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INSTRUCTORS MANUAL INSTRUCTORS MANUAL

INTSTRUCTORS MANUAL for Anatomy & Physiology 1st Edition by Elizabeth Co

Anatomy & Physiology 1st Edition Elizabeth Co Chapter 1-28

Elizabeth Co, Anatomy and Physiology, First Edition 2023, Core ISBN 9780357802212; Chapter 1: The Art and Science of Learning in Anatomy and Physiology

Table of Contents Purpose and Perspective of the Chapter .................................................................................... 2 Key Terms ................................................................................................................................. 2 Chapter Outline .......................................................................................................................... 2 Discussion Questions................................................................................................................. 3 Additional Activities and Assignments ........................................................................................ 4 Additional Resources ................................................................................................................. 4 External Videos or Playlist ......................................................................................................................... 4 Internet Resources .................................................................................................................................... 4 Appendix .................................................................................................................................... 5 Generic Rubrics ......................................................................................................................................... 5 Standard Writing Rubric ............................................................................................................................ 5 Standard Discussion Rubric ....................................................................................................................... 5

Instructor Manual: Elizabeth Co, Anatomy and Physiology, First Edition 2023, Core ISBN 9780357802212; Chapter 1: The Art and Science of Learning in Anatomy and Physiology

Purpose and Perspective of the Chapter The purpose of this chapter is to introduce the student to methods and techniques that will help them understand the concepts related to anatomy and physiology. This chapter begins with a discussion centered around the science of learning and the stages of the learning process. Additionally, this chapter defines a learning objective and helps students to understand how learning objectives can help them to know what their instructor feels is important and wants them to know. This knowledge, along with the methods and techniques, will help students to devise a process to assist with honing their skills in preparing to give back information learned on differing types of assessments. Finally, this chapter teaches students how to read and transfer anatomical knowledge learned from viewing one image to various other images, as opposed to trying to memorize the original image. Similarly students are taught how to understand the images of physiological processes by first understanding the symbols used in the image and then incorporating that understanding into what they know about physiological processes. Each section of this chapter focuses on metacognitive approaches that students can use to be successful in this course.

Key Terms Log in to cengage.com as an instructor to download a list of key terms separated by chapter. The textbook and eBook include a detailed glossary, and the MindTap course has a glossary app. [return to top]

Chapter Outline I. The Science of Learning a. There is a science to learning and mastering content. Thinking critically and applying the information you learn is the aim of this process. b. There are three stages of learning: 1. Foreign 2. Familiar 3. Mastery c. During the foreign stage, a beginning learner is exposed to the information for the first time. In many cases, this occurs in a classroom setting. Through a variety of learning strategies, knowledge of the information or subject can be achieved. These strategies include story-telling, mnemonic devices, chunking, and retrieval practice. 1. Story-telling—creating stories to help remember information 2. Mnemonic devices —using a rhyme or song to remember information 3. Chunking—grouping items together 4. Retrieval practice—memory strengthening d. A learner can transition from the foreign stage to the familiar stage through repetitive exposure to the material. This can occur by: 1. Reading/rereading the notes 2. Copying the notes a second time 3. Watching and rewatching lectures 4. Reading and rereading the textbook 5. Using flashcards to memorize terminology e. The transition from familiarity to the mastery stage occurs through practice. This happens through teaching or explaining the material to someone else, drawing a structure or structures, writing an explanation of a concept, recreating a graph with

Instructor Manual: Elizabeth Co, Anatomy and Physiology, First Edition 2023, Core ISBN 9780357802212; Chapter 1: The Art and Science of Learning in Anatomy and Physiology

explanations, completing practice problems, or answering the question ―what happens if these components don’t work?”. II. Bloom’s Taxonomy of Cognitive Learning a. Bloom’s Taxonomy is an educational framework for evaluating the skills used in a question or task. It is based on the concept that different question types require different skills. Additionally, the skills build on one another. For example, you cannot apply information if you cannot remember it first. b. Bloom’s taxonomy levels begin with remembering information. Remembering can lead to higher levels, such as understanding and applying (see figure 1.03). III. Learning objectives a. Learning objectives (LOs) are goals assigned by an instructor that help students to understand what they are expected to know. They can also improve transparency between student and instructor. In this text, they are located at the beginning of each section and the end of each chapter. Students should be aware that an instructor may provide additional learning objectives. b. For details regarding the anatomy of a learning objective please see figure 1.04. IV. The Anatomy of Art a. Image transference in an anatomy and physiology course is valuable. Understanding anatomy and physiology requires visual learning. One example is recognizing threedimensional gross anatomy through diagrams, then applying this information to other visuals (x-rays and other medical imaging). b. To understand the gross anatomy diagrams, start with a point of reference and build from there. c. Histological images are used to understand microscopic anatomy. d. Diagrams are also helpful to understand physiological processes. The best approach is to start with understanding what the diagram is showing overall. From there, students should follow arrows or other symbols as they show progression through the process. [return to top]

Discussion Questions You can assign these questions in several ways: as a discussion forum in your LMS; as a whole-class discussion in person; or as a partner or group activity in class. 1. Discussion: How to learn. Duration 5–10 minutes. a. Question: What techniques or practices have helped you learn in the past? i. There’s no right or wrong answer to this question. The students should spend some time thinking and reflecting on techniques that have helped them learn in the past. Emphasize that if it has worked for them in the past, then they should try to continue those techniques in their anatomy and physiology course. 2. Discussion: Learning in anatomy and physiology. Duration 5–10 minutes. a. Question: What practices and techniques do you think work best for learning concepts in anatomy and physiology? i. Answer: There is no right or wrong answer. The goal is to get students to brainstorm different learning techniques that may benefit them during their anatomy and physiology course. If there is a technique or approach that they have not tried before, encourage them to attempt to use it if they think it sounds like it could be beneficial. You could also suggest techniques that have worked for you in your own academic pursuits.

Instructor Manual: Elizabeth Co, Anatomy and Physiology, First Edition 2023, Core ISBN 9780357802212; Chapter 1: The Art and Science of Learning in Anatomy and Physiology

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Additional Activities and Assignments 1. Using Bloom’s Taxonomy: This activity will allow students to gain a better understanding of Bloom’s taxonomy. a. Divide students into small groups and have them look over Bloom’s taxonomy. They should begin by defining the various levels. After defining each level, have the students suggest different verbs that relate to each level. These can be recorded for the students and displayed so that they can see their own suggestions. Have them compare their suggestions to common verbs that are listed in the following form. Adapt this activity for online use by using a discussion board. b. Bloom’s Taxonomy Action Verbs 2. Creating your own learning objectives: This activity will allow students to experience the anatomy of a learning objective. a. Students should think about an activity that they do every day. This could be something as simple as brushing their teeth or putting on clothes. Have the students list a few steps involved in accomplishing the task. Next, have them write learning objectives related to the steps of the task that they chose. Allow them to exchange their lists with other students. To adapt this to an online classroom, this activity could be turned into a group project, or a discussion board could be used. [return to top]

Additional Resources External Videos or Playlist 

Cengage A&P YouTube Playlist

Internet Resources   

What is Bloom’s Taxonomy? article How to write a learning objective article Learning styles article

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Instructor Manual: Elizabeth Co, Anatomy and Physiology, First Edition 2023, Core ISBN 9780357802212; Chapter 1: The Art and Science of Learning in Anatomy and Physiology

Appendix Generic Rubrics Providing students with rubrics helps them understand expectations and components of assignments. Rubrics help students become more aware of their learning process and progress, and they improve students’ work through timely and detailed feedback. Customize these rubric templates as you wish. The writing rubric indicates that the assignment is worth 40 points and the discussion rubric indicates that the assignment is worth 30 points.

