Form Follows Patronage

form follows Patronage a visual essay

Sohan Devabhai

Contents:

Abstract:

Abstract

This Essay will discuss the way in which form follows patronage. Patronage of art will be viewed through the topics of faith, status, influence and finance.These topics will show how they have moulded the artistic world through the ages.

Introduction Ashoka the Great: Patronage of Faith Tea and Philosophy: Patronage of Influence and Power The Renaissance: Patronage of Power and Faith The Dutch Golden Age: Patronage of Finance and Faith Goya and the Romantic Period: Patronage of Finiance Abstract Expressionism: Patronage of Influence The Contemporary: Patronage of Influence and Finiance Commercial Exhibitions: Patronage of Influence and Finance Crowdfunding; The Patronage of the People Conclusion

Introduction: This essay argues that form follows the patronage of the arts; aiding artists financially, for faith, power and entertainment has led to the creation of artistic movements (such as; The Mauryan Dynasty of Buddhism, The Renaissance, Romanticism, Dutch Golden Age, Abstract Expressionism and The Contemporary), and allowed artists to develop and pursue their craft throughout the ages. Patrons have historically taken on artisans as court and or commissioned painters to depict religious scenes and paint portraits to cement their stature. The societal stature of these patrons has influenced the public opinion of what is considered a masterpiece and who was/ is a master of their artistic discipline. Galleries and museums have therefore been moulded by those of importance. This essay will explore how patronage has shaped art over time through movements and the relevance of the associated pieces and artists.

‘All reilgions should reside everywhere, for all of them desire self-control and purity of heart.’

- Edict of Ashoka, C.257 BCE

Ashoka the Great: Patronage of Faith ‘Ashoka dug up the seven of the original eight stupas built to house the Buddha’s remains, redistributing their relics among 84,000 stupas that he had newly built.’ (Karetzky, P. 2015, pg,16) Ashoka’s devotion and influence helped Buddhism spread not only across India, but also China, Korea and then Japan.

Buddhism became very successful in East Asia, being adopted by royal families and other ruling classes. Ashoka’s actions subsequently lead to the creation of Buddhist art that was influenced by the new adoptive regions. Philosophy, most notable in China was heavily swayed by Buddhist principles and this redefined material culture and art, creating a cyclical notion of influence on form.

Figure 1: ’Anson, R, Mahabodhi Temple.

Tea and Philosophy: Patronage of Influence and Power Tea ceremonies in Japan are considered as a practice of discipline and patience, however, it was once a scene for noble men to show their wealth through imported Chinese tea pots and cups in lavish rooms brushed with gold. Warlords and rulers would employ tea master to perform the ritual for the other rulers and even emperors.

As a young man, Sen Rikyū travelled in pursuit of an enlightened path, a different path from that of which was expected of him from his merchant family. Traversing the wilds of Japan, Sen Rikyū learnt from nomadic Buddhist monks about the balance of nature and the man-made.

This was the principles of Wabi – Sabi, a way of living that focuses on finding beauty within the imperfections of life and accepting peacefully the natural cycle of growth and decay.

“Rikyū’s early association and friendship with Hideyoshi determined the tea master’s later career. When Hideyoshi took over the rule of the country after Nobunaga’s assassination in 1582, he continued the latter’s patronage of the tea ceremony. As Hideyoshi consolidated his military position, Rikyū rose from one of many to become tenka gosadō, ‘The Tea Master of Japan’, at a grandiose tea ceremony Hideyoshi held for the Emperor at the imperial palace.” (Bodart, B. 1977, pg.52)

Figure 2: 1750-1850. Tea bowl

The Warlord Hideyoshi of 16th Century Japan Commissioned Tea Master Sen Rikyū to prepare a tea ceremony in order to settle tensions between warring clans. Rikyū had vicariously been a part of the lavish and chauvinistic tea ceremonies of the ruling classes, but now he had the opportunity to redesign it to restore meaning and apply his Zen Buddhist teachings. Inspired by peasant house tiles, Rikyū commissioned potters to make Raku cups for Hideyoshi; imperfect ceramics that embodied the principles of Wabi – Sabi. No one cup was alike, the beauty and significance of the pieces would be defined by its differences. The cups would depict the beauty of life, embracing the imperfections.

Rikyū’s redesign was pivotal to Japanese cultural, a change in philosophy and aesthetic. Wabi – Sabi was popularised, imperfections and a deeper respect for nature’s coexistence with the man-made was emphasised. The patronage of power for a symbolic ritual pushed forth a philosophy that would fetishize the poverty aesthetic, even today, Japanese design embraces simplicity and indistinguishable even among class hierarchy.

Fig 3 – Toshikata, M, 1890-1900. Woodblock print – Tea Room.

