Adobe, Brick & Steel

by Eleanor Rodgerson, M.D. and members of the Sacramento-El Dorado Medical 'Society Historical Committee

Adobe, Brick

& Steel a

History of Hospitals and Shelters for the Sick in Sacramento and El Dorado Counties

by Eleanor Rodgerson, MD, and members of the Sacramento-El Dorado Medical Society Historical Committee

Adobe, Brick & Steel, A History of Hospitals and Shelters for the Sick in Sacramento and El Dorado Counties © 1993 by Sacramento-El Dorado Medical Society Printed in United States of America All Rights Reserved To purchase additional copies of this book, write to: Sacramento-El Dorado Medical Society 5380 Elvas Avenue Sacramento, CA 95819

Contents

Dedication and Acknowledgments..........................................4 Shelter for the Sick................................................................... 5 Pioneer Doctors..........................................................................8 Adobe Hospital......................................................................... 10 Odd Fellows and Others......................................................... 13 Thomsonian, Hydropathic and Others................................20 Miners’ Insurance Plan......................................................... 22 Emergency Cholera Hospital.................................................23 City and County Hospitals.................................................... 26 University of California, Davis, Medical Center................ 32 Railroad Hospitals.................................................................. 35 Sisters of Mercy Hospitals..................................................... 40 Fairhaven Home and Hospital.............................................. 43 Turn of the Century Hospitals.............................................. 45 Japanese Hospitals................................................................. 47 Sutter Hospitals.......................................................................52 Suburban Hospitals................................................................ 56 Kaiser Hospitals...................................................................... 60 El Dorado County Hospitals................................................. 62 Nurses and Midwives............................................................. 66 Conclusion................................................................................ 69 Notes.........................................................................................70

4 ADOBE, BRICK & STEEL

This

book is dedicated to

...

... Dr. David Dozier, 1899 to 1986, one of Sacramento's last true “old-time” family practitioners and one of our few local medical historians, who had a special interest in the history of Sacramento hospitals. For many years Dr. Dozier shared his collection of historical photographs with the Medi­ cal Society for display in the Guttman Library. Many of the photographs in this book are from his collection. ... All the physicians and medical caregivers who have, for over 150 years, staffed the spectrum of hospitals in Sacramento, from tent to concrete, from amputation without anesthetic to cardiac bypass, and from canvas cots floating in the floodwaters to intensive care technology.

Acknowledgments This book would not have been possible without the leadership and dedication of Dr. Eleanor Rodgerson who organized the project, Dr. Irma West who provided historical expertise, Pat Bailey who typed the initial text (and her boss Bill Bradshaw who donated her time), Lori Gandelman who coordinated the preparation and printing, John Bloom who edited the text and Joleane King who prepared the book for publication. Many thanks to all of you from, Dr. Robert LaPerriere, Chairman SEDMS Historical Committee

A HISTORY OF HOSPITALS AND SHELTERS FOR THE SICK 5

Shelter for the Sick

In the early 19th century, exploration of North America to the Pacific Ocean was coming to its conclusion. California was inhabited by native American Indian tribes and a few Spanish settlements. However, after gold was discovered in Coloma, California, in January 1848, tens of thousands of fortune seekers rushed west, not only across the continent, but also by sea around Cape Horn and over the narrow strip ofPanama. Overland treks and sailing voyages were long and complicated by scurvy and outbreaks of contagious diseases with little medical care. When the pioneers arrived, there

Sketch of Sutter's Fort, 1859, by Joseph Warren Revere. Lithograph courtesy of the California Room, California State Library.

6 ADOBE, BRICK & STEEL

were literally no hospitals, or even shelters, and few medically trained doctors. Much of what we know locally about this early period comes from The First History of Sacramento City, 1850, written by Dr. John Frederick Morse. Like many, he had traveled the combination route by sea and land - south along the Atlantic coast, across Panama, north along the Pacific coast to San Francisco, then up the Sacramento River to the new town that provided a main entrance to the Sierra Nevada foothills and the gold fields.1 Although travelers arriving in San Francisco fre­ quently suffered from scurvy and its severest complications, as well as contagious diseases, typically they made immediate arrangements for the five-to-ten-day trip up the Sacramento River to Sacramento City and its acres of swampy, mosquitoinfested riverside. In early letters the city was called Valley City and Levee City, but, finally, Sacramento City for the river it lay beside. John Sutter had established his fort here in 1839, on a sand hill near the American River, about two miles from where it entered the Sacramento River. Built at the crossing of two early routes, one from the east by way of the Great Salt Lake and the other leading down from Oregon, the Fort attracted many fortune seekers who needed to stop and resupply. The first hospital was set up by Sutter inside the fort for his Indian employees and dependents, but it soon accommodated the adventurers and new settlers as well.2 In his diary Sutter reported, in July 1847: "Great sickness and diseases among the Indian tribes and a great number of them dying notwithstanding of having employed a Doctor to my hospital.” On March 7, 1848, he complained of the fort’s desertion by those seeking gold. They "left me only the sick and the lame behind.”3 He later added, "I need not mention again that all the visitors have always been hospitably received and treated. That all the sick and wounded found always Medical Assis­ tance Gratis as I had nearly all the time a Physician in my employ. The Assistance to the Emigrants, that is all well known. I don’t need to write anything about this.”4

A HISTORY OF HOSPITALS AND SHELTERS FOR THE SICK 7

In April, 1849, there were some 150 residents bunched along the Sacramento River below the mouth ofthe American River. Two months later there were thousands more, most of them in poor health from the debilitation of hard travel and poor diet Outside the fort, not far away, there was little more than trees for shelter. Lumber was scarce and canvas was substituted to provide not only roofs, but also walls and inside partitions. James Eaton’s Memoirs, dictated in 1911, de­ scribes the construction of early hospitals by private enter­ prise: 'These were made by setting three rows of posts in the ground — the outside rows the frame for the sides of the hospital was fastened to and the middle was used to support the roof, the sides and roof were made of cloth.”5

8 ADOBE, BRICK & STEEL

Pioneer Doctors

A few doctors accompanied the settlers, but many did not actually dig for gold. Medical care was poorly paid and much ofit had to be charity: the fees and cost ofdrugs (usually in short supply) were high, but collections were very poor because many settlers did not "strike it rich.” To supplement their medical incomes, some doctors established real estate and banking offices, which they advertised in the local press along with their medical set-ups. In terms of the needs, there were few trained physicians and too many pretenders and quacks. Dr. Berryman Bryant seems to have been an exception, telling how he opened a canvas-walled hospital on June 18 and closed it on November 21, 1849, having "made my pile.” Bryant was 33 years of age, from South Carolina, and had previously been a bricklayer, teamster, auctioneer and horse trader. But he had also, assertedly, graduated from the Botanica Medical College in Memphis, Tennessee. Writing in his Reminiscences of California, 1849-52, Dr. Bryant later explained: "I had no idea of mining and have never worked a day in the mines for when I left Alabama for California I had taken it for granted that people would get sick in this beautiful land, and I was not mistaken. "When I arrived in Sacramento there was not a place that I could find in which I could store away my medicines, so I went outside of the city limits

A HISTORY OP HOSPITALS AND SHELTERS FOR THE SICK 9

and dug five holes and put my trunks in them and filled them up and put a stake at each end to represent graves and left them there until I was ready to use them. In a few days I bought some town lots and as it was impossible to buy lumber to build houses I resorted to willow poles to make studding and rafters. I then bought heavy sail duck for siding and roof, had the canvas well sewed up and then I put up bunks all around the house and had some bed ticks made and filled them with dry grass. I unearthed my trunks of medicine and opened my hospital (this being, to the best of my knowledge, the first private hospital in California) and put up a sign “Home for the Sick.” Very soon I had every bed or cot full of the sick. They would bring the poor fellows from the mines, frequently being four or five days on the road in the hot sun, and when they got them to the hospital, if they lived to get there, I would find them very sick. “Our living was very simple as we had to do our own cooking, we could not get a variety, conse­ quently we had for breakfast fried potatoes, or bacon and strong coffee. We could not have any­ thing else as it was most impossible to get. So a great many cases of scurvy of the worst kind were the result. “I made money very fast, and on the twenty-first ofNovember I sold out my hospital and medicine to a doctor by the name ofHungerford, and on the first day of December started from San Francisco to the States.6

10 ADOBE, BRICK & STEEL

Adobe Hospital

Sutter had established an isolation ward for typhoid patients, but more space had to be found for the desperately ill, so the Brannan store in an old adobe building near the fort was made into a hospital on August 4,1849.7 It was run until 1850 by a Dr. Cragin of Washington, D.C., and a Mr. Abell. A private room cost $16 a day and the ward $10 a day. Surgery was extra. This adobe hospital was also advertised in the San Francisco Alta California for August 4,1849. The publication stated that it had been "thoroughly refitted,” was "spacious, cool, well ventilated,” and contained “a well of most excellent water, lately found on the premises. Good nurses and atten­ dants and a good cook will be provided,” and "no sick man [sic] will be refused admission because destitute of money.” Dr. Cragin also offered "Drugs and Medicines,” including lime juice (as a prevention for scurvy), in his advertisement.9 The Placer Times described the hospital as "Large, cool, and airy, apart from the noise, dust, and bustle of the city and road, and few, if any, mosquitoes to annoy. The very entrance into the establishment where every attention and conve­ nience is to be had, is enough to check the disease of an invalid.”9 This building had been erected in the fall of 1845, was of one-story, and measured approximately 30 by 100 feet. It was divided into roughly 14 compartments with a central hallway. As described in The Early Inns of California, 1844-69, it was located:

A HISTORY OF HOSPITALS AND SHELTERS FOR THE SICK 11

"...on ground that was somewhat lower than that on which the Fort was built, and its length ran east and west. Both ends were gabled, and a masonry chimney was built against the western end of the house. The roofwas originally thatched, but. ..prob­ ably replaced with a shingle roof ...Masonry or adobe partitions divided the place into probably a dozen or more rooms, and a porch was eventually built along the north side of the house and a leanto shed against its western end. Entrance was through batten doors along the sides ofthe building and, as late as February of 1847, the windows were no more than openings in the adobe walls, and the floor was of hard-packed earth. The place was surrounded by a low wall that also enclosed a plantation of trees that stood to the east of the house.” 10 This adobe structure may have been used first as a jail, then a granary, perhaps an immigrant barracks. A member of the Donner party wrote: 'The room in which Elitha and Leanna were stay­ ing when we arrived at Sutter's Fort was part of a long, low adobe building outside the fortification walls and, like others occupied by belated travel­ ers, was the barest and crudest structure imagin­ able, It had an earthen floor, a thatched roof, a batten door, and an opening in the rear wall to serve as a window.” 11 The building became Samuel Brannan’s store in 1848 and, after Brannan moved in 1849, the first printing office of the Placer T'imes, Finally, it became the hospital run by Dr. Cragan and Mr. Abell. Part of the lore of the place includes a story of buried treasure, recounted in the Placer Times: 'The story is told that in the early mining days a miner was brought to this hospital who had $40,000

12 ADOBE, BRICK & STEEL

in gold dust. While delirious he escaped from attendants, carried his bags of gold and buried the treasure, which has never been found to this day, although different parties have dug for the gold and for some time a dredger was operated in the vain hope of locating the hidden wealth.” 12 In December 1849, when Dr. Robert M. Stansbury from New Jersey bought the hospital, the fee schedule continued to be $16 a day for private room and $10 for a ward, which covered “Board, lodging, medicines, medical and other neces­ sary attendance, and the washing of bed linen and towels.” However, “No person laboring under any form of mania will be received.” It was called the “Sacramento Hospital” and lasted through the cholera epidemic of 1850, when Dr. Stansbury died of cholera on November 1. It may be that Dr. Stansbuiys “Sacramento Hospital” had become a public charity because Dr. Stansbury held the title of “Superintendent of the City Hospital” at the time of his death.13 He had built an ll-by-25-foot extension onto the adobe at its northwest end. The Sacramento Transcript reported that he also had built a house nearby into which some of the patients were to be moved.14 It is supposed that this building later became the “pesthouse” and was moved to the south side of town. On October 1,1849, Drs. J.S. Martin and W. Deal opened a hospital inside the fort and offered low rates. A year later, on July 22,1850, Dr. Deal advertised a real estate office in the Transcript. 15

A HISTORY OP HOSPITALS AND SHELTERS FOR THE SICK 13

Odd Fellows & Others

Only one-fifth of the sick could be accommodated at the fort hospital and complaints of exorbitant charges began to circulate. In September the rains came and with them, an outbreak of typhus. Many sufferers had only trees for shelter, and many died. At the southeast comer of the fort the local Odd Fellows organization opened a hospital on December 8, 1849, and was later joined in its efforts to administer relief, by the Freemasons. Care was given first to members and when there was room, to others in need. The Sacramento Transcript announced on May 2,1850, that Dr. Deal had purchased the Odd Fellows and Masons Hospital at the southeast comer of Sutter's Fort. The announcement praised Dr. Deal: “Since its establishment the Doctor has faithfully performed the duties ofMinister, Physician, Friend, and Trustee without the hope of reward, save that reward so freely flowing from the approving con­ science.” 16 On December 22, 1849, Drs. John F. Morse and J.D.B. Stillman opened a private hospital at3rd and KStreets. They had made arrangements with a builder, Priest, Lee and Company, to rent the completed building for $1500 per month. It was constructed of Oregon pine, was one and one-half stories high, and measured 35 by 55 feet, depending upon one’s source of information. There was an accompanying apothecary’s office. The private wards were lined with mus­ lin, “the way houses are finished off here interiorly.” Daylight

H ADOBE, BRICK Sc STEEL

was provided by half-windows along the sides of the main ward and two full windows at each gable. 17 Dr. Morse was bom in Vermont, studied medicine at New York University, and came to California in the hope of improving his health. He became one of the leaders in the community and state. He cared for so many non-paying patients that he was forced to look for outside income to support himself and his family. In 1851 he became the first editor of the Sacramento Union and wrote The First History of Sacramento City in 1853. He moved to San Francisco in 1862 and joined the medical department of the University of the Pacific. Dr. Stillman remained in Sacramento a comparatively short time. His informative Gold Rush Letters was sent to be published in an eastern newspaper, and appeared a century later in book form. On December 23, 1849, the following advertisement appeared in the Placer Times: “Drs. Morse and Stillman announce to the Public generally that their hospital at the comer of K and 3rd Streets is now ready for the reception of pa­ tients. The qualities of the building are such as will best recommend themselves by examination. They therefore invite the public and the profession espe­ cially to honor them with a visit and inspection of their Home for the Sick. A drug store in charge of J.L.G. Cannon of New York City will be in connec­ tion with the hospital. Anything that entire devo­ tion to our enterprise can do to make our patients comfortable will be done. Our terms will be for main ward, $10 per Diem, for private ward, $20 when occupied by one person, and $15 each for two. Drs. M. and S. will still continue to attend outdoor patients.” 18

A HISTORY OF HOSPITALS AND SHELTERS FOR THE SICK 15

Writing to the East, Dr. Stillman reported, “We are at last in our new hospital building. It is, without doubt, the finest building in Sacramento. We have just opened and are not yet complete in arrangements. It is said to have cost the propri­ etors $ 15,000, and is no better than a bam at home that could be built for $2000." 19 Although the building was sturdy, the site was not high enough to escape the yearly floods. Recalling the flood of 1850 in his First History of Sacramento, Dr. Morse later quoted notes by Dr. Stillman: “We are all, about 40 of us, in the upper story of our hospital! Dr. Morse and myself writing, Higgins (of Kentucky) reading Dematine’s Raphael, the cook preparing something for breakfast, two or three others quartered with us, talking in an undertone, some asleep, and a few patients muttering in de­ lirium. A lone woman, sick and destitute, is cur­ tained off in one comer of the room. Some are lying on the floor; others, dead, are sewed up in blankets and sunk in the water, in a room on the first floor. Dr. Morse pours some brandy in his ink, to give spirit to his letter. I pour from another bottle standing on the table, containing laudanum, to quiet the apprehensions that mine may awaken; then we all laugh and go on as before.” Stillman continued, on the next day: “The water is still rising— at the rate of 6 inches an hour. Tents, houses, boxes, barrels, horses, mules, and cattle are sweeping by with the swollen torrent. There are few two-story houses. Today there is no first floor in the city uncovered. I have some misgivings about our fate, but sure I am that

16 ADOBE, BRICK & STEEL

we will not desert the sick, and if we are swept away, we will all go together.”20 James Eaton also described his experiences and those of patients in a canvas-walled hospital during the 1850 MBig Flood”: “There were so many people sick there at this time that several people had built private hospitals. Each side of the hospital was rows of berths or bunks built four tiers high. Those patients who were able would use the upper berths, but those who were very serious were in the lower berths. When the word came to the hospital that the water would soon break over the levee, only the nurses were in charge and they were unable to get the patients out if they had had time for there were so many of them in there. “The hospital was built right in the Cut Off, same as our cabin, and when the water broke over, it came down with a rush and it wasn’t long until the water was up over them and the sick on the opposite side of the higher berths could only see water covering and drowning their sick compan­ ions who were unable to help themselves, neither could they render any assistance to them. It was awful! As the water rose higher it came on those in the second, then the third and even the fourth tier of berths and many of the poor, unfortunate sick in these hospitals came to an end, not through dis­ ease, but by drowning. It was said that the cries for help by these unfortunates was most heart rending and nobody able to help them. While I did not see these people we could easily hear the cry for help from the people in the city as the water rushed in upon them.” 21 The account of William Morris Stewart had a happier outcome, as embodied in his 1909 book, Reminiscences. Ill

A HISTORY OF HOSPITALS AND SHELTERS FOR THE SICK 17

when he arrived by boat from San Francisco, he was advised by a “young druggist whose name was Crane” to seek care in a hospital which he had established in Sacramento in connec­ tion with his drug store.” Stewart did, and regretted it: “The hospital was a sorry looking building. The water under it was about eighteen inches or two feet deep, and it could be reached only by a platform of boards. “An untidy looking Mexican who spoke some English had charge of the establishment, and I inquired of him how many persons had died there. He undertook to count them up, but I stopped him and told him that was enough.” Stewart returned to the levee where he boarded a boat and lay down on a bench until it reached Marysville, where he staggered off and persuaded two men with a team of oxen to take him farther. Being sympathetic, they gave him a bed of straw in their wagon. After abody-breaking trip of three days, they lifted him out and settled him beside a fresh spring. They arranged a bucket with a long stick for a handle so he could reach the water. He lay alone for several days, barely existing, until his fever broke. He slowly regained enough energy to continue on his way. 22 On April 16, 1850, the following advertisement ap­ peared in the Sacramento Transcript touting the Sutter's Fort Hospital: “Inside the Fort, by Drs. James S. Martin and R.R. Carman, having been thoroughly repaired, [it] is now ready for the comfortable accommodation of patients. The salubrity of the location is evident to everyone. The Hospital being in a large adobe building, it is exempt from that extreme h eat which is incident to this climate during the summer. Terms moderate.” [A list of names for references was included.]23