Standard Writing Rubric Criteria Content

Research

The assignment is based upon appropriate and adequate academic literature, including peerreviewed journals and other scholarly work. 5 points

Needs Improvement The assignment partially addresses some or all questions in the assignment. 8 points The assignment presents ideas in a mostly clear manner and with a mostly strong organizational structure. The assignment includes an appropriate introduction, content, and conclusion. Coverage of facts, arguments, and conclusions are mostly logically related and consistent. 7 points The assignment is based upon adequate academic literature but does not include peer-reviewed journals and other scholarly work. 3 points

Citation

The assignment follows the required citation guidelines. 5 points The assignment has two or fewer grammatical and spelling errors. 5 points

The assignment follows some of the required citation guidelines. 3 points The assignment has three to five grammatical and spelling errors. 3 points

Organization and Clarity

Grammar and Spelling

Meets Requirements The assignment clearly and comprehensively addresses all questions in the assignment. 15 points The assignment presents ideas in a clear manner and with strong organizational structure. The assignment includes an appropriate introduction, content, and conclusion. Coverage of facts, arguments, and conclusions are logically related and consistent. 10 points

Incomplete The assignment does not address the questions in the assignment. 0 points The assignment does not present ideas in a clear manner and with strong organizational structure. The assignment includes an introduction, content, and conclusion, but coverage of facts, arguments, and conclusions are not logically related and consistent. 0 points The assignment is not based upon appropriate and adequate academic literature and does not include peer-reviewed journals and other scholarly work. 0 points The assignment does not follow the required citation guidelines. 0 points The assignment is incomplete or unintelligible. 0 points

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Standard Discussion Rubric Criteria Participation

Contribution Quality

Meets Requirements Submits or participates in the discussion by the posted deadlines. Follows all assignment instructions for initial post and responses. 5 points Comments stay on task.

Needs Improvement Does not participate or submit discussion by the posted deadlines. Does not follow instructions for the initial post and responses. 3 points Comments may not stay

Incomplete Does not participate in the discussion. 0 points

Does not participate in the

Instructor Manual: Elizabeth Co, Anatomy and Physiology, First Edition 2023, Core ISBN 9780357802212; Chapter 1: The Art and Science of Learning in Anatomy and Physiology

Comments add value to the discussion topic. Comments motivate other students to respond. 20 points

Etiquette

Maintains appropriate language. Offers criticism in a constructive manner. Provides both positive and negative feedback. 5 points

on task. Comments may not add value to discussion topic. Comments may not motivate other students to respond. 10 points Does not maintain appropriate language. Offers criticism in an offensive manner. Provides no positive feedback. 3 points

discussion. 0 points

Does not participate in the discussion. 0 points

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Table of Contents Purpose and Perspective of the Chapter Chapter Objectives Key Terms

Chapter Outline

Discussion Questions 13 Additional Activities and Assignments

Answers to Learning Check, Apply to Pathophysiology, and Chapter Review Questions 15 Additional Resources 22 External Videos ........................................................................................................................................ 22 Appendix

Generic Rubrics ....................................................................................................................................... 23 Standard Writing Rubric .......................................................................................................................... 23 Standard Discussion Rubric ..................................................................................................................... 23

Purpose and Perspective of the Chapter The purpose of this chapter is to provide students an introduction to the basic concepts of anatomy and physiology. First, we define anatomy and physiology. Next, we review basic themes related to anatomy and physiology. Highlighted among these themes are the levels of organization and homeostasis. Finally, we define the terminology used to discuss the anatomy of the human body.

Chapter Objectives The following objectives are addressed in this chapter: Learning Objectives, Section 2.1: 2.1.1 Define the terms anatomy and physiology. 2.1.2 Give specific examples to show the interrelationship between anatomy and physiology. Learning Objectives, Section 2.2: 2.2.1 Describe, compare, and contrast various structure-function relationships from molecular to organ level. 2.2.2 Relate the commonly found branching structure to function of an organ. Learning Objectives, Section 2.3: 2.3.1 Define the term and explain the concept of evolution. 2.3.2 Contrast the impact of selection on traits that affect reproduction and traits that do not; use this to explain examples of anatomical and physiological variation. Learning Objectives, Section 2.4: 2.4.1 Describe how a gradient determines flow between two regions, and give examples of gradients that exist in different levels of organization in the body. 2.4.2 Predict how changes in a gradient will affect flow rate. 2.4.3 Predict how differences in resistance will affect flow rate. Learning Objectives, Section 2.5: 2.5.1 Define the following terms as they relate to homeostasis: setpoint, variable, receptor (sensor), effector (target), and control (integrating) center. 2.5.2 Explain why negative feedback is the most common mechanism used to maintain homeostasis. 2.5.3 List the main physiological variables for which the body attempts to maintain homeostasis. 2.5.4 List the steps in a feedback mechanism (loop) and explain the function of each step. 2.5.5 Compare and contrast positive and negative feedback in terms of the relationship between stimulus and response, and describe examples of each. Learning Objectives, Section 2.6: 2.6.1 Describe, in order from simplest to most complex, the major levels of organization in the human organism. 2.6.2 Give an example of each level of organization. 2.6.3 List the organ systems of the human body and their major components. 2.6.4 Describe the major functions of each organ system. Learning Objectives, Section 2.7: 2.7.1 Describe the human body in anatomical position. 2.7.2 Describe how to use the terms right and left in anatomical reference. 2.7.3 List and define the major directional terms used in anatomy. 2.7.4 List and describe the location of the major anatomical regions of the body. 2.7.5 Describe the location of body structures, using appropriate directional terminology. 2.7.6 Identify and define the anatomic planes in which a body might be viewed.

2.7.7 2.7.8

Classify images based on the section or plane they were taken in. Identify and describe the location of the body cavities and the major organs found in each cavity. 2.7.9 Identify and describe the location of the four abdominopelvic quadrants and the nine abdominopelvic regions, and the major structures found in each. 2.7.10 Predict, based on location (quadrant, region) of symptoms or pain, what organ may be the issue. 2.7.11 Describe the structure, function, and location of serous membranes. Note: Most of the objectives in this course align with HAPS A&P Learning Outcomes. Log in to cengage.com with your instructor account to download a spreadsheet that correlates the objectives from this chapter to HAPS LOs.

