Sunata Edition 6 2016

EDITION SIX

2016 SUNATA

Sunata

St Margaret’s Anglican Girls School 11 Petrie Street Ascot QLD 4007 Australia Telephone: +61 7 3862 0777 Facsimile: +61 7 3862 0701 mail@stmargarets.qld.edu.au www.stmargarets.qld.edu.au St Margaret’s School Council Ltd ABN: 69069684019 CRICOS Code: 00511K A School of the Society of the Sacred Advent

EDITION SIX

A COMMUNITY of LEARNERS

STAFF PROFESSIONAL LEARNING JOURNAL

DISCOVER

the St Margaret’s DIFFERENCE Interviewing now for 2017 to 2019 entry My daughter completed Year 12 as a happy, confident, respectful and knowledgeable young woman.

Choosing to send our daughters to St Margaret’s was the best decision we’ve ever made.

2015 Year 12 Parent

”

St Margaret’s PRE-PREP - YEAR 12

www.stmargarets.qld.edu.au

E: admissions@stmargarets.qld.edu.au T: (07) 3862 0777

BOARDING YEARS 5-12

EDITION SIX

Sunata THE STAFF PROFESSIONAL LEARNING JOURNAL

Contents Keep calm and carry on Bruce Bullpitt | Secondary Teacher

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Professional Review Pilots Teagan Davidson | Head of Year 12

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A growth mindset: the precursor to a successful career in teaching Ros Curtis | Principal

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Enhancing social capital to improve student learning Trudi Edwards | Assistant Head of Primary School

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Primary schooling across the globe Angela Drysdale | Head of Primary School

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Proactive Pastoral Care: improving the international student experience Lisa Chadwick | Coordinator – International Students

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Asking the right questions: integrating critical thinking in the classroom Liz Johnston | Careers Counsellor

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Developing Middle Leaders at St Margaret’s Kim Cohen | Deputy Principal

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The case for positive mental health promotion in schools Meg Kerr | Secondary Teacher

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Talbot House and Toc H celebrate their centenary Ray Geise | Secondary Teacher, Toc H Coordinator

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Emma Willard School and St Margaret’s – exchanging shared values Kirsty Findlater | Secondary Teacher

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Professional development: why do we do it?

Mary Surtees | Head of Planning and Organisation - Primary

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Women in senior leadership positions: you can’t be what you can’t see!

Nikki Townsend | Dean of Students

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Creating a culture of thinking Samantha Bolton | Dean of Pedagogy and Enhanced Learning

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Engagement as a cognitive verb Nicole Devlin | Dean of Studies

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Why are females under-represented in mathematics and computing careers?: the implications for teaching and learning at a girls’ school.

Vicki Strid | Head of Faculty – Mathemathics

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KEEP CALM AND CARRY ON One of the most enduring slogans from the black days of World War II is the call to “keep calm and carry on”. While never used, as was originally intended – to encourage order and perseverance when Britain became embroiled in that war (Keep Calm and Carry On) – this advice, persuasive in its simplicity, is very pertinent to today’s students as they face the often harsh realities of life.

The message? Resilience is an essential tool in overcoming adversity.

Resilience can be defined as “the capacity to adapt successfully in the face of threats or disaster” (Resilience, 2015).

While such adversities may indeed be severe, many in hindsight will be seen as minor – nothing more than everyday challenges. At the time though, they can have a devastating effect in terms of heightened stress levels and feelings of an inability to cope.

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In her speech at a Harvard University Alumni Association annual meeting, author J.K. Rowling (2008) reminded the audience that “some failure in life is inevitable. It is impossible to live without failing at something, unless you live so cautiously that you might as well not have lived at all – in which case, you fail by default … The knowledge that you have emerged wiser and stronger from setbacks means that you are, ever after, secure in your ability to survive”.

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John Eales (2015), columnist and former Wallabies captain, writing for The Deal in The Australian, takes a similar

Bruce Bullpitt Secondary Teacher tack, advocating seizing opportunities to grow through staying calm, and confronting and optimising stressful situations. He suggests that jotting down notes about a situation enables a more clear-headed and realistic consideration.

This is rewarded by an increased sense of achievement and greater self-esteem.

Times of adversity are unavoidable, but it is how these situations are handle that determines whether or not a person experiences growth as a result. The skills to deal with adversity can be developed from an early age, partly because people are born with certain internal qualities of resilience. Does a toddler learning to walk, for instance, give up after the inevitable first fall? Likewise, students who remain calm and persevere are able to carry on towards achieving their goals. Once developed, it is an ability that will produce lifelong benefits.

The causes of stress in students are many and varied. Within the school setting these can include interaction with peers, bullying, study loads, time management and disappointing assessment results. This disappointment can be the result of a student’s own high expectations, as well as high parental expectations. External stresses, including family tensions or alcohol and other drug use, also affect students, their studies and the quality of their lives.

Whatever is causing them stress, students with well-developed resilience will be better equipped to stay calm and carry on.

In suggesting ways for young people to build resilience, life coach and personal development writer Brad Waters (2013) cites the traits of those regarded as emotionally resilient. These individuals can recognise that stress and its causes are temporary; they do not allow themselves to be affected permanently.

Waters also places high value on mixing with other resilient people, both for fun and for support: “They know how to listen and when to offer just enough encouragement without trying to solve all of our problems with their advice … calming us rather than frustrating us.”

He also stresses the need to cultivate self-awareness and to know when to seek out help rather than stubbornly determining to go it alone.

For Professor of Psychology Martin Seligman (2011), optimism is the secret to developing resilience. He believes the people who recover from disappointments are those who “have a habit of interpreting setbacks as temporary, local, and changeable … it’s going away quickly; it’s just this one situation, and I can do something about it”. It is imperative that students keep all aspects of a situation in proportion and do not mentally exaggerate the negative.

Resilience is a key element in achieving academically and socially despite the inevitable setbacks life can present. As within all groups of people, students comprise a variety of individuals with varying and often changing emotions, perceptions and needs. Developing the relevant skills and an awareness of the transient nature of times of adversity are essential to becoming more resilient.

With a positive and determined outlook, each student has the potential to find the right combination of tactics, growing and building on an innate strength to “keep calm and carry on”.

References Eales, J 2015, ‘Embrace the butterflies’, The Deal in The Australian, 18 September, p. 5.

Keep Calm and Carry On, viewed 16 September 2015, http://www. keepcalmandcarryon.com/ Resilience, viewed 17 September 2015, http://www.pbs.org/thisemotionallife Rowling, JK 2008, ‘Harvard Commencement Address’, online video clip, viewed 17 September 2015, http://www.jkrowling. com/en_GB/#/timeline/harvardcommencement-address/v Seligman, M 2011, ‘Building resilience’, Harvard Business Review, April, viewed 9 October 2015, http://www.hbr.org/2011/04/ building-resilience Waters, B 2013, ‘10 traits of emotionally resilient people’, Psychology Today, viewed 17 September 2015, http://www. psychologytoday.com/10-traits-emotionallyresilient-people

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Professional Review Pilots

As educators are aware, The Australian Professional Standards for Teachers are what we aim for in teacher quality and effectiveness. The Standards outline four career stages – Graduate, Proficient, Highly Accomplished and Lead – and benchmark what is expected of a teacher at each of these stages in their professional growth. As we have spent a few years now ‘on the job’ learning and understanding the Standards, it is timely to better appreciate how the education profession will maintain and assess the Standards.

Midway through 2015, teachers from several Queensland independent schools, including St Margaret’s, began their participation in a Professional Growth Pilot facilitated and managed by Independent Schools Queensland (ISQ).

I took part, together with another St Margaret’s teacher, and the school also provided a senior leader as a mentor, who helped guide us in our responses.

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The purpose of the program was to ascertain how ISQ’s Professional Review Service will match the expectations and needs of teachers and leaders across Queensland. Teachers were paired with a mentor and, over a few months, an electronic portfolio was compiled to showcase a particular career stage.

This evidence was then reviewed by an external school leader, and feedback given to the participant and their principal. This was used for professional discussion and reflections on teacher practice, improvement and ascertaining the individual’s most suited career stage in relation to the Standards. Describing the process like this on paper, makes it sound straightforward; however, as educators, we know the processes of

reflection, assessment and feedback can become complex quite quickly.

As a participant, I started this process with a positive outlook, especially considering that as a pilot program the stakes didn’t seem too high for me. I didn’t fully realise what it would entail, and was happy to give it a go.

My mentor was approachable and experienced and the other participant at St Margaret’s is a supportive colleague.

These aspects, and the professional discussions that occurred naturally with both my mentor and colleague, assisted in compiling the portfolio of evidence and, importantly, led me to enjoy being a part of the program.

I soon realised the process could be compared with the assessment process, especially considering we were being reviewed, and this was both a positive and negative for me. As I started to plan the portfolio, I worried about possibly failing to reach the Highly Accomplished Career Stage. No one likes to fail, and while teachers team teach, observe and undergo professional reviews on a regular basis, the idea of being assessed ourselves can be quite confronting. However, if ‘harping on’ to my Year 10s about a growth mindset has taught me anything, it was to practise what I preach, and to transfer my experiences towards my own growth and learning. It was also comforting to know that through the process itself I would learn what I needed to know and that the review was a ‘heat map’ rather than a pass/fail assessment. Adopting this mindset was at times difficult; however, once I began to see the mentor meetings, portfolio, and feedback as reflection tools, I could better appreciate

the benefits. I can now honestly say that I have never been part of a more thorough or beneficial professional development activity.

The targeted thought processes required to compile evidence for the Standards were highly effective ways to gauge my teaching, my strengths, my weaknesses, and which Standards were most important to me and my school. I knew the career stage I was aiming for was ambitious, and had spoken openly about this with my mentor and the school principal. I felt very ‘in-between’ Proficient and Highly Accomplished, and was glad that I worked towards the latter.

Although my evidence would be more effective if compiled this year or next (and this is where being part of a pilot lowered the pressure for me), fully immersing myself with questions pertaining to the standards of Highly Accomplished will only improve my practice and confidence. This aligns itself with ISQ, as they suggest looking at the career stage you are working towards.

The focus seemed to rest on the growth of the participant, as did many of the other facets of ISQ’s review service.

Overall, participating in the Professional Growth Pilot was positive, due to the value I gained from reflecting on my teaching practices. This idea of reflection was another clear focus of ISQ. It was recommended participants aim to complete the program in 10 hours; however, with meetings and planning, it took longer. Though the time factor may be a sticking point in future programs, I felt the process provided me with valuable professional development and review. As we seek to always better our

industry, we have to acknowledge that programs such as this are common in other professional fields, and assist individuals and their employers. The challenge will be in finding the balance between what helps and hinders timepoor teachers and school leaders.

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Teagan Teagan Davidson Davidson HeadHead of Year of Year 12 12

As with so many teacher-related discussions, the issue of time may dominate our feelings towards how the education profession maintains the currency of the Standards. The education industry is undoubtedly changing, and while schools have always been subject to external influences, the complexities of the industry and regulation of teacher standards has certainly become clearer in recent times. With these external refinements, the working lives of teachers are also changing. As teachers we can certainly choose to see this in two different lights; we can be resistant to change or we can be progressive, flexible and positive. Most teachers are more than willing to reflect, grow, innovate and challenge ourselves; in fact it is for these reasons many of us enjoy our chosen profession. We are willing to engage with the Standards and seek feedback from our school leaders. However, changes and professional review processes can come at a price – this is often exacted in ‘time’. With further refining of tools such as the Professional Growth Pilot, and with consistent feedback from participating teachers and leaders, the profession is well placed to facilitate a process that is embedded into our current daily practices and reflections.

This will help ensure teachers are positive about the approach, which will in turn result in them actively engaging with the Professional Standards and Professional Growth Tools.

Ros Curtis Principal

A growth mindset: the precursor to a successful career in teaching

Carol Dweck’s research on fixed mindset and growth mindset continues to inspire educators. Since she first published her findings in Mindset in 2006, teachers have embraced her work, seeing the benefits of praising for effort rather than achievement and encouraging persistence in the face of challenge.

Varlas (2016, p. 1) summarises it well when she claims: Buoyed by this research, educators now prompt students to change their brains through effort. Teachers focus their feedback on students’ learning processes, not on their personal attributes…. It’s clear that the language of a growth mindset is there: we can all get better through effort and you can grow your brain.

In this and previous editions of Sunata, there are a number of articles about the importance of mindset thinking for students. However, this article explores the mindset thinking of teachers, not in terms of how they view the innate intelligence and talent of their students, but how they see their own abilities and skills as a teacher or teacher leader.

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In staffrooms in our schools, we see a variety of teachers, some who regularly demonstrate a fixed mindset and others who apply growth mindset thinking to their own learning and their role as a colleague and employee. In a number of cases, a fixed mindset has the potential to derail a career, impacting on teacher professional and career development, staff relationships and perceived alignment to a school’s strategic plan and vision.

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In their book Developing Direct Reports.

Taking the guesswork out of leading leaders, Armour, Blundell and Cohen

(2015) have based their work on those who are willing to grow and learn. In their introductory pages they note: The premise of this book is supporting behaviour change, and there is an assumption that your direct report wants to change. In a study published by the Centre for Creative Leadership, ‘inability or unwillingness to change or adapt’ was found to be a key factor associated with leadership derailment across cultures (p. 48).

