Sourcebooks: Reporting the Revolutionary War

REPORTING The Revolutionary War BEFORE it was HISTORY, it was NEWS

BY TODD AN DRLIK

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Copyright © 2012 by Todd Andrlik Cover and internal design © 2012 by Sourcebooks, Inc. Cover design by The Book Designers Washington Crossing the Delaware by Emanuel Leutze © The Metropolitan Museum of Art Boston Massacre by Paul Revere © Library of Congress America in the Dumps © The Metropolitan Museum of Art and Library of Congress Old Knickerbocker family around the tea-table © North Wind Picture Archives All newspaper images © Todd Andrlik Sourcebooks and the colophon are registered trademarks of Sourcebooks, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any electronic or mechanical means including information storage and retrieval systems—except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical articles or reviews—without permission in writing from its publisher, Sourcebooks, Inc. This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information in regard to the subject matter covered. It is sold with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering legal, accounting, or other professional service. If legal advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional person should be sought.—From a Declaration of Principles Jointly Adopted by a Committee of the American Bar Association and a Committee of Publishers and Associations All brand names and product names used in this book are trademarks, registered trademarks, or trade names of their respective holders. Sourcebooks, Inc., is not associated with any product or vendor in this book.

Published by Sourcebooks, Inc. P.O. Box 4410, Naperville, Illinois 60567-4410 (630) 961-3900 Fax: (630) 961-2168 www.sourcebooks.com Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Reporting the Revolutionary War : before it was history, it was news / [compiled by] Todd Andrlik. p. cm. (hardcover : alk. paper) 1. United States—History—Revolution, 1775-1783—Sources. 2. United States—History— Revolution, 1775-1783—Press coverage. 3. American newspapers—History—18th century. I. Andrlik, Todd.

E203.R44 2012 973.3—dc23 2012022258 Printed and bound in the United States of America.

BG 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

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CONTENTS Introduction

vii

The Eighteenth-Century Newspaper Business

ix

Revolutionary Newspaper Reading Tips chapter one

chapter two

chapter three

chapter four

chapter five

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The Cursed Stamp Act

xiii 1

1. SUGAR ACT BY TODD ANDRLIK 2. STAMP ACT BY TODD ANDRLIK 3. STAMP ACT REPEAL BY TODD ANDRLIK

3 8 24

Frugality and Industry

31

The Late Horrid Massacre

51

The Detestable Tea

73

Rebellion

85

1. TOWNSHEND ACTS BY TODD ANDRLIK 2. NONIMPORTATION AND NONCONSUMPTION BY TODD ANDRLIK 1.

2.

3.

4.

ARRIVAL OF THE TROOPS IN BOSTON BY ROBERT J. ALLISON BOSTON MASSACRE BY ROBERT J. ALLISON GASPEE AFFAIR BY STEVEN H. PARK COMMITTEES OF CORRESPONDENCE BY CAROL SUE HUMPHREY

1. TEA ACT IN AMERICA BY BENJAMIN L. CARP 2. BOSTON TEA PARTY BY BENJAMIN L. CARP 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

COERCIVE ACTS BY RAY RAPHAEL POWDER ALARM BY J. L. BELL SUFFOLK RESOLVES BY RAY RAPHAEL MASSACHUSETTS PROVINCIAL CONGRESS BY RAY RAPHAEL FIRST CONTINENTAL CONGRESS BY BENJAMIN H. IRVIN RAID ON FORT WILLIAM AND MARY BY J. DENNIS ROBINSON

33 38

53 58 64 70 74 79

86 92 98 106 110 116

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chapter six

chapter seven

chapter eight

chapter nine

chapter ten

iv

Bloody News

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

BATTLE OF LEXINGTON AND CONCORD BY J. L. BELL WILLIAMSBURG GUNPOWDER INCIDENT BY NEAL THOMAS HURST SECOND CONTINENTAL CONGRESS BY BENJAMIN H. IRVIN CAPTURE OF FORT TICONDEROGA BY WILLIAM P. TATUM III BATTLE OF NODDLE'S ISLAND BY JAMES L. NELSON BATTLE OF BUNKER HILL BY DON N. HAGIST GEORGE WASHINGTON TAKES COMMAND BY ROBERT J. ALLISON BATTLE OF GREAT BRIDGE AND BURNING OF NORFOLK BY JOHN W. HALL 9. INVASION OF CANADA BY TABITHA MARSHALL 10. NATIVE AMERICANS CHOOSING SIDES BY DANIEL J. TORTORA