Chapter Outline I. Overview of Anatomy and Physiology (2.1.1) a. Anatomy is the study of the body’s structure. i. Gross anatomy investigates large structures that are easily seen. ii. Microscopic anatomy investigates structures that require a microscope to be seen. 1. Examples include cytology (the study of cells) and histology (the study of tissues). b. Some anatomists investigate regional anatomy to discover relationships between structures in the same region, like the abdomen. Additionally, other anatomists may investigate systemic anatomy to understand how a group of structures work together to perform a bodily function. c. Physiology is the study of the body’s function. i. Physiology investigates how a structure works. ii. This may involve investigation of the chemistry and physics associated with that structure. iii. There are various categories of physiology. 1. These include neurophysiology that investigates how structures like the brain and spinal cord work. II. Themes of anatomy and physiology a. Structure and function of the body’s components are related. (2.2.1–2.2.2) i. The structure of a component will determine its function. ii. This is illustrated by the restructured pelvis of humans compared to the pelvis of primates. 1. The human pelvis is adapted to support walking on two feet compared to the primate pelvis supporting walking on four feet. iii. Organs with branching structure aid in processes like absorption of nutrients and movement of gases. b. Evolution is a change in genetic expression. (2.3.1–2.3.2)

i. Changes that offered an advantage in a specific environment became more common over time. Evolution has also led to human variation over time. Physiological variation is more commonly, but anatomical variation also exists. c. Flow is the movement of materials and requires a gradient. (2.4.1–2.4.2) i. Examples of gradients include electrical, chemical, and pressure gradients. ii. Flow is directly proportional to the size of the gradient causing it. iii. Flow is inversely proportional to the resistance that is opposing flow. d. Homeostasis allows the body to maintain a stable internal environment despite constant changes. (2.5.1–2.5.5) i. Several parameters within the human body must be maintained. 1. These include oxygen levels, pH, nutrient availability, electrolyte levels and temperature. ii. Homeostasis is maintained primarily by feedback loops. 1. In a negative feedback loop (the most common type), the body responds to a stimulus by decreasing or opposing the original stimulus. 2. In a positive feedback loop, the body responds by increasing or enhancing the original stimulus. e. Structural Organization of the Human Body (2.6.1–2.6.2) i. The human body is organized so that smaller components are assembled into larger structures. ii. The levels of organization of the human body from, the simplest to the most complex, are: 1. The chemical level—consists of atoms and molecules that are used as building blocks for larger structures. 2. The cellular level—where life begins. Cells are composed of organelles that allow the cells to perform functions necessary for life. 3. The tissue level—consists of groups of cells (tissues) that work together to perform a specific function. 4. The organ level—composed of two or more tissue types that perform a specific function. 5. The organ system level—consists of a group of organs that work together to perform a major function. 6. The organism level—a living being with organ systems that work to maintain the life and health of the organism. iii. There are 11 organ systems in the human body. (2.6.3) 1. The Integumentary system—consists of hair, skin, and nails. It creates a protective barrier for the body and allows for sensory reception. 2. The skeletal system—consists of bones, cartilage, and joints. It supports and protects the body. 3. The muscular system—composed of the skeletal muscles and tendons. This system allows for the movement of the body and also aids in temperature regulation. 4. The nervous system—consists of the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves. The nervous system aids in maintaining homeostasis and connects the brain to every part of the body. 5. The endocrine system—consists of pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, adrenal glands, pancreas, testes, ovaries, and other endocrine tissues. It secretes hormones that regulate bodily activities. 6. The cardiovascular system—consists of the heart, blood, and blood vessels. It is responsible for delivering oxygen and nutrients to tissues and aiding in temperature regulation.

7. The lymphatic system—returns fluid to the blood and defends the body against infection. The components of the lymphatic system include the thymus, lymph nodes, spleen, and lymphatic vessels. 8. The respiratory system—removes carbon dioxide from the body and delivers oxygen to the tissues. The components of the respiratory system include the lungs, trachea, and nose. 9. The digestive system—processes food for use by the body and removes undigested waste. The components of the digestive system include the stomach, liver, gallbladder, large intestine, and small intestine. 10. The urinary system—controls water balance in the body and removes wastes from the body through urine formation. The components of the urinary system include the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra. 11. The reproductive system—produces sex hormones and gametes. Components of the reproductive system include the testes, ovaries, uterus, and mammary glands. III. Anatomical Terminology a. Anatomical Position (2.7.1) i. A body in anatomical position is standing upright with the feet shoulder width apart and facing forward. The head is facing forward also. The arms should be at the side with the palms facing forward as well. b. Regional Terms (2.7.5) i. Regional terms describe different areas of the body. Please review Figure 2.11 for these terms and the locations that they refer to. c. Directional Terms are used to relate different areas of the body to one another. (2.7.2) i. Superior—a position higher than another point ii. Inferior—a position lower than another point iii. Anterior—the front (belly) surface of the body iv. Posterior—the back of the body v. Medial—a position or direction toward the middle of the body vi. Lateral—a position or direction that is toward the side of the body vii. Superficial—a position that is closer to the surface of the body viii. Deep—a position that is further away from the surface of the body. ix. Proximal—a position that is closer to the point of attachment of a limb x. Distal—a position that is further away from the point of attachment of a limb d. Sections and Planes (2.7.3) i. A plane is an imaginary slice used to divide the body. 1. Sagittal planes divide the body into left and right sections. 2. Frontal planes divide the body into anterior and posterior sections. 3. Transverse planes divide the body into superior and inferior sections. e. Organization and Compartmentalization (2.7.4–2.7.5) i. Subdivisions of the Posterior and Anterior Cavities 1. The internal spaces of the body are called cavities. 2. There are 2 major body cavities. a. Posterior body contains the cranial cavity and vertebral cavity. i. The cranial cavity houses the brain and the vertebral cavity houses the spinal cord. b. The anterior body cavity can be divided into the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities. i. The thoracic cavity is subdivided into the mediastinum and pleural cavities. ii. The mediastinum contains the trachea and esophagus.