This resistance to change and unwillingness to practise and learn new behaviours and skills, which can be found among employees in all workplaces, including schools, is a clear demonstration of fixed mindset in operation.

There is little doubt that a growth mindset is critical for success in the teaching profession. Between 30 and 50 per cent of teachers leave the profession in the first five years. Many factors unrelated to mindset contribute to this attrition rate, including a perceived lack of support, work intensity, and the casualisation of the work place.

However, some early career teachers approach their roles with a fixed mindset and this contributes to their departure from the profession. Some apply little effort to learn and others cannot take responsibility, while others see setbacks as useful learning opportunities, enjoy putting in the time and effort (rather than bemoaning the challenges) and view mistakes as learning opportunities.

Principals’ Digests (2015) suggests that those who agree with the following three statements have a fixed mindset about the teaching profession.

1. The kind of teacher someone is, is something very basic about them and can’t be changed very much.

2. Teachers can change the way they teach in the classroom, but they can’t really change their true teaching ability.

3. Some teachers will be ineffective no matter how hard they try to improve.

Therefore, some teachers still struggling with curriculum pressures and behaviour management issues may ‘burn out’ believing they and the role will never get better. They believe what is heard often – ‘good teachers are born, not made’. This type of thinking is not helpful in developing a confident career identity. There is the assumption that good teaching should not require time and effort as one should be a ‘natural’.

A focus on professional renewal and a willingness to try new things, driven by a passion for education, keeps people engaged in the profession and this requires a commitment to growth.

Principals’ Digests (2015) suggests that those who agree with these next four statements are likely to have a growth mindset: 1. No matter how much natural ability you may have, you can always find important ways to improve.

2. Every teacher, no matter who they are, can significantly improve their teaching ability.

3. The value of trying new teaching methods outweighs the risk of making a mistake.

4. I discuss problems in my classroom teaching with others in order to learn from them.

Simply put, the best teachers are learners. They care more about learning … and don’t believe that a perfect, effortless and error-free lesson defines them as a good teacher.

Good schools look to recruit teachers with a growth mindset.

In the recruitment process employers hope to see evidence of teachers who are learning, particularly those who: 1. demonstrate a belief that they can always learn more 2. focus on continual improvement around pedagogy, behaviour management and organisation 3. think critically about the best ways to teach a concept, skill and/or process and they question and evaluate their approaches 4. engage in research to gather evidence for changes to their practice 5. collaborate and support others, acknowledging that giving back to the profession is a form of professional growth.

We all have our own fixed-mindset triggers. When we face challenges, receive criticism, or fare poorly compared with others, we can easily fall into insecurity or defensiveness, a response that inhibits growth. Our work environments, too, can be full of fixed-mindset triggers… To remain in a growth zone, we must identify and work with these triggers.

Practising growth mindset thinking and behaviour, such as sharing information, collaborating, innovating, seeking feedback, or admitting errors, is essential in a dynamic school community. These are also the attributes of effective school leaders. Learning and progress are key elements of success and apply to both the students and the teachers in a school context.

References Armour, C, Blundell, A & Cohen, B 2015, Developing Direct Reports. Taking the guesswork out of leading leaders. Bacca House Press: Melbourne.

Dweck, C 2016, ‘What Having a “Growth Mindset” Actually Means’, Harvard Business Review, viewed 11 May 2016, https://hbr. org/2016/01/what-having-a-growth-mindset-actually-means Principals’ Digests 2015, Mindset Thinking among Teachers, vol. 21, no. 2, viewed 11 May 2016, http://www.principalsdigests.co.nz/the-digests/ Vemeer, A 2012, 15 Benefits of the Growth Mindset, viewed 11 May 2016, https://alexvemeer.com/15-benefits-growth-mindset Varlas, L 2016, ‘Mindset 20/20’, Education Update, vol. 58 no. 3, pp. 1-5.

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There is little doubt it is this growth mindset that prompts teachers to consider formal school leadership positions.

Behaviour in a current role is the best indicator of success in a future role. Therefore, a teacher who is willing to try new things, accepts and acts upon feedback, develops further through effort, and is prepared to be challenged and make mistakes by taking the necessary risks as part of the learning process is likely to be considered for curriculum and pastoral leadership roles. Those who contain their learning, by saying no to opportunity and by remaining steadfast for years to their practices and approaches, are unlikely to be considered. As Dweck (2016) notes, those individuals who believe that their talents can be developed (through effort, good strategies and input from others) tend to achieve more than those with the fixed mindset and hence are more desirable for leadership roles.

Therefore, recruitment of teachers and teacher leaders needs to focus around demonstrated commitment to growth and evidence that growth has taken place. It is ideal then to have a school that is a growth mindset workplace. This is no easy feat, given the fact that each individual employee is a combination of both growth and fixed mindsets. As Dweck (2016) says:

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Enhancing social capital to improve student learning ‘Learning is the work and social capital is the fuel’

(Hargreaves and Fullan 2012)

Hargreaves and Fullan advocate the passions and purposes of teaching in their book Teacher Development and Educational Change (1992). In their subsequent publication, Professional Capital; Transforming Teaching in Every School (2012), they further their cause of transforming teaching by championing for increased professional capital. Their fundamental proposition is that teacher collaboration and collegiality, when harnessed in schools, develops social capital that ultimately improves student learning and achievement.

Social capital: improving learning through improving teaching

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According to Hargreaves and Fullan (2012), social capital represents the power of the collective interactions among teachers, and between teachers and administration staff, which focus on student learning. These interactions, with the emphasis on pedagogical or instructional practices, make a large and measurable difference to student achievement and sustained improvement. The notion of social capital concentrates on the deliberate use of teamwork, enabling educators to learn from and with each other and develop into highly reflective practitioners who are focused on learning and teaching and how to do it better.

Leana and Pil (2006), in a study on mathematics and reading achievement, measured social capital by addressing the frequency and focus of conversations with peers that centred on instruction, and were based on feelings of trust and closeness between teachers. Their findings evidenced not only an improvement in student outcomes and achievement, but also demonstrated that the performance of less expert level teachers increased if their school was high in social capital.

Leana and Pil (2006) further confirm a direct correlation between a school’s social capital and student achievement scores on tests. They postulate that social capital is a core predictor of instructional quality.

Schools rightly focus on student achievement. However, a move to increase social capital by working with teachers and therefore enhancing professional capital is one evidence-based strategy which can have a direct impact on student outcomes.

The question for educational leaders is: “How can social capital be intentionally developed in order to support teachers to improve the academic achievement of students?”

Social capital increases your knowledge – it gives you access to other people’s human capital (Hargreaves and Fullan 2012, p. 90).

Trudi Edwards Assistant Head of Primary School

A school culture that intentionally engages in instructional coaching and encourages the mindsets outlined by Leong (cited in Mukherjee, 2012) provides a strong platform for enhancing the social capital of the school, and ultimately improves academic outcomes for learners.

Increase engagement in collaborative pedagogical projects

Engage a coaching culture and heighten relational trust Professional development focusing on individual learning has very little impact on a teacher’s pedagogy. Although teachers gain knowledge at professional development activities, this knowledge rarely results in change in practice, and after two years the knowledge gained rarely remained (Hargreaves and Fullan 2012). This is not to suggest that workshops, conferences and seminars are a waste. Rather, it is suggested that professional development follow-up sessions should be offered to staff in a high trust and supportive environment, to build on the social capital gained. Using staff coaching in schools heightens relational trust, gives teachers the skills to ask the questions that address pedagogical and instructional practices, and heightens social capital between colleagues.

Leong (cited in Mukherjee, 2012, p. 76) recommends the following specific instructional coaching mindsets which heighten relational trusts.

Schools regularly host meetings, committees and forums where staff are drawn together to support organisational efficiency and improvement. These staff meetings, faculty meetings and leadership meetings are often dominated by managerial issues. However, with a social capital strategy in place, professional learning communities, or communities of practice focused primarily on pedagogical improvements, would be prioritised. This strategy can deliver the structural foundation for focused pedagogical conversations between staff and can impact teaching practice to benefit student learning (Edwards 2014). In addition, collaborative action research can be used as one means of enhancing collaboration between and amongst faculties, and provides a focused approach to increasing staff engagement in analysing instructional practices.

Nahapeit and Goshal (1998) recognised that advancing social capital not only facilitates the creation of new intellectual capital, but also provides an organisational advantage.

Hargreaves and Fullan (2012) further this argument by highlighting the importance of enhancing social capital for the benefit of student outcomes. The challenge for schools is to look for cost and time effective ways to increase social capital.

In summary, to increase social capital, schools need to look for more ways to engage staff in collaborative, school-based pedagogical projects. Instructional coaching and nurturing trust between colleagues will also develop social capital. High social capital within the school will lead to us achieving our ultimate goal as educators: to improve the academic outcomes of our learners.

Instructional Coaching Mindsets

References:

Showing respect

vs ‘I’m the boss’

Edwards, M 2014, CSM Learn, vol. 3, no. 5, p. 1.

Asking and inquiry

vs Telling and directing

Exploring at a deeper level with curiosity

vs Being judgemental

Hargreaves, A & Fullan, M 2012, Professional Capital; Transforming Teaching In Every School, Teachers College Press, New York and Ontario Principals’ Council, Canada.

Displaying personal integrity vs Do as I say, not as I do

Hargreaves, A & Fullan, M 1992, Teacher Development and Educational Change, Falmer, London.

Encouraging growth and learning

Hargreaves, A & Fullan, M 2006, What’s Worth Fighting For In Your School, Teachers College Press, New York

vs Penalizing for failures

Giving and receiving feedback vs Being pretentious Solution-focused

vs Problem-focused

Empowering and guiding

vs Managing and controlling

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Giving constructive feedback vs Criticising and invalidating

Nahapeit, J & Goshal, S 1998, ‘Social Capital, Intellectual Capital, and the Organizational Advantage’, Academy of Management, vol. 23, no. 2, pp. 242-266.

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Partnering and collaborating vs I’m the expert

Mukherjee, S 2012, ‘Does Coaching Transform Coaches? A Case Study of Internal Coaching’, International Journal of Evidence Based Coaching and Mentoring, vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 76-87.

Angela Drysdale Head of Primary School

Primary schooling across the globe

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I find there is nothing more inspiring than visiting different primary schools around the world. Whenever I have been fortunate enough to visit a new place, and subsequently a new school, it is truly an enriching experience.

Perhaps the most poignant lesson I have learned from such experiences is that while there may be stark differences between continents, countries and even cities, there is a palpable thread linking even those places far-removed from the Australian experience. From small Australian country towns, to the rolling English countryside, the goal of providing children with the very best start in life is universal. We may not speak the same language, but the responsibility to educate children academically, socially and culturally is ubiquitous.

In early 2015, I was afforded the opportunity, through an Independent Primary School Heads of Australia (IPSHA) Members’ Professional Development Grant, to visit two primary schools in England – Prince’s Mead and Charles Kingsley. While both schools are situated in the incredibly picturesque surroundings of Hampshire, it is the buildings and resources that are most impressive.

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The two schools may share similar values and history, but they are in fact quite different due to their funding status. Prince’s Mead is a private feepaying school, while Charles Kingsley is a part state and part church funded school. Schools in the UK have high levels of accountability, but the two different school sectors have different inspectorate systems.

Government funded schools are eligible for different combinations of funding, which can include state funding, county funding (local authority) and church funding. High levels of accountability are associated with this funding.

Charles Kingsley School, named after the founder and renowned author, famous for his book The Water Babies, was founded in 1853. The buildings are maintained by the church and the school is funded by the state and county.

Each year the school undergoes an annual inspection by the Hampshire inspectors and Office for Standards in Education, Children’s Services and Skills (Ofsted), the official government body for inspecting schools. Across two days, the Ofsted inspection comprises a desk audit, review of tests, and student interviews in order to triangulate data.

Three inspectors review four key areas: • the quality of teaching • behaviour and safety • standards • leadership.

Interestingly, since September 2015, no prior notice has been given by the Ofsted inspectors; they just arrive, unannounced, to conduct the inspection.

Charles Kingsley School has achieved a high grading in their inspections. It has also met the criteria to be labelled a ‘Thinking School’ by Exeter University, as it focuses on teaching for thinking and creativity and incorporates the principles of a wide range of approaches to teaching thinking, such as the Philosophy for Children and Habits of Mind.

A significant difference between Charles Kingsley and Australian schools is the class sizes. Like other English government funded schools, infant classes are capped at 30 pupils. There is no government regulation in relation to class sizes for students aged seven years or more; however, Charles Kingsley chooses to cap their classes for this age group to 32. In order for a class of this size to function successfully, the school instils self-sufficiency and independence in their students, traits I witnessed firsthand. These characteristics align with their strongly articulated values and commitment to being a thinking school.

Both schools embrace the age and history of the buildings through maintaining the historical elements and creating juxtaposition with modern educational facilities. The layouts of the physical spaces are welcoming and foster communication and relationships.

Most impressive is the Prince’s Mead music room, housed in the original dining room. Musical instruments sit beneath grand chandeliers and gold plated mirrors.

While English weather isn’t always conducive to outdoor play, both schools make use of their outdoor environments. Each school has adopted the worldwide phenomena of teaching children the value of growing their own vegetables. Like St Margaret’s primary school’s fully organic garden, the vegetable plots not only encourage sustainability, but help children to develop lifelong skills.

Prince’s Mead has several different outdoor areas, ranging from a mud patch to an environmental education site to a forest school meadow. Each outdoor environment is unique to each of the settings, but each school values it as a learning resource.

