Understanding Sustainability of the Traditional Water Conduits of the Kathmandu Valley

Understanding Sustainability of the Traditional Water Conduits of the Kathmandu Valley through the lens of Deep Beauty

By: Subik Kumar Shrestha Fall 2014

Table of Contents 01 Executive Summary 02 History and Background 03 General architectural description of the traditional water conduit system and introduction to Manga hiti of Patan

04 Analysis of the ancient water conduits system through the lens of deep beauty Sustainable features of the ancient water conduit system Water conduits as examples of culture-specific architecture of place Water conduits and their connection with nature The sacredness of the water conduits

Acknowledgements Professor Gary Coates, Kansas State University for supervising this term paper—a requirement for the graduate seminar on “Deep Beauty: Sustainable Architecture.”

Executive Summary The Kathmandu Valley1 has a long history of stone water conduits (dhungedharas2, lon-hiti3) constructions, which can be dated back to the Lichchhavi period4. Their history stretches for at least 1450 years. Studying the nature of such water conduits, it can be argued that these structures primarily possess social, architectural, and religious values. Thus, dhungedharas had following implications: (1) iconic as elements within the larger urban fabric; (2) were importance for the sustenance of people; and (3) performed as a social place. These functions exist in the Kathmandu Valley even today, although in a significantly lesser degree than during the ancient times. This paper aims to describe the sustainability features of such dhungedharas through the “deep beauty” feature contained within them, in an attempt to explain the rich architecture of places of the Kathmandu Valley.

The relation of dhungedharas with deep beauty has been described along with roles they play in the social fabric of Kathmandu city’s core urban areas through these implications: (1) historic; (2) symbolic; (3) social; (4) religious; (5) architectural; and (6) sustainable working system. These features are described along the course of this paper as they relate with the following “deep beauty” themes related with the sustainability of the water conduits: (1) water conduit system and its sustainability; (2) water conduits and the culture-specific architecture of place; (3) water conduit system and its connection with nature; and (4) the sacredness of the water conduits.

In the paper, major reference has been made to Manga hiti5 of Patan because of the readily available information, a greater experiential

knowledge of the author with the case, and being ideally responsive to the various aspects of deep beauty and sustainability.

History and Background According to Tiwari (2009, p. 70), the water supply pit system of Satyanarayana6 at Hadigaon7 is the oldest Hi-Ti in the Kathmandu Valley, which dates back to 550 AD, and belongs to the Lichchhavi period. Another instance could be Manga hiti of Patan built by Mandev8 which dates back to 570 AD (Ritterspach, 1995, p. 78). A major technological refinement in the history of water conduit system occurred when the Lichchhavi developed a jala-droni9 system which used the natural formations like ponds, rivers, and waterfalls as the major source of water distribution (Tiwari, 2009, p. 71).

This system used a simple principle of gravity flow from higher land to lower lands, but the process by which the water was distributed sustainably to the various settlement areas through water conduits can be considered a “technological marvel” for that time. The Malla dynasty10 furthered the technology and most of the dhungedharas were constructed during this period.

There are many features that make the study of the dhungedharas special for study in the field of architecture, urban design, and sustainability. The history of ancient water conduits may well educate us about the overall sustainability features of the wonderful ancient towns of the Kathmandu Valley as water conduits relate deeply to the technological, social, architectural, social, and cultural values of that time. According to Tiwari (2009), since wells were not the chief source of water even in the Kirat11 reign, there must have been a prevalence of a different water supply system

then. It can be argued that a form of similar water conduit system was present in that time as well.

As the author discusses, the efficiency and practicality of this system from Kirat period would have inspired the Lichchhavis to follow a similar system for their settlement (Tiwari, 2009, p. 70). Evidently, the Malla rulers made the most out of this technology as it bore physical, social, cultural, and architectural importance to their communities.

In the past, water conduits were not accessible to people of all the caste but since past few decades, they have been made accessible to all (Pradhan, 1990, p. 12). The so called “higher castes” would forbid people of “low castes” to enter or else the water would be deemed impure for any further use. Due to the rapid increase in settlement and consequent encroaching of land, many water conduits do not function anymore. Also, the lack of proper care and obsolescence has added to its deterioration in the recent past. In many situations, the water flow has reduced dramatically, due to the blockage of the flow. Ritterspach (1995, p. 14) discusses a few key reasons that are aiding to this degradation, which are: (1) absence of a proper governing body (ex. Guthi Sansthan12); (2) no one taking responsibility of care and continuous maintenance; and (3) modern settlements eradicating the remaining water conduits.