iii. The heart is within the pericardial cavity that is located within the mediastinum. iv. The pleural cavities are lateral to the mediastinum and contain the lungs. c. The abdominopelvic cavity can be subdivided into the abdominal cavity and the pelvic cavity. i. The abdominal cavity contains the liver, gallbladder, spleen, stomach, and the majority of the small and large intestine. ii. The pelvic cavity contains the internal organs of reproduction, such as the ovaries and testes, and the urinary bladder. ii. Anatomists divide the abdominal cavity into several abdominal regions or quadrants for use clinically. (2.7.6) 1. Abdominal Regions a. Right and left hypochondriac b. Right and left lumbar c. Right and left Iliac d. Epigastric e. Umbilical f. Hypogastric 2. Abdominal Quadrants a. Right Upper Quadrant (RUQ) b. Left Upper Quadrant (LUQ) c. Right Lower Quadrant (RLQ) d. Left Lower Quadrant (LLQ) 3. Please review Figure 2.15 for visual representation of the abdominal regions, abdominal quadrants, and the organs located in them. iii. Membranes of the Anterior Body Cavity (2.7.10) 1. Serous membranes cover many of the organs located within the anterior body cavity. 2. Serous membranes reduce the friction that occurs as internal organs move and helps prolong the longevity of the organs. a. Serous membranes are composed of two layers. i. The parietal layer lines the wall of the cavity. ii. The visceral layer sits directly on top of the organ. iii. The space in between the two layers is called a cavity and contains the serous fluid that reduces the rubbing. 3. Examples of serous membranes are the pleural membranes around the lungs, the pericardium around the heart, and the peritoneum that surrounds many organs of the abdominal cavity. IV. Medical Imaging (Digging Deeper) a. Medical imaging techniques are used clinically to give a view of internal anatomy to aid in the diagnosis of diseases and disorders. b. X-rays use high-energy radiation to penetrate solids and are best used to visualize solids structures like bone and teeth. c. Computed Tomography (CT) utilizes computers to analyze a series of X-rays taken through a cross-section of the body. A CT gives greater detail compared to a standalone X-ray. The use of radiation has to be considered when performing X-rays or CT due to risk of cellular damage. d. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) uses magnetic fields and radio waves to provide very precise imaging of soft tissues. It is used in the discovery of tumors, but is more expensive than X-rays or CT.

e. Positron Emission Tomography (PET) uses radioactive dyes to visualize metabolic activity. PET can be helpful in investigating blood flow, heart disease, and the spread of cancer. f. Ultrasonography uses sound waves to visualize internal anatomy. Sound waves pose less risk to the body. For this reason, ultrasonography is used in sensitive situations such as pregnancy. [return to top]

Discussion Questions You can assign these questions several ways: in a discussion forum in your LMS; as wholeclass discussions in person; or as a partner or group activity in class. 1. The human body as a machine. (Attention getter) a. Imagine being one of the fastest sprinters in the world running a 100-meter race. Can you describe the processes involved in allowing the human body to move that quickly? i. Answer: Responses may include statements such as, ―the legs move really quickly‖ or ―pumping of the arms.‖ ii. Using these statements, discuss how the human body is a complex organization of multiple systems that allow for daily activities such as running to be accomplished. The concept of organ systems and the levels of organization can be introduced here. 2. Why study anatomy and physiology? (2.1.1) Duration: 5–10 minutes. a. What are three reasons to study anatomy? What are three reasons to study physiology? i. Answer: Students should think about what can be done using knowledge of anatomy and physiology. Examples of reasons include to aid in the diagnosing of diseases, to understand movement of the body occurs, to improve physical performance in athletes, to cure diseases, to improve medical care, and to aid in development of medical equipment. 3. Different categories of Anatomy and Physiology (2.1.1) Duration: 5–10 minutes. a. What are some organs of the human body? What category of anatomy or physiology do you think that organ belongs to? i. Answer: The students should state some of the common organs of the human body in response to this question. Using the organs nominated by the class, they should then try to answer with the appropriate category of anatomy or physiology related to that organ. For example, if the students state ―heart‖ as an organ, then cardiovascular anatomy or physiology would be an appropriate response. 4. Homeostatic mechanisms of everyday life. (2.5.1) Duration: 5–10 minutes. a. Students should understand the concepts relating to maintaining homeostasis in the human body. Additionally, they should understand the concepts relating to feedback loops such as setpoint, sensor, control center and effector. b. What are some homeostatic mechanisms that occur in your everyday life? i. Answer: Negative feedback loops are the most significant method of homeostatic control. This form of control opposes the original stimulus. Students should consider the sensor, control center, and effector concepts related to negative feedback loops. Responses from everyday life may include a thermostat that monitors temperature within a house and then can use the HVAC system to adjust the temperature as

necessary. The students should then explain how the components of the HVAC system are analogous to the components of the feedback loop. 5. Evolutionary changes and their advantages. (2.3.1) Duration: 5–10 minutes. a. Can you identify any evolutionary changes that would provide advantages for human beings? If so, what type of environment would the change be an advantage in? i. Answer: Evolutionary changes include increased body hair, increased melanin production, and the ability to sweat. Increased amounts of body hair would offer an advantage in cold weather environments because it would allow humans to better preserve body heat. Increased melanin production would be an advantage in sunny environments where the levels of ultraviolet radiation are higher. Sweating would offer an advantage in environments with higher temperatures because sweating would cool the body. [return to top]

Additional Activities and Assignments 3. Investigating Medical Imaging: This activity covers objectives 2.1.1, 2.6.4, and Digging Deeper. Students attempt to identify organs shown via a variety of imaging techniques. a. Display samples to the class of the results of different medical imaging techniques to the class. This can be done by showing images of X-rays, MRIs, or CTs to the class that may be obtained from a local healthcare facility if possible. Images can also be sourced online. b. Initially, have the students attempt to identify the type of medical imaging technique that was used. Then, allow the students to attempt to determine the area of the body they are looking at and walk them through the identification of specific organs. Finally, have the students identify the organ system that the identified organ belongs to. 4. Utilizing Directional Terms: This activity gives students the opportunity to utilize directional terms to correctly relate parts of the body they already know. This activity covers objective 2.7.9. a. Ask students to nominate different parts of the body while in class. Display the list to students on a screen, write down the list for the entire class to see, or use a white board. Have at least ten body parts to choose from. Choose two body parts at a time and have the class state the directional term that gives the correct relationship between the two body parts. For example, if you choose head and foot, the correct directional term would be superior. 5. Utilizing Anatomical Terms: This activity allows students to get practice correctly using anatomical terms. This activity covers objective 2.7.8. a. This activity can be used as a game to allow groups of students to compete against one another. While in front of the class, you can point to an anatomical location and let a group of students work together to determine the correct anatomical term that relates to that area. For an online course, a diagram of the body can be used instead. b. Additionally, anatomical terms can be given to the student groups, and then they must point out what location the anatomical term refers to. 6. Disruptions in Homeostasis: This activity asks students to investigate how a failure of an organ system may disrupt homeostasis. This activity covers objectives 2.5.1 and 2.5.2.