119

120 128 132 138 140 144 152

158 162 166

The Spirit of Liberty

169

Cut to Pieces

209

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

COMMON SENSE AND THE AMERICAN CRISIS BY JIM PIECUCH BATTLE OF MOORE'S CREEK BRIDGE BY WILLIAM P. TATUM III BATTLE OF THE RICE BOATS BY HUGH T. HARRINGTON FORTIFICATION OF DORCHESTER HEIGHTS BY DON N. HAGIST BATTLE OF SULLIVAN'S ISLAND BY DAVID LEE RUSSELL DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE BY MATTHEW P. DZIENNIK NEW YORK CAMPAIGN BY BARNET SCHECTER

1.

2.

3.

4.

BATTLES OF TRENTON AND PRINCETON BY BRUCE CHADWICK SIEGE OF FORT TICONDEROGA BY ERIC H. SCHNITZER BATTLE OF ORISKANY BY DANIEL J. TORTORA BATTLES OF BRANDYWINE AND GERMANTOWN BY BRUCE E. MOWDAY 5. BATTLES OF SARATOGA BY ERIC H. SCHNITZER 6. WOMEN AND CHILDREN ON THE WAR FRONT BY ERIC H. SCHNITZER

170 179 183 187 190 194 202 210 215 219

223 229 234

Good and Faithful Allies

237

Conquer or Die

253

1. VALLEY FORGE WINTER ENCAMPMENT BY WAYNE BODLE 2. FRENCH-AMERICAN ALLIANCE BY JULIA OSMAN 3. BATTLE OF MONMOUTH BY MICHAEL S. ADELBERG 1. REVOLUTIONARY WAR IN THE WEST AND GEORGE ROGERS CLARK BY JOHN REDA 2. SULLIVAN EXPEDITION BY DANIEL J. TORTORA

238 244 249

254 260

Reporting the Revolutionary War

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chapter eleven

chapter twelve

chapter thirteen

3. BATTLE OF FLAMBOROUGH HEAD AND JOHN PAUL JONES BY DENNIS M. CONRAD

265

Marks of Heroism

271

1. SIEGE OF SAVANNAH BY RITA FOLSE ELLIOTT 2. SIEGE OF CHARLESTON BY DAVID LEE RUSSELL 3. CAROLINA BACKCOUNTRY MILITIA ACTIONS BY CHARLES B. BAXLEY 4. BATTLE OF CAMDEN BY JIM PIECUCH 5. BATTLE OF KINGS MOUNTAIN BY JIM PIECUCH 6. TREASON OF BENEDICT ARNOLD AND HANGING OF JOHN ANDRÉ BY DENNIS M. CONRAD

272 278

282 286 290 295

Conquest and Capture

303

Delivered with Eloquence

341

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

BATTLE OF COWPENS BY JOHN BUCHANAN RACE TO THE DAN BY DENNIS M. CONRAD BATTLE OF GUILFORD COURTHOUSE BY DENNIS M. CONRAD BATTLE OF HOBKIRK'S HILL BY JOHN BUCHANAN SIEGE OF NINETY SIX BY ROBERT M. DUNKERLY RAID ON NEW LONDON BY MATTHEW REARDON BATTLE OF EUTAW SPRINGS BY DAVID PAUL REUWER YORKTOWN CAMPAIGN BY DIANE K. DEPEW

1. PERILS OF PEACE BY THOMAS FLEMING 2. BRITISH AND LOYALIST EVACUATIONS OF AMERICA BY DENNIS M. CONRAD 3. RESIGNATION OF GEORGE WASHINGTON AS COMMANDER IN CHIEF BY ROBERT J. ALLISON

304 308 312 316 320 324 328 332 342 347 352

Epilogue

359

Revolutionary Press Impact

365

The Value of Primary Sources

367

Contributors

369

Acknowledgments

379

Index

381 Contents

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NORTH AMERICA Barry Lawrence Ruderman Antique Maps, raremaps.com An early map of the British Colonies and the whole of North America, shortly after the conclusion of the French and Indian War and on the eve of revolution.

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INTRODUCTION

By Todd Andrlik

T

HERE ARE NO PHOTOGRAPHS OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. NO SNAPSHOTS EXIST TO SHOW ordinary life or depict the struggles and suffering of the late eighteenth century.

Engravings and oil paintings, made long after the war ended, portray epic battles and heroism but often fail to realistically capture the moment.