It is true that both the government and people of the community need to be aware regarding the protection of these important assets, which can still solve the water problems evident in almost all core areas of the valley.

There are many water conduits which still survive till today, although not all of them function properly. According to Ritterspach, there are 100 water conduits in Kathmandu, 98 in Bhaktapur,

38 in Patan, 12 in Kirtipur, and 24 in Sankhu. As a rough estimate, around 800-1000 water conduits are present in the valley today (Ritterspach, 1995, p. 7).  

Figure 1 Plan of Patan Durbar Square. Note Manga hiti on the south eastern portion and the axis (sc. Sekler, 1985, p. 22).

General architectural description of the traditional water conduit system and introduction to Manga hiti of Patan Water conduits (Dhungedhara or lohn-hiti) are important elements of traditional Nepalese architecture and urban design. They can be understood simply as a source of water, having its origin some 1500 years ago. As we study the working of such water conduit systems, we begin to understand that they are not as much of a simple system as they appear. The hiti system is marvelous in that they functioned for a long period of time and many survive even to this day despite lack of maintenance and uncontrolled urbanization.

Water conduits are important architectural elements which had a significant place in the overall traditional urban system and also bore ritual significances within the Kathmandu Valley.

This section discusses both the structural and architectural aspects of the water conduits as a ‘whole building system’ and is followed by an analysis of its sustainability and beauty. The main conduit uses clay and natural stone whereas the surrounding constructions (referred as ‘conduit building’) uses brick walls constructed in levels, which is referred to as “plinths”. The plinths also provide added strength to the building system and are topped by stone lintels or slabs for added strength. The floors are brick or stone paved whereas the steps are made of stone slabs (Ritterspach, 1995, p. 28). The building is usually divided into two plinth levels, even though examples with single or three plinth(s) exist as well. This building system is an open air structure. Figure 2 gives important insight on the most used terms in a water

conduit system.

The most important architectural element of the water conduit building system is the spout.

The spout (hitimanga) is made out of long stone blocks and is roughly conical is shape with makara13 on the end through which the water comes out (Figure 4). The makara is sometimes shaped out of metal as well, along with the image of the deity Bhagirath. Figure 3 gives a general idea of the important dimensions with regard to the hitimanga in terms of: height in front (hf ), breadth in front (bf ), exposed length (el), total length (tl), height at rear (hr), and breadth at rear (br).

Figure 3 Explanation of water conduit terminologies (sc. Ritterspach, 1995, p. 36.

Figure 2 Diagram of the water conduit and its associated dimension (sc. Ritterspach, 1995, p. 35).

Analysis of the ancient water conduits system through the lens of deep beauty

Figure 4 The spout of Manga Hiti with the makara design (sc. http://www.panoramio.com/photo/66051510).

According to Ritterspach (1995, p. 78), a stone inscription found at Manga hiti confirms that it is dated 570 A.D. According to Sekler (1985, p. 17), Manga hiti was recently renovated in 1968. At present, the Manga hiti is in working condition and a well preserved hiti of Patan. The hiti, located on north eastern corner of Patan Durbar Square constitutes an important building system within the palace complex (figure 1). Upon western main entry, the building-complex has two patis14 on either side, which are referred as Mandap Pati.

The pati acts as an important social space which

gives a view to activities on the adjacent street level and the hiti below as well. It leads down to the hitigah (conduit basin) via series of steps. This open air building system is based on three plinth levels, the top of which would be the street level.

It has three water conduits on the eastern wall, all of which bear the makara design “devoured” by snakes on the end of the conduits through which the water flows. The floor area below the conduits acts as a water basin and collects water from the three spouts.