18 ADOBE, BRICK & STEEL

It is not hard to imagine the physical condition of the miners-to-be and the early settlers. The year 1849 was a hospital-founding year because there were no public institu­ tions. Doctors were forced to set up their own establishments to care for their own patients. In addition to those already mentioned, there were the Peyton and Cobb Hospital, the Crane Hospital, the Johnson and Proctor Hospital on 2nd Street between I and J, and the Hazard and Taylor Hospital at 3rd and K. Most did not last long. The White and Cleveland Hospital at 9th and L and the Thompson and McLean Hospital in the same neighbor­ hood were added to the community in April 1850. Drs. White and Cleveland advertised their 100-bed hospital in the April 12, 1850, Transcript and added, “One of the parties can always be found [herej and the other at the counting room of Paul, White, and Co.” When Dr. D.A. Wadsworth from Providence, Rhode Island, opened his hospital on K Street between 2nd and 3rd, he served notice that he had “experience with the diseases of California.” 24 There were more floods and more suffering. An eyewit­ ness reported that Dr. White's canvas house, used as the city hospital, was on particularly low ground and the patients floated on “freakishly buoyant cots.” With the doctor away in another part of town, “for some time the invalids lay helpless on their seagoing beds, watching the canvas ceiling draw nearer as the water rose.” Some were rescued by Capt. John Sherrod who conveyed them to Sam Brannan's store. “Many, however, had rolled from their cots and drowned before help arrived. 25

A HISTORY OF HOSPITALS AND SHELTERS FOR THE SICK 19

David Dustin a gold-rush pioneer, wrote on August 14, 1850: "Give me health and California is a pretty good place to make money. But give me sickness such as I have seen here and hell can't be far off. No place can hardly be worse for a sick man than California — and there are many serious cases here I assure you. There is not more than one in ten but what has had a fit of sickness soon after arriving here, either Dysentery, Diarrhea, Bilious fever and Ague, Scurvy or Rheumatism—and in many cases the disease in spite of treatment will last for six months or even a year” 26

20 ADOBE, BRICK & STEEL

Thomsoman, Hydropathic, and Others With the passage of years, offbeat medical establish­ ments popped up. On April 16,1850, a Dr. Davis announced the opening of his Thomsonian Hospital and Botanic Medi­ cine Store, located on K Street between 2nd and 3rd, and offered to supply physicians for the mines. His rates ran from $5 to $25 per day. The Thomsonians of that era believed in "natural remedies, not chemical.” The advertisement stated

Pacific Water Cure Establishment, 1860s and 1870s, from History of Sacramento County by Thompson and West, republished by Howell-North, Berkeley, in 1960. Drawing by John Howell.

A HISTORY OF HOSPITALS AND SHELTERS FOR THE SICK 21

that “many doctors have learned just enough to know how to deceive people, and keep them in ignorance by covering their doings under a language unknown to their patients.31 The Thomsonians later became part of the Eclectics, another botanic medical sect. A hydropathic (water-cure) institution was opened by a Dr. Davis, perhaps the former Thomsonian, at 5th and K Streets in 1857. Care including board and room cost $15 per week for live-in patients, or one could have treatment alone for $10 per week. At 7th and L Streets there was the Pacific Water Cure and Eclectic Health Institute, M.F. Clayton, M.D., proprietor, which advertised Turkish and Russian baths and electric, medicated, and vapor treatments. Anotable organization called “The Howards," was set up December 21,1857, in the Old Pavilion on M Street, to care for the poor and sick. It was funded with voluntary contributions and donations by the legislature. Because there was no facility to care for aged women in Sacramento, Margaret E. Crocker presented the Marguerite Home, between 7th and 8thf P and Q, to the City on February 2,1884. It had been the residence of Captain Wm. Whitney. In addition to the Home, there was an endowment of $50,000.

Marguerite Home, 7th and Q, 1885, in *The Festival ofFlowers* p. 48. Courtesy California State Library.

22 ADOBE, BRICK & STEEL

Miners’ Insurance Plan A Miners’ Insurance Hospital Plan, the first of its kind in this part of the country, was proposed in mid-1850 by G.W. Knobel, M.D. This insurance would cost $25 per month, and persons with no insurance would pay regular hospital charges. The hospital building would be paid for with shares. There would be one resident physician and two consultants. Outside doctors might attend patients but they must pay for nursing care. The poor would be treated “gratis.” Plans were still being made at the end of the year, but no further mention of the Miners’ Hospital Plan has been found. 32 Remembering the sickness of previous months and hop­ ing to prevent a repetition, the following notice by Drs. James S. Martin and Benjamin R. Carman appeared in the Sacra­ mento Transcript on October 24,1850: “In anticipation of there being a great deal of distress in our community this season by sickness, the [subscribers] who have been Physicians of the Sutter’s Fort Hospital since the first settlement of the city have opened a Free Office of General Dispensary, where those who are not able to pay the fees of an attending physician, and all others who may patronize our Establishment, can obtain Medicines at a low rate and Advice Gratis.”

A HISTORY OP HOSPITALS AND SHELTERS FOR THE SICK 23

Emergency Cholera Hospital Scurvy, diarrhea, dysentery, typhoid fever and malaria were the most common medical problems in the area. Malaria was said to have been introduced by immigrants from Canada. The local swamps abounded with the necessary vector, the Anopheles mosquito. Diagnosed in lesser numbers were cases of typhus, rheumatism, erysipelas, infection following inju­ ries, and pneumonia. Respiratory infections were common.

Cholera monument in the Sacramento City Cemetery, 10th and Broadway. Photo by Irma West.

24 ADOBE, BRICK & STEEL

And then there was the cholera epidemic of October 1850. This disaster was sparked by an immigrant who died on the levee after debarking at Sacramento from the ship, New World, which had brought cholera in addition to the news of California's statehood. In Sacramento, the disease spread so rapidly that within three weeks about 1,000, or 15 percent, of the population were dead and another 1,000 or so were sick. Those who could fled the town, leaving the sick and dying to fend for themselves and spreading the epidemic into the foothills. Among the few who stayed to care for the victims were the 30-40 physicians of Sacramento. They worked day and night. They also died—17 of them whose average age was just 32 years. It was the highest mortality on record for doctors caring for victims of an epidemic. The city hospital at the Fort admitted all patients regardless of financial status, but it was not enough.33 An emergency cholera hospital was set up in a frame building near Second and L Streets, and a city dispensary in the Transcript Building on K Street. 34 The newspaper, Alta, of November 4, 1850, described Sacramento as follows: "This City presents an aspect which is truly terrible. The streets are deserted, and frequented only by the hearse. Nearly all business is at a standstill. There seems to be a deep sense of expectancy, tinged with fear, pervading all classes. There is an expression of anxiety in every eye and all sense ofpecuniary loss is merged in a greater apprehension of personal danger . . . Many deaths are con­ cealed and others not reported . . . Many are returned as having died of dysentery, fevers, diarrhea, etc., for the pur­ pose of quieting public apprehension.” If the 1850 epidemic occurred in Sacramento today, about 55,000 citizens would be dying, another 55,000 or so would be very ill and about 300,000 would be fleeing in panic — all within three weeks. Now, of course, cholera can be successfully treated and prevented. In a different category was the eight-room “pest house,” primarily for smallpox victims, established, in 1862, on F Street between 18th and 19th. Some 380 cases of smallpox

A HISTORY OF HOSPITALS AND SHELTERS FOR THE SICK 25

were recorded that year, following the usual flood. This establishment was used also for the occasional case of leprosy that passed through town. Among later records bearing on it is a paper delivered before the Sacramento Society of Medical Improvement, in 1869, by Thomas Logan, M.D., who was listed as “Visiting Physician to the Small-pox Hospital.” He enumerated 24 cases of smallpox, with 3 deaths and 11 cures, the remainder still under treatment. 35

26 ADOBE, BRICK & STEEL

City and County Hospitals

Medical care entered politics when Drs. Morse and Stillman tried to contract with the City Council for indigent patients at $10 per day. Their application was unsuccessful and the patients were sent to the hospital at Sutter's Fort for $16 per day. In passing, Dr. Morse commented that it was evident that attorneys’ fees were higher than those of physi­ cians, but the physicians were the ones who worked night and day. 27 A hospital committee, appointed by the City Council in 1850, recommended establishing a public hospital in order to reduce the expense of distributing the sick among the private hospitals in the community. Drs. Johnson Price and William G. Proctor had received a contract to care for the indigent in their hospital of 75-80 beds. However, after several years, the cityjudged the charges too high and tried to cancel the contract. A lawsuit resulted, but eventually the city did build its hospital. 28 In the meantime, the city purchased the Odd Fellows and Masons Hospital at Sutter’s Fort for care of charity patients. One month later, a grand jury that included Drs. Morse and White was summoned to investigate the allegedly inadequate care and unclean facilities. They found cots in two tiers only 12 to 20 inches apart in the one-story building. Vermin infested the beds and the patients. Some of the sick had no sheets and some had sheets that had not been changed for as long as eight weeks. There was one bathtub - and it was

A HISTORY OF HOSPITALS AND SHELTERS FOR THE SICK 27

used for feeding horses. Most of the patients suffered from dysentery and there were flies everywhere. 29 Improvement after the investigation was evidently slow because, in November 1854, a reporter for the Sacramento Union, writing under the name “Pipes,” described a sight he would never forget: “thirty beds crowded together, general­ ized moaning, and a man who looked at him pleadingly while dying of typhoid.” 30 The first Sacramento City Hospital had been partially assembled, in 1850, in the block bounded by 9th and 10th, I and J Streets, at a cost of $14,000, when the structure was blown down in a storm. The City Council was determined to establish an institution that would belong to both city and county, so efforts continued along that line. In 1853, a city hospital was built and remained for a dozen years at 10th and L Streets, a site which later became the northwest comer of Capitol Park. Records show that, in 1858, the physician in charge received $150 a month not only for his own subsis-

Sacramento County Hospital, 1879, “History of Sacramento CountyThompson and West. Drawing by John Howell.

28 ADOBE, BRICK & STEEL

tence, apparently, but also to furnish “all the necessary drugs, medicines, medical appliances to the medical department as now or hereafter may be required.” 36 In the late 1860s, the County bought a sixty-acre tract on Stockton Boulevard, three miles from the city center, for $11,000. By 1870, an $80,000 hospital was constructed here, offering 216 beds and many amenities appropriate to the times. There was an administration building with 2 threestory wings. But it was wiped out by fire on October 5,1878, and the patients were placed in emergency quarters in down­ town Sacramento at the Agricultural Pavilion at 6th and M Streets. With commendable dispatch, a new Sacramento City and County Hospital was built on the Stockton Boulevard site and put in service in 1879. It was designed by N.D. Goodel!, who also designed the Governor’s Mansion at 16th and I Streets, to consist of a two-story main administration build­ ing with 5 wings and accommodations for 150-160 beds. The cost was $65,000.