Newspapers are the closest thing we have to photos of the Revolution. They transport readers back in time, providing unmatched insight about common life and life-altering events. Despite their small size and lack of headlines, eighteenth-century newspapers pack an intense, concentrated punch and demonstrate the incredible power of the printed word. Through newspapers, we realize that history is much more than a chronological list of battles as we eavesdrop on everyday life and witness everyday realities of the American Revolution through the eyes of the British and the American colonists. The eighteenth-century newspapers presented in this book help us see that history is real life, messy, and exciting. We learn firsthand what many historians claim: without newspapers, there would have been no American Revolution.

Through vivid eyewitness accounts, battlefield letters, and breaking news compiled from hundreds of newspapers—primarily printed from 1763 to 1783 on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean—this story of the American Revolution is unlike any version that has been told. It is raw and uncut, full of intense action, drama, and suspense. From start to finish, these frontline newspapers deliver incomparable insight about America’s founding. As a collection, they provide one of the most reliable and comprehensive narratives of the Revolutionary Era, loaded with amazing characters, better-than-fiction plot twists, and the perfect climax. Before these famous and infamous events became the history and foundation of America, they were littered among the news of the day for colonial Americans. Mark Twain wrote “of the wide difference in interest between ‘news’ and ‘history’; that news is history in its first and best form, its vivid and fascinating form; and that history is the pale and tranquil reflection of it.”

Reporting the Revolutionary War brings to life precious first drafts of history and lets readers experience the charming rusticity of eighteenth-century newsprint, complete with stains, tears, imperfect ink and paper, typesetting mistakes, misspellings, and grammatical errors that were all typical of the era. Reading Revolution Era newspapers in their original form helps reproduce the same immediacy and uncertainty felt by those who first held them.

With each newspaper, readers gain valuable insight into the social, economic, political, and military histories of the American Revolution. Reading newspapers in their entirety—including advertisements, obituaries, and essays—provides more than a glimpse of all the obstacles and

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ideas of the period. It creates a 360-degree view of the American Revolution and the formation of the United States.

Another important history lesson to be gained from this book relates to journalism. We live in a time of instant and on-demand news. Journalists and bloggers work frantically around the clock, competing to break news stories before anyone else. Cable news channels and websites stream updated headlines nonstop across their screens. Using Twitter and Facebook, millions of citizen reporters scramble to share the latest news affecting their lives, practically in real time.

Despite the debated endangerment of printed newspapers, it is difficult to imagine a time when media were more important. However, 250 years ago, newspapers were the fundamental form of mass media and were more important than in any other time in America’s history.

Just as social media helped ignite and organize the Arab Spring revolutions of the Middle East and Northern Africa, colonial newspapers fanned the flames of rebellion, provided critical intercolonial communication during the war, sustained loyalty to the Patriot cause, and aided in the outcome of the war—all of which becomes evident after reading straight from the pages of newspapers. In Reporting the Revolutionary War, readers will see that Americans maintained “Liberty or Death! Join or Die!” attitudes with blood, as well as ink, on their hands. David Ramsay, who twice served as a delegate in the Continental Congress, wrote that “in establishing American independence, the pen and the press had merit equal to that of the sword.”

Not only do eighteenth-century newspapers contain the exclusive essays, reports, and advertisements of the day, but they also include reprinted extracts from other primary sources such as private letters, journal entries, official government documents, and war-zone intelligence direct from merchants, travelers, soldiers, officers, and common colonists. They are a proverbial gold mine of information. Since the day the Revolutionary War ended, historians and authors have relied heavily on newspapers as the basis for their own analysis and interpretations of the course of the war. The endnotes of practically every history book about the Revolution are loaded with references to the up-close-and-personal perspectives found in newspapers.

Reporting the Revolutionary War brings to life eighteenth-century newspapers in a firsthand account of America’s founding, distinct from the history we receive in high school and university texts. Never before has such a significant collection of American Revolution newspapers been made available to the general public in such color and detail. Never before has access to such an archive been made so easy. And never before has this version of the American Revolution been told.

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By Carol Sue Humphrey

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EWSPAPERS PLAYED AN IMPORTANT ROLE DURING THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION BECAUSE THEY had already become an essential part of life for many Americans, more so than all other media (books, pamphlets, magazines, or broadsides) combined. Ever since John Campbell founded the first successful newspaper in Boston in 1704, Americans either sought out copies of the newspapers themselves or went someplace where they could hear them being read aloud. People wanted to know what was happening elsewhere, particularly in the colonies and Europe, and newspapers were the major source of such information.