The analysis of ancient water conduits in terms of its sustainability and aesthetic features in a deeper level provides significant insights to the design of such structures. The analysis can further aid in logical thinking toward architectural and urban design of the Kathmandu Valley. This paper analyses the ancient water conduits system in terms of four distinct features: (1) sustainable features of the ancient water conduits; (2) water conduits as examples of culture-specific architecture of place; (3) water conduits and their connection with nature; and (4) the sacredness of the water conduits. This section is an attempt to relate the architectural and historical information on traditional dhungedharas given by Ritterspach (1995) and Tiwari (2007, 2009) with the concepts of aesthetics and sustainability through works of Hosey (2012), Pallasmaa (1995, 2005, 2009, 2012), Coates (2007,2013), Bragdon (1922), and other writings on concepts related with sustainable beauty. The critical analyses open up the need to further study the traditional architecture from various perspectives and makes the present understanding even more clear and connected with human values.

Sustainable features of the ancient water conduit system It is surprising, yet convincing, that the ancient design of dhungedharas and traditional works of architecture of Nepal can be related with the new concepts being advocated in the “developed world” since the mid-twentieth century.

Hosey (2012), in The Shape of Green attempts to bring forth the importance of aesthetics within the larger sphere of sustainability. Although the words “beauty” and “aesthetics” seem to represent interchangeable meanings, the author properly deals with issues of aesthetics in relation to sustainability and design in his work. Among many issues that he discusses, the role of the senses to understand true beauty and its importance to sustainability and his consideration toward attaining a sense of place for both beautiful and sustainable environment is unique and can be connected with the water conduits of the Kathmandu Valley. Another important and unique aspect is that his work ingeniously avoids the cliché “green design principles” required in a so called “environmentally responsive building” but rather bases the assumptions on traditional construction methods and how building immersed in “nature” is powerful aesthetically to become sustainable as well.

Hosey argues that every place should manifest its own unique architecture, and the architecture of the stone water conduits is truly exceptional in this regard. Thus, it is very important to realize that as architecture sticks to maintain local identity by using local materials, style, morals, style and values, it becomes more beautiful and sustainable. The author further asserts that beauty and sustainability should co-exist and even be intricately bound together (2012, pp. 9, 28). He further explains that aesthetics are vital to both nature and culture and sustainability must have a sensory dimension if it is to incorporate beauty (2012, pp. 20-21). The water conduits, as a whole present beauty not only in the form of visually pleasant architectural composition, but also offer a lot for other senses as well. Relating Hosey’s experience

with aesthetics, it can be asserted that Mani Hiti possesses an unexplainable beauty. Hosey states that aesthetics concerns the nature of beauty and studies the relationship between the senses and our surroundings. As mentioned previously, the attempt to connect aesthetics and sustainability through the idea of sensual engagement with nature is an important agenda of this paper.

According to Pallasmaa (2012) in The Eyes of the Skin, architecture has the power to invite rather than ‘apprehend’. It can help maintain our dialogue with nature. In this regard, the details, materials, and use of forms are few of many such features which help maintain this dialogue.

Pallasmaa (2012, p. 88) argues that architecture can be grounded responsibly and responsively within that larger cultural territory to engage the users into that larger culture. The author gives a good insight about how our senses work within the environment. His criticism on the biasness of “occularcentric” architectural design and the need to incorporate other senses, along with his other arguments regarding design can be linked with the water conduits as well. The author has detailed out problems arisen from elimination and suppression of other senses which has reduced the world into the ‘limited sphere of vision’. So, Pallasmaa is trying to explain how all the senses, combined together, can give a rich aesthetic experience of the environment. According to the author, potential transaction between body, imagination, and environment is missing from our places because we have stopped designing our places considering the environment.

Of course, the water conduits were designed to be visually pleasing, but they offer a lot more. Like other Nepalese traditional buildings, the design

of water conduits appeals to the senses of hearing and touch as well. The bustle of the users coming in the morning and the evening in the dhungedharas to fetch water would be a pleasant occasion for the ear just to listen to, without even having to be engaged in the conversation. Similarly, when there is no one to fetch the water, the continuous rechargeable water that comes from the spout upon hitting the stone or brick hitigah or basin creates a natural sound imitating the waterfalls hitting the rocks (a possible Biomorphism/mimicry perhaps?). It offers a lot to the sensation of touch as well. Traditional and even modern city dwellers who prefer to walk bare foot at home and around the immediate neighborhood most of the times, have a sense of attachment with wooden and stone floorings. In fact, most people unselfconsciously visit the water conduit area barefooted because of a sensory power it evokes.