Sacramento County Hospital with horsedrawn ambulance at entrance in 1879. Photo courtesy Dr. J.B. Harris collection.

A HISTORY OF HOSPITALS AND SHELTERS FOR THE SICK 29

Objections had been raised concerning the Stockton Boulevard location. The Sacramento Society for Medical Improvement wrote that the place was “desirable for an Alms House, but for the purposes of the City and County Hospital the whole institution is a willful blunder.”37 Surrounding the hospital were 4 acres of vineyards, 5 or 6 of gardens, 10 of pasture, and the remainder consisted of orchards. In keeping with the times, the hospital had an ambulance, a one-horse wagon which went into the city once a day for supplies and to transport patients, doctors and employees. Making the most of site advantages, the strongest pa­ tients were required to care for the grounds, raise vegetables, and act as janitors. Further: “A patient to be admitted into this institution must present a certificate ofhis residence for thirty days in this County; that he is destitute and has no means with which to provide himself with medical treatment — which certificate must be signed by two respectable and known parties, who are per­ sonally cognizant of the facts.”38

0

.r?„ n> ?

SSj

a.. 5

i

1

y||I[ 5|,

siHa Sacramento County Hospital, 1930. Photo courtesy Dr. Dan Treat.

30 ADOBE, BRICK & STEEL

Dr. George Amos White, as County Physician, was in charge of the hospital, a position he occupied from 1872 to 1904, except for an interim, 1879-81, when he was replaced by a homeopathic doctor. Bom in Missouri, White had gradu­ ated from Long Island Medical College in New York, in 1868, and Jefferson Medical College at Philadelphia, in 1869. He came to California to practice in Davis and Sacramento, and gained distinction for his great skill in surgery. He also initiated the use of spinal anesthesia here, brought in one of the first X-ray machines, and helped develop the first clinical laboratory. Alldidnotrunsmoothlyforthecountyhospital. In 1908, the city Board of Health and the press complained about its unsanitary condition. The Society for Medical Improvement investigated and recommended the appointment of a resident administrative officer as well as volunteer visiting physicians and surgeons to staff the various departments. In 1915, expansion began again on Stockton Boulevard. A nurses'home and an aged women's home were added. Total beds now numbered 500.

Sacramento County Hospital, early entrance as shown on a postcard.

A HISTORY OP HOSPITALS AND SHELTERS FOR THE SICK 31

The nationwide influenza epidemic of 1918-19 hit the Central Valley hard and produced many patients for the County Hospital. In one two-week period, there were 2,500 victims in Sacramento of whom 300 died. By the end of the epidemic, out of a population of 70,000, some 5,000 had been affected and 500 had died. Additions and improvements continued over the years, so that the finished cost of the hospital reached $1 million in 1929. A full-time resident superintendent was in charge, beginning in 1918. In December 1932, the patient load was relieved somewhat upon completion of a home for aged men, seven miles south, on Franklin Boulevard at Florin Road. Under the superintendency of Dr. Leo Farrell, in the fiscal year 1944-45, the “wonder drug* penicillin was intro­ duced for the first time. Reflecting a core Sacramento popu­ lation of 219,000, with a much larger outlying service area, there were 110,831 outpatients treated at County Hospital, and 80,424 custodial patients. The hospital also served as the polio center for Northern California. A six-story medical center was built in 1950, increasing the bed capacity to 800. Volunteer physicians still headed the various departments, and interns and residents continued to be accepted for training. The next decade witnessed the start of a $10.5 million modernization program, and the County Hospital became a community medical center, open to all in the Sacramento Valley. The main plant was remodeled and an eight-story wing was added.

32 ADOBE, BRICK & STEEL

University of California, Davis Medical Center Affiliation of the Sacramento County Hospital with the University ofCalifornia, Davis, School of Medicine was agreed upon in 1966. The County and the University shared costs and the school started functioning with 48 students on September 23,1968. On October 25, the hospital's name was changed to Sacramento Medical Center. On July 1,1973, the University of California purchased the hospital and it became the teach­ ing site for the UC Davis School of Medicine. In 1978, it was renamed the University of California, Davis, Medical Center, Sacramento. When the University purchased the facility in 1973, it acquired a hospital with several buildings that were seismically deficient and had a total square footage that was grossly inadequate to meet its patient care, educational, and research responsibilities. By 1993, the University of California had invested over $200 million in capital improvements to change the face of the medical center. An inpatient acute care tower was completed in 1982 to replace portions ofthe North/South wing of the main hospital. The Emergency Department and Primary Care Center were remodeled and expanded. Anew administrative support facil­ ity was completed. The North/South wing of the main hospital underwent m^gor restoration for patient care, administra­ tive, and academic support services. As the medical campus for the School of Medicine, the UC Davis Medical Center's programs quickly expanded. It was designated the region's Neonatal Intensive Care Unit, Bum Center, and Poison Control Center.

A HISTORY OF HOSPITALS AND SHELTERS FOR THE SICK 33

In 1981, the hospital opened the Center of Aging and Health, the first geriatric outpatient service to be part of a university teaching hospital. In 1984, the Department of Otolaryngology developed the world’s first artificial tongue, designed to improve speech in tongue cancer patients. The same year, a Diagnostic Mo­ lecular Pathology Laboratory was set up to detect abnormal genes that cause birth defects, such as sickle cell anemia. Along with diagnosing prenatal genetic disorders, the labora­ tory aids in matching donor organs to transplant recipients. Life Flight medical air ambulance also began operating from the Medical Center in 1984. By 1986, UC Davis Medical

University of California, Davis, Medical Center

34 ADOBE, BRICK & STEEL

Center had been designated a Level 1 Regional Trauma Center, serving the area's most critically ill and injured. By 1987, over 100 outpatient specialty clinics at the hospital were serving the Sacramento Valley and Northern California region. To guide continuing growth, the University of California Regents adopted a 20-year, long-range develop­ ment plan in 1989. In 1990 the hospital and its related services qualified for membership in the National Association of Children's Hospi­ tals and Related Institutions (NACHRI), and the hospital was designated as a "children's hospital within a hospital." As a result, the Shriners organization announced that a new 80bed hospital for children with burns, orthopaedic problems and spinal-cord injuries would be built adjacent to the Medi­ cal Center. That same year, the first laparoscopic cholecystectomy was performed by UC Davis surgeons—the first of many new laparoscopic and endoscopic procedures performed at UC Davis Medical Center. In 1991, the UC Davis Cancer Center opened, consoli­ dating many of the hospital's diverse cancer programs into one outpatient treatment center. By 1993, UC Davis Medical Center had grown to a 485bed, acute and specialty care hospital with 20,626 admissions a year. Over 150 specialty clinics logged 289,675 outpatient visits. The Medical Center staff numbered 4,224 employees, including 1, 615 nurses, in addition to 383 physicians. An­ other 446 physicians worked part-time or volunteered ser­ vices at UC Davis Medical Center. The hospital had 38 accredited residency and internship programs and a total of 603 residents and interns. Planning and construction continues for a rehabilitation hospital, expanded radiology services, and two new labora­ tory and research buildings.

A HISTORY OF HOSPITALS AND SHELTERS FOR THE SICK 35

Railroad Hospitals

By 1869, the small, doctor-owned hospitals were de­ creasing in number. In February 1870, the Central Pacific Railroad Hospital moved from the former Protestant Orphan Asylum it had occupied at 13th and D to a new four-story facility at 13th and C Streets. The first hospital in the world devoted entirely to railroad employees, it cost $64,000 to build, covered 65-by-35-feet with a basement, verandas, two 35-by-52-foot wings, and a kitchen 24-feet square a few feet from the main building. The hospital accommodated 125 beds

Central Pacific Railroad Hospital, 13th and C, 1870-1877. Courtesy Dr. J. B. Harris slide collection.

36 ADOBE, BRICK & STEEL

in 6 wards and 8 private rooms. The Central Pacific’s prepaid medical plan was the first in California, beginning in 1867 and lasting until 1975. 40 The first employees, except the Chinese, paid fifty cents per month for coverage. This pre­ mium covered current expenses and the interest on the original loan for the building. According to the Pacific Tourist — Adams and Bishop’s Illustrated Transcontinental Guide of Travel from the Atlan­ tic to the Pacific Ocean — the Central Pacific Railroad hospi­ tal contained “all modem improvements for lighting, heating, ventilation and drainage, and a library of 1200 volumes. It can accommodate 200 patients. No other railroad had made such generous provisions for its faithful employees.”41 Beside the doctor in charge, there were 4 male nurses, 2 for days and 2 for nights. Under Dr. Thomas W. Huntington, Chief Surgeon for the railroad, many innovative medical and surgical practices were introduced, including the first anti­ septic operating room on the West Coast (1882), the first

Southern Pacific Railroad Hospital, F between 7th and 8th, 1901. Formerly Charles Crocker home. Courtesy Dr. J. B. Harris slide collection.

A HISTORY OF HOSPITALS AND SHELTERS FOR THE SICK 37

operation for appendicitis in California (1891), and radical surgery for tuberculosis ofjoints and bones. Dr. Huntington had attended Harvard Medical School and served several years on the staff at Massachusetts Gen­ eral Hospital. He went to Nevada to take over a relative’s practice and became connected with surgery for the Southern Pacific Railroad. He moved to Sacramento and later to San Francisco. He maintained his interest in the railroad for most of his life, even after becoming Professor of Surgery at the University of California, San Francisco, Medical School. This and later railroad hospitals were planned with economy in mind. Surgical and medical wards here contained 8 to 15 beds and usually had a nursing station in close proximity. The nurse was able to see all the patients quickly, and ambulatory patients helped those who were bedridden. “A hospital could thus be operated with but one employee per patient and this enabled the railroad employee to obtain hospital and medical care starting at less than two cents per day.” « In 1887, this establishmentbecame the Southern Pacific Railroad Hospital and, after a short stay at the Crocker Home

Railroad Car Hospital, Sunset Magazine, Vol. 16, No. 1, November 1905, p. 97. Courtesy California State Library.