Over the course of the 1700s, more newspapers appeared in the American colonies, but printing was always a difficult business. The French and Indian War had provided a major encouragement for the further growth of newspapers in the colonies because of the desire for information about the conflict. By the end of the war in 1763, each of the thirteen mainland colonies had at least one printer, and the number of newspapers had grown from eleven to twenty-three. By the time the Revolutionary War broke out in 1775, there were thirty-eight newspapers being printed on fifty presses in America. All printers looked for ways to increase business, and newspapers were a possibility. Postmasters founded the earliest newspapers in the colonies because they had easy access to information for the paper. However, they had to hire a printer if they could not produce the newssheets themselves. Many printers saw the financial possibilities and began to produce their own weekly newspapers as a way to bolster their income.

Along with an increase in the number of newspapers came an increase in the circulation of these papers. In 1750, the average newspaper circulation was about 600 copies per week. By 1770, some printers produced 1,500 copies a week, and these numbers continued to rise throughout the conflict with Great Britain. Throughout the colonies, the population of the cities did not grow as rapidly as the percentage of newspapers during the same period, indicating that more people were reading these publications. Some larger cities had several newspapers, another indication that newspaper readership was sizeable enough to sustain a growth in circulation. For example, in 1760, Philadelphia had approximately 25,000 people, and it had only grown to just over 28,000 when the first official U.S. census was taken in 1790. During the same period, the number of newspapers published in Philadelphia grew more rapidly, going from two in 1760 to seven in 1775.

The total remained at seven in 1783, but there had been a number of starts and stops during the Revolution as people sought news and information and printers struggled to continue in business because of the problems created by the war.

A steady increase in literacy helped fuel the growth of publications. Newspapers were sold

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through subscription, but local taverns and coffeehouses often subscribed, and customers either read them directly or listened while someone else read them aloud, thus making the information available to many more people.

Delivering the newspapers to subscribers proved somewhat complicated as well. Within town, they were delivered by carrier, often a hired boy or an apprentice from the print shop. Along the coast, newspapers could be sent from one seaport to another by ship, but that would not work for inland delivery. Newspapers to outlying areas and other colonies were delivered by post riders, which could be haphazard, since the colonies did not have an organized postal system until the 1750s. There were official post roads between the colonies, but they often were not well maintained— many were more like dirt trails through the woods that were difficult to travel. It could take weeks for the post to go from one end of the colonies to the other, and that would continue to be true into the nineteenth century. Historian Frank Luther Mott determined in a 1944 study that it took six weeks for the news of the Battle of Lexington and Concord to be published throughout the colonies. The last printed account appeared in the Georgia Gazette in Savannah on May 31, 1775.

Printing as a trade changed very little since Johannes Gutenberg developed the press with movable type. Acquiring the necessary materials often proved difficult as well. Each item— presses, types, paper, and ink—all came from different producers, so making sure all necessary supplies were readily available could be very complicated. Most of these supplies were imported from Great Britain during the colonial era, since local production was difficult and costly and because Americans lacked the mastery of trade skills found in England.

The printing trade also could be discouraging, since it was a very slow and involved process.

Most newspapers had four pages, each about ten by fifteen or eleven by seventeen inches in size.

Two pages were printed on one side of a piece of paper. When both sides were printed, the newspaper would be folded in half prior to being sold. Thus, pages one and four would be on one side of the original paper while pages two and three would be on the other side. In order to produce one side of this production, thirteen separate processes had to be performed by two men operating a press. Type had to be set by hand in the page form and then locked into place in the press.

It took about twenty-four to twenty-eight hours to typeset an entire four-page issue by hand. On average, this constituted about 2,400 words (13,500 type characters) on page two or three and 2,000 words (11,500 type characters) on page one (which contained fewer words because of the masthead at the top of the page). Page four was often reserved for advertisements.

After the type form was locked on the press bed, one man (the “beater”) would ink the type using two large animal-skin balls. Next, he would place a piece of damp paper on the tympan (cloth padding) of the press, close the frisket (rectangular frame), and then clamp the tympan over the types. Wetting the paper ahead of time helped the ink better absorb into the paper and reduced wear on the lead types. This being done, the second man (the “puller”) would turn the handle and roll the press bed under the platen (flat plate). In a quick motion, the puller would pull the bar to print the first page, turn the handle a second time, pull the bar again to print the second page, then again turn the handle in the opposite direction to roll the bed out from under the press. The beater would open the tympan and remove the printed sheet. They would repeat this two thousand times a day, each time placing freshly printed sheets on top of each other. At the end of the day, all of the sheets would be hung up to dry overnight.