Specifically in the water conduit basins, the brick or stone floors which get warm in the winter and cool in the summer gives a wonderful sensation to the feet, which travels through to the whole body. This is a really unique experience that is offered by the natural building materials. Similarly, the natural stone of the water spouts, with their elegant design and details feel really good to the hand. It can be caressed and felt, and the touch of the magnificently carved stone spouts gives an unearthly feeling. The excellent carvings on the spout are proportionate, humane, and one can feel the presence of the hand of its makers being portrayed in the design.

Hosey (2012, p. 59) claims that design can embrace humanity’s place in nature by fortifying the bonds between body and the world. Since everything man-made comes from nature, it should be connected with nature as only that will help us

experience the world in a positive way. Pallasmaa referred to the door handle as the handshake of the building (2012, p. 67). This statement is true for buildings. But what about cases like the water conduit building complex, which does not have a door? Manga hiti, for example, does not have an intentionally designed door, but does contain a pair of pati on both sides, so that the space in between acts as an entryway. It invites the user to be there and take a view of the conduit complex from above. In this sense, the entryway of Mandap pati can be regarded to express even more than a handshake because apart from allowing it to enter the water conduit building, it also offers shelter and invites people to be a part of it.

A broader sense of deep beauty possessed by water conduits can be explained with reference to the ideas of Grant Hildebrand. Hildebrand (cited in Kellert, Heerwagen, and Mador, 2011) gives us an alternative process of making architecture more satisfying by finding architectural characteristics that commonly recur in buildings and places which we find attractive. The five characteristics he talks about are: complex order, prospect, refuge, enticement, and peril. This discussion is important with reference to the water conduits, because “enticement” and “peril” could be related with it. Hildebrand says that “enticement” is the element of surprise and excitement as one progress from darkness to light. Traditional towns used to possess this feature of mystery in them.

Such towns further our desire for exploration and search with its path layout. The narrow streets leading to a landmark or important focus can be taken as an example. Similarly, “peril” represents the desire to approach to a work of architecture even after knowing that there is danger in it.

These concepts are related with the dhungedhara

system because of being located in the level below the street. Because of this reason, it creates a hollow in the ground level, and adds to the excitement of wanting to approach toward it. There is a sense of mystery in its design because it leaves one wondering about the structures that could be present in this seemingly large hole. Furthermore, the building system, although containing dangers like a steep stairway, possibilities of slipping in the water and moss collected overtime, contains mystery and peril and excites the visitors/users at the same time. The sunken water conduit systems represent a change in the landform because they are located by digging deep. This means that these structures are capable of introducing a very distinct landscape to the place.

Water conduits as examples of culture-specific architecture of place The architecture of water conduit system ideally represents a culturally situated architecture of place. Although it invites a constant debate, many others argue that architecture should define the culture of the region if it is to be beautiful and sustainable if not regional. According to Frampton (as cited in Canizaro, 2007, p. 19), a region is defined by a culture’s unique identity, manner of place-making, and local means to cope with the environment. The author asserts that buildings and societies should be represented through the incorporation of local conditions and culture.

Pallasmaa (ibid, p. 131), however, prefers the notion of situational or culture specific architecture rather than regionalism. To the author, buildings and societies based on culture are important and always beautiful because such environments are fused in the context and continuity of tradition; such that they are genuine works brought by

time that are only stylistic but also experiential.

According to Speck, a building should be experienced and stand as an artifact of its culture. The author further adds that culture specific architecture considers the practicality of place and culture in which it exists. Furthermore, Coates argues that places should be based on the value of culture of their own place rather than exporting them and underutilizing the local resources.

Water conduits are related with various rituals and traditions associated with the people of the valley since ancient times. More specifically, they are related with the festivals and associated rituals which have helped in the continuation of such water conduits in becoming an important public asset even till today. Water conduits are related with the following ritual aspects (Ritterspach, 1995, pp. 16, 20): (1) ritual bathing; (2) The festival of sithi; (3) Festivals connected with certain shrines; (4) Personal worship; and (5) The presence of Nagaraja.