Having the opportunity to visit these schools was a very valuable experience, for which I am most appreciative. I returned to St Margaret’s primary school so grateful for the wonderful world-class institution I believe it to be, equal to any I have visited, but also inspired by different ideas and practices of these primary schools on the other side of the world.

Bibliography Philosophy4Children 2016, Philosophy for children in the classroom, http://www. philosophy4children.co.uk/ The Art Costa Centre for Thinking 2016, What is Habits of Mind, http://www. artcostacentre.com/html/habits.htm Thinking School International 2016, Accreditation as a Thinking School, http:// www.thinkingschoolsinternational.com/ site/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/List-ofAccredited-Schools-Sep-2015.pdf

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United Kingdom Government 2016, Ofsted: Raising Standards, Improving Lives, https:// www.gov.uk/government/organisations/ofsted

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The other school I visited – Prince’s Mead – is a fee paying, independent school. While it was only established in 1949, it is housed in a stately home, built in 1820. Prince’s Mead could be described as having a holistic approach to education while offering a wideranging curriculum and an impressive range of facilities. There were many similarities between this school and Australian independent schools. They value parent/school partnerships, celebrate many events with their families, and provide a variety of extracurricular activities.

Prince’s Mead is also required to undertake a school inspection; however, as an independent school, the inspectoral system is under Independent Schools Inspectorate, which is still monitored by the services of Ofsted.

Lisa Chadwick Coordinator – International Students

PROACTIVE PASTORAL CARE: improving the international student experience A significant increase in the globalisation and internationalisation of education over recent years has caused a more intense focus on international student experience and wellbeing. Australia is already a world leader in international education standards, providing rigorous protection for international students through the Education Services for Overseas Students (ESOS) Legislation and 2007 National Code. This framework requires institutions that provide education to international students to meet nationally consistent standards in education delivery, facilities and services. While this works at the national level and provides legal and consumer protection to international students, the attention has now shifted to the quality of each international student’s experience.

One of the key goals in The National Strategy for International Education 2025 (Australian Government, 2016, p.13) is “delivering the best possible student experience” for international students in Australia. One of the specified actions for this goal is “Supporting Students”, which states: “Students need a supportive and enabling environment to reach their full potential. Further developing student supports will ensure that students have the assistance they need to perform academically and make meaningful, professional and cultural connections” (p. 13).

With over 20,000 international students studying in Australia at the secondary school level in 2015, a 12% growth in enrolments from 2014 (Australian Government Department of Education and Training 2016), the current emphasis on international student experience is very timely.

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The pastoral and academic needs of international students in Australian secondary schools are varied and need to be identified and addressed, so these students have the opportunity to become successful and highly functioning members of the school community and the wider society.

The needs of these students can place stress not only on the students themselves but also on the schools enrolling them.

Therefore, for the students to be successful, both socially and academically, a set of support networks at institution level must be established.

International students come to study in Australia for many different reasons. They bring with them a plethora of experiences and expectations about studying in Australia that need to be taken into consideration to better assist them. It is often the difference between these expectations and their actual experience in Australia that can cause difficulties for these students. The Federal Minister for Tourism and International Education, Richard Colbeck, stated: “Australia’s high quality qualifications were “the top reason” why international students continued to choose Australia as their study destination. This is followed by the reputation of our institutions, the overall quality of the Australian education system, the safety of our country and the quality of research and training at our institutions” (Australian Government 2016).

So how does an institution such as St Margaret’s enable our international students, who are such a vital part of the school, move from being “newcomers in a strange land” to feeling integrated and valued members of the community?

A concept formed by Butcher and McGrath called “Proactive Pastoral Care” is one way to begin to help support these students and their specific needs (Butcher & McGrath 2004; Butcher et al., 2004 cited in Butcher & McGrath 2004). As Butcher and McGrath (2004, p. 548) describe: “Proactive Pastoral Care anticipates students’ needs and potential problems and therefore enhances the quality of students’ time in Australia.

It articulates and addresses expectations; it provides education and information; and it enhances wellbeing.”

These kinds of programs can be used to help reconcile the disparity in international students’ expectations and their experiences, leading to a more satisfying and overall positive experience for them. St Margaret’s currently has a similar program in place to assist the international students who

come to study at the school. St Margaret’s uses a multi-faceted approach to provide wide-ranging support for international students.

References

A comprehensive enrolment process ensures students become familiar with the school and staff even before they have arrived and this pastoral care is continued once they commence at the school. The girls are given many opportunities, both contrived and spontaneous, to make meaningful connections with their peers through a buddy system and big sister program, classroom collaborations, playground interactions and extra-curricular activities. Sympathetic, culturally cognisant teaching staff provide consistent and targeted academic support through English language support, explicit teaching and reinforcement of research and investigation skills, and academic honesty requirements including plagiarism and referencing. Caring and culturally aware support staff offer a welcoming face and reliable support, assistance with visa compliance and health care. The support from the school also encompasses social resilience building through culture shock awareness and the fostering of cross cultural communication and cultural awareness skills for both international and domestic students.

Australian Government Department of Education and Training 2016, International Student Data 2015, viewed 10 May 2016, https:// internationaleducation.gov.au/research/International-Student-Data/ Pages/InternationalStudentData2015.aspx

International students face many challenges when studying in Australia. These can include cultural misunderstandings, lack of Australian friends, integrating into a western school environment, and difficulties arising from their lack of understanding of the English language. The provision of mechanisms and support systems that allow them to flourish is the responsibility of every institution in which they are enrolled.

Butcher, A & McGrath, T 2004, ‘International Students in New Zealand: Needs and Responses’, International Education Journal, vol. 5, no. 4, pp. 540-551.

Bibliography Australian Government, n.d., Support services for students, viewed 11 November 2015, http://www.studyinaustralia.gov.au/global/live-inaustralia/support-services Australian Government Department of Education and Training 2016, Qualifications recognition, ESOS framework, Tuition Protection Service, viewed 3 May 2016, https://www.education.gov.au/ qualifications-recognition-esos-framework-tuition-protection-service Gomes, C, Berry, M, Alzzougool, B & Chang, S 2014, ‘Home Away from Home: International Students and their Identity-based Social Networks in Australia’, Journal of International Students, vol. 4, no. 1, pp. 2-15, viewed 3 May 2016, http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ EJ1054774.pdf Henebery, B 2016, ‘Why growth in international student numbers is good news for schools’, The Educator, viewed 12 May 2016, http:// www.educatoronline.com.au/news/why-growth-in-internationalstudent-numbers-is-good-news-for-schools-212611.aspx

Lin, M 2012, ‘Students of Different Minds: Bridging the Gaps of International Students Studying in the US’, US-China Education Review A, vol. 2, no. 3, pp. 333-344.

Sherry, M, Thomas, P & Chui, WH 2010, ‘International students: a vulnerable student population’, High Education, vol. 60, no. 1, pp.33-46.

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Liberante, L 2016, ‘The importance of teacher-student relationships, as explored through the lens of the NSW Quality Teaching Model’, Journal of Student Engagement: Education Matters, vol. 2, no. 1. pp. 2-9, viewed 3 May 2016, http://ro.uow.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent. cgi?article=1008&context=jseem

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The implementation of essential legislation and compliance laws across Australia and across all education sectors guarantees a fair and ethical education for international students. The accompanying shift towards improving international student experience in Australia has been adopted unequivocally by St Margaret’s to ensure a positive experience for all international students.

The Australian Government 2016, The National Strategy for International Education 2025, The Australian Government, Canberra.

ASKING THE RIGHT QUESTIONS:

integrating critical thinking in the classroom To teach is to communicate (Hannel 2009) and an integral part of daily communication within the contemporary classroom is questioning (Acar et al. 2005; Fischbaugh 2015; Russell 2007). While most teachers are comfortable with the use of questioning as a tool of educational instruction, if it is not completely understood and implemented correctly, its effectiveness can be limited (Hannel 2009; Korkmaz 2015). The power of questioning is that correct techniques can promote interactive learning and critical thinking (Cross 1997) – a vital skill that allows the student to be involved in a more active, engaging learning journey (Ghodsi 2014). Teachers who communicate through effective questioning elevate students’ interest in learning and skill in understanding (Hannel 2009).

The critical thinking process aims to encourage students who are motivated to learn, possess a range of problem-solving skills, and are actively and meaningfully immersed in all facets of their learning (Danielsen 2015; Ghodsi 2014; Stanlick 2015).

As critical thinking is a skill, it can be developed with training and practice. Consequently, the more precise and worthwhile the training, the higher the quality of the result (Robitaille 2014; Tienken 2010; Turner 2015). Effective questioning also helps to develop inquisitiveness and wonder – key elements in the development of critical thinking (Turner 2015). Questioning itself cannot be seen as a simple task, but as an art or a skill requiring thought and training (Korkmaz 2015), so teachers are not merely “asking just to ask” (Korkmaz et al. 2012, p. 1007), but applying strategies and using questioning techniques that will develop critical thinking in their students (Saeed et al. 2012).

According to Bloom’s taxonomy, based on the hierarchical nature of knowledge, questions can be divided into low order (knowledge and comprehension) and higher order (application, analysis, synthesis, evaluation) (Billings 2014; Cross 1997; MacKenzie 2001; Saeed et al. 2012; Tienken 2010; Wood 2001).

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Key components to producing students who can think critically include the development of a trusting and positive relationship (Turner 2015), as well as content, teaching method and use of inquiry (Hashemi 2011; MacKenzie 2001). These fundamentals of learning emphasise the significance of the role of the teacher and highlight the importance of teachers asking the correct type of questions in classrooms. Research shows that while most teachers actively engage in questioning and realise the importance of asking higher-order application, synthesis and evaluation questions to promote critical thinking, the reality is quite different (Robitaille 2014; Robitaille 2015). It appears that in some cases, higher-order questions may make up only about 20 per cent of classroom questions (Cross 1997). Teachers must differentiate their questioning technique. They should develop questions that are not only aimed at the appropriate level of

learning outcomes, but also include inquiry questions that encourage higher-order thinking (Korkmaz 2015; Saeed et al.

2012; Turner 2015).

A classroom comprising diverse cognitive development levels can provide a challenge to the encouragement of critical thinking questions. This challenge can be met by thoughtful planning and by developing an appropriate classroom environment. Effective teachers expect students to provide a reason for their response (MacKenzie 2001; Rankin 2006; Rosenshine 2012); ask for responses in a variety of forms such as individual or group responses and verbal or non-verbal replies (Hannel 2009); and they present a balance of both low level and high level questions (for example, ‘Why is that?’, ‘How could you achieve that?’) to ensure both learning and higherorder insights are covered (Wood et.al. 2001). Effective teachers aim for between ten and fifteen high level questions for an average length lesson (Tienken 2010).

As Korkmaz and Yesil (2015, p. 1017) suggest, students will become “more qualified questioners by asking questions”. As with any skill, student involvement in questioning is necessary to fully develop their critical thinking skills. Teacher directed, student directed and combined teacher/student directed questioning (Cross 1997; Korkmaz 2015; MacKenzie 2001; Rankin 2006; Tienken 2010) can all positively contribute to a student’s question asking skill; however, classrooms where teacher talk is limited and questions are open ended will further promote higher level student directed questions and critical thinking skills (Billings 2014; Korkmaz 2015; Salam 2010).

Critical thinking skills rely directly on formal learning (McCollister 2010) – the planned learning experiences set up by the teacher. Through reflection, careful planning and making small but significant adjustments to their style of questioning, teachers can make an important difference to the critical thinking component of their lessons (MacKenzie 2001; Rankin 2006; Rosenshine 2012).

As a result of applying techniques and ensuring planning takes place, a teacher can provide an environment that will foster individual as well as group critical thinking skill development.

References Acar, F 2011, ‘Secondary-School Teachers’ Questioning Activities in Learning-Teaching Process’, Education, vol. 132, no. 1, pp. 173-184.

Billings, L & Roberts, T 2014, ‘From Mindless to Meaningful’, Educational Leadership, vol. 72, no. 3, pp. 60-65.

Cross, DS 1997, ‘Interactive questioning: why ask why?’, Radiologic Technology, vol. 68, no.5, pp. 435-8

Liz Johnston Careers Counsellor Danielsen, RD 2015, ‘How critical is critical thinking?’, Clinician Reviews, vol. 18, no.9, pp. 1- 10 Fischbaugh, R 2015, ‘Using books to promote high-level questioning skills’, The Reading Teacher, vol. 58, no. 3, pp. 296 - 299.

Ghodsi, A 2014, ‘Designing and Evaluating of Curriculum pattern Based on Critical Thinking Fostering an Innovative Approach to Secondary School Education: Perspectives of Teachers and Related Professionals’, Advances in Environmental Biology, vol. 8, no. 21, pp. 692-697.

Hannel, I 2009, ‘Insufficient Questioning’, Kappan, vol. 91, no. 3, pp.

65-69.

Hashemi, SA 2011, ‘The Use of Critical Thinking in Social Science Textbooks of High School: A Field Study of Fars Province in Iran’, International Journal of Instruction, vol.2, no.10, pp. 63-78.

Korkmaz, A 2015, ‘Comparison of Different Teaching Applications based on Questioning in Terms of Their Effect Upon Pre-service Teachers’ Good Questioning Skills’, College Student Journal, vol. 44, no.

4, pp. 1006-1020.