38 ADOBE, BRICK & STEEL

at 13th and F Streets, its activities were moved, in 1898, to the Southern Pacific General Hospital in San Francisco. After the San Francisco earthquake and fire of 1906, the patients were moved back to Sacramento. Bed patients were taken out of what remained of the hospital in San Francisco and placed on mattresses and cots. With the help of nurses and ambulatory patients, they were shifted to horse cars which transported them to the railway station at 3rd and Townsend. There being considerable confusion, Chief Sur­ geon Ainsworth, who had worked for the railroad before becoming a doctor, commandeered an engine and made up a hospital train of baggage cars for bed patients and chair cars for the ambulatory. The train stopped overnight in Redwood City and then went on, via San Jose, to Sacramento where quarters were already being built. These quarters became a permanent, three-story building which was operated until 1921. Other 1906 earthquake victims were taken to Camp Sutter's Fort where they came under the jurisdiction of the State Board of Health, James H. Parkinson, M.D., President This camp became a sort of combination outpatient clinic, hospital, home for the destitute, and employment bureau. At first, the number here ran to 60 and more,* but, by June 15, had dropped to 11. Their medical conditions included exhaustion, rheumatism, gastritis, abscesses, sprained ankle, cystitis, scabies, malaria, tuberculosis, morphine habit and puerperium. Some were sent to the county hospital, some secured employment, some returned to San Francisco, and a few enlisted in the U.S. Army.43 The “final” Southern Pacific Hospital in Sacramento was built in 1912 at 2nd and H Streets, but its use was “primarily as an emergency hospital and clinic-dispensary” for Southern Pacific employees. The railroad also designed a hospital car in 1905 with special springs, an operating table, and bunks. It was used for emergencies for workers and passengers alike, and had its own engine.

A HISTORY OF HOSPITALS AND SHELTERS FOR THE SICK 39

In 1910, Dr. John L. White, son of Dr. George A. White, opened a 60-bed hospital at 29th and J Streets for the medical care ofprivate patients, railroad employees and charity cases. This hospital (name unknown) was used by many Sacramento doctors. It cost $90,000, had 7 four-bed wards, 30 private rooms, and a nurses’ trainingschool. It functioned until 1924.

The White Hospital, 29th and J, built by Dr. G. A. White and son, Dr. John White. Courtesy Mary Hulse, a White Hospital nursing graduate.

40 ADOBE, BRICK & STEEL

Sisters

of

Mercy Hospitals

On June 24, 1895, Mater Misericordiae, the “Sisters* Hospital,” had opened its doors at 23rd between Q and R Streets in the former Ridge Home. The home was donated by Mrs. E.B. Crocker for the care of elderly women, and became Sacramento’s first full-fledged hospital. The Ridge Home had the interest ofDrs. Huntington and G.L. Simmons. The latter had gone east to study at the Harvard Medical School. He and Dr. Huntington devoted much of their time to public health and community welfare in general. They had helped the Sisters ofMercy, at their convent at 9 th and G Streets, to take over the Ridge Home.

Ridge Home, 23rd and R, opened 1887-1888, by Dr. G. L. Simmons. Later became part ofMater Misericordiae Hospital. Courtesy Sister Mary Peter.

A HISTORY OF HOSPITALS AND SHELTERS FOR THE SICK 41

The hospital was run by 6 Sisters of Mercy, Mother Superior Ligouri in charge. The Sisters had come to “roaring camp” Sacramento originally by boat, on October 2, 1857, from San Francisco’s Saint Mary’s Hospital. They estab­ lished schools for girls and boys, an orphanage, and a convent. As the first visiting nurses in the area, they were especially valuable during the flood of 1862. Mother Superior Ligouri headed the religious community of Sisters, and Miss Louise Igo the nursing training school. The Sisters’ Hospital rapidly outgrew its limited space and, on May 9,1897, a new structure was opened, adjacent to the Ridge Home, adding 30 beds and a surgery. The hospital remained at the 23rd Street location until 1925 when the sisters opened the 150-bed Mercy General Hospital on 7 acres of land at 40th and J Streets. The Mercy Children’s Clinic was established in 1933 to care for underprivileged infants and children. Mercy Children’s Hospital — the first of its kind in Northern California, was opened in 1950. The east wing ofMercy General Hospital was added in 1954, extended care in 1963, and the Sister Mary

Mater Misericordiae Hospital (Mercy Hospital), 23rd and R, 1897, from “Sacramento Through the Camera,"by the RecordUnion.

42 ADOBE, BRICK & STEEL

Peter Pavilion in 1981. Mercy Hospital was expanded to 412 acute and 77 sub-acute beds by 1988. The Sisters of Mercy continued to expand to outlying areas and in 1987 the local Mercy hospitals became part of a 15-facility system. Catholic Healthcare West. (See “Suburban Hospitals” chapter on page 58.)44

Top: Mercy Hospital, 40th and J, 1930, Courtesy Sister Mary Peter; Bottom: Mercy Hospital, 40th and J, 1980, aerial view.

A HISTORY OP HOSPITALS AND SHELTERS FOR THE SICK 43

Fairhaven Home and Hospital

Social as well as medical problems had to be addressed in early Sacramento, and resolved one way or another. In 1898, the Peniel Mission, a Los Angeles-based group, opened Fairhaven: “A Christian Home and Hospital for the care of unwed mothers [as well as] destitute and erring girls and their children, or any woman needing help. A non-sectarian Christian home where we aim to help girls and women to a pure and useful Christian life.” Initially, Mrs. J.H. Glide rented a small house for the Mission on 2nd and Front Streets, where Fairhaven stayed

Fairhaven Home for Unwed Mothers, postcard, 1920, 65th Street residence, delivery room on side, second floor.

44 ADOBE, BRICK & STEEL

until November 24,1900, when Mrs. E.B. Crocker deeded over her Crocker Mansion after the Fairhaven manager noted the emptiness of the mansion’s 22 rooms and appealed to Mrs. Crocker. After the deeding was completed, $5,000 was raised to remodel and help furnish the establishment. Local mer­ chants made donations ofbeds, blankets, anthracite coal, and other items. The two women in charge received no salaries — their husbands were employed by the Southern Pacific Rail­ road. Most doctors also donated their services. When businesses and “undesirable” neighbors en­ croached, Fairhaven offered to sell the property back to the Crocker heirs, and this exchange was made in 1913 for $20,000. With that money, three acres of farm land and a house were purchased in Colonial Acres, 4480 63rd Street. An upper floor was converted into a ward, labor and delivery room. One nurse served as anesthetist and doctor’s assistant. In compliance with state regulations, a one-story hospi­ tal was built and opened in 1950. However, when blood and blood products were required to be kept on hand, the cost proved too great and, in 1972, deliveries were discontinued. While the need for protecting the privacy of unwed mothers was diminishing, Fairhaven continued as a home for single mothers and their children until 1979, when the building was remodeled for retirees.45

Fairhaven Home for Unwed Mothers, Hospital, 1950, 65th Street. Courtesy Fairhaven Home.

A HISTORY OF HOSPITALS AND SHELTERS FOR THE SICK 45

Turn of

the

Century Hospitals

In 1900, the Wentworth-Igo Hospital was founded at 2615 I Street. After Dr. William H. Wentworth’s death from typhoid in 1901, Louise Igo, former head of the Sisters’ Hospital nursing school, attended medical school at the Uni­ versity of California, San Francisco, and returned to Sacra­ mento, in 1919, to establish the eight-room Igo Hospital at 1525 L Street. She later married Flitcroft, and together they established the Igo-Flitcroft Hospital at 3014 M Street. Ill­ ness forced them to sell the building in 1927. At the time, it was advertised as having 24 rooms and a well equipped surgery and was sold for $41,000.46

Sutter Heights Hospital, 21st and T, 1908. Courtesy Bert L. Sieferman, DSC.

46 ADOBE, BRICK & STEEL

The Wentworth-Igo Hospital, with the name Igo dropped, had been carried on by Dr. Wentworth’s heirs and closed in 1914,butreopenedin 1917 as the Krull Hospital. Itcontinued to be operated for about 10 years by Dr. Frank Krull. The Sutter Heights Hospital appeared at 21st and T Streets in the early 1900s, and was run by a staff of specialists that included a woman obstetrician/gynecologist. It was supported in part by a group of charitable women. Under the auspices of the Episcopal Church, but non­ sectarian, the Home of the Merciful Savior was opened, June 1,1907, on J Street It treated crippled and invalid children and averaged 20 to 25 patients at one time.

Top: Wentworth Hospital, 28th and J, 1900, Sacramento Bee files; Bottom: Krull Hospital, 26151,1917-1927. Courtesy Dr. Frank Krull.