While some of these reasons are self-explanatory and obvious, those related with the festivals need explanation. One of the important ritual practices that mark the protection of urban water system in the ancient times can be related with the festival of sithi. This festival is celebrated in the month of May (Jestha15 Sukla Sasthi) popularly by the Newar farming community in the valley (Tiwari, 2007, p. 84). As the town size increased during the Malla period, the sithi festival tradition transformed into an annual maintenance tradition, which included the cleaning and management of wells, ponds, and drainage ditches along with water conduits (ibid). The presence of Nagraja (Snake deity) in every water conduit (Ritterspach, 1995, p. 20) is a belief in the valley that has made

it mandatory to preserve the water conduits and make them a safe place for the snake god. The Nagraja is present to protect the water conduits and it is also a belief that making the deity angry can cause unforeseen consequences. Thus on the month of July (Shrawan16), Naga-panchami festival is celebrated to worship the snake deity and pray to them for protection of such urban facilities and residences.

Figure 5 Historical representation of snakes in the water conduits (Ritterspach, 1995, p. 24).

Hosey (2012, p. 52), in an attempt to explain “aesthetics of ecology”, states that “a richer sense of beauty can create things with profound presence and resonance and powerful physical character deeply connected to people and place.” As the author makes it clear that sustainability is not only about “going green”, he adds that it is about creating a place that resonates a positive sense occupied with people who are responsible to create an identity of the place. Water conduits possess the power of “resonance” and “connection” that Hosey discusses, through the presence of members of a community participating in the space, especially for fetching water. In addition, the water conduits attract users because of its multiple functional values. It can also be argued that the use of such water conduits makes higher population concentration possible as water is a chief requirement for the sustenance of human beings. As evident from their placement, usually in the core areas of the valley, it can be concluded that they had a major significance for the rulers and the general population as well. The contemporary functions of water conduits, according to Pradhan (1990, p. 13) are: (1) a place for public bathing; (2) areas for laundry; (3) place for religious functions; (4) place for ritual worship; and (5) medicinal purposes. Similarly, Ritterspach (1995, p. 8) further adds that the major purpose of the water conduits is for: (1) washing

the face and body; (2) drinking and household purposes; (3) for healing purposes; (4) for the purification and worship of images; (5) washing of laundry; and (6) professional washing of laundry (by the Dhobi caste). These functions make it clear that water conduits were an important part of daily lives as they were embedded in the heart of the communities.

By giving the example of igloo construction, Hosey attempts to connect sustainability with people who respect their land and accumulate the wisdom for many generations. Water conduits can be considered as continuation of respect to the original topography maintained by the inhabitants for many centuries because of two important reasons: (1) they were constructed on a source below the water sources so that water could pass from the same source to different water conduits and (2) the example of a religious belief that the guardian snake and other small organisms living hidden around the system should be respected and protected. Although the overall discussion of Nepal’s traditional towns is beyond the scope of this paper, it is at least argued here that the Manga hiti is suited perfectly to the context of Patan Durbar Square within which it is located (see figure 1). Even though Manga hiti probably was the first structure to be constructed in the palace complex, future rulers probably built other buildings with reference to this building system.

Figure 1 shows that there are two fine examples which prove this point: (1) the axis of the buildings adjacent to Manga hiti is built respecting its axis; and (2) the Bishwonath temple directly in front of Manga hiti’s entryway has been built following the hiti’s north-south axis. It is also said that (reference missing) the temple represents a pilgrimage whereas the Manga hiti is considered

the sacred water source (since the Patan area does not have rivers located adjacently).

Figure 6 A Dhungedhara being used to fetch water (sc. Wikipedia).

Figure 7 Manga Hiti during monsoon (sc. SPACES Magazine (http://webimap.org/profile-detail/81/Manga-Hiti/)).

Water conduits and their connection with nature Benyus (cited in Kellert et al., 2011) in the article “A Good Place to Settle”, has tried to define “Biomimicry” as the act of learning from nature and burrowing design strategies from it. Biomimicry is a way to get connected with nature and copying nature’s processes into design. Water conduits do have a representation of Biomimicry (Biomorphism) incorporated into them, although it is not sure if the attempt was deliberate. The best example is seen in the design of the spout or hitimanga. The basic feature of a traditional water conduit is a long cantilevering stone spout bearing the form of the mythological creature makara or hitimanga (Ritterspach, 1995, p. 7).