Fig 4 – Anonymous, 1839. Woodblock print - Sen No Rikyu.

The Renaissance: Patronage of Power and Faith A student of Lorenzo Medici and commissioned artist to patron Pope, Julius II, Michelangelo owed his fame and artistry to his patrons. Michelangelo was brought into the Medici family under Lorenzo’s tutorage at the tender age of 13, he was exposed to an intellectual awakening and unapparelled criticism.

Lorenzo’s patronage was that of influence, finance and nurture, which in turn was rewarded by an artist that would help to deify his family.

After Lorenzo’s death, Michelangelo’s patrons saw him only as a tool for their power plays within the theocratic Renaissance. Pope Julius II was a peasant that clawed his way to the top to secure autocratic rule, thus making his offer to Michelangelo to paint the ceilings of the Sistine Chapel symbolic as he knew it would not be refused. ‘If an artist worked for a patron then the patron often had the last say, Michelangelo’s disputes with Pope Julius II over the Sistine Chapel – he was unhappy at being forced to paint rather than sculpt’. (Buck, L and Dodd, P. 1991, pg.32-33) Despite the drawbacks and occasional limitations, Michelangelo continued to work on commissioned pieces. Michelangelo’s passion project, the statue of David wouldn’t have been possible if not for the patronage of faith, he spent two years crafting David, one of the most influential pieces in art history.

Fig 5 – Anonymous, No Date. David-face.

Fig 6 – Anonymous, No Date. David-face.

Fig 7 – Anonymous, No Date. David-back.

Faith and power were a driving force in Renaissance patronage. Artistic Masters such as Michelangelo may have had complicated relationships with their patrons, but their collective works ushered in an artistic age that is universally recognised, and for their day; “art was primarily how people experienced an aesthetic dimension of religion”.

(Dickey, J. 2014) The Sistine Chapel’s ceiling became the window for man to view this dimension, see what had only been written about, a romantic visual connection to one’s faith.

Fig 8 – Anonymous, No Date.

Tourists in the Sistine Chapel.

The Dutch Golden Age: Patronage of Finance and Faith Rembrandt heavily relied upon commissions to further his craft, the Dutch Golden Age was one of symbolic presence with the pageantry of the upper-class men parading the city dressed in their city watch amour. Rembrandt’s Masterpiece; “Militia Company of District II under the Command of Captain Frans Banninck Cocq, also known as The Shooting Company of Frans Banning Cocq and Willem van Ruytenburch”, but commonly referred to as “The Night Watch”, embodies the full effect of chiaroscuro lighting; an Italian technique of emphasising drama through light and shadows. Rembrandt’s understanding of chiaroscuro conveys a mastery of perspective on a two-dimensional canvas. The Militia company’s patronage was self-serving, emphasising their stature in the Dutch hierarchical system. Yet, this worked for Rembrandt, he was in high demand to create a variety of works that would support his finances and would allow him to delve into the theatrics of portraiture, use his patrons as studies, experiment with their form to create masterpieces.

‘Rembrandt’s problem with his powerful patron Constantin Huygens in the 1630s – Rembrant not only had to make stylistic concessions in his five paintings of The Passion of Christ, but was also forced to accept Huygens’s dramatically reduced payment.’ (Buck, L and Dodd, P. 1991, pg.33)

Fig 8 – Rembrant - Night Watch

The Passion of Christ series may have been subjected to Huygens’ demands, yet, Rembrandt still manages to make it his own, similar to how Michelangelo tackled the Sistine chapel ceiling. As well as having similar circumstances to Michelangelo, Rembrandt’s work further opened the window into the religious realm for the public that Michelangelo opened.

Being a part of the Dutch Golden Age, Rembrandt managed to expand upon the exploration of human form from the Renaissance period by evoking theatrics and captivating the audience the use of perspective.

Fig 9,10,11.12.13 – Rembrant -The Passion of Christ

Goya and the Romantic Period: Patronage of Finiance Spanish painter Francisco Goya worked in a country where the fine arts were relatively unimportant, and he painted at a time maligned by political uncertainty, war and artistic decline. Manuel Godoy, an 19th Century Spanish Prime Minister once commented on the cultural affair of the period; “There was such an abundance of pictures on sale and so few buyers that even historical and mythological paintings were valued according to the number of heads or figures...’. (Symmons, S. 1988, pg.9) This notion of artistic decline made Goya’s livelihood heavily reliant on his royal patrons Charles III and IV and private aristocrats. However, Goya thrived to an extent with his English and French patrons as he managed to cement relations with political and philosophical contemporaries that admired his [pictorial vocabulary style drawn from the enlightenment period]. (Symmons, S. 1988, pg.125) ‘Taste is ephemeral, often with fluctuating markets. Patronage is solid, more dependent on a private relationship between artists and buyer’ (Symmons, S. 1988, pg.124).