MacKenzie, AH 2001, ‘The Role of Teacher Stance When Infusing Inquiry Questioning Into Middle School Science Classrooms’, School Science and Mathematics, vol. 101, no. 3, pp. 143-153.

McCollister, K e 2010, ‘Lift the Ceiling Increase Rigor with Critical Thinking Skills’, Gifted Child Today, vol. 33, no. 1, pp. 41- 47.

Rankin, V 2006, ‘“Talk about it” Using discussion to extend and enhance student research’, Teacher Librarian, vol. 37, no. 2, pp. 8-12.

Robitaille, Y 2014, Teachers’ Education and Experiences Relative to Promoting Successful Questioning and Discussion Techniques.

November 5 – 7, Knoxsville, Tennessee.

Robitaille, YMN 2015, Classroom Environments of Respect for Questioning and Discussion. Fort Lauderdale, January 8, pp. 1-37.

Rosenshine, B 2012, ‘Principles of Instruction’, American Educator, vol.

6, no. 1, pp. 30-33.

Russell, WB 2007, ‘A picture is worth 20 questions’, Social Education, vol. 71, no. 5, pp. 16-17.

Saeed, T, Khan, S, Ahmed, A, Gul, R, Cassum, S, Parpio, Y 2012, ‘The development of students’ critical thinking: The educators’ ability to use questioning skills in the Baccalaureate programs in nursing in Pakistan’, Journal of Pakistan Medical Association, vol. 62, no. 3, pp. 200-203.

Salam, S 2010, ‘Enhancing Social Studies Students’ Critical Thinking through Blog Cast and Socratic Questioning: A Singapore Case Study’, International Journal of Instructional Media, vol. 37, no. 4, pp. 391-401.

Stanlick, N 2015, Asking Good Questions: Case Studies in Ethics and Critical Thinking, Hackett Publishing Company, Cambridge.

Tienken, CH 2010, ‘Questioning the Questions’, Eddigest, vol. 75, no.

9, pp. 28-32.

Turner, J 2015, ‘Thinking About Students’ Questions’, Science Scope, vol. 31, no. 1, p. 51.

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Wood, A, Anderson, CH 2001, The Case Study Method: Critical Thinking Enhanced by Effective Teacher Questioning Skills. Lund, Sweden, June 17 -21, pp. 1-12.

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Kim Cohen Deputy Principal

Developing Middle Leaders at St Margaret’s

There is much rhetoric about the difference between managers and leaders. In a recent google search, the very first hit that came up was an adaptation of a Wall Street Journal article (n.d.) by Alan Murray, which listed twelve differences in the summary.

Among these were: • The manager administers; the leader innovates.

• The manager maintains; the leader develops.

• The manager focuses on systems and structure; the leader focuses on people.

• The manager relies on control; the leader inspires trust.

• The manager imitates; the leader originates.

• The manager does things right; the leader does the right thing.

Everyone I have interviewed has their own understanding of what it means to be a manager or a leader. The middle leaders at St Margaret’s Anglican Girls School have to be both managers and leaders, as this is what the role requires. Our middle managers need to move from not simply managing their teams, but to leading them in the implementation of the school’s vision and, thus, its Strategic Plan.

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The school’s vision – to be an outstanding day and boarding school for girls – is concise. Every staff member must be aligned with and accountable for implementing strategies to realise this vision, and middle leaders must actively ensure their teams buy into the vision, and strive to achieve it in all they do, every day.

This year, St Margaret’s is focusing on the implementation of its Framework of Quality Teaching and Learning, which falls under the areas of ‘academic success’ and ‘outstanding staff’ within the school’s Strategic Plan. The framework supports teachers to ‘develop learners’ capacities to transfer their understandings to new and unfamiliar contexts ... [the framework] articulates the expectations of the school relating to the learning environment, the learning process, and the pedagogy that links the two’ (St Margaret’s AGS 2016).

To ensure their teams are implementing the framework within their teaching, middle leaders need to: • lead their teams to implement whole-school strategy through outstanding classroom practice every day • drive consistent teacher quality in their areas of responsibility through curriculum and pastoral leadership, lesson observations, staff accountability and mentoring • ensure consistency across the school by sharing, coaching, mentoring, collaborating with and challenging their teams, as well as fellow middle leaders, and thus influencing wholeschool behaviours • plan, monitor and develop teaching.

Ofsted (Office for Standards in Education, Children’s Services and Skills, UK) sums it up: “The role of middle managers is crucial to the steady and sustained improvement of schools. The head teachers and senior managers provide the vision but middle

managers effect the long-term changes, which will raise standards and improve the quality of education” (Teaching Leaders 2016, ‘Why middle leadership’, para.1).

Dinham (cited in Gurr & Drysdale 2013) found middle-level leaders more successful when they demonstrated: • a focus on students and their learning • high-level interpersonal skills, and generally being well-liked and trusted • high-level professional capacity and strategic resource allocation • promotion and advocacy of their departments and maintaining good external relations with the school • influencing department planning and organisation • developing common purpose, collaboration and sense of team within their department • fostering teacher learning, and developing a culture of shared responsibility and trust • clear vision, high expectations of themselves and others, and developing a culture of success.

With the welfare of St Margaret’s students always top of mind, we acknowledge that middle leaders need more than just the opportunity to attend workshops and conferences. To achieve better outcomes for our students, we need to offer our middle leaders something more relevant to our school and our context. We have supported our middle leaders to develop an understanding of their role in aligning staff to the school’s vision, mission and

strategic plan, as well as their role in leading staff to implement programs and models that support these outcomes.

In 2014, middle leaders attended sessions internally, presented by senior staff and guest presenters who covered topics such as: Staff Management 101, Middle Leaders as Enablers of Strategic Direction, and Middle Leaders as Drivers of the Vision of the School. The staff particularly enjoyed the final workshop presented by Ms Josephine Wise, Assistant Director (Education Services) at Independent Schools Queensland (ISQ), and asked that she facilitate further sessions.

It was clear that with Ms Wise’s industry knowledge, her understanding of St Margaret’s, and her experience in working with leaders at all phases of their development journey, she was the perfect person with whom to build a relationship. As an ‘outsider’, there were messages she could convey far more effectively than any of our own senior leaders.

Her sessions were built around a culture of trust and enquiry supporting learning conversations and the further development of dialogic skills.

Towards the end of 2015, St Margaret’s applied to be part of ISQ’s formal pilot Middle Leaders’ Program for 2016.

This program was developed using much of what had been trialled with our staff in 2015.

There has been much positive feedback from participants, regarding the 2016 program: “Being introduced to new ideas and leadership concepts, being challenged to reflect on my own leadership and discussing leadership with others has definitely stimulated my thinking in this area”.

“I personally found the sessions with Jo Wise to be very rewarding in that they provide an opportunity for me to simply stop and reflect on how I am travelling as a middle leader. Interestingly, these sessions have tended to fall during a really busy time of the term but I actually think this is what really worked for me as the session allowed me to

Ms Wise continues to work with the middle leaders to translate what they have discussed into the successful implementation of the Quality Teaching and Learning Framework in all classrooms throughout the school.

Through the process, middle leaders engage in a reflective feedback and review cycle, identifying learning needs, engaging in targeted learning, applying learning and seeking feedback on progress from their senior leader.

References: Gurr, D & Drysdale, L 2013, ‘Middle Level Secondary School Leaders’, Journal of Educational Administration, vol. 51, no. 1, pp. 55-71.

St Margaret’s AGS 2016, St Margaret’s Framework of Quality Teaching and Learning, St Margaret’s AGS, Brisbane.

Teaching Leaders 2016, Why middle leadership?, viewed 10 April 2016, http:// www.teachingleaders.org.uk/who-weare/mission-and-values/why-middleleadership/#sthash.

The Wall Street Journal (n.d.), ‘What is the Difference between Management and Leadership?’, viewed 9 April 2016, http:// guides.wsj.com/management/developinga-leadership-style/what-is-the-differencebetween-management-and-leadership/

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• guiding the group to refine and revise actionable knowledge for use

• building on current relationships to develop agency for improving outcomes.

consider how others perceived me during times of pressure/intensity”.

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Ms Wise worked with the middle leaders throughout 2015 after an initial introductory session run by senior leaders. Her emphasis was on creating a culture allowing middle leaders to be enablers of effective professional conversations. Her sessions covered aspects such as:

in practice • encouraging a collective responsibility for solving problems

THE CASE FOR POSITIVE MENTAL HEALTH PROMOTION IN SCHOOLS Introduction to positive mental health and its place in the school environment The holistic development of children is arguably the integral function of contemporary schooling. In recent years, greater onus has been on educational institutions to enhance the overall wellbeing of their students. Gone are the days when ‘the 3Rs’ ruled the curriculum; instead, in a complex and dynamic modern world, schools are being called upon to support and encourage their students to achieve not only academically, but to foster social, interpersonal, physical and spiritual growth.

Indeed, part of the mission statement of St Margaret’s includes our desire to produce ‘…confident, compassionate, capable women able to contribute to a global community.’ To achieve this mission, we need to ensure our students are healthy in mind, body and spirit. We can help do this through consciously promoting positive mental health in schools.

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The World Health Organisation (WHO) defines mental health as ‘a state of wellbeing in which every individual realises his or her own potential, can cope with the normal stresses of life, can work productively and fruitfully, and is able to make a contribution to her or his community’ (WHO 2014). This definition makes it clear that mental health is not merely about the absence of any mental illnesses or disorders, but is strongly

concerned with the promotion of positive elements of the human experience. This concept of positive mental health has gained traction, with indicators of positive mental health being drawn from the field of positive psychology. Psychologist Martin Seligman, the key proponent of positive psychology, has cited five key building blocks that form the basis of good mental health and wellbeing: positive emotions, engagement, relationships, meaning and purpose, and accomplishment (Seligman 2011). These five aspects are commonly known by the acronym PERMA. Other researchers have proposed that in addition to the PERMA attributes, positive mental health also involves another five domains: emotional stability, optimism, resilience, self-esteem and vitality (Huppert & So 2011). Consequently, the field of health promotion is concerned with the promotion and strengthening of these attributes, based on the idea that when individuals possess these, their mental wellbeing is considered to be ‘good’ and they are able to live happier, healthier and more fulfilling lives.

The elements of positive mental health are not intrinsic; rather, the development of these attributes can be taught like any other subject, skill or strategy, through considered and direct instruction. Recently the promotion of positive mental health has become more prominent in schools and has taken place in specialised lessons such as Social and Emotional Learning

Meg Kerr Secondary Teacher of their ethos. This can happen in the classroom, as well as through extra-curricular activities, assemblies and various school celebrations and rituals.

Another affordance enabling the delivery of positive mental health programs in schools is the relatively easy availability of effective and accurate resources that are tailored to meet the needs of different groups and ages. With an increased awareness of the need for positive mental health programs, Australian government departments support agencies that provide extremely comprehensive frameworks for the delivery of these programs. Response Ability, an initiative of the Australian Government Department of Health, and MindMatters, an arm of the renowned mental health promotion establishment beyondblue, are two such agencies.

With detailed, free resources available online, ranging from whole modules to lesson plans and specific factsheets, accessing resources on mental health has never been easier for schools.

(SEL), Health Studies, Pastoral Care classes and Religious and Values Education, depending on the school environment.

Many educational institutions, including St Margaret’s, embed these skills into pedagogy across the curriculum; for example, encouraging a ‘growth mindset’ towards academic achievement to foster resilience, optimism and self-esteem. Another example of this cross-curriculum prioritisation in practice is that the ‘principles of SEL can be infused throughout a school’s curriculum, such as when students are taught and asked to apply problem-solving steps to a character’s dilemma in a story, or when principles of collaboration and conflict resolution are taught, modelled, and reinforced in group work’ (Elias 2010, p. 18).

A review of the constraints and affordances of locating mental health promotion programs in educational settings

‘…found that one in five felt that they were not confident handling mental health issues in their students. Less than half of the 600 teachers and principals questioned by independent social research agency, TNS Social Research, agreed that it was easy to find training tools that help staff address the mental health of their students’ (beyondblue 2015).

The issue of staff self-efficacy is also highlighted by Askell-Williams et al., whose research into the MindMatters program found that staff had concerns ‘…about variations in teacher knowledge and confidence for delivering instruction about mental health, and about the selection, structuring, scope and sequence of classroom delivery of the provided resources’ (2009, p. 17).

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As more is expected of teachers, the very pressing issue of the ‘time-poor, frazzled teacher’ is also a factor constraining the promotion of mental health. Organisations such as MindMatters and Response Ability make it easier and less time-consuming to access mental health training and resources. However, within schools, professional learning on mental health must also compete with professional learning in other areas, such as curriculum changes and development, technology and even First Aid and fire training. Teachers are at particularly high risk of high-stress and burnout (Howard & Johnson 2004) and the area of mental health is one where sensitivity and accuracy are paramount. School administrators must be mindful that when asking teachers to instruct students in the area of positive mental health, they take precautions to minimise the stress which this may cause for staff.

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Schools have a great opportunity to promote positive mental health because they have a captive market. Children in Australia must attend school from the age of five until between fifteen and seventeen, depending on the state.

