Visualization of the Revitalization Project of the Pyramid // Source: MVRDV

Figure 98: Pyramid of Tirana, Aerial Drone Footage // Source: Hoffer, n. d.

Figure 99: Section 3-3 // Existing Situation // Source: Author, 2021

Figure 100: Section 3-3 // Proposal // Source: Author, 2021 Figure 101: Lana River & Bajram Curri Boulevard // Source: Nathan, 2012

Figure 102: Section 4-4 // Existing Situation // Source: Author, 2021

Figure 103: Section 4-4 // Proposal // Source: Author, 2021 Figure 104: The Transformation Program for a Densely, Mixed-Use Block

115 115 116 116 117 117 118 119 119 120

// Sub-Catchment Area 2 // Source: Author 2021 // Based on TWSSC, 2021 Figure 105: Orthophoto of Pjeter Bogdani Street // Source: Author, 2021

Figure 106: Orthophoto of Abdyl Frasheri Street // Source: Author, 2021

Figure 107: Pjeter Bogdani Street // Source: Author, 2021 Figure 108: Pjeter Bogdani Street // Source: Author, 2021 Figure 109: Section 5-5 // Existing Situation // Source: Author, 2021

Figure 110: Section 5-5 // Proposal // Source: Author, 2021

121 121 122 122 123 123

Figure 111: Abdyl Frasheri Street // Source: Author, 2021; Wikimapia, n.d.

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Figure 113: Section 6-6 // Existing Situation // Source: Author, 2021

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Figure 112: Abdyl Frasheri Street // Source: Author, 2021; Wikimapia, n.d.

Figure 114: Section 6-6 // Proposal // Source: Author, 2021 Figure 115: Tirana’s Skyline After a Rain Event // Source: Author, 2021

Figure 116: Graffiti Art in the Streets of Tirana // Source: Author, 2021

124 125 127 131

Cover Photo: Bajram Curri Boulevard // Source: Nathan, 2012 // Edited by Author, 2021 141

List of Tables Table 1: Basic climate parameters of Tirana // Source: Municipality of Tirana, 2015

27

Table 2: Maximal daily rainfalls in Tirana according to different months 1951-2007

27

// Source: Municipality of Tirana, 2015 Table 3: Frequency of Occurrence of Rainfalls in Tirana 1951-1990

28

// Source: Municipality of Tirana, 2015 Table 4: Projection of Average Precipitation Change in Tirana Related to 1961-1990

30

// Source: Municipality of Tirana, 2015 Table 5: Conclusions for Climate Change Impacts for Tirana Area for Period 2071-2100

31

// Source: Municipality of Tirana, 2015 Table 6: Stakeholder Analysis // Source: Author, 2021

44

Table 7: Comparison Between WSUD and the Conventional Network

50

// Source: Author 2021 // Based on Dickhaut, 2020 and CIRIA, 2013 Table 8: Types of Surfaces - Existing Situation // Source: Author, 2021

78

Table 9: Sub Catchment Areas // Source: Author, 2021

94

Table 10: Recommended Mean Runoff Coefficients According to

101

DWA-A 117E and ATV-DVWK-M 153 //Source: DWA-A 117E and ATV-DVWK-M 153, n.d.

Table 11: Calculation of the Runoff Volume - Defining the Targets

101

// Source: Author, 2021 Table 12: Calculation of the Runoff Volume Provided by Transformation Program

109

of all Focus Area // Source: Author, 2021 Table 13: Exceeded Runoff Volume for Heavy Rainfall Events and the performance of the proposed WSUD Scenario // Source: Author, 2021

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Appendix EXPERT INTERVIEWS I. Interview with Ms. Fationa Sinojmeri // Environmental Engineer, Technical Advisor at German Corporation for International Cooperation GmbH (GIZ).

August 2021 1. Is there an ongoing project of GIZ Albania in the field of climate change adaptation? If yes, to what extent is the topic of urban flooding tackled?

Currently, it does exist the CCAWB (Climate Change Adaptation for Western Balkans) project – but it is focused on Drin Basin only and is expected to be finished by mid-2022. A smaller contribution is being given at the national level by supporting the implementing agencies of EU Flood Directives through technical advice on their work. Some of the activities that are included by the CCAWPB project: • Preparation of PFRA (Preliminary Flood Risk Assessment) for Drin Basin • Preparation of FHRM - Flood Hazard and Flood Risk Mapping • Preparation of FRMP (Flood Risk Management Plans) for Shkodra region • Producing a guidebook on FHRM, which is still under process Urban flooding is not really tackled at this project (CCAWB) phase, since the typology of floods in the Drin Basing are Riverine floods and sometimes flash floods. CCAAPT is the only project established with the support of GIZ that tackles the topic of CC in Tirana; by identifying the most vulnerable spots in the city regarding urban flooding in specific and climate change effects in general.

2. Which are the most vulnerable spots in Tirana toward extreme rainfall events?

The areas of the city, identified in the Vulnerability Assessment conducted by CCAAPT: Komuna e Parisit Area located in the south western part of Tirana, has experienced regular flooding over the last years. With some interventions in the existing sewage network, the flooding have been mitigated at a certain level. Other areas where the pluvial flooding is an ingoing issue: Lana River near Brryli district, 21 Dhjetori Square, Don Bosko Street and in the outskirts of the city: Lana River in some parts and Tirana River in the northern part of the city.