a. This activity requires students to brainstorm the consequences of disruptions in function of an organ system. For an online class, you can assign a discussion board to allow students to discuss their responses. b. The students should have knowledge of the organ systems of the human body and their components. You describe or list an organ that fails to properly function. Next, allow the students to describe the consequence(s) of the failure they are given and how they might try to reverse the damage. The aim is for the students to understand how each system performs a critical function and how all organ systems help maintain homeostasis. 7. Understanding Anatomical Terms: This activity asks students to investigate Latin and Greek word roots to better understand anatomical terms. This activity covers objectives 2.7.5 and 2.7.8. a. This activity requires outside research by students. Provide a list of anatomical terms from Figure 2.11. Students can use online resources to discover the meaning of the Latin and Greek word roots that were used to create the anatomical terms that they are learning. This activity could be adapted for an online course by developing it into a matching activity in a learning management system (LMS). 8. Abdominal Regions and Quadrants: This activity allows students to practice identifying abdominal regions and quadrants. This activity covers objective 2.7.6. a. Students should use Sporcle quizzes to identify and label abdominopelvic regions and quadrants. The images in the quizzes resemble those found in the text. Students will get practice using a fill-in-the-blank quiz to reinforce spelling of terms. This activity can be used individually or for in-class participation. i. Sporcle abdominopelvic regions and quadrants quiz 9. [MT Case Study Collaborative Activity]: [This activity ties to the MindTap Case Study for Chapter 2]. a. This case study discusses injuries sustained in a fall from a bike. The main emphasis is on using correct anatomical terminology to describe and locate the various injuries. For this activity, divide students into small groups. To adapt this activity to an online classroom, use breakout rooms in your online meeting software or discussion boards in your learning management system. Begin by having each group practice utilizing anatomical terminology on other group members. The group members can randomly ask others to identify an anatomical region. Also, have each group practice the identification of the abdominal quadrants and regions as well. Allow group members to identify the internal organs located in those abdominal areas as they identify the regions and quadrants. [return to top]

Answers to Learning Check, Apply to Pathophysiology, and Chapter Review Questions Learning Check Questions, Section 2.3: 1. a. Regional anatomy Bloom’s level: Understand Rationale: Regional anatomy is the study of structures in a specific region. Because Barbra is studying the structures in the pelvic girdle region, she is studying regional anatomy. 2. b. False © 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible

Bloom’s level: Understand Rationale: Shape determines function. The shape of the protein will determine the function of the protein. Function also determines shape, such as the function of the hips, which had to evolve as we progressed to bipedalism. Due to our bipedalism, our pelvis has evolved to the shape it is now to accommodate the stresses put on them by the abdomen. 3. b. Physiological variables Bloom’s level: Remember Rationale: Physiological variations are more diverse and differ between specific populations, such as between sexes and among age groups. Anatomical variations are different from individual to individual but do not differ between specific groups such as children and adults or among people in different areas of the world.

Apply to Pathophysiology Questions, Section 2.5: Type 1 Diabetes: 1. b. Insulin Bloom’s level: Understand Rationale: When a patient’s blood glucose is too high, it is often due to a problem with insulin production or the body’s ability to respond to insulin. Insulin is the hormone that promotes glucose uptake into many body cells; this provides a nutrient source for the cells and removes glucose from the blood. 2. b. Blood glucose levels would sink too low. Bloom’s level: Apply Rationale: An excess level of insulin in the blood would transport too much glucose from the blood into the body cells. This would result in an abnormally low blood glucose level. 3. d. Pancreas Bloom’s level: Remember Rationale: The pancreas is the organ that produces the hormone insulin. 4. b. Physiological Bloom’s level: Understand Rationale: Physiological variables are variables for which homeostatic ranges are maintained by the body. They tend to differ among populations, such as biological sex and age. Anatomical variations are individual differences in anatomical structures, such as the number of vertebrae or pulmonary veins. In this case, the problem lies in the functioning of the pancreas, not in the anatomy.

Learning Check Questions, Section 2.6: 1. c. To intensify body parameters until there is an interruption Bloom’s level: Remember Rationale: The positive feedback mechanism intensifies until there is an interruption. The negative feedback mechanism tries to restore homeostasis. 2. b. Sensor Bloom’s level: Remember Rationale: Sensors detect change in homeostasis and communicate with the control center to initiate a response from the effector to bring the condition back to its set point. 3. c. Urinary system Bloom’s level: Understand Rationale: The urinary system removes wastes from the blood and excretes them. The digestive system removes wastes from undigested food. The circulatory system delivers oxygen and nutrients to tissues. The reproductive system produces sex hormones and gametes.

Learning Check Questions, Section 2.7c: 1. a. Prone Bloom’s level: Remember Rationale: Prone is the term used to describe a face-down orientation; the term supine describes a face-up orientation. 2. d. Antebrachium Bloom’s level: Understand Rationale: Another name for the forearm is the antebrachium. Brachium is the term for your upper arm. Femur describes your upper leg while crus describes your lower leg. 3. a. Superior Bloom’s level: Understand Rationale: The neck and knees are not part of one limb; therefore, you would only use the terms superior or inferior. In this case, you would you use superior to describe the neck being above the knees. 4. b. Inferior d. Distal Bloom’s level: Understand Rationale: The wrist and elbow are on the same limb, the arm. Therefore, you would commonly use the terms proximal and distal. In this case, you would use the term distal because the wrist is further along the limb than the elbow. In anatomical position, the wrist happens to be below the elbow, so you would also use inferior to describe the placement.

Learning Check Questions, Section 2.7d: 1. a. Frontal Bloom’s level: Analyze Rationale: Because the X-ray is looking at the hand from the front, this is in the frontal plane. 2. b. Transverse Bloom’s level: Analyze Rationale: Because the CT scan of the brain is looking at the brain from the top down, this is the transverse plane. 3. b. Sagittal Bloom’s level: Analyze Rationale: The MRI scans on the bottom row of the picture on the right shows the abdomen from the side. The side view is known as the sagittal view. 4. a. Frontal Bloom’s level: Analyze Rationale: The MRI scan on the top row, right image, shows the abdomen from the front. The front view is known as the frontal view. 5. b. Sagittal Bloom’s level: Analyze Rationale: The two MRI scans in the bottom row are side views and the images were made in the sagittal plane.

Learning Check Questions, Section 2.7e: 1. a. Abdominopelvic cavity c. Thoracic cavity Bloom’s level: Understand Rationale: The only two cavities in the dorsal body cavity are the cranial cavity and the vertebral cavity. The rest, the abdominopelvic and thoracic cavities, are in the ventral

body cavity. 2. a. Abdominopelvic cavity Bloom’s level: Understand Rationale: All digestive organs are encompassed within the abdominopelvic cavity. 3. c. Peritoneum Bloom’s level: Remember Rationale: The peritoneum surrounds several organs in the abdominopelvic cavity. The pleura surrounds the lungs and the pericardium surrounds the heart.

Chapter Review Questions, Section 2.1: 1. a. Scientific study of the location of the body’s structures Bloom’s level: Remember Rationale: Anatomy is the study of the body’s structures and their locations, while physiology is the study of how the body’s structures function. The study of cells and tissues both contribute to the study of anatomy. Learning Objective: 2.1.1 2. b. Anatomy describes the double-layered form of serous membranes, while physiology describes how the serous fluid produced by the cells of the membrane provides lubrication. Bloom's level: Apply Rationale: Anatomy is the study of structure, while physiology is the study of function and interaction. The double-layered structure of serous membranes is a part of anatomical study, while the lubrication by serous fluid is part of physiological study. Learning Objective: 2.1.2

Chapter Review Questions, Section 2.2: 1. a. Their muscles will get bigger.