Between 1788 and 1808, Goya became a well sort after portraitist, which relieved him of past financial difficulties, bankers and bullfighters wanted to be captured by Goya’s hand, immortalised by a master.

Fig 15 Fig 14

After the Peninsular War, Goya’s patrons vanished, thereafter, so did Goya from the Spanish scene. Goya moved to country house in France, where his portraiture work was in demand. Goya developed a distain for his country following the war, his depiction of his countrymen was that of sinister and demonic fanatics, the fall and departure from the European standard of culture left them to revert to an animalistic nature.

Goya’s Black paintings were a personal project, he didn’t mention the fourteen pieces to any of his relations, he just painted them on the walls of his house. Art Historian Fred Licht has written that it is as ''essential to our understanding of the human condition in modern times'' as Michelangelo's Sistine Chapel ceiling is to our grasp of the 16th century. (Lubow, A. 2003) Goyal no longer had commissions from his patrons and in his reclusive state he delved into a medium, where in which he depicted the human condition from his life experiences.

Fig 16

Goya’s most iconic piece from his Black Paintings, ‘Saturn devouring his own son’ is an exploration into pure depravity, an escape from morality and one’s own humanity.

Fig 17

Goya’s patrons provided him with financial support over a period and this allowed him to pursue his craft and to develop his observations of humanity. Financial patronage allowed the option to be self-sufficient in his later age, which in turn allowed him to create the highly important Black Painting series depicting humanity’s descent from enlightened thought and culture.

Fig 18

Abstract Expressionism: Patronage of Influence The Abstract Expressionism period was an age where in which the public began to see artists as celebrities and a lot of these celebrities were created by art critic Clement Greenberg.

“Greenberg’s power as the voice of the emergent American avant-garde was displayed in seminal essay after seminal essay and his reviews were considered make or break judgments for the artist in question.” (Battaglia, L. 2008, pg.5) Jackson Pollock, Willem de Kooning and Mark Rothko; Greenberg’s patronage of influence etched these names into history, making these men icon and laying done the foundation for how galleries and artistic marketing is structured in the modern day.

“Greenberg emphasized the greater vitality, virility and brutality of the American artist. He was developing an ideology that would transform the provincialism of American art into internationalism by replacing the Parisian standards … American art became the trustee of this new age.” (Guilbaut, S Repensek, T. 1980, pg.71) Abstract expressionist art needed vocal champions to support challenging, unique work, and Greenberg was the most powerful and vocal in his defence of the art and, in particular, Jackson Pollock. Greenberg went from tie salesman to intellectual in less than a decade, thanks to strongly worded arguments for a new artform. Jackson Pollock was one of his favourite artists, and the two spent time together socially as they simultaneously climbed in the art world.

Fig 20

Fig 19

Pollock became subject to stardom, he appeared in magazine spreads, his pieces used as backdrops in Vogue photoshoots and was documented by photographer Hans Namuth in order to give insight to his unique process. Artists were becoming household names and not just affluent households, media coverage made art accessible to those unable to visit galleries and or unable to afford a formal art education. Greenberg changed the artistic world and Basquiat and Warhol learned how to take advantage of this new world order.

Fig 21

Fig 22

Fig 23

The Contemporary: Patronage of Influence and Finiance The Saatchi gallery has lifted the likes of Tracy Emin and Damien Hirst to god-like status, the gallery’s patronage has been focused around building up the foundations for young British artists, ‘the gallery also operates as a springboard for young artists to launch their careers’. (Saatchi Gallery, No Date) Saatchi’s patronage is that of influence and finance, similar to that of Clement Greenberg’s influence Saatchi has had a lasting effect on the way in which galleries have been shaped. Greenberg push forth contemporary art with Abstract Expressionist age and Saatchi expands upon the contemporary trend with artists that pushed the boundaries.

Fig 24

Saatchi effectively groomed Hirst and Emin as Lorenzo Medici did with Michelangelo, however, Hirst and Emin had artistic freedom, their creativity wasn’t limited to the confines of a church or depicting their patron in deified portraiture. Hirst stuffed sharks and studded a platinum skull with diamonds, Saatchi gave him a platform from where he could provoke the art world.

Fig 25

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Fig 28 Fig 27

Damien Hirst’s fame has garnered him the ability to be a commissioned artist for a £14 million restaurant interior design project. He designed bronze cast mermaids for the bar of ‘Sexy Fish’ in Mayfair, where they lay opposite to a wall cladded with a crocodile designed by the architecture giant Frank Gehry.