As evident in most of the dhungedharas, the statue or symbol of the deity Bhagirath can be seen underneath supporting the conduit. According to the Hindu mythology, Bhagirath is the man responsible for bringing down Ganga from heaven to earth with great meditation (ibid, p. 12). Similarly, Tiwari (2009, p. 71) confirms that makara, the mythical sea animal like crocodile provides for the fall of the holy Ganga water making it pure for ritual purposes as well. Thus these descriptions make the general appearance of water conduits clear as they relate with Hindu mythology and nature’s creations. Although it is evident that the crocodile appears to be based on mythology, it is a reference taken from nature, and so some relations can be made with biomorphism. Had there been an artificial element instead of a makara, the design might not have looked as elegant.

Benyus (cited in Kellert, et al., 2011) discusses about techniques similar to constructed wetlands

built by mimicking ‘local marshes’ and using organisms that help clean water. Such ideas are being used effectively in many parts of the world although this is not a new concept and were mastered previously since ancient times to clean the water. Relating this concept with a watershed, water conduits provide required water (run-off ) to the water table below, which current system of intervention following concrete pavements and grassy pockets cannot maintain.

Similarly, Kieran (ibid) also discusses about a biophilic school design, named Sidwell Friends Middle School. He argues that aesthetics is really important to sustainable design whereas designs that do not consider aesthetic integration can’t be sustainable. The author’s discussion on the design of the school reveals that it has adopted rainwater harvesting and waste water processing technology, similar to the traditional water conduit system.

The rainwater overflow would spill into pond and rain gardens and into the constructed wasteland; representing an integral landscape. Although a traditional water conduit system does not contain plants and vegetation, they do represent a strong association with nature and the eco-system.

For example, the water system is so maintained that water gets purified on the way to the spout and the snakes and toads play a role in it as well.

Tiwari (2009, p. 72) contends that fish are raised in the shallow drainage to clean the moss, which would attract toads, which attracted snakes. This maintained a system whereby the drainage would be cleaned by fish, toads, and snakes.

According to Hosey, modern urban design often ignores or dismisses “natural settings”. This produces works of architecture which are neither aesthetically pleasing nor rooted in any context.

Water conduits, on the other hand, are rooted in a specific context, bearing responsibilities to natural and cultural factors. The author relates place-based forms with green architecture and approves that green architecture embraces a total environment combining natural and cultural values. The traditional architecture of water conduits also conveys “green architecture” in this regard.

Color has been a part of nature and architecture since the ancient times. There has been considerable discussion on color and its role in creating deep beauty through design. Hosey has been clever in bringing this into context, but as one thinks specifically about the colors present in the water conduit system, it can be imagined that they were deliberate attempts to bring nature into architecture. Hosey contends that context and culture can influence how we view color, so our preconceptions might play as big a role as direct perception, i.e. different color of clothes can mean different things in different cultures.

As we connect this statement with the building materials of the water conduit system, it reveals various facts. The major portion of the water conduit building system is traditional bricks that are reddish-brown in color and are brighter than the light gray colored natural stones accompanying them. The combination of polished and unpolished gray colored stones color are lighter, representing nature since they are presented in the raw form and are not “human-produced” like bricks. Natural stones are present in the floors of the hitigah and edge of the plinths. Similarly, the conduits are mostly painted in black or crafted in metal. There are instances of “sun-dhara” (golden-spout) built in Patan and Kathmandu, both of which become the major focus within the conduit building because of the brightness

Figure 8 Sundhara or Golden Spout at Nuga Tole, Patan (sc. http://www.everestuncensored.org/ arts-and-artifacts-sundhara-spouts/). and elegance of gold (figure 8). With reference to these examples, it can be argued that the water conduits represent beauty through color. This also supports Hosey’s statement that places would be in jeopardy of not having distinction for regional character and identity if the same color were used to respond to all of the contexts.

The working system of water conduits can also provide us with important insights regarding its relation with nature and the environment.

According to Ritterspach (1995, p. 24), there are two different water source systems which would have fed water to the conduits: (1) ground water

source and (2) pipe conduction or canal system.

The first system, mostly adopted for general use, refers to the construction of the spout near water sources on a level lower to that of the source.

The second system represents a more elaborate and technologically magnificent system in which water used to be carried from a distant source to the conduit via channels or canals. This canal system is refereed as Rajkulo (Royal-canal according to literal translation). Different instances of such Rajkulo system have been found where a canal brought water from a faraway reservoir (ibid). It would primarily serve irrigation but also fed the water conduits within the valley.