They are exposed not only to academic curriculum, but also behaviours and skills which promote positive mental health, such as teamwork and co-operation. Unsurprisingly, ‘given schools’ unique ability to access large numbers of children, they are most commonly identified as the best place to provide supports to promote the universal mental health of children’ (CASEL 2008). Furthermore, Askell-Williams et al. (2009) argue that ‘schools provide ready-made systems suitable for supporting learning programs designed to foster health and wellbeing’ (p. 15). These educational institutions have the ability to include SEL classes into their work programs, as well as to make SEL skills a cross-curricular priority. A school can promote positive mental health by building a whole-school culture that both fosters and prioritises key elements of positive mental health, like meaning and purpose, as part

As well as key affordances, there are also constraints associated with the promotion of positive mental health in schools.

These are mainly staff-related; staff play a fundamental role in organising and delivering mental health curriculum. A recent survey of principals and teachers by beyondblue:

Justification for the implementation of a positive mental health program While the great benefits of promoting positive mental health in schools have been outlined above, the dangers of not endorsing positive mental health initiatives cannot be ignored. Mental health issues have become very common amongst youth of the twenty-first century, with alarming statistics revealing the extent of the problem. According to the Black Dog Institute (2012), approximately one in four young Australians will experience mental health issues, the highest of any age group. Research indicates that the onset of mental illness is occurring at a younger age, with over half of all lifetime cases of mental disorders being diagnosed by the age of fourteen, and three-quarters by the age of 24 (Rickwood 2007); and that ‘more than ever, students are faced with uncertainty in their daily lives and in their futures, and many feel a sense of insecurity, disenfranchisement, disillusionment, and even fear’ (Zins & Elias 2007, p. 237). If left untreated, mental health issues can have serious and far-reaching consequences for not only the person experiencing the issue, but also their loved-ones and the wider community.

The WHO (2005) explains that, ‘mental health and mental illnesses are determined by multiple and interacting social, psychological and biological factors’. Although studies have shown that people of lower socioeconomic status have higher rates of mental health disorders, particularly depression and certain anxiety disorders (Fryer et al. 2005), wealth does not provide immunity. Indeed, other risk factors associated with the development of mental health problems outlined by Kids Helpline, such as ‘...family conflict, violence, separation, step/ blended families, single parenting and poor parenting’ (2012, p. 2), do not discriminate based on culture or wealth. The development and implementation of a successful positive mental health promotion plan is important for every school in the nation, state or independent, whether it has a religious affiliation or not, and regardless of the socio-economic status of the students.

Positive mental health provides the foundation for the confident and capable individuals schools strive to produce.

The decline of mental health amongst students is a huge barrier standing in the way of producing such students.

The successful implementation of positive mental health promotions in schools is an important step towards overcoming this barrier.

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According to MindMatters (2015), a successful whole school mental health strategy leads to benefits like: improved academic results; fewer behavioural issues; greater staff, student and family engagement in school activities; better student and staff retention; positive word of mouth about the school; and a positive school culture.

What more could a school wish for?

References Askell-Williams, H, Lawson, MJ, Murray-Harvey, R and Slee, PT 2005, An investigation of the implementation of a MindMatters teaching module in secondary school classrooms. Commissioned report to MindMatters Consortium of the Australian Principals Association Professional Development Council. Flinders University, Adelaide, Australia.

Askell-Williams, H, Lawson, MJ & Slee, PT 2009, ‘Venturing into schools: Locating mental health initiatives in complex environments’, International Journal of Emotional Education, vol. 1, no. 2, pp. 14-33. beyondblue 2015, beyondblue launches new MindMatters initiative to improve mental health in Australian secondary schools, viewed 20 April 2016, https://www.beyondblue.org.au/about-us/news/ news/2015/05/03/i-beyondblue-i-launches-new-mindmattersinitiative-to-improve-mental-health-in-australian-secondary-schools Black Dog Institute 2012, Facts and Figures about Mental Health and Mood Disorders, viewed 18 April 2016, http://www.blackdoginstitute. org.au/docs/Factsandfiguresaboutmentalhealthandmooddisorders.pdf CASEL 2008, Frequently Asked Questions about SEL, viewed 18 April 2016, http://www.casel.org/social-and-emotional-learning/frequentlyasked-questions/ Elias, M 2010, ‘Sustainability of Social-Emotional Learning and related programs: Lessons from a field study’, International Journal of Emotional Education, vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 17-33.

Fryers, T, Melzer, D, Jenkins, R & Brugha, T 2005, ‘The distribution of the common mental disorders: Social inequalities in Europe’, Clinical Practice and Epidemiology in Mental Health, vol. 1, no. 14, pp. 1-12.

Howard, S & Johnson, B 2004, ‘Resilient teachers: resisting stress and burnout’, Social Psychology of Education, vol. 7, pp. 399-420.

Huppert, FA & So, TT 2013, ‘Flourishing Across Europe: Application of a New Conceptual Framework for Defining Well-Being’, Social Indicator Research, vol. 110, no. 3, pp. 837-86.

Kids Helpline 2012, Information Sheet: Mental Health Issues, viewed 18 April 2016, http://www.kidshelp.com.au/upload/22928.pdf MindMatters 2015, What is Mind Matters?, viewed 20 April 2016, http://www.mindmatters.edu.au/ Rickwood, D 2007, Conceptual framework for PPEI and applications in general practice: Overview of the literature. Australian Network for Promotion, Prevention and Early Intervention for Mental Health, Adelaide.

Seligman M 2011, Flourish: A visionary new understanding of happiness and well-being, Simon & Schuster, New York.

World Health Organisation 2014, Mental Health: A State of Wellbeing, viewed 18 April 2016, http://www.who.int/features/factfiles/ mental_health/en/ World Health Organisation 2005, Promoting mental health: concepts, emerging evidence, practice: report of the World Health Organization, Department of Mental Health and Substance Abuse in collaboration with the Victorian Health Promotion Foundation and the University of Melbourne, viewed 18 April 2016, http://www.who.int/mental_health/ evidence/MH_Promotion_Book.pdf Zins JE & Elias MJ 2007, ‘Social and Emotional Learning: Promoting the Development of All Students’, Journal of Educational and Psychological Consultation, vol. 17, no. 2-3, pp. 233-255.

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Ray Geise Secondary Teacher, Toc H Coordinator

TALBOT HOUSE AND TOC H celebrate their centenary

Talbot House is in the small Belgian town of Poperinge, which is 12 kilometres west of the city of Ypres. It is today one of Belgium’s national treasures, and from 10 to 16 December in 2015 the 100th anniversary of its opening and its association with the Toc H Movement was celebrated. People from around the world gathered in Poperinge to take part in this special event. In her address at the Centenary Dinner, former Prime Minister of New Zealand Mrs Helen Clark spoke at length about Talbot House and its significance, both during World War I and also in the 100 years since then.

On 11 December, 1915, Talbot House opened its doors to young men serving in the Ypres Salient at that time. Death and destruction surrounded them. Queensland born Army Chaplain The Reverend Philip (Tubby) Clayton was appointed Warden of the House. Above its main entrance was a sign which read in capital letters: ‘TALBOT HOUSE… 1915 – ?...

EVERY-MAN’S CLUB’, whilst inside was a framed statement: ‘ABANDON RANK ALL WHO ENTER HERE’. These two things alone made Talbot House a place that was unique for the times. What happened inside had all to do with friendship – bringing people together and breaking down the barriers that so often kept them apart. As Tubby Clayton used to say, ‘it was a very special kind of friendship’ – a warm welcome, a cup of tea in the kitchen or dining room, and a chat with whoever was there. Central to the ethos of Talbot House, however, was the Upper Room, the Chapel, and what happened in it had a lasting effect on so many young men. Those who experienced

this ethos, and who survived the war, believed that it should be passed on to future generations. It was the birth of a movement. Toc H and this movement has influenced tens of thousands of people around the world for the past one hundred years.

Right from its beginning Toc H was unique. In its Main Resolution, the focus was to be on ‘things eternal’ – love, care, compassion, courage and hope; not on ‘things temporal’ – rank, position, authority, money or possessions. This is why Toc H has so often been referred to as a ‘movement’ and not an ‘organisation’, in the same way that the Renaissance or the Reformation were movements. It was not surprising, therefore, that the founders of the Toc H Movement adopted ‘friendship’ as the first of its aims; the first of the four Points of the Compass: • to love widely – friendship • to build bravely – service • to think fairly – fairmindedness • to witness humbly – The Kingdom of God. Talbot House was seen by those around the world who joined the Toc H Movement as its spiritual home. This explains why so many have visited the House over the past 100 years.

It was why Tubby himself visited it at least once every year throughout his long life. Talbot House became a place of pilgrimage for many people.

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During World War I, many who found their way to Talbot House would also have been surprised to hear the sound of music issuing forth from the piano in the dining room. Sounds from the same piano are often heard today. It is good to see this and indeed so many other things around the House which take one back to 1915. It has a great story to tell and this story is very well told and illustrated in all parts of the House, but especially in its museum. It has been preserved and is just as it was in the years 1915 to 1918.

There was a powerful message coming out of the wonderful centenary celebrations and this message was that the lessons learnt in Talbot House from 1915 to 1918 are still very relevant in the 21st century. Things like friendship, service and fairmindedness are still very much needed in our world. It was evident, for example, that there was the same wonderful spirit of friendship emanating from the House today, as we can imagine it would have 100 years ago. Every time the doorbell rang and was answered by the warden or staff of the House, there was the same very warm welcome and an invitation to come in and have a cup of tea or coffee in the kitchen or the dining room. People from many different countries and different socio-economic backgrounds were introduced to others enjoying the same hospitality and they simply ‘chatted’, so often the beginning of new friendships.

A real highlight of these Centenary Celebrations was the World Chain of Light which started at 9.00pm on 11 December and concluded at 9.00pm on 12 December and was held in The Upper Room or Chapel. There was an opening service and a closing service and these captured the real ethos of Talbot House and the aims of the Toc H Movement.

In the opening service the focus was on the Four Points of the Compass and their importance and relevance to the world in the 21st century. The words of welcome at the beginning of the service are worth some thought: It is right and fitting on occasions like these to look back to the past and remember with gratitude those who came before us and made our beautiful movement what it is today. It is also right to look forward and rediscover within us the hope and confidence to embark on a promising future.

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These words from the closing service are also worthy of note and they should be passed on to future generations for they remind us of the real work of Toc H as envisaged by its founders: The family of Toc H consists of people from different backgrounds and nationalities, different ages and convictions. The inspiring example of Padre Clayton brings us together here and makes strangers into friends. Today we promise again – and more than ever – that we will commit ourselves to building a better world, by small personal acts of love and service, and by listening to one another.

There has been a Toc H group at St Margaret’s for the past twenty years and it has been very well supported by the girls and staff. There is a saying in Toc H that service is the rent we pay for our room on earth, and this notion of service has directed all of the Toc H activities and projects at St Margaret’s. It has a lot to do with character building and building a caring community. Some of the projects undertaken by the girls include: collecting and distributing Easter eggs and toys for children in the Lady Cilento Children’s Hospital; helping to take children in need to the Brisbane Exhibition for a day; organising concerts in an aged care home; making scrapbooks for people suffering from dementia; knitting various items for people in nursing homes; and embossing Get Well, Birthday and Christmas Cards. Meetings are held once a week and at the conclusion of each meeting girls take the Toc H Ceremony of Light in the School Chapel.

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At the conclusion of the Centenary Celebrations, there was a two day international conference during which a Charter was signed by members of the Talbot House Association, which

Toc H at St Margaret’s

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Another highlight was the Last Post Ceremony at the Menin Gate in Ypres, which is held every night at 8.00pm. This service commemorates the lives of 57,000 young men who were killed in the Ypres Salient and who have no known graves. It also is a reminder of just how important Talbot House was for those who survived the great battles of this part of the Western Front: Messines, Polygon Wood, Ypres, Broodseinde, and Passchendaele. During the Ceremony on 13 December, the Toc H Ceremony of Light was taken and wreaths were laid

by Toc H representatives from Australia, Zimbabwe, South Africa, The United Kingdom, India and Belgium. It was a solemn reminder of the futility of war.

owns Talbot House, and members of Toc H from around the world. This will ensure that the two bodies will continue to work together to preserve and carry on the traditions of Talbot House for another 100 years and inspire many to continue with the great work which has been so worthwhile to so many.

This work is all to do with the eternal realities – love, care and compassion. When they are put into practice, they become a powerhouse for good in the world; they do much, as Tubby also used to say, ‘to conquer hate’.

Kirsty Findlater Secondary Teacher

Emma Willard School and St Margaret’s

– exchanging shared values On the 28 November 2015, I embarked on a journey to the United States of America to participate in the first international teacher exchange to Emma Willard School in Troy, New York State.

Named after its founder, Emma Willard School is in its third century of operation and has the goal of empowering every student to realise their full potential. With only 359 students (including 219 boarders), the school has a unique approach to the teaching and learning process. The maximum number of students within a class is between 12 and 14; this allows for teachers within Emma Willard School to practice the Harkness Conference Table Method style of teaching.

Dating back to the early 1920s, the Harkness method was developed as an innovative way to engage all members of the classroom (Smith & Foley 2009). This pedagogical practice

uses a student-centred approach which incorporates intellectual discussions to stimulate critical thinking and understanding (D’Ugo 2013). Students must be prepared with readings and the work necessary to enrich the discussion (De Gregori 2011; Smith & Foley 2009).