In these last two locations, because of the high level of urban informality, the floorings are more intense and have a more significant in the surroundings

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3. How successful was the implementation of Adaptation Action Plan, 2015 on mitigation of the climate change effects and especially on providing flood resilience in Tirana?

Could you give an overview of what has been achieved so far?

The Plan was never fully implemented; or better saying it was implemented in an insignificant level. Its implementation was mentioned; however, with the change of governments it was completely forgotten. Unfortunately, this is the fate of several projects in Albania, have been designed and established on paper but we didn’t follow up, since the project didn’t continue in the field due to the change of governments. Additionally, no follow up was done later and no financing by the governments, making it even harder to get the interest of German developing agency.

Comments on a more personal note: Some positive intervention on the stormwater infrastructure has happened in the recent years.

More ‘room’ has been giver for Lana River - especially in its vulnerable spots. Also, there have been improvements on mitigating the flooding around Tirana River. Furthermore, there have projects in the city that on a certain level have integrated the concept of stormwater collection - and reuse – such as the project of Skanderbeg Square and the new Boulevard, built in the northern part of the city as the extension of the existing main axis of the city. A major issue with these projects, is the lack of maintenance, which affects the performance of these integrated systems. However, I am hesitant about some interventions of the Municipality of Tirana, in the frame of mitigating climate change effects in the city. For instance, the green roof implemented in the municipality building is more a showcase rather than a real green roof system. Also, the cooling stations spread around the city during summer to beat the extreme heats, have an insignificant impact on the matter.

4. As an expert, how serious do you think is the situation of urban flooding in Tirana during cloudburst events? To what extent would you attribute the aftermath of such extreme events (cloudbursts) to climate change effects, and how much to the existing sewage network?

CC effects are everyday evident and more dominant. The city struggles when it comes to these extreme events and definitely is needed a lot more attention on application of adaptation and mitigation measures. I’m not able to give a % of the number of damages caused by Sewerage network or only climate change. I would rather mention in Tirana the problem starts from the sewerage system which definitely is exacerbated by the CC effect (cloudburst events). A study is needed to give a precise answer to that.

5. How feasible do you think the implementation of Blue-Green infrastructure would be in the context of Tirana?

Blue Green Infrastructure is a very good solution in my point of view especially considering that we are in the era of building and expanding the town. A proper study should be done which includes not only proposals on blue green infrastructures but also on their maintenance and cost benefit analysis.

6. Is there any chance that soon such a project could be supported by GIZ? Is there is any report or study conducted by GIZ, about the frequency of the cloudburst events over the last 10-20 years in Albania?

Yes, they are possibilities but needs to be seen in the upcoming years which are the priorities of the German government in the region. A slight bigger chance might come from GCF project, but 144

I can’t tell whether Tirana would be a pilot area.

Not that I’m aware off. No study conducted about the frequency of cloudburst in Albania IGEWE is rather collecting data, but technical capacities are still to be improved.

II. Interview with Mr. Dashnor Dervishaj // Senior Hydro Engineer of Tirana Water Supply and Sewerage Utility (TWSSC) August 2021

1. What type of sewage system has Tirana?

Tirana has a gravity, combine system.

2. How old is the existing sewage network? What are the most recent interventions in the sewage network and in what part of Tirana have been performed?

The sewage infrastructure is approximately 50 years old – however there have been various improvements and replacements during the years.

The latest interventions of the network have been implemented in the most vulnerable areas of the city; aiming to control the issue of urban flooding there. These areas include: Komuna e Parisit areas (south western part of Tirana), Don Bosco Street (north western part of Tirana), Elbasani Street, Laprake etc.

3. What is the rainfall intensity that determines the capacity of the sewage network in Tirana? Also, what are the heavy rainfall intensity (with e return period of 5, 10, 20, 30… years) based on the new sewage infrastructure is designed?

The sewage network has a capacity that can support a rain event with an intensity of 170 l/ sec*ha with a duration of15min. It has a minimum 20% security for a 5 year reinvent.

4. What parts of Tirana experience more often pluvial flooding?

Elbasani Street, Ali Demi Street, Kombinati (west part of Tirana), Komuna e Parisit.

5. Are you familiar with the topics of SuDS or WSUD? Do you think that there is time that such practices should be implemented instead or along the existing sewage network – in order improve the performance of the system under extreme rainfall conditions?

Yes, the existing system needs to be improved. There is time that these (SuDS & WSUD) practices can be considered as a solution. The main technical issue of the sewage network is that it is a combined one: the connection of the network lines in a ‘T’ shaped, for a better performance it should be shaped as an ‘Y’. The latest would improve the separation of the wastewater, hence having a positive impact on the environment. Another issue is the illegal sewage network lines, which of course are constructed with no technical supervision; hence in some cases cause the mix of grey water and white water. The construction of streets, increases the amount of surface runoff – which is almost addressed as an issue for the sewage network.

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