Bloom’s level: Apply Rationale: As Micah’s muscles get used to the high demand, the muscles will adapt to the functional task of lifting heavy boxes and get bigger and stronger. Learning Objective: 2.2.1 2. a. Branching increases the surface area over which the heart can receive blood. Bloom’s level: Apply Rationale: Branching structures increase the surface area. Because the coronary arteries are branching arteries, they can provide blood to the different regions of the heart. Learning Objective: 2.2.2

Chapter Review Questions, Section 2.3: 1. c. Evolution Bloom’s level: Remember Rationale: The definition of the term evolution is the change in gene expression that occurs from generation to generation and does not occur within one’s lifetime but across lifetimes of generations. Learning Objective: 2.3.1 2. d. Having long hair on their head to conserve body heat Bloom’s level: Apply Rationale: For people to survive in a hot, sunny, and arid environment, they need to have traits that give them an advantage in that environment. In a hot environment, it is advantageous to sweat to release body heat. In a sunny environment, it is advantageous to have more melanin to protect from UV radiation. In an arid environment, it is advantageous to have an organ to store water for when the body needs it. In a hot environment, being able to conserve heat is actually © 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible

disadvantageous because the body can overheat. Learning Objective: 2.3.2

End of Chapter Questions, Section 2.4: 1. b. Concentration gradient Bloom’s level: Apply Rationale: Chlorine and sodium are individual molecules. Concentration gradients are responsible for driving the flow of individual molecules. Learning Objective: 2.4.1

Chapter Review Questions, Section 2.4 (Mini Case 1: Flow Rate): 1. a. The flow rate increases. Bloom’s level: Apply Rationale: The term rate of flow is defined as the product of the size of the gradient divided by the resistance. When the heart contracts, there is an increase in pressure, thereby increasing the size of the gradient and therefore increasing the rate of the flow of blood. Learning Objective: 2.4.2 2. b. The flow rate decreases. Bloom’s level: Apply Rationale: The rate of flow is defined as the product of the size of the gradient divided by the resistance. The plaque buildup decreases the diameter, which will increase the resistance. If the resistance increases, the rate of flow decreases because the rate of flow is opposed by the resistance. Learning Objective: 2.4.3

Chapter Review Questions, Section 2.5: 1. b. If the level of a variable is too far away from its setpoint, a sensor will communicate with the control center, which will communicate with the effector to regain homeostasis. Bloom’s level: Analyze Rationale: The homeostasis of a variable is regulated by a sensor. If the sensor detects a change too far from the set point, it will communicate with the control center. There, the control center will communicate with the effector to regain homeostasis. Learning Objective: 2.5.1 2. a. The negative feedback mechanism will regain homeostasis to sustain the functions of life. Bloom’s level: Apply Rationale: If the pH levels are too high or low, the negative feedback mechanism will regain homeostasis to sustain the functions of life. Learning Objective: 2.5.2 3. c. Heart rate Bloom’s level: Remember Rationale: The heart changes its heart rate based on the oxygen demand of the body, which means that the heart rate is an effector. When exercising, your body increases its demand on oxygen. This increased demand increases the heart rate. Learning Objective: 2.5.3 4. b. Send a signal that will reverse a change Bloom’s level: Understand Rationale: In a negative feedback mechanism, the sensor will detect a change and send a signal to the effector. The effectors will do something to reverse the change to inhibit the sensor, returning to homeostasis. Learning Objective: 2.5.4

5. b. To intensify a change Bloom’s level: Understand Rationale: The positive feedback mechanism intensifies the change until the stimulus stops, making it move further away from the set point or homeostasis. Learning Objective: 2.5.5

Chapter Review Questions, Section 2.6: 1. c. Organelle < cells < tissue < organ < organ system < organism Bloom’s level: Understand Rationale: The organelles are tiny functioning units encased in a membrane to make up a cell. Groups of cells make up a tissue. Two or more tissue types make up an organ. A group of organs make up an organ system. An organism is the highest level of organization that can perform all physiological functions necessary for life. Learning Objective: 2.6.1 2. b. Cell Bloom’s level: Understand Rationale: The smooth muscle cell is a cell that is within smooth muscle tissues. Learning Objective: 2.6.2 3. b. Muscular system—skeletal muscles c. Endocrine system—adrenal gland Bloom’s level: Remember Rationale: The muscular system has two major components: the skeletal muscles and the tendons. The endocrine system has five major components: the adrenal gland, the pancreas, the thyroid gland, the pituitary gland, and the testes/ovaries (depending on the sex). Learning Objective: 2.6.3 4. b. Delivery of oxygen to blood Bloom’s level: Apply Rationale: The lungs are part of the respiratory system. A function of the respiratory system is delivering oxygen to the blood. The circulatory system delivers oxygen and nutrients to tissues. Learning Objective: 2.6.4

Chapter Review Questions, Section 2.7: 1. a. Thumbs out to the side c. Toes pointing forward Bloom’s level: Remember Rationale: In anatomical position, all of the limbs are straight and no bones are crossing each other. The thumb out to the side prevents the forearm bones from overlapping. The position of toes pointing forward prevents ankle joints from overlapping. Anatomical position is also standing upright. Learning Objective: 2.7.1 2. b. Patient’s Bloom’s level: Apply Rationale: Lefts and rights are always in reference to the patient, not the observer! Learning Objective: 2.7.2 3. a. Superior Bloom’s level: Analyze Rationale: In this picture, the knees are above the shoulders; therefore, you would describe them as being superior to the shoulders. Because they are not on the same limb, you would not use the terms proximal or distal.

Learning Objective: 2.7.3 4. d. Popliteal Bloom's level: Remember Rationale: The popliteal region is found on the posterior surface of the knee. The patellar region is found on the anterior surface of the knee. The inguinal region is in the groin, and the femoral region is found in the thigh. Learning Objective: 2.7.4 5. a. Superior d. Distal Bloom’s level: Analyze Rationale: The right arm is the one that is overhead. Remember, left and right is from the person’s perspective, not the observer’s! The right wrist is above the right elbow, therefore the wrist is superior. The wrist is still further along the limb, so it is still distal compared to the elbow. Learning Objective: 2.7.5 6. b. Coronal Bloom's level: Understand Rationale: A cut into anterior and posterior halves is a cut along the coronal plane. A cut into left and right halves is a cut along the sagittal plane. A cut into superior and inferior halves is a cut along the transverse or horizontal plane. Learning Objective: 2.7.6 7. a. Sagittal Bloom’s level: Analyze Rationale: In this X-ray, you are looking at their bone from the side, so this is the sagittal plane. Learning Objective: 2.7.7 8. a. Lungs b. Heart c. Mediastinum Bloom’s level: Remember Rationale: The thoracic cavity houses the lungs and the heart, which is encompassed in its own region known as the mediastinum. Learning Objective: 2.7.8 9. c. Hypogastric Bloom’s level: Remember Rationale: The hypogastric region is inferior to the navel. The epigastric region is superior to the navel. The iliac regions are lateral to the hypogastric region, and the hypochondriac regions are lateral to the epigastric region. Learning Objective: 2.7.9 10. a. Spleen Bloom's level: Apply Rationale: The spleen is located in the left upper quadrant of the abdominopelvic cavity. The liver and gallbladder are found in the right upper quadrant, and the appendix is found in the right lower quadrant. Learning Objective: 2.7.10 11. a. The parietal layer covers the surfaces of organs. Bloom's level: Understand Rationale: Serous membranes surround the organs of the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities. They are double-layered and composed of visceral and parietal layers. Their cells secrete a watery fluid to lubricate the outer surfaces of organs. The parietal layer lines the inner wall of the body cavity and the visceral layer covers the organs.