Instead of the teacher standing at the front of the classroom, the Harkness method involves the teacher and students seated around an oval table (D’Ugo 2013). This allows for all students to have eye contact with one another, which promotes an interactive discussion amongst peers without relying upon the teacher for direction (D’Ugo 2013). At Emma, I observed this pedagogical practice being successfully implemented in science, history and mathematics classrooms.

In addition to observing classes, I was provided with opportunities to teach in the science department. Once the students adjusted to my Australian accent, I was able to share

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the wonders of Australia. In one particular class (Advanced Placement Biology), we discussed the theoretical components of ecology and then applied these to the wildlife found in Australia. The outbreak of the Crown-of-Thorns starfish in the Great Barrier Reef and the iconic 2009 picture of the koala drinking from the water bottle as a result of the Victorian bush fires stimulated much conversation.

During my three-week stay, I participated in the Emma Willard School Program in a number of other ways. With the indoor track season in full swing, I assisted with coaching the middle distance runners. A competition with a running track of only 200m with six lanes and races ranging from the 60m dash to the 3000m run (a lot of laps!) was extremely different to the tartan track of the QSAC stadium I am used to. As well as numerous sporting opportunities, Emma Willard students are also encouraged to participate in a large number of community service groups. I was fortunate to be able to join the ‘Boys and Girls Club’. On Wednesday afternoons, this club travelled to the local community centre to volunteer their time to help young boys and girls with their homework and with supervising games. It was very rewarding to have the opportunity to meet and support primary-aged students.

While on exchange, I was pleased to meet Emma Willard staff – a group of highly committed individuals who welcomed me warmly. These individuals are passionate about their professions. I felt very honoured to be chosen as the St Margaret’s representative for this international exchange.

References De Gregori, A 2011, ‘Reimagining the Classroom: Opportunities to Link Recent Advances in Pedagogy to Physical Settings’, viewed 8 April 2016, http://internet.iu5.org/sites/SpecialEducation/ Administrators%20Toolkit%20for%20Classroom%20Management/ Module%201%20-%20Maximize%20Classroom%20Structure/ Module%201%20PowerPoint/Articles%20and%20Resources/ Reimagining_the_Classroom.pdf D’Ugo, I 2013, Use of the Harkness conference method to improve proficiency and critical thinking skills in second language acquisition.

Doctorate. St John’s University, New York.

Smith, L & Foley, M 2009, ‘Partners in a Human Enterprise: Harkness Teaching in the History Classroom’, The History Teacher, vol. 42, no. 4, pp. 477-496.

Although there are many differences between Emma Willard School and St Margaret’s, our core values are very similar. Both school communities possess a strong culture and both staff and students are very supportive.

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Mary Surtees Head of Planning and Organisation - Primary

PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT: why do we do it?

Professional development (PD) is key to a long and productive teaching career. Investing time and money in professional development activities leads to better quality teachers, and better learning outcomes for students.

Some teachers stay with teaching for their entire professional life. To be at the “top of their game”, they must continually grow, extend themselves, step outside their comfort zone, and, like their students, maintain their position on the life-long learning journey.

Several authors (Bubb & Earley 2007; Day & Sachs 2004) report that professional development encompasses all formal and informal learning that enables individuals to improve their own practice.

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Schools have changed and evolved over the years. Thirty years ago when I graduated as a new teacher, I was led to believe that I could only teach – nothing else. Schools were purely educational institutions. Today’s teachers are expected to be so much more than ‘just teachers’. Schools today have to be run as businesses with CEOs and business managers. In today’s school, PD is a serious business, central to both the role of teachers and the leadership role of principals (Day 1994). Regardless of the stage of their professional career, PD is vital for the personal and professional future of the teacher and the overall benefit a teacher brings to the school.

Bubb and Earley (2007) remark that a school that does not look after its staff’s PD usually loses the best people.

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Buysse et al (2009) describe the key components of PD as the who, what and how. In planning any PD, a school

principal needs to first analyse who is attending the PD, what will be covered during this PD and how it will be presented. Professional development courses are expensive to run so the school seeks to achieve value for money.

The school also expects teachers who attend to bring back their new-found knowledge and impart this to fellow colleagues and, more importantly, use it to improve the outcomes of their students.

Day and Sachs (2004) believe that PD is no longer optional. It is an expectation of all true professionals. Each school has different priorities in its PD plan.

The school’s goals and values, financial constraints and clientele all directly and indirectly influence the PD plan.

Logan and Dempster (1992) believe that the quality of education and teacher quality are influenced by the climate and opportunities for professional growth within a school.

Care must be taken to devise a suitably crafted PD for staff. Lester (2003) discovered that secondary teachers often found the benefits of PDs were exaggerated; that too much information was covered in a short period of time; and that the enthusiasm generated was quickly lost when faced with the reality of normal day-to-day tasks. Day and Sachs (2004) believe that PD should focus on individual needs and that identifying teachers’ agendas is crucial to learning and change. Professional development should be ongoing – new demands and a changing curriculum mean that learning and development are never ending (Bubb & Earley 2007).

As Day and Sachs (2004) report, professional development is about a range of activities – both informal and formal and about the short and long term development of the person. Bubb and Earley (2007) have suggested that the hallmark of being identified as a professional is to continue to learn throughout a career. Lieberman (1996) proposes that professional development is located in one of three settings: conferences (direct learning); in schools (mentoring, team planning); and out of schools (networks, professional associations).

Sharing the knowledge gained from PD is an important part of professional development. The process begins with the teacher attending a course; it continues when the teacher takes the information back to school and shares it with colleagues, and by the teacher’s involvement with professional associations and networking opportunities. Guskey (2003) suggests that educators value opportunities to work together, reflect on their practices, exchange ideas and share strategies. At some stage in their careers, all teachers may have attended a PD where both the presenter and the session were ineffective; however, the networking and the sharing of ideas with other professionals proved highly valuable.

Significant organisational change, a greater call for accountability and for schools to offer value-added services (Sachs 2003) mean that today’s school must be seen to offer relevant and topical PD for their teachers, or, at least,

to encourage participation. Bubb and Earley (2007) make the observation that schools are learning-centred communities where investment in people, specifically teachers, should be given the priority it deserves. By increasing my knowledge base, I bring useful tools to my school. Professional development’s ultimate goal in education is improvements in student learning (Guskey 2003).

University Press, Maidenhead.

Bubb, S & Earley, P 2007, Leading and managing continuing professional development, 2nd edn, Paul Chapman Publishing, London.

Guskey, TR 2003, ‘What makes professional development effective?’, Phi Delta Kappan, vol. 84, no. 10, p. 748.

Buysse, V, Winton, PJ & Rous, B 2009, ‘Reaching consensus on a definition of professional development by the early childhood field’, Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, vol. 28, no. 4, pp. 235-243.

Lester, JH 2003, ‘Planning effective secondary professional development programs’, American Secondary Education, vol. 32, no. 1, 49-61.

Day, C & Sachs, J 2004, ‘Professionalism, performativity and empowerment: Discourses in the politics, policies and purposes of continuing professional development’, in C Day & J Sachs (eds), International handbook on the continuing professional development of teachers, Open

Sachs, J 2003, The Activist Teaching Profession, Open University Press, Buckingham.

Logan, L. & Dempster, N 1992, ‘In-service education: New principles for practice’, L Logan & N Dempster (eds), Teachers in Australian Schools: Issues for the 90’s Australian College of Education, Canberra.

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Day, CW 1994, July, Planning for the professional development of teachers and schools: A principled approach, Keynote address at the Brisbane Catholic Education Primary Principals Convocation.

Lieberman, A 1996, ‘Practices that support teacher development: transforming conceptions of professional learning’, in MW McLaughlin & I Oberman (eds), Teacher Learning: New Policies, New Practices, Teachers College Press, Columbia University, New York.

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The money invested in professional development, the time spent attending, the knowledge gleaned and the networking opportunities combine to ensure that teachers who attend will enrich their personal and professional lives and therefore enrich the lives of their students.

References

Nikki Townsend Dean of Students

WOMEN IN SENIOR LEADERSHIP POSITIONS: you can’t be what you can’t see!

How can women currently in executive roles in school settings encourage and inspire female colleagues to be leaders? How can we prepare them to understand the past, the present and the future of women in educational leadership? How can we increase the visibility of women leaders as role models in our schools? This article examines the challenges women face and provides practical suggestions for career advancement.

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Much has been written about the barriers and roadblocks that have deterred women from climbing the corporate ladder or putting themselves forward and grasping opportunities

for leadership positions. In his study ‘Why are there so few women CEOs in Australia’, Dr Terrance Fitzsimmons (2013) found that only 3.5 per cent of ASX200 companies had women CEOs. In May 2016, I co-presented with St Aidan’s Dean of Students Karen Gorrie at the National Alliance of Girls’ Schools Australasia Conference in Brisbane.

In the presentation, Ms Gorrie and I examined the challenges women may face with progression into senior leadership in schools. We discussed the positive difference women bring to leadership and why women should follow their desire to take the journey into senior management.

The session explored the importance of work-life balance in helping women to progress to senior management in schools. Practical examples were given of how women can manage their homes and their families while becoming effective leaders within school settings.

Time was allocated to sharing ideas on how the balance in their own lives played out and how to achieve a more effective work-life balance.

Research shows that many talented women do not consider promotional positions for various reasons.

Traditionally women are the primary caregivers of the young and the elderly.

Childcare is expensive and often their

partners have a full-time job. Women feel there is no choice but to drop out of their teaching vocation or disrupt their career to manage both family and work. Many females experience guilt because of society’s expectations of women. Alternatively some women seek more functional roles with no career progression to achieve a more balanced lifestyle. Adjusting the traditional expectations is the key to assisting women progress with their careers.

Karen Spiller (2011, p. 5), suggests ‘until the expectation that both parents will take parenting leave is entrenched in our community, women will continue to be disadvantaged by time out of the workforce’.

Unlike men, women do not appear to strategically manage their careers. Sheryl Sandberg, author of Lean In (2013), believes women often judge their own performance to be worse than it actually is. They undersell their capabilities and experience, and lack confidence in their ability to put themselves forward for promotional positions.

Women have different leadership styles to men and this at times can be misunderstood or not valued. Some assume that females are unwilling to make tough calls. If they do try to emulate the leadership style of men, they are labelled ‘aggressive’ instead of ‘assertive’ like their male counterparts.

Our female colleagues and the adolescent girls we teach deserve and need to see confident, capable and compassionate female leaders – we can’t be what we can’t see! Certainly, the education of girls has long been viewed as a means for addressing gender disparities in society, but the need to specifically address women in leadership development must also be raised (Archard n.d.). These women leaders help shape who we are, who we aspire to be, and how we are viewed by society. Representation by women in senior management roles in our schools is vital for the future of women’s leadership.

References Archard, N n.d, ‘Female Leaders of Tomorrow’, in J Pool, (ed.), Empowering Young Women, CIRCLE, Crows Nest, Sydney.

Fitzsimmons Dr T 2013, ‘Why are there so few women CEOs in Australia’, The Australian Executive – Women and Leadership, Australia, viewed 1 May 2016, http:// www.wla.com.au/events/13/BrisIS/WLA_ Symposium2013_Brisbane_regional.pdf Sanders, S 2013, Lean In: Women, Work, and the Will to Lead, Ebury Publishing, United Kingdom.

Spiller, K 2011, ‘To examine strategies for preparing female leaders for the role of Principalship in Australian Schools’, The Winston Churchill Memorial Trust of Australia Report, viewed 5 May 2016, http:// www.staidans.qld.edu.au/Documents/ Annual%20Awards%20Ceremonies/2012/ Churchill%20Fellowship%20Report%20by%20 Karen%20Spiller.pdf

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On the issue of creating a positive work life balance, discussions focused on the importance of self-organisation and staying healthy by eating, drinking, exercising and getting enough sleep. Knowing one’s strengths and limitations and seeking a good mentor or sponsor is vital to an individual’s career progression. Associates were also encouraged to join women-only agencies and build relationships with

executives in other sectors. This becomes a sacred space where women can express their concerns, and plan and manage their career advancement.

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The positive difference females bring to the boardroom can be immeasurable.

Women are often champions of change.

In this area, their leadership style brings much expertise to the table.

Initiative, innovation, problem solving, relationship building, collaboration, integrity, honesty and better financial performance are some qualities typically shown by women leaders. Female leaders often encourage colleagues to develop themselves and others; this results in healthy work environments where the organisation’s visions are met.

During the presentation, we gave insights to delegates into useful workplace practices and strategies to help them advance. These included the pursuit of ongoing study at a Masters level, a common requirement of leading educational settings. Keeping abreast of current education trends is also important and can be achieved by joining professional associations such as the Australian Council of Educational Leaders (ACEL) and Australian College of Education (ACE), undertaking leadership courses, and regular professional reading. Attending most school events to connect with the school community and build rapport with all stakeholders is necessary. Presenting at conferences or providing workshops shows initiative and builds networking opportunities. Progressing to senior management requires an understanding of educational law, finance and governance perspectives. Colleagues were also reminded of the importance of their personal branding and appropriate use of social media. It’s important to be prepared for jobs as they arise. Aspiring leaders should regularly update their curriculum vitae and practise interview questions. Women were encouraged to put themselves forward for acting or promotional positions and shadow those people in sought-after positions.

Unsuccessful attempts at promotion can be seen as a great learning experience rather than as a negative, and feedback is crucial to an individual’s career development.