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The Revolution also increased many problems for printers. The war cut off access to imported supplies from Great Britain. Americans attempted to produce the needed materials but could not keep up with demand. It would not be until the 1790s that enough printing presses were produced in America to make importing them totally unnecessary. A number of people also established type foundries in the decade prior to the Revolution, but with little success. Maintaining enough type to run the print shop became increasingly difficult as the Revolution continued.

The necessary paper and ink supplies also became increasingly difficult to obtain. Printers had begun to make their own ink long before the nonimportation agreements began in the 1760s, but it seldom became more than a cottage industry for producing what an individual shop needed.

Paper mills had existed since the late 1600s and more had been built in the intervening years, but the quality of the paper was not as good as imported paper, and the mills could not produce enough paper to meet the needs of American printers. In addition, importations of paper from Great Britain had been greatly reduced for a brief time following the adoption of the Stamp Act in 1765 and were totally cut off in 1775. Local production of paper became essential if print shops were to remain in operation. Consequently, many printers began to take an active interest in papermaking ventures. As the Revolution got underway, printers urged their readers to save rags for making paper to contribute to the fight for independence. However, printers often had to reduce the size of their newspaper or not publish at all because of the lack of paper and other supplies.

Printers who attempted to publish newspapers in the eighteenth century had difficulty getting content to include in their publications. Because of how time-consuming the actual printing was, newspaper printers often placed essays and advertisements on one side of the paper, since this could be printed ahead of time and allowed to dry. The inner two pages would be printed last and filled with news gleaned from other newspapers or letters. Thus, the most current and local news would typically be found on pages two and three rather than page one. The increase in the number of newspapers being published throughout the 1700s provided more information sources because printers exchanged newspapers with each other and copied materials from these traded productions on a regular basis.

Readers were most interested in international news, which generally came from London newspapers. News from other colonies proved somewhat important, while local news appeared in very small amounts. The local news in one town would be reprinted elsewhere through the exchange system, and news and information thus spread throughout the colonies. These exchanges were not always easy due to weather issues and travel problems, but the process slowly improved over the years. By the end of the French and Indian War in 1763, newspaper printers had managed to improve their business to such an extent that they had an effective system for gathering and sharing news. When the fighting in the Revolution created new problems, printers sought to replace their usual supply of information through other sources. They did this primarily by urging their readers to supply any information they received so the news could easily be shared with others through the newspapers. All printers, both Patriots and Loyalists, hoped that such information would fill the news void created by the war.

As the conflict with Great Britain escalated, Americans wanted information about what was happening. This desire encouraged some printers to try to produce more issues of their newspapers. John Mein and Thomas Fleming had founded the Boston Chronicle as a weekly in December The Eighteenth-Century Newspaper Business

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1767 and began publishing the paper semi-weekly after a year because of their readers’ desire for more news. In August 1770, Zechariah Fowle and Isaiah Thomas founded the Massachusetts Spy in Boston as a tri-weekly publication, but the problems of acquiring needed supplies made it difficult to continue such frequent publication schedules. The Spy slowed to semi-weekly in November 1770 and weekly in 1771. Weekly newspapers were most common during the Revolution, but routine schedules at any frequency proved difficult to sustain.

The Revolution only exacerbated problems printers faced in acquiring supplies and information to publish their newspapers, but the Revolutionary-era printers, like their predecessors, clearly believed their news productions were important to Americans, and they worked hard to keep printing them, no matter the obstacles that stood in the way. By the time the Revolution began, newspapers were a relatively common aspect of American culture and society. They had never been easy to produce, and the Revolution did not change that reality.

EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY PRINTING PRESS North Wind Picture Archives

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By Todd Andrlik

E

IGHTEENTH-CENTURY NEWSPAPERS ARE A FAVORITE SOURCE OF EARLY AMERICAN SCHOLARS BECAUSE they chronicle practically every event of the American Revolution, from the Stamp Act crisis through George Washington’s resignation as commander in chief of the Continental Army.

Even as we approach the 250-year anniversaries of the Revolution’s first events, these contemporary news accounts are well preserved, thanks in large part to the rag linen paper on which they were printed. Prior to 1870, before the transition to wood pulp, newspapers were printed on durable paper handmade with acid-free linen rags, often from clothes or ship sails. Not long after printing, some newspapers were saved and preserved by individuals for future reference, and others were bound into large volumes by libraries and museums for long-term storage.