A HISTORY OP HOSPITALS AND SHELTERS FOR THE SICK 47

Japanese Hospitals

Between 1903 and 1942, the Japanese-American com­ munity, feeling the need for better health care for its people, opened several “Japanese” hospitals and midwife establish­ ments in “Japan Town,” between 3rd and 4th, L and M Streets. First was Nihon Byoin, the “Japanese Hospital,” (1903 to 1912) run by Dr. Mas^jiMatsuda at 1314 4th Street. Later, there was the Takeoka Byoin (Hospital), in 1907, at 314 M Street, Dr. Minokichi Takeoka in charge. This hospital (191014) became Ofu Byoin, “Sacramento Hospital.” Dr. Iseri and Dr. Hashinaga were natives of the Mumamoto Prefecture, and the local Kumamoto Prefectural Association helped in the management. In 1913 the Nihon Hospital at 1318 4th Street was opened, its relationship, if any, to the Nihon Byoin, men­ tioned above, is not known.47 The Eagle Hospital at 1210 3rd Street was founded by Tsunesaburo Miyakawa, a pharmacist, it was the predeces­ sor of the better known Agnes Miyakawa Hospital. As owner of the Eagle Hospital, Miyakawa expressed the feelings of the Japanese-American community when he wrote: “Since my profession is that of a pharmacist, I had many opportunities to get in touch with the sick and it was my duty to visit daily those who were in the hospitals operated by Caucasians. I was not pleased with the attitude which prevailed in hospi­ tals toward Japanese patients.” 48

48 ADOBE, BRICK & STEEL

Thus he became determined to build a hospital for his own people. However, the Eagle Hospital was forced to close due to street noise and “financial difficulties.” Mr. Miyakawa stated, “I gave too many credits to the patients and their friends and acquaintances.” Also, in 1918-19, there was the nationwide influenza epidemic followed by failure of the rice crop and local Japanese banking institutions in 1920. The Eagle Hospital became a hotel. On January 1, 1926, the Agnes Miyakawa Hospital opened as a full-service institution with the latest equipment. Located on the southeast corner of 4th and N Streets, it was named for Miyakawa’s daughter, a well-known vocalist. It

Takeoka Byoin (Hospital), 314 M St., 1907. From the book, “Ohfu HeigenNoNishiki Shashin-cho,”Brocade ofSacramento Valley, Sacramento Ethnic History Project Collection, Sacramento Archives and Collection Center.

A HISTORY OF HOSPITALS AND SHELTERS FOR THE SICK 49

wets patronized by Japanese and Caucasian doctors alike. Mr. Miyakawa had spent two years studying the management of hospitals. In the first year, 202 operations were performed and 12 babies delivered. The total cost for maternity care was $100. Caucasian doctors were provided with interpreters when necessary. Both Japanese and American food was served, and a room was available for anyone who wanted to help care for a relative or friend. Recognizing a need for Japanese nurses, Miyakawa offered work at the hospital to help pay the tuition of Japanese-American girls who planned to become nurses. Mr. Miyakawa also opened a dispensary, in 1926, for indigent or elderly resident Japanese. His regulations speci­ fied that (1) infectious patients could not be admitted for the

®

i 1.1» i

n ')•

**. m

Hf

3N

&

c

u

i- i h‘

Ofu Byoin (Sacramento Hospital), 314 M St., 1910-1914, formerly Takeoka Byoin, Drs. Iseri and Hashinaga. From the book, “Hokka No Shiori,B (Album of Northern California), Sacramento Ethnic History Project, Sacramento Archives and Collection Center.

50 ADOBE, BRICK & STEEL

time being; (2) dispensary inpatients must first obtain a permit from either the local Japanese Association, the Bud­ dhist Church, or a Christian church; and (3) they should bring their own bedclothes and toiletries to minimize their hospital expenses. He also started a health clinic to give advice. In 1933, Miyakawa sold his hospital, which in turn became the Grand Hotel, and returned to Japan. As Troy Kaji wrote in his article, “Japanese Hospitals in Sacramento:” “The repeated extinctions of the Japanese hospi­ tals are understandable in light of the fluctuating fortunes of the Japanese-American community as

Nihon Byoin (Hospital), 1318 4th St., 1903-1912. From the book "Hokka No Shiori,” (Album of Northern California), Sacramento Ethnic History Project, Sacramento Archives and Collection Center.

A HISTORY OF HOSPITALS AND SHELTERS FOR THE SICK 51

a whole. Their initial economic successes were hampered by waves of discriminatory legislation, commencing with the 1907 Gentlemen’s Agree­ ment, continuing with the Alien Land Laws of 1913 and 1920, and culminating with the Japanese Exclusion Act of 1924. Yet this same climate of discrimination heightened the desire within the community for possessing its own hospital facility as a haven for its members in need of inpatient care.”

Agnes Miyakawa Hospital, 4th and N, 1926. Courtesy Miyakawa family.

52 ADOBE, BRICK & STEEL

Sutter Hospitals

The United States War Department intervened in Sac­ ramento medical services during World War I, paying to establish an Isolation Hospital in 1918 to care for venereal disease cases. Operational costs were at city expense, how­ ever, and they were high enough to lead to its closure, in 1919, in spite of persuasive arguments in favor of keeping it open, as an important factor in controlling venereal diseases.49 During the disastrous influenza epidemic that swept the country at the end of the war, ahospital was organized in the city library and so-called “party girls” were gratefully ac­ cepted to do volunteer nursing.50

Sutter General Hospital, 28th and L, 1923.

A HISTORY OF HOSPITALS AND SHELTERS FOR THE SICK 53

This epidemic of 1918-19 pointed up the need for more hospital beds in Sacramento. Seventeen physicians incorpo­ rated the Sutter Hospital Association in September 1921, with a board of directors consisting of Drs. George A. Spencer, WA Beattie, George A. Briggs, E.T. Rulison, and J.W. James. The Sutter Hospital, with 160 beds, was erected, in 1922, at 28th and L Streets, across from Sutter’s Fort, at a cost of $850,000. The new Sutter Hospital offered spacious private rooms with dark paneled walls and flowered drapes. A solarium on every floor allowed patients to convalesce in sunshine. Rates were reasonable: $4 per day for a ward, $6 for a semi-private room, and $8 for a private room. One elderly gentleman lived on the fifth floor for seven years! Sadly, implementation of public health policies and the discovery of antibiotics came too late for the founder, Dr. J.W. James, who died of typhoid fever and a streptococcal septicemia soon after the opening. In 1935, Sutter Hospital became a non-profit corporation and was renamed Sutter General Hospital. A prepaid medical plan for employees was instituted in 1932. For one dollar per month, members received free hospital care and free choice of doctor. This plan eventually

Sutter Memorial Hospital, 52nd and F, began as Sutter Maternity Hospital.

54 ADOBE, BRICK & STEEL

became the Superior California Hospital Association, which included Mercy and hospitals in outlying areas. Although many women still delivered their babies at home, it was becoming more common to use hospital facilities, and Sutter's maternity service became active. In 1937, the new 52-bed Sutter Maternity Center Hospital opened at 52nd and F Streets. This maternity hospital, a separate unit for mothers and babies, was the first such center in California and only the second west of the Mississippi River. It was the first fully air-conditioned hospital in the state and the third in the nation. The Sutter Maternity Hospital satellite has now been modernized and enlarged, becoming the 378-bed Sutter Memorial Hospital. By 1986, Sutter Community Hospitals came to include Sutter Davis Hospital, Sutter Surgery Center in Sacramento, and Cordova Health Center (renamed Sutter Immediate Care Center, and now called Sutter Community Clinic). Expansion continued with the addition of a Diagnostic and Treatment Center, a Child Guidance Clinic, a psychiatric unit for adults and children, Sutter Counseling Center, and a Kidney Dialy­ sis Center.

Sutter Hospital, 28th and L, 1989, across the street from the original hospital site.

A HISTORY OF HOSPITALS AND SHELTERS FOR THE SICK 55

In 1987, a more modem Sutter General Hospital was completed across the street from the original facility at 28th and L, at a cost of $73 million. It was also across the street from Sutter’s Fort and special care had to be taken when the earthquake-proof foundation was laid so as not to bring down the adobe and brick walls of the historic fort. Also, special building techniques were developed to contend with the high groundwater level. Was this possibly due to the fresh-water well described in the 1849 advertisement for the Cragan and Abell adobe hospital on the east side of Sutter’s Fort? A statue of Captain John Sutter was placed in the garden on the west side of the hospital, facing Sutter’s Fort. The five-story building covers a city block, has a full basement, an 80-car parking garage, 299 acute-care beds, and 114 private rooms. The original hospital was demolished and a hospital admin­ istrative center was built in its place, connected to the new hospital by an aerial walkway across L Street. By 1993 the Sutter Health system included Sutter Com­ munity Hospitals of Sacramento (Sutter General, Sutter Memorial and Sutter Center for Psychiatry), Novato Commu­ nity Hospital in Marin County, Sutter Solano Medical Center in Vallejo, and Sutter Coast Hospital in Crescent City, Sutter Davis Hospital, Sutter Lakeside Hospital in Lakeport, Au­ burn Faith Community Hospital, Amador Hospital in Jackson, Delta Memorial Hospital in Antioch and Kahi Mohala Psychiatric Hospital in Honolulu. That year the Sutter system was in negotiations to acquire Roseville Community Hospital and Tracy Community Memorial Hospital.

56 ADOBE, BRICK & STEEL

Suburban Hospitals

COMMUNITY HOSPITAL Sacramento’s northern area came to be served by the general-care Community Hospital of Sacramento, built on two and one-half acres of land at El Monte and Hawthorne Streets. It was constructed in 1949 as a 15-bed osteopathic facility. It gradually grew to 100 beds, in 1987, and changed from private ownership to the Republic Health Corporation. It closed in 1988 and has since reopened and closed again. AMERICAN RIVER HOSPITAL A growing need for more health care services in north­ eastern Sacramento County prompted construction of the American River Hospital in 1962, on 15 acres on Engle Road in Carmichael. It opened with 48 beds, expanding to 212 beds by 1966 and adding the first emergency service with full-time physician coverage in Northern California. In 1968 it became the Eskaton American River Healthcare Center, and bed capacity was increased to 242. The first neonatal unit in Sacramento County was opened in 1970 and, in the following 18 years, a mobile coronary unit, a diagnostic wing, a CT scan, a home-style delivery program, Hospice Care of Sacramento, and an ambulatory Surgery Center were added. In 1991, it was acquired by Mercy Healthcare Sacramento and its name was changed to Mercy American River Hospital.