Similarly, Tiwari (2009, p. 72) contends that the system required a chain of conduit pits with pits on successively lower levels for to water flow through gravity. This means that the same source would provide water to many water conduits within the area, thus being sustainable. This system also required a well working filtration system before water reached the conduits. Following Ritterspach (1995, p. 24), filters arranged in Swastika17 pattern were constructed having gravel beds ranging from coarse to fine aggregates.

Tiwari (2009, p. 72) further clarifies that marvelous water proofing technology was also implemented through the application of a foot thick layer of ‘lake silt deposit of grey/black soil’. This water flow system of bringing water from source to the conduits and then using various systems to purify the water for everyday purposes of both noble and local citizens can be considered a truly advanced system which was used more than a millennium ago. The amazing aspect is that the system still lasts today and had it not been for encroachment, water flow would still be there from nearly all of the water conduits.

Coates’(2009) description of Kronsberg (Germany) from the article “The City as Garden: A Study of the Sustainable Urban District of Kronsberg (Hannover)” is important as he discusses about the success of the community in mimicking the natural hydrological system for management of rainwater, that can be related to the water conduit system. Creative use of water, as being portrayed in the examples of Kronsberg and Nepal, are often not thought of as one ‘talks’ about sustainability.

This makes it even more special and requires achieving beauty in sustainability. Like the water conduit system of Nepal, Kronsberg also makes such designs visible, and thus its aesthetic values

have been enhanced. Coates presents a contemporary analogy to this water system via study of Kronsberg, which also contains a bio swale park that provides a wonderful setting for rainwater retention.

The sacredness of the water conduits Two authors who specifically discuss architectural space designs and sacredness, and whose works can be related with the traditional water conduits system, are Harries and Bragdon. Harries (1997), in The Ethical Function of Architecture, contends that human beings should be the measure of all features in architecture (Harries, 1997, p. 180), and argues that traditional architecture took this into great consideration whereas modern-contemporary architecture does not consider these important aspects. The importance of making a connection between the inside and the outside has been discussed by Harries as well. The author further describes the concept of transitional/ liminal spaces in design with examples of ancient cavemen’s shelter. Based on Harries, it is agreeable that shelter has been about being inside in the midst of outside, but as architectural evolution has portrayed, architecture speaks of human’s struggle in simultaneously being inside nature while also being protected from it.

Figure 9 The ancient filtration system (sc. Ritterspach, Tiwari).

This idea can be related with Bragdon’s notion of trinity. Bragdon (1922) in The Beautiful Necessity explains that although works of art and architecture are generally seen as being dual in nature, they actually contain “trinity” in them (Bragdon, 1922, p. 43). The author explains this analogy of trinity with examples like twilight (that comes between day and night), earth (being the child of fire and water), etc. More specifically, the author

presents this nature of trinity as being visible clearly in architecture.

These discussions suit the architecture of water conduits because, it is an example of a building system which is neither covered, nor fails to present itself as an “inside”. In a way, it is tricky to understand because, water conduits are neither outside, nor give a definite shelter. Ritterspach (1995) defines water conduits as open air buildings made for the collection of water and for worship and ritual purposes. The conduits are generally located in a level below the ground level, which is constructed by excavating the soil. As such, the basic construction process is to construct a brick wall that holds the ground and locate spout in the central axis (Ritterspach, 1995, p. 27). Thus, water conduits are proper buildings but lack the concept of a proper shelter. Consequently, it can be argued that this controversial nature of the water conduit building system makes it more exciting, beautiful, and valuable at the same time.

Being a place of mandatory requirement of the people, i.e. water, the conduits can play an important role as a social center. Harries’ opinion about the importance of center is crucial as centers connect the people and its place into an integrated whole. The author states that neighborhoods and centers require an integrated center because centers can make the experience of place coherent and experientially more pleasing (1997, p. 199). He also describes that for a place to contain centers, a large number of people should be able to experience and feel it, as the space speaks of the values that the community has been built upon. Following these statements by Harries, we can imagine how water conduits are ideal centers since it has been fulfilling all these functions

within an urban fabric for many generations. This discussion is important to our discussion because it argues that water conduits have been a special center to bring the communities together since ages, and the protection and preservation of such sustainable assets is a must.