Despite the best preservation intentions, eighteenth-century newspapers had to survive countless natural and man-made disasters, including wars, floods, fires, and deaccession (removal from an institution’s collection). As a result, many still show scars such as tears, holes, stains, and tape mends. Even in the best condition, these newspapers reflect centuries-old communication obstacles and writing styles, making them an entirely different reading experience compared to today’s news. Primary sources are by far the best source of information on the American Revolution, but even when original documents are well preserved, they can still sometimes be difficult to read and comprehend.

To help twenty-first-century learners better read and digest eighteenth-century newspapers, here are some important tips to consider: 1. Put Yourself in the Period: Toss out all preconceived notions about how we became a country. Read these papers as if it is all happening now. It will help you get inside the heads of the writers and force you to think of both sides of the issues rather than our sanitized and propagandized version of American history.

2. Perspective: To fully appreciate and understand differing perspectives of the Revolution, be sure to read the British newspapers as well. You may be surprised to find that British papers often presented points of view agreeable with the Americans, despite Parliament’s insistence otherwise.

3. News Time Lag: Breaking news traveled slowly in the eighteenth century, often taking weeks to reach other colonies and countries by treacherous postal roads or ship routes, so the

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first report about a major event or battle was often published after a few days or even several weeks. As such, expect to get “breaking news” in bits and pieces, even within the same newspaper. Because private correspondence from distant towns and colonies was the number one source of colonial news, new information was printed as quickly as it came to town. Sometimes conflicting information appears in the same paper or in subsequent issues. One letter with some information and a certain point of view might appear on page two, but another letter with a different perspective on the same subject may appear on page three.

4. Old English S: Lowercase s letters in eighteenth-century newspapers are still the Old English, or long s, version and resemble a modern-day f. The Old English s better matches the handwritten s letters of the period. For example, the words “last,” “house,” and “congress” will often appear as “laft,” “houfe,” and “congrefs.” Under a microscope, the lowercase f and long s are different as the crossbar does not continue through, stopping at the vertical stroke. Some long s characters have no crossbar at all.

5. Bias and Propaganda: Realize that most newspapers of the time were biased, published and written by partisan Loyalists or Patriots. Regardless of the newspaper’s insistence on being impartial, the paper’s point of view is often apparent in the selection of material printed. This is especially noticeable prior to war breaking out. However, similar to left- or right-leaning twenty-first-century media, contemporary readers of Revolutionary newspapers were completely aware of this bias. In the battle over mind control, Revolution Era newspapers—American and British—used a variety of propaganda tactics to boost morale and increase support. Common eighteenth-century propaganda tactics included namecalling, fear mongering, selective news printing and source gathering, incompleteness, and demonizing the enemy. Sound familiar? Most of these tactics, perfected during the Revolutionary War, are still being used by some media today.

6. Emphasis on Extracts and Excerpts: Rather than lengthy feature stories with bold headlines, printers filled most of their newspaper pages with several excerpts (sometimes only a paragraph long) most commonly from private letters. Almost every instance of published correspondence begins with “Extract of a letter from…” Aside from letters, official dispatches, and government communications, another popular eighteenth-century news source was oral reports—sometimes rumor or hearsay—by sea captains, merchants, travelers, and soldiers. This sometimes led to conflicting stories appearing on the same page but allowed the reader to make up his or her own mind.

7. Datelines, Not Headlines: Eighteenth-century newspapers didn’t use headlines, and most reports were separated only by a dateline or the popular “Extract of a letter from…”

8. Struggle for Credibility: Despite exaggeration, distortion, and the obstacles of transatlantic communication, eighteenth-century printers still needed to maintain a strong newspaper subscriber and advertiser base, so they printed news from credible sources and

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often added disclaimers to unknown or unreliable sources. Frequently, newspaper printers pieced together oral, manuscript, and printed intelligence—official and unofficial—to help corroborate accounts for their own readers.

9. News Exchange System: Before news wire services and before professional journalists or correspondents, eighteenth-century newspaper printers relied heavily on an intercolonial newspaper exchange system to fill their pages. Printers often copied entire paragraphs or columns directly from other newspapers and frequently without attribution other than a dateline. As a result, identical reports often appeared in multiple papers throughout America. While this seems like plagiarism today, the news-swapping technique was standard operating procedure then, helping to spread the ideas of liberty and uphold the colonists’ resistance to British Parliament.