Learning Objective: 2.7.11 [return to top]

Additional Resources External Videos    

Cengage A&P YouTube Playlist Flashcard Stash Anatomical, Directional, and Regional Terms Matching Game Sporcle Directional Terms Quiz Sporcle Organs System Functions Matching Quiz

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Appendix Generic Rubrics Providing students with rubrics helps them understand expectations and components of assignments. Rubrics help students become more aware of their learning process and progress, and they improve students’ work through timely and detailed feedback. Customize these rubric templates as you wish. The writing rubric indicates 40 points and the discussion rubric indicates 30 points.

Standard Writing Rubric Criteria Content

Research

The assignment is based upon appropriate and adequate academic literature, including peer reviewed journals and other scholarly work. 5 points

Needs Improvement The assignment partially addresses some or all questions in the assignment. 8 points The assignment presents ideas in a mostly clear manner and with a mostly strong organizational structure. The assignment includes an appropriate introduction, content, and conclusion. Coverage of facts, arguments, and conclusions are mostly logically related and consistent. 7 points The assignment is based upon adequate academic literature but does not include peer reviewed journals and other scholarly work. 3 points

Citation

The assignment follows the required citation guidelines. 5 points The assignment has two or fewer grammatical and spelling errors. 5 points

The assignment follows some of the required citation guidelines. 3 points The assignment has three to five grammatical and spelling errors. 3 points

Organization and Clarity

Grammar and Spelling

Incomplete The assignment does not address the questions in the assignment. 0 points The assignment does not present ideas in a clear manner and with strong organizational structure. The assignment includes an introduction, content, and conclusion, but coverage of facts, arguments, and conclusions are not logically related and consistent. 0 points The assignment is not based upon appropriate and adequate academic literature and does not include peer reviewed journals and other scholarly work. 0 points The assignment does not follow the required citation guidelines. 0 points The assignment is incomplete or unintelligible. 0 points

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Standard Discussion Rubric Criteria Participation

Contribution Quality

Meets Requirements Submits or participates in discussion by the posted deadlines. Follows all assignment. instructions for initial post and responses. 5 points Comments stay on task.

Needs Improvement Does not participate or submit discussion by the posted deadlines. Does not follow instructions for initial post and responses. 3 points

Incomplete Does not participate in discussion. 0 points

Comments may not stay

Does not participate in

Instructor Manual: Elizabeth Co, Anatomy and Physiology, First Edition 2023, Core ISBN 9780357802212; Chapter 3: The Chemical Level of Organization

Comments add value to discussion topic. Comments motivate other students to respond. 20 points

Etiquette

Maintains appropriate language. Offers criticism in a constructive manner. Provides both positive and negative feedback. 5 points

on task. Comments may not add value to discussion topic. Comments may not motivate other students to respond. 10 points Does not always maintain appropriate language. Offers criticism in an offensive manner. Provides only negative feedback. 3 points

discussion. 0 points

Does not participate in discussion. 0 points

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Instructor Manual Elizabeth Co, Anatomy and Physiology, First Edition 2023, Core ISBN 9780357802212; Chapter 3: The Chemical Level of Organization

Table of Contents Purpose and Perspective of the Chapter ...................................................................................25 Chapter Objectives ...................................................................................................................25 Key Terms ................................................................................................................................26 Chapter Outline .........................................................................................................................26 Discussion Questions................................................................................................................30 Additional Activities and Assignments .......................................................................................31 Answers to Learning Check, Apply to Pathophysiology, and Chapter Review Questions ..........33 Additional Resources ................................................................................................................42 External Videos or Playlist ....................................................................................................................... 42 Internet Resources .................................................................................................................................. 42 Appendix ...................................................................................................................................43 Generic Rubrics ....................................................................................................................................... 43 Standard Writing Rubric .......................................................................................................................... 43 Standard Discussion Rubric ..................................................................................................................... 43

Instructor Manual: Elizabeth Co, Anatomy and Physiology, First Edition 2023, Core ISBN 9780357802212; Chapter 3: The Chemical Level of Organization

Purpose and Perspective of the Chapter The purpose of this chapter is to provide students with an introduction to the chemical level of organization. To begin, we discuss the definitions of elements and atoms that serve as the building blocks of matter. We then review the chemical bonds and the chemical reactions that occur between elements and atoms. Finally, we identify and discuss the inorganic and organic compounds that are essential to human functioning.

Chapter Objectives The following objectives are addressed in this chapter: Learning Objectives, Section 3.1: 3.1.1 Compare and contrast the terms atoms, elements, molecules, and compounds. 3.1.2 Describe the charge, mass, and relative location of electrons, protons, and neutrons in an atom. 3.1.3 Distinguish among the terms atomic number, mass number, and atomic weight. 3.1.4 Explain how ions and isotopes are produced by changing the relative number of specific subatomic particles, using one element as an example. 3.1.5 Compare and contrast the terms ion, free radical, isotope, and radioisotope. 3.1.6 Relate the number of electrons in an electron shell to the atom’s chemical stability and its ability to form chemical bonds. 3.1.7 Predict, by examining the properties of an atom, the likelihood that it will ionize or form bonds. Learning Objectives, Section 3.2: 3.2.1 Explain the mechanism of each type of chemical bond and provide biologically significant examples of each: covalent, ionic, and hydrogen bonds. 3.2.2 List the following types of bonds in order by relative strength: nonpolar covalent, polar covalent, ionic, and hydrogen bonds. 3.2.3 Compare and contrast nonpolar covalent and polar covalent bonds. Learning Objectives, Section 3.3: 3.3.1 Compare and contrast kinetic and potential energy. 3.3.2 Compare and contrast endergonic and exergonic chemical reactions. 3.3.3 Describe and draw examples of the three basic types of chemical reactions. 3.3.4 List and explain several factors that influence the rate of reactions. 3.3.5 Define enzyme and describe factors that affect enzyme activity. Learning Objectives, Section 3.4: 3.4.1 Compare and contrast organic and inorganic compounds and give examples of each. 3.4.2 Describe the physiologically important properties of water. 3.4.3 Compare and contrast the terms solution, solute, solvent, colloid suspension, and emulsion. 3.4.4 Define the terms salt, pH, acid, base, and buffer. 3.4.5 State the pH values for acidic, neutral, and alkaline (basic) solutions. Learning Objectives, Section 3.5: 3.5.1 Define the term organic molecule. 3.5.2 Explain the relationship between monomers and polymers. 3.5.3 Define and provide examples of dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis reactions.