A HISTORY OF HOSPITALS AND SHELTERS FOR THE SICK 57

American River Hospital, 4747 Engle Road, Carmichael, is now known as Mercy American River Hospital.

Methodist Hospital of Sacramento, 7500 Timberlake Way, Sacramento.

58 ADOBE, BRICK & STEEL

METHODIST HOSPITAL To serve Sacramento’s fastrgrowing south-side popula­ tion, Methodist Hospital was backed by a group of citizens including Sacramento attorney Frank K. Richardson, who wrote the medical center’s articles of incorporation in Janu­ ary 1963. Fifty acres of land were purchased on Timberlake Way through private contributions and a Bank of America loan. Funds were hard to come by in that era, but a ground­ breaking ceremony occurred nevertheless on November 22, 1971, and the hospital was dedicated as a nonprofit, 150-bed, general-care institution on October 23,1973. In 1982 a reorganization made Methodist Hospital of Sacramento a subsidiary of Valley Health Care Corporation. In 1993, Methodist Hospital affiliated with Mercy Healthcare. MERCY HOSPITAL OF FOLSOM In April 1962, a small community hospital in the city of Folsom opened its doors. Known at one time as Twin Lakes Hospital, the facility at 223 Fargo Way was completed at a cost of $250,000. In 1980 Twin Lakes Hospital was purchased by the Sisters of Mercy and was renamed Mercy Hospital of Folsom. By 1985, the structure had been refurbished and plans were announced for a larger facility at 1650 Creekside Drive. On the new 26-acre site, a 95-bed hospital opened in May 1989. Hospital services include general medicine, sur­ gery, pediatrics, obstetrics, emergency, intensive and coro­ nary care, and a full spectrum of diagnostic services. MERCY SAN JUAN HOSPITAL In February 1967 the Sisters of Mercy opened the 217bed Mercy San Juan Hospital on 25 acres of north-area land in Carmichael. The Coyle Avenue site was shared with Mercy High School until 1981. Soon the hopsital expanded into the vacant school buildings in order to offer services such as a radiation oncology center, a diabetes center, cardiac recondi­ tioning, pulmonary rehabilitation and sleep labs. By 1993, the campus included two medical office build­ ings and plans for a third.

A HISTORY OF HOSPITALS AND SHELTERS FOR THE SICK 69

ARCADE GENERAL HOSPITAL The Arcade General Hospital at Arcade and Del Paso Boulevards was opened by two osteopathic physicians. It operated until 1973 when it became the Woodside Medical Clinic, private doctors’ offices.

Top: Mercy San Juan Hospital; Bottom: Mercy Hospital of Folsom.

60 ADOBE, BRICK & CTEEL

Kaiser Hospitals

The Kaiser Permanente Foundation came to Sacra­ mento in April 1965. It was a group practice prepayment plan, and it purchased the privately owned 64-bed Arden Commu­ nity Hospital (information not available on this facility) and began business with 10 doctors on May 1 of that year. By 1970, it had been enlarged to include the adjacent Camellia Park Convalescent Hospital, more medical offices, and a medical center with hospital tower. The rapid increase in membership meant that Kaiser satellite facilities would be needed in Sacramento. A 42-acre site on Bruceville Road near the southern boundary of Sacra-

The original Sacramento Kaiser Permanente Medical Center on Morse Avenue.

A HISTORY OF HOSPITALS AND SHELTERS FOR THE SICK 61

mento County was purchased in 1978. A medical office build­ ing with space for 90 physicians opened for service on October 1, 1984 and a connecting hospital opened with 60 beds the following year. A second medical office building became operational in February 1991. An inpatient psychiatric hospital opened in 1992 on the South Sacramento campus. In 1993 there were more than 650 physicians through­ out the entire Sacramento region, serving 378,000 health plan members. Expansion plans call for a 116 bed hospital to open just north of Sacramento County in Roseville.

Top: The South Sacramento Kaiser Permanente Medical Center on Bruceville Road; Bottom: Additional Kaiser Permanente offices located just north of Sacramento in Roseville.

62 ADOBE, BRICK & STEEL

El Dorado Hospitals

PLACERVILLE SANATARIUM This hospital on Coloma Street in Placerville was prob­ ably founded between 1905 and 1910 by a Dr. Mountain. He was joined in practice by Dr. William Reckers who, however, left practice during World War I to serve at Letterman General Hospital where he developed skill in general surgery. Following the War, Dr. Reckers returned to Placerville, pur­ chased the Placerville Sanatorium from Dr. Mountain, and established a practice in general surgery. In 1926, Dr. Angus A. McKinnon joined him in practice, and in 1936 Dr. Charles V. Soracco (from Sutter Creek) joined

Placerville Sanatorium as it appeared in 1992 on Coloma Street in Placerville. Photo by Dr. E. T. Rulison, Jr.

A HISTORY OF HOSPITALS AND SHELTERS FOR THE SICK 63

the group after a U.C. Hospital residency. An additional partner. Dr. Edward Shortes, was added to the partnership in 1947, and several other physicians and surgeons joined the group before it was dissolved in 1959 when the Sanatorium was sold. Originally a two-story home, the Sanatarium building had been converted to a hospital with 29 beds and 8-10 bassinets when it opened. It had a relatively modern operat­ ing room, laboratory and x-ray facilities. There was no eleva­ tor however, and surgery patients going to or from the wards on the first floor to the operating room on the second floor (if they couldn’t walk) had to be carried up or down the long flight of stairs on a stretcher. The obstetrical practice was quite active, and Dr. Soracco, who did most of the obstetrics, recalled delivering 27 patients in a one-month period. During most ofthe years that the Placerville Sanatarium was in operation, Mrs. Agnes Walter, R.N. was the head nurse. A two-story house directly behind the Sanatarium was purchased to provide housing for single nurses. EL DORADO COUNTY HOSPITAL The El Dorado County Hospital on Spring Street in Placerville was built in the late 1930s. From its opening until the late ’50s Dr. Angus A. McKinnon held the post of “County Physician.” The hospital was closed in July 1972, but was reopened as a private hospital/clinic called the Motherlode

The former El Dorado County Hospital, Motherlode Medical Center and Pioneer Hospital on Spring Street in Placerville.

64 ADOBE, BRICK & STEEL

Medical Center, financed by Mr. Grover Rodgers of Los Angeles, with Dr. John Mathewson serving as Chief Medical Officer. The hospital had 39 beds and, in addition to general medicine, provided beds for El Dorado County Mental Health patients. The Motherlode Medical Center closed in February 1975, but continued to operate as the Pioneer Hospital, funded by a group of local shareholders until October 1975. The buildings now house a number of the County Health Department offices and clinics. MARSHALL HOSPITAL Marshall Hospital, named after James Marshall, who discovered gold at Sutter’s Mill a few miles away from Placerville, opened on July 1,1950. A dedicated group of 10 employees worked to make the 50-bed hospital a success. In 1957, a small group of concerned citizens in the Placerville area formed the Marshall Hospital Corporation, making the facility a nonprofit community hospital. Prior to the establish­ ment of the new hospital, medical services had been available to the “Hangtown” community through the Placerville Sanatarium and later the El Dorado County Hospital. By 1993, the hospital had grown to 104 beds with nearly 175 physicians on staff. The Placerville site, originally do­ nated by Michigan-Cal Lumber Company, includes 120,000 square feet housing emergency, medical, surgical, maternity, administration and various services. A 7.4-acre site at the Goldorado Center in Cameron Park includes physician of­ fices, physical therapy, lab, mammography, and radiology services as well as plans for magnetic resonance imaging. BARTON MEMORIAL HOSPITAL On May 17,1960, a 16-member community board incor­ porated to head a hospital campaign for South Lake Tahoe. The pledge drive resulted in $422,011, combined with HillBurton funds of $598,010 with another $103,000 coming from the Max C. Fleishmann Foundation for hospital equipment. By 1962 ground was broken on the six-acre parcel of land donated by Alva Barton and Faye Ledbetter on behalf of their father, William “Bill” Barton.

A HISTORY OF HOSPITALS AND SHELTERS FOR THE SICK 65

On November 26, 1963, the Barton Memorial Hospital doors opened with 38 beds, 18 phytsicians, 5 dentists, and about 20 employees. The first year's operating expenses of $600,000 were bestowed upon the hospital from fund-raising events sponsored by civic organizations. Over the years, the hospital has grown to a physician staff of 56, with 12 dentists, 400 employees and 40 depart­ ments. A major expansion project adding 60,000 square feet will begin in the spring of 1993, to be completed in 1995.

Top: Marshall Hospital on Marshall Way in Placerville; Bottom: Barton Memorial Hospital in South Lake Tahoe.