Bragdon claims that the number three is the ultimate number in architecture as beings represented via the three dimensions, the aesthetic appeal of a division into three, etc. Interestingly, the Manga hiti of Patan is a good example of how the number three has been used unselfconsciously in its design. It might be a coincidence or the builders were trying to emphasize the number “three”, but it is certain that the importance given to the recurring appearance of this number has been important to produce great architecture. In this regard, there are many examples evident at this water conduit: 1. Presence of three water spouts; 2. Use of only three important building materials- brick, mud or clay, and stone; and 3. The division of plan into three defined areasfirst, the exterior periphery which can be circumambulated and also contains the Mandap Pati along with the entryway; second, the middle area where plinths are located; and third, the innermost and most important area where the basin and water conduits are located.

The sacredness of the water conduit’s architectural features can be explained further in terms of its proportions. It is true that primitive man used himself as the dimensioning and proportioning system of his constructions, i.e. the interior space-buildings-communities-cities, whole were

proportionate to human figures. According to Bragdon, architectural beauty, like human beauty, depends upon the proper subordination of parts to the whole. It is astonishing, yet true that each part of the body is proportionately related to each other. Since the water conduits were constructed long before a standard measuring system was used in practice, it is obvious that an alternative system of measurement was used for its construction. The ancient builder probably used the traditional Nepalese measurement for linear unit, in terms of angul, meaning “finger”, which equals to three-quarters of an inch; “haat”, where one haat (or human hand) measurement equals to one and a half feet in length. According to Ritterspach, the Manga hiti system is 16.70 m by 16.00 m in external dimensions and the main conduit basin is 9.2 m by 8.55m. The wall which supports the water conduits is 5.36 m long and 1.53m high. Thus, the dimensions of the water conduits roughly become 36 haat by 35 haat externally, and 20 haat by 19 haat internally. The measurements are a clear indication that human proportions were used in the design of the water conduits, as like in other buildings since the basic unit of measurement was based on the unit of human hand.

Conclusion

The discussions on the beauty of the traditional water conduits system of the Kathmandu Valley have analyzed the building system in terms of the different perspective of aesthetics and sustainability. We understand from this discussion that water conduits are an eternal symbolism of beauty; a manifestation of true beauty through stone craft and artistry which uses local materials and represent local identity. It has given identity to places of the Kathmandu Valley with added social benefit of free and continuous water for all within

a well-designed social space. They play an important role in bringing religious harmony among community members. Its beauty was inspired by a marvelous technology of self-regenerating flow of water with proper drainage system; thus becoming an epitome of architectural perfection for the ages. Along this discussion, the deep beauty contained in the traditional water conduits has been identified by scrutinizing the features which make it sustainable as well.

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Notes 1. Reference to Kathmandu valley represents the three traditional towns of Kathmandu, Patan, and Bhaktapur 2. Literal translation of the Nepalese word dhungedhara would mean stone-tap 3. Literal translation of the Newari (the ancient tribe of the Kathmandu valley) word lon-hiti would mean stone-tap. The meaning of the much celebrated word Hi-Ti (hiti) will be discussed later in the paper.

4. Lichchhavi dynasty ruled Nepal from 5th century AD (?) to 8th century AD (?)

5. The ancient hiti of Patan which will be described in detail along the course of this paper.

6. Refers to a Hindu deity and associated religions 7. A traditional urban village of the Kathmandu valley 8. One of the first Lichchhavi kings 9. Jala-droni is a Sanskrit term meaning water-duct (conduit) 10. Malla dynasty ruled the Kathmandu valley from 12th century AD to 18th century AD and marks the most prosperous era, architecturally 11. Kirats were one of the first rulers of the Kathmandu Valley, preceding the Lichchhavis.

12. The Guthi Sansthan (trust) is a public organization but is not independent like the ward office. It will only be to work under public-private partnership. It owns lands donated in the past by the rich and the revenue generated from the land will help it carry differ-

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ent functions related with the community.

(Administrator, Guthi -Social System, - Last Updated Tuesday, 29 October 2013, http:// www.guthisansthan.org.np) The literal translation of Sanskrit word Makara is crocodile. It is the carrier vehicle of Ganga, the Goddess of water. As such, the mouth of conduit in general, represents the head of crocodile. (Pradhan, pp. 12) A pati is a traditional Newari rest-house, usually sheltered and public in character Jestha is the second month according to Hindu calendar Shrawan is the fourth month according to Hindu calendar A sacred and auspicious symbol in Hinduism and Buddhism