10. Evolution of Language: Pay attention to the change in language. After all, it took a good many years to get to the point where the Americans were in real combat with the British. For example: when exactly did we become “the enemy” instead of “the Americans?”

11. Pace of Dissent: Pay attention to the pace by which dissent grows among the Americans.

Also note that the new government quickly comes under fire, even from its supporters. This was the birth of free speech as well as a nation.

12. Inconsistent Grammar: Be prepared for run-on sentences with considerable comma usage and alternative word spellings—and not just the British-English difference between “color” and “colour.” Prewar papers especially seemed to lack a consistency in spelling, even of common words. Also, rules regarding capitalization and punctuation were equally fluid.

For example, some papers capitalized every noun, not just the proper ones.

13. Humor and Sarcasm: Have a sense of humor. Since much of the content is publicly printed letters addressed between anonymous authors on both sides of various issues, the tone is often snarky and sarcastic. No sword needed here. These words are often sharp, satirical, and witty.

14. Irony: Enjoy the ironies. It’s not unusual to find the same paper discussing preparations for war and celebrating the birthday of the king. As you become absorbed by the news of the time, you will find that newspapers have the ability to make you forget the outcome.

Remember, colonists were not all committed to the idea of independence, and even until early 1776, there was hope among many that things could be resolved.

15. Read for Context: Don’t skip the ads or obits. Many of these provide insight into daily life, personal values, indentured servitude, slavery, and commerce of the time.

Revolutionary Newspaper Reading Tips

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C HAP TER 1

Introduction

S

TAMP DUTY. WHEN THESE TWO WORDS TOUCHED AMERICAN SOIL IN APRIL 1764 AS A teaser of the internal tax following the Sugar Act, they set in motion a chain of events that soon united thirteen colonies, bolstered confidence, and forever altered the course of American history. First irritated by the Sugar Act, then seriously angered by the Stamp Act, colonies developed extensive intercolonial networks of resistance, chained together by independent organizations, such as the Sons of Liberty, and independent newspapers, which were widely read locally as well as raced by horseback and ship up and down the continent. The primary source of colonial communication, newspapers spread the word of mobs, violence, and boycott, which effectively prevented enforcement of the Stamp Act and led to its repeal.

To avoid total humiliation, the same day Parliament passed the Stamp Act repeal, it also declared full power and authority over the colonies—a declaration it didn’t hesitate to impose.

SUPPLEMENT TO THE BOSTON NEWS-LETTER September 5, 1765 STAMP ACT RIOT, BOSTON North Wind Picture Archives

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JOIN, OR DIE. Library of Congress (above) Benjamin Franklin's cartoon in the Pennsylvania Gazette, May 9, 1754, urged the British North American colonists to join together against the French and the Indians. The symbol and phrase, along with other popular slogans like ÒLiberty or Death,Ó ÒDie or Be Free,Ó or ÒDonÕt Tread on MeÓ returned with new meaningÑagainst a new enemyÑduring the Revolution.

KING GEORGE III, C. 1762–1764

BY ALLAN RAMSAY The Bridgeman Art Library (left) In 1760, at the age of 22, George III ascended the throne, where he served as King of Great Britain through the entire American Revolution until his death in 1820.

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REPORTING THE

By Todd Andrlik

I

N 1763, THREE YEARS AFTER GEORGE III ASCENDED THE throne, Great Britain faced several serious economic challenges, including a massive national debt that skyrocketed during the Seven Years’ War (1756–1763), known as the French and Indian War in North America.

On the other side of the Atlantic Ocean, American colonists rejoiced after fighting alongside the mother country to defeat France. But by spring of 1764, details about new revenue-raising policies affecting colonial trade started arriving from England on packet boats, which carried the latest newspapers, private letters, and official correspondence. Immediately upon receiving word of the taxes, known as the Sugar Act because of its three-penny duty on molasses, Americans began the argument that echoed for centuries: no taxation without representation.

Printed five weeks after Parliament passed the Sugar Act, just long enough for the news’ transatlantic journey, the May 10, 1764, edition of the Pennsylvania Gazette warned colonists that “a Scheme of Taxation of the American Colonies has for some time been in Agitation: That it had been previously debated in Parliament, whether they had Power to lay such a Tax on Colonies which had no Representatives in Parliament, and determined in the Affirmative.”

From the Jamestown settlement in 1607 through 1763, Great Britain maintained an unwritten policy of salutary neglect toward its thirteen American colonies, leaving them to establish their own systems of government and taxation with the expectation that this apathetic attitude would help them flourish. A handful of regulations on colonial trade were introduced during that time, including the Navigation Act (1660) and the Molasses Act (1733), but they were not enforced or were easily evaded by bribery or smuggling.