Creating a culture of thinking Schools are complex places. At their worst, they are bureaucratic institutions that focus unwaveringly on the achievement of high results on nationally mandated tests with little regard for the broader picture of learning. At their best, they are places of creativity, curiosity and inspiration, which have learning firmly front and centre. Of course when learning is prioritised in a meaningful way, test results ultimately take care of themselves. It may sound ludicrous to articulate the need for schools to prioritise learning when surely schools are in fact places of learning. What else is a school for if not to learn? The crucial point here rests on an understanding of what learning is. Learning requires engagement between an external stimulus and an individual. Learning can only happen inside the head of that individual. For learning to occur, an individual must process the material they encounter so they are able to internalise it in a meaningful way and build understanding for a specific purpose. The key words which emerge here are process, internalise and understanding.

These terms imply active engagement on the part of students.

Essentially, for students to learn, they have to think.

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Learning cannot occur without thinking. This means that the focus of schools must be on thinking, if they are to create rich learning environments. Schools need to teach students to think, they need to teach for thinking and they need to teach about thinking (Costa 2008). This three-pronged approach ensures that thinking is a central focus of the curriculum.

It is important that students emerge from schools with an understanding of learning that goes beyond the remembering of data and always coming up with the correct answer. To contribute on a societal level, students need to be questioners, critics, constructors of knowledge and problem solvers (Claxton 2012). It is these dispositions which are essential if schools are to prepare young people for “a world where knowledge itself is constantly growing and evolving” (ACARA 2013). Our students will need to “be able to operate with confidence in a complex, information-rich, globalised world” (ACARA 2013).

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The necessity to teach thinking is not a new educational concern. In fact it has been deemed “one of the most persistent and ambitious aspirations of education with a tradition

stretching back at least to Plato” (Swartz & Perkins 1990, p.

5); however, the question of how to successfully facilitate a culture of thinking within a classroom remains. The concept of teaching thinking is often daunting. Although we all generally understand what thinking is, it can be difficult to name the myriad of mental activities which may be involved, and even more difficult to know how to facilitate desired cognitive processes. There is no magic mechanism for enhancing student thinking, but there are certainly some specific actions which assist. Attending to the environment which exists within the learning space is a fundamental necessity, as is making good choices about the content used as the medium to develop thinking and the way that content is shared. It is also important that students become part of the dialogue about thinking and are given opportunities to practise it.

Fostering a culture of thinking requires establishing an environment conducive to good learning, allowing students to take academic risks and pushing their thinking into new places.

The ultimate indicator of a high quality thinking environment is the capacity of students to transfer their understandings to unfamiliar contexts (Claxton 2012; Hattie 2009; Mazur 1997; Ritchhart, Church & Morrison 2011; Ritchhart 2015; Stobart 2014). To achieve this, the environment must satisfy both the cognitive and emotional needs of learners, allowing them to feel safe and connected (Kort, Reilly & Picard 2001; Stobart 2014) and consequently engage in the intellectual exercise necessary for the deep and sustained learning which is characterised by transfer. Essentially this means that not only do students require the ability to think, but they need to develop the dispositions to apply their thinking when not directed to do so (Ritchhart 2007). The key elements of a learning environment which ultimately facilitates this are connection, differentiation, motivation, challenge and feedback (St Margaret’s AGS 2016).

When each of these elements is considered as equally as important as curriculum delivery, a fertile learning environment ensues.

To educate students in a way that will not only enable them to think critically and creatively, but inspire them to do so, there is a need to “make thinking visible” (Ritchhart, Church & Morrison 2011; Ritchhart 2015), and to provide them with

Samantha Bolton Dean of Pedagogy and Enhanced Learning frameworks and scaffolds that allow them to practise different types of thinking. The first step in this quest is identifying the thinking students are engaged in. This allows teachers to understand what their students are understanding which then allows them to take the learning deeper and identify misconceptions (Ritchhart, Church & Morrison 2011). This deepening process is not about drilling students in thinking skills (Perkins & Ritchhart 2004) within a specific context, but rather about establishing routines which can be applied to multiple contexts. Ron Ritchhart, Senior Research Associate and Principal Investigator of Project Zero at Harvard Graduate School of Education, is arguably the best known advocate of the use of thinking routines to create the dispositions that allow students to transfer their thinking capabilities to novel situations. He and his colleagues view thinking routines as tools to promote specific types of thinking, as structures which scaffold and lead student thinking, and as patterns of behaviour (Ritchhart, Church & Morrison 2011).

we are trying to figure out what will entice students to commit the levels of energy and intelligence that will be repaid in epistemic growth” (Claxton 2012, p. 16). When students feel a connection with the subject matter, either through personal experience or by the teacher giving the topic “a personal face”, students’ use of thinking routines becomes more meaningful (Caldwell 2012). It is easier to challenge and push students’ thinking when the subject matter captures their emotions.

Thinking routines are not subject specific. Their application allows the educator to focus on the thinking that is occurring in a meaningful way by using different types of content as the vehicle.

An example of this is the See, Think, Wonder routine (Ritchhart, Church & Morrison 2011), which enables a discussion of the different types of thinking being employed when we are engaged in literal comprehension as opposed to analysis. This can be effectively used on an image or with text, prompting students to look more deeply at a specific source. Questions direct students to the different types of thinking required. For example, a teacher might pose the following questions.

References

1. What can you see/what do you notice in this image? We are only looking for things you can put your finger on. describing, identifying, noticing, observing

2. What do you think is going on in this image? Based on what you can see what interpretations of this image could be made? interpreting, inferring, drawing conclusions, using evidence

3. What questions does this photo prompt you to ask? Try to go beyond the personal story. questioning, inquiring, connecting There are many directions that could be explored as a result of this sort of questioning. In this case the questions were being applied to a photograph of a young Australian soldier with two small boys in a Brisbane backyard. Certainly these questions could be used to steer the students to a deepening understanding of World War II and its reality, but they can also be used to give students experience with how it feels to be thinking in different ways.

Caldwell, M 2012, Inquiry into identity: ‘Teaching critical thinking through a study of race, class and gender’, Middle School Journal, March 2012, pp. 6-15.

Claxton, G 2012, ‘School as an epistemic apprenticeship: the case of building learning power’, The 32nd Vernon-Wall Lecture presented at the Annual Meeting of the Education Section of the British Psychological Society, viewed 15 April, 2016, http://www.winchester. ac.uk/aboutus/lifelonglearning/CentreforRealWorldLearning/ Documents/Claxton%20(2013)%20School%20as%20an%20 epistemic%20apprenticeship%20(Vernon%20Wall).pdf Costa, AL 2008, The School as a Home for the Mind, Corwin Press, California.

Hattie, J 2009, Visible Learning, Routledge, New York.

Kort, B, Reilly, R & Picard, RW 2001, ‘An Affective Model of Interplay Between Emotions and Learning: Reengineering Educational Pedagogy – Building a Learning Companion’, IEEE International Conference on Advanced Learning Techniques.

Mazur, E 1997, ‘Understanding or memorization: Are we teaching the right thing’, in J Wilson (ed.), Conference on the Introductory Physics Course on the occasion of the retirement of Robert Resnick, Wiley, New York.

Perkins, DN & Ritchhart, R 2004, ‘When is good thinking?’, in D.Y. Dai & R.J. Sternberg (eds), Motivation, emotion and cognition: Integrative perspectives on intellectual functioning and development, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ. Ritchhart, R, Church, M & Morrison, K 2011, Making Thinking Visible, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco.

Ritchhart, R 2015, Creating Cultures of Thinking, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco.

Swartz, RJ 1990, Teaching Thinking: Issues and Approaches, Midwest Publications Co Inc., California.

Wiliam, D 2011, Embedded Formative Assessment, Hawker Brownlow, Melbourne.

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St Margaret’s Anglican Girls School 2016, St Margaret’s Framework of Quality Teaching and Learning 2016, St Margaret’s Anglican Girls School, Brisbane.

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The content used to engage students in thinking is significant.

It is the carrot which will draw students to the task. Guy Claxton of Winchester University puts it beautifully saying, “fussing about curriculum content – whether we should be teaching Bleak House or Harry Potter – matters most when

Teaching students to think is messy and difficult. It requires tenacity from both teacher and learner to sit in zones of discomfort and not knowing. Thinking demands student involvement. It requires active participants, not passive receivers of information. Having a culture of thinking in a school is vitally important. An intellectually stimulating environment promotes learning for both teachers and students, providing the ingredients for growth and meaningful progress.

Stobart, G 2014, The Expert Learner, McGraw-Hill, Berkshire.

Nicole Devlin Dean of Studies

Engagement

as a cognitive verb The topic of student engagement has received heightened interest in recent years and is increasingly recognised as the key to authentic learning; however, the drive for accountability within schools has produced a system facing a level of student disengagement.

McWilliam and Taylor (2012) challenge educators to construct classrooms based around personally significant learning for all students to enable them to understand and appreciate:

High stakes testing, websites that publish league tables and a media looking to pounce on any negative of a school has driven the education system into the accountability corner, with teachers feeling the pressure to produce high results and outcomes for schools.

• the discomfort of learning should not be avoided

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Erica McWilliam and Peter Taylor (2012) have on numerous occasions expressed their concerns that accountability and other factors are stopping students from developing the learning dispositions that will enable them to be self-managing learners.

They argue that students need to be given opportunities to take their rightful place as active and ethical participants in the world, not play it safe through the imitation and memorisation that is required by a system driven by accountability and success defined by high test scores.

• that learning matters more than knowing

• the need to develop relentless curiosity, knowledge agility and have the ability to unlearn.

This approach increases the expectation on the students in terms of their engagement in their own learning. After all, the intention of learning is that it needs to be ‘owned’ by all who engage in it (McWilliam & Taylor 2012).

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In a perfect world, education should be where students choose to learn at a school where they are engaged in learning; where they are required to actively participate in challenging learning activities; where they develop higher-order thinking skills; and where they have opportunities to interact and collaborate with peers and teachers.

However, due to the accountability drive of the education system, students are at risk of becoming passive receivers of information, where they rote learn concepts and regurgitate answers back to the teacher.

As teachers, we are in a new era for educating young minds. Once, being a teacher meant being the ‘master’ of the classroom, holding all the knowledge and controlling the path students took to learn knowledge. Up until a decade ago, the words ‘student engagement’ were used in a binary way – students were either working or not working. (Antonetti & Garver 2015).

However, recent research about student engagement notes that there are many levels of engagement. Phillip Schlechty (2002) described not two but five different levels of student engagement in the classroom.

1. Authentic – The student finds meaning and value in what they are doing.

2. Ritual – The student completes work for positive gains and outcomes (extrinsic).

3. Passive – The student completes work to avoid negative outcomes or failing.

4. Retreatism – The student does complete work in the classroom, and does not disturb others, however is disengaged.

5. Rebellion – The student does not complete the work and is disruptive.

Researchers have consistently found “student engagement a robust predictor of student achievement and behaviour in school” (Klem & Connell 2004, p. 262).

and resilience – be a true ‘meddler in the middle’ to challenge and engage (Antonetti & Garver 2015; McCrindle 2016; McWilliam & Taylor 2012).

What, then, is the secret to engaging students and teachers in learning for learning’s sake, learning to find meaning and value in what we are doing and being engaged at an authentic level?

Mark McCrindle (2016) notes that “schools and classrooms are responding effectively to these changing learning styles through the implementation of learning stations, shifting from ‘teacher’ to facilitator’, managing more group work, providing real-world case studies, outdoor education and teaching through activity-based learning. This, to the credit of schools, is how they’ve been able to engage with changing learner needs while maintaining educational excellence”.

McCrindle (2016) notes: “Historically there were three Rs of education: reading, writing and arithmetic -although two of them weren’t even Rs. Perhaps that could be adjusted to the four Rs of effective 21st century engagement.”

• Real – understand and respect

• Relevant – content and style must be relevant to a generation which is visually educated and entertained • Responsive – respond to the changing times, needs and learners

• Relational – create an environment conducive to engaging with the head (knowledge), hands (application) and heart (inspiration); this will result in their learning being embedded, opportunities enlarged and futures shaped.

Schlechty, PC 2002, Working on the Work: An action plan for teachers, principals, and superintendents, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco.

Antonetti, JV & Garver, JR 2015, 17000 Classroom visits can’t be wrong: Strategies that engage students, promote active learning and boost achievement, ASCD Press, Virginia.

McWilliam, E & Taylor, P 2012, ‘Personally Significant Learning: Why our kids need a powerful disposition to be self-managing learners when they finish their schooling, why they are unlikely to have it, and what we can do about it’, Erica McWilliam, viewed 20 May 2016, http://www.ericamcwilliam.com. au/personally-significant-learning/ McCrindle, M 2016, ‘How Can 21st Century Students Learn In 19th Century Schools?’, The Huffington Post, viewed 18 May 2016, http://www.huffingtonpost.com.au/markmccrindle/how-can-21st-century-studentslearn-in-19th-century-schools_b_9677348. html

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To put it simply, the secret to student engagement is understanding that accountability, high stakes testing and technological devices will come and go, but the experience of students and teachers learning from one another is timeless.

Klem, AD & Connell, JP 2004, ‘Relationships Matter: Linking Teacher Support to Student Engagement and Achievement’, Journal of School Health, vol. 74, no. 7, pp. 262-273.

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More changes, however, are needed to engage the 21st century learner.

Antonetti and Garver (2015, p. 80) say it best: “Engagement for its own sake is just fun; to enhance learning, students must be engaged in a cognitive way.”