66 ADOBE. BRICK & STEEL

Nurses and Midwives

Nursing services were not a part of the earliest Sacra­ mento hospitals, nor were these services common anywhere. It was not until the Crimean War (1855-1856) that Florence Nightingale pioneered modem nursing and began to make it respectable. Probably the first Sacramento hospital to employ nurses was the Central Pacific Railroad Hospital, 1869, and these early nurses were male. Although the Sisters of Mercy came to Sacramento in 1857 to serve the needy and sick, it was not until 1895 that they took over the Ridge Home at 22nd and R Streets, a building originally donated by Mrs. E. B. Crocker for the care of elderly women. Later the Ridge Home was operated by pioneer physician G. L. Simmons, M.D., who encouraged and financed the takeover. Volunteers and practical nurses served the patients. When the Sisters built a larger hospital, Mater Misericordiae at 23rd and R Streets, they became the first Community of Sisters in California to offer a program in nursing education. Four students entered the first class in 1897. Louise Igo, a graduate nurse from San Francisco, took over the class. Later, in 1906, she received her medical degree from the University of California School of Medicine in San Francisco. She returned in 1910 to her own hospital in Sacramento at 1525 L Street. Eventually she married a man named Flitcroft and the Igo-Flitcroft Hospital at 3014 M Street was open until 1927. In 1925, the Nursing School of the Sisters of Mercy moved to more spacious quarters at 40th and J where the new

A HISTORY OF HOSPITALS AND SHELTERS FOR THE SICK 67

Mercy Hospital was located. In 1934, this school was incorpo­ rated as the Mercy Hospital College ofNursing and accredited by the State Board of Nurse Examiners. Dr. Frank Reardon taught the courses on the medical aspects ofnursing. In 1944, the College affiliated with other hospitals in San Francisco and the Sacramento County Hospital in order to provide a wider range of nursing experience. Increasing academic re­ quirements for nurses caused hospital directors to encourage nursing schools to continue in college and university settings. By 1948, the Mercy College of Nursing closed its doors. Another early nursing school in Sacramento could be found in the White Hospital at 29th and J Streets until it closed in 1924. The Sacramento County Hospital School of Nursing opened in 1909. With the exception of a six-month period in 1923, it continued operation until 1950. From 1910 to 1933, 177 nurses were graduated. In 1933, high school graduation was required of all students and since 1928 the students also attended Sacramento Junior College as part of their three years* training. By 1944, all students earned Associate ofArts degrees as well as nursing diplomas. In 1950, the Sacramento Junior College (later to become Sacramento City College) took over the operation of the School of Nursing. By 1958, the traditional three-year nursing program was replaced by a two-year Associate degree program. In 1923, graduate nurses were paid $90 per month for a 72-hour week. The 13 nurses at the County Hospital worked from 7 a.m. to 7 p.m., with two weeks* vacation per year and no sick leave. In 1929, the Nurses Association sought support from the Sacramento Society for Medical Improvement to decrease their work day from 12 to 10 hours. After a full discussion, the matter was tabled. Salaries increased by five to seven percent when Civil Service was adopted in 1937. By 1943, nurses were paid $155 a month. Since the 1920s the California Nurses Association (Dis­ trict 7) and its predecessor, the Sacramento Nurses Associa­ tion, played a very active role representing nurses on issues such as salaries and working conditions. The California

68 ADOBE, BRICK & STEEL

League for Nursing (Local Unit J) was more oriented to education and public relations. During World War II, student nurses were recruited and subsidized into the Cadet Nurses Corps with the expectation that they would join one of the branches of the Armed Forces. Many did. Currently both Sacramento State University and Sacra­ mento City College offer approved programs in nursing. At the University, a four-year course leading to a Baccalaureate degree has been available since 1958. At the College, courses leading to an R.N. and L.V.N. are available. In California in 1993, there are 92 licensed schools of nursing and 254,270 registered nurses, including nurse prac­ titioners, midwives and nurse-anesthetists. Over 8,694nurses are registered in Sacramento County at this time. MIDWIVES Several midwifery set-ups operated in Sacramento in the early 1900s and those listed in the city directories in­ cluded Lloyds Convalescents, "aged and maternity home,” at 3835 J Street, in 1923; H. Kabayashi, the "Japanese Mater­ nity Home,” at 1423-1/2 4th Street, in 1924; Or^s Maternity Home, at 3138 1st Avenue, in 1928; and Oshita Masyiro Maternity Home, at 2006 6th Street, in 1936. In 1939, there were seven licensed midwifery establish­ ments in Sacramento City. Most of these were in "Japan Town." If difficulties arose in delivery, local M.D.s were consulted and, if operative procedures were necessary, the patients were moved to regular hospitals. The Japanese maternity homes were closed at the out­ break of World War II with the forced removal of JapaneseAmericans from Pacific coastal areas. State licensing was abolished and midwifery establishments ceased to exist.

A HISTORY OF HOSPITALS AND SHELTERS FOR THE SICK 69

Conclusion

Through the period of a century and a half, the North American continent was settled by descendants of Europeans, Asians, and Africans, adding to the light concentrations of Native Americans and the Spanish in California. Modern cities were started. Travel became less hazardous. Environ­ ments changed. In the City of Sacramento, levees and downtown streets were raised, the American River diverted and foothill dams constructed to hold back excess rain and melting snow. Floods, as well as mosquitoes, were controlled. Immunizations, the use of “miracle drugs,” and the develop­ ment of technologies eliminated the old epidemics. Morbidity and mortality statistics improved dramatically and life spans grew longer. The primitive establishments of disease and death had evolved into hospitals of health and new life.

70 ADOBE, BRICK & STEEL

Notes 1. 2.

3.

4. 5. 6.

7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22.

23. 24. 25.

John Frederick Morse, First History of Sacramento City (Sacramento 1853; reprint ed., Sacramento Book Collectors Club, 1945,) Win J. Davis, Illustrated History of Sacramento County (Chicago: Lewis Publishing Co., 1890), pp. 127, 129, 132-37. G. Walter Reed, ed., History of Sacramento County (Los Angeles: Historic Record Co., 1923), pp. 215-19. Thomas H. Thompson and Alfred A. West, History of Sacramento County (Oakland, 1880; reprinted., Berkeley: HowellNorth, 1960), p. 45. William Willis, History of Sacramento County (Los Angles: Historic Record Co., 1913) p. 65. “John Augustus Sutter," World Book Encyclopedia, vol. 18 (Chicago: Field Enter­ prises, 1977). Diary of John Augustus Sutter (San Francisco: Grabhorn Press, 1932; reprinted from San Francisco Argonaut, Jan. 26, Feb. 2, 9, 16, 1898), pp. 4, 45. Ibid., p. 55. F.D. Calhoon, ed. and pub., The Lassen Trail and the Memoirs of James Eaton (Sacramento: Cal-Con Press, 1987), p. 94. Bryant Berryman, M.D., “Reminiscences of California, 1849-1852,” California Historical Society Quarterly, vol. XL, no. 1 (March 1932), pp. 35-39. AJta California (San Francisco), Aug. 4, 1849. Ibid. Placer Times (Sacramento), Sept. 1, 1849. Notes in possession of the author and Irma West, M.D., sources unidentified. Eliza P. Donnor Houghton, The Expedition of the Donner Party and Its Tragic Fate (Los Angeles: Grafton, 1920), p. 132. Placer Times, Dec. 29, 1849. Ibid, and Sacramento Transcript, Nov. 12, 1850. Sacramento Transcript, Sept. 24, 1850. Ibid., July 22, 1850. Ibid., May 2, 1850. Kenneth Johnson, ed.. Gold Rush Letters of J.D.B. Stillman (Palo Alto: Lewis Osborne, 1967), p. 42. Placer Times, Dec. 23, 1849. Johnson, Letters of Stillman, p. 42. Morse, First History, p. — Calhoon, Lassen Trail, pp. 94-95. William M. Stewart, Reminiscences (New York and Washington: Neale Pub. Co., 1908), pp. 55*56. Stewart served as US Senator from Nevada, 1864-75, 1887-1905. Sacramento Transcript, Apr. 16, 1850. Ibid., Apr. 12, July 4, 1850. Ibid., July 4, 1850.

A HISTORY OF HOSPITALS AND SHELTERS FOR THE SICK 71

26. David Dustin, “A Letter from Sacramento, 1850,* Golden Notes (Sacramento County Historical Society, vol. no. 4, July 1957) p. 2. 27. Morse, First History, p. 51. 28. Valerie Gollihur, History of Sacramento Medical Center, prepared for the Sacramento Medical Center, April 1976. 29. Sacramento Transcript, Nov. 15, 16, 1850. 30. Sacramento Union, Nov. 16, 1854. 31. Sacramento Transcript, Nov. 16, 1850. 32. Ibid., July 9, Aug. 6, 1850. 33. Charles E. Nagel, “Sacramento Cholera Epidemic of 1850* (term paper, Sacramento State College [University], 1956; copy in Califor­ nia Room, California State Library, p. 1-21. 34. Ibid. 35. J. Roy Jones, Memories, Men and Medicine (Sacramento Society for Medical Improvement, 1950), p. 250; Thomas Logan, M.D., “Medical History of the Year 1868 in California," address to Sacramento Society for Medical Improvement, Feb. 16, 1869 (reprint, California Room, California State Library). 36. Nan Cerruti and Dave F. Dozier, M.D., “A History of Sacramento Medical Center," in Commentary, vol II, no. 6 (Sept. 1973), pp. 6-15, published by School of Medicine, University of California, Davis; Sacramento Daily Union, May 25, 1858. 37. Note, California State Medical Journal, Jan. 1857, p. 412. 38. Cerruti and Dozier, “History." 39. Reports of meetings, Sacramento Society for Medical Improvement (State Board of Health records, 1871-77, California Room, California State Library), pp. 41-42; Gollihur, “History". 40. Henry J. Short, Railroad Doctors, Hospitals and Associations, Pioneers in Comprehensive, Low-cost Medical Care (Lakeport: Shearer/Graphic Arts, 1986), pp. 1-6. 41. Quoted in “Sacramento for Tourists, 1884: A Rail Traveler's Guide," (Golden Notes, vol. 33 , no. 2, Summer 1987, Sacramento County Historical Society), pp. 4-5. 42. Ibid. 43. Reports, misc., May 8-June 16, 1906, State Board of Health, in Sacramento Archives and Collections Center. 44. Announcements, brochures, updated, Mercy Hospitals. 45. Records, correspondence, etc., in office files, Fairhaven Retirement Center. 46. Sacramento Bee, Jan. 20, 1927. 47. Takeoka Hospital, from the book, “Ohfu Heigen No Niskeki ShashinCho" Nihon Byoin Hospital, from the book “Hakka No Shion," Album of Northern California Nihon Hospital, Sacramento Ethnic History Project Collection, Sacramento Archives and Collection Center. 48. Tsunesaburo Miyakawa, personal account (Eagle and Agnes Miyakawa hospitals) in files of Sacramento Society Medical Improve­ ment (now Sacramento-El Dorado County Medical Society), Elvas Avenue. 49. Sacramento Bee, Sept. 10, 1919. 50. Ibid., Nov. 2, 1918. 51. Sacramento City Directories, various years.