Instructor Manual: Elizabeth Co, Anatomy and Physiology, First Edition 2023, Core ISBN 9780357802212; Chapter 3: The Chemical Level of Organization

3.5.4 Compare and contrast the general molecular structure of carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids using chemical formulas. 3.5.5 Describe the building blocks of carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids, and explain how these building blocks combine with themselves or other molecules to create complex molecules in each class, providing specific examples. 3.5.6 Describe the four levels of protein structure and the importance of protein shape for function. 3.5.7 Define enzyme and describe factors that affect enzyme activity. Note: Most of the objectives in this course align with HAPS A&P Learning Outcomes. Log in to cengage.com with your instructor account to download a spreadsheet that correlates the objectives from this chapter to HAPS LOs.

Chapter Outline I.

Elements and Atoms: The Building Blocks of Matter (LO’s 3.1.1–3.1.7) a. Matter i. Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass. ii. Mass is the amount of matter contained in an object. iii. Mass and weight are not the same. Mass is the same regardless of the location of the object. Weight can vary because it depends on gravity. b. Elements are pure substances that are made of only one type of atom. i. An atom is the smallest unit of an element that retains properties of that element. c. A molecule is made of two or more atoms that are sharing electrons. d. A compound is made of two or more elements that are joined by chemical bonds. e. Atoms and Subatomic Particles (see Figure 3.02) i. Subatomic particles make up atoms. There are three types of subatomic particles: 1. Protons are positively charged. 2. Neutrons have no charge (neutral). 3. Electrons are negatively charged. f. Atomic Number, Mass Number, and Isotopes (see Figure 3.03) i. The atomic number of an element is equivalent to the number of protons within an atom of that element. The atomic weight of an atom is mainly equivalent to the number of protons and neutrons in the atom plus a small amount from electrons. ii. The mass number of an atom is roughly equal to the number of protons and neutrons in the atom. iii. Isotopes are the different forms of an element that exist. They differ in the number of neutrons and therefore have different mass numbers. g. Ions

Instructor Manual: Elizabeth Co, Anatomy and Physiology, First Edition 2023, Core ISBN 9780357802212; Chapter 3: The Chemical Level of Organization

II.

III.

i. An ion is an atom with an electrical charge. An ion can be positively or negatively charged. If the ion is positively charged it is called a cation. A negatively charged ion is called an anion. ii. Ions are formed when atoms donate or accept electrons. h. The Behavior of Electrons i. Electrons orbit the nucleus of an atom in electron shells. Electron shells can hold a minimum of two electrons and a maximum of eight electrons. ii. The valence shell is the outermost electron shell of an atom. 1. Atoms react in a manner to fill their valence shell completely. 2. Atoms share or donate electrons to fill their valence shells and form bonds and ions as they do so. Chemical Bonds (LO’s 3.2.1–3.2.3) a. Types of Bonds i. A bond is an electrical attraction that holds atoms together. ii. The number of electrons in the valence shell determines the likelihood that an atom will form a chemical bond. b. There are three types of bonds that are important within the human body: 1. Ionic bonds exist between ions with opposite charges. 2. Covalent bonds form when electrons are shared by atoms. a. Nonpolar covalent bonds occur when the electrons are shared equally between the atoms. b. Polar covalent bonds occur when the electrons are more attracted to certain atoms, leading to unequal sharing. 3. Hydrogen bonds occur when oppositely charged parts of two molecules are attracted to one another. a. Commonly occurs between water molecules. Chemical Reactions (3.3.1–3.3.5) a. The Role of Energy in Chemical Reactions i. Energy is the ability to do work. Energy can be converted from one form to another through chemical reactions. 1. Potential energy is stored energy that can be released. 2. Kinetic energy is the energy of motion. 3. Chemical energy is potential energy that is stored in bonds. ii. Exergonic reactions are reactions that release energy. Endergonic reactions are reactions that absorb energy. b. Characteristics of Chemical Reactions i. The reactants are the substances that enter into the reaction. They can be converted into products. The products are the substances produced by the reaction. c. Types of reactions i. There are three major categories of reactions: 1. Synthesis reactions occur when atoms, molecules, or ions combine to form new molecules. 2. Decomposition reactions occur when larger molecules are broken down into smaller atoms, ion, or molecules. 3. Exchange reactions are the combination of both synthesis and decomposition reactions. d. Anatomy of chemical reactions (see Figure 3.06) i. Factors Influencing the Rate of Chemical Reactions 1. The properties of reactants a. Atomic weight, phase of the reactants (solid, liquid, or gas)

Instructor Manual: Elizabeth Co, Anatomy and Physiology, First Edition 2023, Core ISBN 9780357802212; Chapter 3: The Chemical Level of Organization

IV.

2. Temperature a. Reactions occur faster at higher temperatures. 3. Concentration and pressure a. Higher concentrations of reactants and higher pressures increase the rate of reaction. 4. Enzymes and other catalysts a. Increase the rate of reactions by lowering activation energy. b. Activation energy is the minimal energy required for the reaction to occur. Inorganic Compounds Essential to Human Functioning (LO’s 3.4.1–3.4.5) a. Inorganic versus Organic Compounds i. Inorganic compounds are substances that do not contain both carbon and hydrogen. 1. Examples include water, salts, acids and bases, and carbon dioxide. ii. Organic compounds are substances that contain both carbon and hydrogen. 1. Examples of organic compounds include carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. b. Water (see Figure 3.16) i. Water accounts for 50–70% of the mass of an adult body. ii. Water has multiple functions within the human body. Functions of water in the body include: 1. Providing lubrication for joints 2. Providing cushioning for cells and tissues 3. Aiding in temperature regulation 4. Serving as solvent for ions and nutrients needed by cells 5. Participating in dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis reactions c. Solutions i. Water within the body contains the nutrients required by cells. These nutrients are contained within solutions. ii. A solution is a mixture where one substance is dissolved in another. 1. A solvent is the substance that dissolves. The solutes are the substances dissolved in the solvent. d. Salts i. Salts form when ions bond through ionic bonding. They dissolve into ions when placed in water. The ions formed cannot be hydrogen ions (H+) or hydroxyl ions (OH-). ii. Ions allow the body to conduct electrical currents and are important in nerve impulses and muscle contraction. e. Acids and Bases (see Figure 3.17) i. Acids are molecules that release hydrogen ions (H+) when dissolved in solution. Bases are molecules that release hydroxyl ions (OH-) when dissolved in solution or bind hydrogen ions in solution. f. pH and Buffers (see Figure 3.18) i. The pH scale is a measure of acidity. The scale ranges from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral. The closer to 0 a solution is, the more acidic the solution. The closer to 14, the more alkaline or basic the solution. ii. Buffers are used to prevent rapid changes in the pH of a solution. Organic Compounds Essential to Human Functioning (3.5.1–3.5.7)

INTSTRUCTORS MANUAL for Anatomy & Physiology 1st Edition by Elizabeth Co - Complete