Therefore, if the intention of learning is that it needs to be ‘owned’ by all who engage in it, the challenge has been set for teachers to facilitate a classroom of co-learning, modelling, risk taking

Summarised, McCrindle’s four Rs are:

References

Vicki Strid Head of Faculty – Mathemathics

Why are females under-represented in mathematics and computing careers?: the implications for teaching and learning at a girls’ school.

“Only 16% of Australians in STEM professions are women, and the pay gap is ‘unacceptable’,” according to The Guardian (2016).

This March 2016 headline is alarming.

Empowering young women is one of the key priorities in St Margaret’s Strategic Plan (St Margaret’s AGS 2016); it is therefore our responsibility to provide a platform to help girls realise their potential in mathematics, so they have the option to pursue any career reliant on this discipline.

A report prepared for the Australian Mathematical Sciences Institute (Roberts 2014, p. 9) revealed “… only 6.6% of all female Year 12 students in 2013 studied an advanced level mathematics subject … in contrast to 12.6% of male Year 12 students”. This is only one of many reports that identify a disparity between the number of girls and the number of boys who pursue higher levels of mathematics in the senior years at secondary school.

This discrepancy broadens further with girls choosing to enter into mathematicsrelated tertiary courses and careers to a much lesser extent than boys – a phenomenon not restricted to Australia.

“In Australia in 2011, only 39% of tertiary type A and advanced research qualifications were awarded to women in the fields of mathematics and statistics … women accounted for only 24% of the STEM workforce in the United States in 2009, a proportion unchanged since 2000. The most recent OECD data reveal that only just over 30% of tertiary qualifications were awarded to women in STEM fields in OECD countries in 2011.” (Roberts 2014, p. 4)

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These trends exist despite neuroscience research which shows there is no evidence to suggest a difference in mathematical capacity based on gender. According to Fine (2013, p. 80): “Psychologists have been studying gender differences for decades and decades – from maths and verbal skills to selfesteem and leadership style – and in the majority of cases differences between the

sexes are either non-existent, or so small as to be of no practical importance in an educational setting.”

After 15 years of research, Eccles (1994, p.

604), concluded: “Women are less likely to enter these fields [math and physical sciences] than men, both because they have less confidence in their abilities and because they place less subjective value on these fields than on other possible occupational niches. Furthermore, gendered socialisation practices at home, in the school, and among peers play a major role in shaping these individual differences in self-perceptions and subjective task values.”

Beliefs that genetics determine whether you are good at maths also continue to have an effect on a student’s belief in his or her mathematical competency.

Comments at parent-teacher interviews such as ‘I was never good at maths’ and ‘she gets her maths ability from her father’ highlight that these beliefs are more prevalent than they should be and are contributing to the belief systems of students.

Increasingly, educators are gaining invaluable insights into learning from research into the science of the brain. “One of the most powerful set of findings concerned with learning concerns the brain’s remarkable properties of ‘plasticity’ – to adapt, to grow in relation to experienced needs and practice, and to prune itself when parts become unnecessary – which continues throughout the lifespan, including far further into old age than had previously been imagined. The demands made on the individual and on his or her learning are key to the plasticity – the more you learn, the more you can learn.” (OECD 2008) Neuroplasticity dispels the myths that our intellectual capacity is restricted by genetics and that all of our neural connections are formed by a certain age. While there are “sensitive periods” (Howard-Jones 2007), such as during early childhood and adolescence, our brain grows through, and in proportion to, the frequency and intensity of the

challenges we expose it to.

Neuroscience research has also revealed the importance of emotions as a catalyst for learning. Emotions stimulate the release of neurotransmitters in the brain which either enhance or inhibit learning.

There are two implications for the impact of emotions. In the classroom domain, we can exploit techniques which elicit emotions that promote the release of dopamine, a neurotransmitter that makes the brain ready for learning and promotes long term memory.

Emotions also play a prominent role in shaping self-concept, competence beliefs and value beliefs. These emotions are profoundly impacted by the socialisation process and deeply imbedded in our psyche. The research encountered in writing this article suggests that gender disparities in career choice are linked to variances in competence and value beliefs of males and females. Eccles’ ‘theoretical model of achievementrelated choices’ (1994, p. 585) shows a network of emotional interpretations of the world which impact on a child’s perceptions and beliefs. (See Figure 1) Frenzel, Pekrun and Goetz (2007) analysed the relationship between emotions and gender in mathematics of 2053 students aged between 11 and 12 years.

Their study focused on gender differences across four broad measures: • Achievement: the actual class grades the students achieved during the study.

• Competence beliefs: how students rated their perception of their level of competence in mathematics, disjoint from the actual grades they achieved on a test.

• Value beliefs: these encompass two domains – the extent to which students see the usefulness and intrinsic value of mathematics, and the extent to which they value achievement in mathematics.

• Mathematics emotion: five emotions were considered – enjoyment, pride, anxiety, hopelessness and shame.

Cultural Milieu

1. Gender role stereotypes

2. Cultural stereotypes of subject matter and occupational characteristics

Child’s Perception of…

1. Socializer’s beliefs, expectations, and attitudes 2. Gender roles

3. Activity stereotypes

2. Short-term goals 3. Long-term goals 4. Ideal self

6. Perceptions of task demands Child’s Interpretations of Experience 1. Casual attributions

2. Locus of control

Expectation of Success

1. Self-schemata

5. Self-concept of one’s abilities

Socializers’ Beliefs and Behaviours

Differential Aptitudes of Child

Child’s Goals and General Self-Schemata

Child’s Affective Memories

Achievement-Related Choices

Subjective Task Value 1. Incentive and attainment value 2. Utility value 3. Cost

Previous AchievementRelated Experiences Figure 1: Theoretical model of achievement-related choices developed by Eccles, (Parsons), Adler, Futterman, Goff, Kaczala, Meece and Midgley, 1983.

Some of their findings from this study (Frenzel et al. 2007) were as follows: • Girls rated their competence levels considerably less than boys despite similar test results.

• Girls saw less intrinsic value and usefulness of maths than boys.

• Both boys and girls rated the importance of doing well in mathematics high.

• Girls experienced significantly less enjoyment and less pride than boys and experienced more anxiety, more hopelessness and more shame related to mathematics. These gender discrepancies in emotional experiences were found even though girls and boys had achieved at similar levels in tests.

A parallel can be drawn between academic self-concept and competence beliefs, and interest and motivation and value beliefs, as quoted in the previous study. Motivation has two facets: mastery goals – wanting to know as much as possible in order to master the subject; and performance goals – wanting to do well, compared to others.

They also acknowledge that “gender differences in tertiary qualifications remain persistently high in mathematics and computer science” and “the importance of emotions for educational and occupational career choices makes emotion-related gender differences in mathematics particularly relevant” (Frenzel et al. 2007, p. 498).

The findings of this study were similar to the previous study when comparing girls and boys, in that girls “showed much lower levels of self-concept and interest in mathematics than did their male counterparts” (Preckel et al. 2008, p. 153).

Another study, undertaken by Preckel et al. (2008), explored gender differences in gifted and average ability students using similar measures – achievement, academic self-concept, interest and motivation in mathematics. Their focus group was 181 gifted and 181 averageability sixth grade students.

Their findings (Preckel et al. 2008) relating to gifted girls over the measures of the study were quite concerning.

Some of them are listed below: • For all the measures of self-concept, interest, and motivation, gender differences were larger for gifted than for average ability students.

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• Gifted boys outperformed other boys in the study significantly and also showed significantly higher self-concept in relation to their mathematical ability.

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Closer scrutiny of their data led them to conclude that: “The gender differences in emotions were most likely due to differences in competence and value beliefs. Therefore, if boys and girls had similar self-related beliefs in mathematics, they would probably experience similar levels of positive and negative emotions in this subject.” (Frenzel et al. 2007, p. 509)

In general, however, the findings of their study “support the assumption that girls, as opposed to boys, are characterised by a debilitating pattern of mathematics-related emotions, and underlying competence beliefs and value beliefs which can be observed as early as at the age of eleven” (Frenzel et al. 2007, p. 509).

• While gifted girls outperformed their counterparts, the difference between the levels of self-concept of the females was not as pronounced as was with the boys studied.

such interventions, students’ social environments (parents, teachers, and peers) affecting students’ domain-related competence and value beliefs should also be taken into account” (p. 509).

• While there were significant differences between gifted boys and non-gifted boys across the measures of interest, mastery goal and performance goal orientation, there was little difference in these measures between gifted girls and non-gifted girls.

Possible interventions include “programs for enhancing interest by single-sex education, changes of curricula and classroom instruction, intervention programs for mathematically and scientifically talented girls, provision of role models and mentoring and teacher and parent counselling” (Preckle et al.

2008, p. 156).

• Gifted males performed better on a test of mathematical literacy and problem solving than did gifted females.

In summary, the researchers of this study “found that the gender gap (for these measures) is even more pronounced in gifted than in average-ability students” (Preckel et al. 2008, p. 146).

Dweck (2006) cited a study which she undertook with Licht in 1984 which revealed a tendency for high achieving girls to under-achieve when confronted with challenging tasks. Similar to the findings of Frenzel et al. (2007), only girls with low competence beliefs were susceptible. Dweck found that “… girls who believe intellectual abilities are just gifts do not fare well in math, but those who think they are qualities than can be developed often do just fine” (p. 4).

The research cited indicates that girls tend to have lower mathematical competence and value beliefs than boys.

This manifests in reduced success in problem solving and greater levels of anxiety when confronted with challenge as well as lower levels of interest and motivation in mathematics. Girls with higher mathematical competence and value beliefs are more likely to engage with challenge and enter into courses and careers involving mathematics.

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Dweck (2000) categorises these high competence and low competence beliefs as growth mindset and fixed mindset and she asserts that a growth mindset can be cultivated in individuals by demonstrating that intelligence can be developed through effort and is not innate (2006).

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Frenzel et al. (2007) propose that “interventions to improve girls’ attitudes towards mathematics should be administered no later than in early elementary school years. In designing

The mathematics faculty at St Margaret’s is very aware of the challenges and responsibilities facing us as educators and have initiated the following strategies: 1. Mastery Learning: There is a strong focus on mastery goals and establishing a link between effort and achievement. This is achieved through the system of second chance testing on both a skills level and a conceptual development level.

2. Revision and Reflection Programs: OneNote documents which support the girls as they review work that is being studied are being developed for each year level. This resources utilises aspects of “flipped classroom” strategies and supports work done with individual students during after and before school mathematics tutorials.

3. Mathematics Flyers Program: The highest achieving girls from each year level from Year 7 to Year 10 visit QUT and engage with learning activities which are designed to promote curiosity and interest in careers with a mathematical basis.

Young women from the university talk to the girls about their courses and endeavour to dispel myths regarding boy/girl stereotypes.

4. Problem-Solving Suites: A problem-solving playground has been built for each year level from Year 7 to Year 10. The aim of this is to provide girls an opportunity to engage with challenging and novel tasks in a non-threatening manner and to encourage girls to play with mathematics.

5. Classrooms are outfitted with growth mindset posters, which promote positive beliefs and attitudes to mathematics.

6. Research is currently being undertaken with Year 7 students through which we are hoping to better understand the problems girls experience when confronted with challenge.

While there is much in place, we are continually revisiting and reassessing all that we do in light of the feedback we get from staff, students and parents, while also interrogating the vast and exciting research taking place in this field of study.

References: Ceci, SJ 2007, ‘Why aren’t more women in science?: top researchers debate the evidence’, Choice Reviews Online, vol. 44, no. 11, pp.

44-6196 - 44-6196.

Eccles, J 1994, ‘Understanding Women’s Educational and Occupational Choices’, Psychology of Women Q, vol. 18, no. 4, pp.

585-609.

Fine, C 2013, ‘Debunking the Pseudoscience Behind “Boy Brains” and “Girl Brains”, in How the Brain Learns: What lessons are there for teaching? ACER, p. 80.

Frenzel, A, Pekrun, R & Goetz, T 2007, ‘Girls and mathematics —A “hopeless” issue? A control-value approach to gender differences in emotions towards mathematics’, European Journal of Psychology of Education, vol. 22, no.

4, pp. 497-514.

The Guardian 2016, ‘Only 16% of Australians in Stem professions are women, and pay gap is ‘unacceptable’’, viewed 23 June 2016, http:// www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2016/ mar/31/just-one-in-five-australians-workingin-stem-professions-are-women-and-theyrepaid-less Howard-Jones, P 2007, Neuroscience and Education: Issues and Opportunities: A Commentary by the Teaching and Learning Research Programme, London: TLRP Seminar Series, viewed 23 June 2016, http:// www.tlrp.org/pub/commentaries.html OECD, 2016, Understanding the Brain: The Birth of a Learning Science, New Insights on Learning through Cognitive and Brain Science, OECD, Paris.

Preckel, F, Goetz, T, Pekrun, R & Kleine, M 2008, ‘Gender Differences in Gifted and Average-Ability Students: Comparing Girls’ and Boys’ Achievement, Self-Concept, Interest, and Motivation in Mathematics’, Gifted Child Quarterly, vol. 52, no. 2, pp.

146-159.

Roberts, K 2014, ‘Engaging more women and girls in mathematics and STEM fields: The international evidence’, Australian Mathematical Sciences Institute, viewed 23 June 2016, http://amsi.org.au/publications/ gender-report-20104/.

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