What Americans found most upsetting about the Sugar Act of 1764 was (1) its plans for strict enforcement, essentially voiding the tranquil era of salutary neglect colonists had enjoyed since the first settlements; (2) the believed

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illegality of being taxed without having representatives in Parliament; and (3) the strong hint of a forthcoming stamp duty, the first internal tax on activities and transactions within the colony. At the conclusion of the same Pennsylvania Gazette article that delivered news of the Sugar Act was the first warning of a stamp tax: “Besides this, an internal By spring of 1764, details about new Tax was proposed, a Stamp revenue-raising policies affecting coloDuty, &c. but many nial trade started arriving from England.

Members warmly opposing Immediately upon receiving word of the it, this was deferred till next taxes, Americans began the argument that Session; but it was feared echoed for centuries: no taxation without that the Tax upon foreign representation.

Goods would pass into a Law this Session. That these Colonies are under great Disadvantages, in not having sufficient Interest in Parliament… Only, that Mr. Allen, of this Place, was indefatigable, in remonstrating to many of the Members, with whom he was acquainted, on the Illegality of an internal Tax, and had considerable Influence in preventing it.”

It wasn’t long after news of the Sugar Act arrived in America that local newspapers began printing public concerns. According to a letter extract in the July 20, 1764, New Hampshire Gazette: …the Destruction will be dreadful till their Eyes are open’d.——In Virginia they already feel it, Tobacco at Home, fetches little or nothing, most of their Bills are come back protested, and the Planters have no Money to pay with.——Though every one is convinced of the Unanimity amongst the Colonies, to ward off any Burden that may be intended for us; yet no Steps are taken, and all complain that they see with great Perspicnity, the Destruction that must befal us. I still flatter my self some fortunate Event will change the Face of Things, and relieve us from our Anxiety.

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MAY 10, 1764

The

PHILADELPHIA, May 10.

On Monday next the GENERAL ASSEMBLY of this Province meets here.

Our other Advices by the Packet are, that a Scheme of Taxation of the American Colonies has for some Time been in Agitation: That it had been previously debated in Parliament, whether they had Power to lay such a Tax on Colonies which had no Representatives in Parliament, and determined in the Affirmative: That on the Ninth of March Mr. ————— made a long Harrangue on the melancholy State of the Nation, overloaded with heavy Taxes, and a Debt of 146 Millions, 52 Millions of which had arisen in the four last Years: That by a Computation, which he laid before the House, 360,000 l. Sterling per

Annum was expended on North-America, and therefore it was but reasonable they should support the Troops sent out for their Defence, and all the other particular Expence of the Nation on their Account. To raise this Sum, he proposed that the Drawbacks on Re-exportation of particular Goods should be discontinued: That a Duty should be laid on East-India Goods; a Duty of 7 l. Sterling per Ton on all Wines from Madeira, the Western and Canary Isles; a Duty of 3 d. per Gallon on foreign Melasses, of 10 s. Per Hundred on Sugars; a high Duty on Coffee, Cocoa, &c. and that Rum should be wholly prohibited: That Wines from Spain, Portugal, &c. first landed in England, before sent to America, should have the Duty drawn back.

Besides this, an internal Tax was proposed, a Stamp Duty, &c. but many Members warmly opposing it, this was deferred till next Session; but it was feared that the Tax upon foreign Goods would pass into a Law this Session.

That these Colonies are under great Disadvantages, in not having sufficient Interest in Parliament; from the Want of which, the West-Indians have been able to carry any Point against them. —— Only, that Mr. Allen, of this Place, was indefatigable, in remonstrating to many of the Members, with whom he was acquainted, on the Illegality of an internal Tax, and had considerable Influence in preventing it.

PENNSYLVANIA GAZETTE (PHILADELPHIA) May 10, 1764

On page two, a small news report that just arrived in port was published about a “Scheme of Taxation,” which included the Sugar Act and a forthcoming stamp duty.

Read closely and note the origins of the “no taxation without representation” debate. Newspapers spread dramatic details of mobs, violence, and boycotts in subsequent years, but historians can point to the May 10, 1764, Pennsylvania Gazette as one of the printed cornerstones of revolution.

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Reporting the Revolutionary War

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Chapter I: The Cursed Stamp Act

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Weho pet ha ty o ue nj o y e d r e a di ngt hi sf r e eo nl i nepr e v i e w.

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