Fig 30

Fig 29

By propelling artists, Saatchi and his gallery have gained continued notoriety. A tactic used by Greenberg, however, unlike Greenberg, The Saatchi gallery’s patronage is focused on providing for the lesser known artists and refraining from neglecting potential. Greenberg’s influence was focused around white men, even though there were prominent female artists such as Helen Frankenthaler. The notion of neglect and or disregard for marginalised figures in society has a term in psychology, the ‘other’. The Other Art fair, the Saatchi Gallery’s platform signifies a relation to this theme of equal opportunities in the artistic world. This fair allows artists to exhibit and sell their works on an open market with a significant name backing them.

Commercial Exhibitions: Patronage of Influence and Finance The V&A, a collection of vast masterpieces for the public to visit and to absorb a multitude of culture from fine art, furniture, textiles, ceramics and sculptures.

The Crown, the royal patronage may not have the same stature in the present day, but it laid the foundations for the V&A’s cultural ecosystem and in the absence of funding to purchase pieces, companies such as Toshiba and Volkswagen have taken opportunity to contribute as sponsors. The charitable actions of said companies could be seen as positive self-promotion, a way for corporations wash their hands of their sins, but this has been a nuanced part of patronage throughout most of history. Pope Julius II was perceived as a religious figure and it would be suspected that his actions would be selfish and reflect his devotion to his faith, but in fact he used Michelangelo in his show of power.

Yet, without the backing of these patrons, the public would lose the ability to explore art, design and culture.

Fig 31

Fig 32

Fig 33

The Future Starts Here, an exhibition sponsored by the Volkswagen group invites the public to explore innovation and to expand their perception of technological and societal possibilities.

Fig 35 Fig 34

Fig 36

Fig 37

The common claim that art is opposed to commerce, and that money contaminates art, may be historically false.

-Buck, L and Dodd, P.1991 pg.18.

Fig 38

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Fig 39

Crowdfunding; The Patronage of the People

Fig 41

The new age of patronage has a presence in the hands of the public. Crowdfunding platforms such as Kickstarter and Patreon have redefined the way artists work and the way in which they can progress with their disciplines. Being an artist in the technological age has allowed for a greater and diverse audience and said audience can contribute financially to ensure a constant feed of entertainment. Platforms such as Kickstarter and Patreon allow the individual(s) to focus on their craft as opposed to Renaissance artists that had to follow the explicit directions of their patrons in order work and thrive.

Limited financial resources limit the process and quality of the product(s) artists produce.

Lindsay Ellis is a culture critic that produces video essays online and has found stability from monthly donations through Patreon. Ellis once relied upon advert revenue through YouTube, which was unpredictable and had to push out constant content to sustain an income. But with Patreon, she can afford to pay others, “focus on quality over quantity, and spend the necessary time on research, media cultivation and writing.” (Ellis, L. 2018) “What makes Patreon different from other crowdfunding is that Patrons’ commitment run until they cancel. The model is less like the Victorian system of arts patronage, in which benefactors subscribed to put up a statue, and more like the aristocrats who clubbed together to give Beethoven a life-long stipend “to make my life trouble free”, as the composer wrote.”

(Spero, J. 2018) Social funding has given a generation of artists a sense of self-worth as strangers are willing to financially band together as they enjoy the content.

Fig 43

Fig 42

Instrmnt, a British design studio was founded by Pete Sunderland and Ross Baynham in 2014, the studio launched with one simple product: Instrmnt 01, a minimalist steel watch which takes inspiration from the industrial design of the mid-20th century. Their watch design was funded by public patrons via the crowdfunding platform, Kickstarter. Their goal was ÂŁ20,000, but they managed to reach ÂŁ93,344 (Kickstarter, No Date) and this propelled the business to new heights; within four years they released products, opened a shopfront and employ full time staff.

Fig 44

Fig 45

Art is a profoundly social activity, something fought over by differing social groups and constantly remade by historical forces. To see art in these terms is maybe to deny its autonomy, but it is also to rescue it from isolation and return it to the lives of all of us – which is where it belongs.

-Buck, L and Dodd, P.1991 pg.22.

This evolutionary branch of patronage has provided freedom and created a social sphere undefined by social or monetary hierarchy, where all members share the passion of art and push its narrative forward.

Fig 46

Conclusion: Art has moved with the times, styles and techniques have been developed around the globe, but regardless of cultural background, the driving force for artistic movements is patronage. The form of Japanese design aesthetics was shaped by the patronage of a tea ceremony and the essays of an art critic shaped galleries. Artists of all disciplines have had the ability to shape change and convey beauty, yet it is that of the support from patrons that has allowed for these visions to be recognised and be depicted to all.

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Fig 24- Namuth, H, 1950. Jackson Pollock in his studio. [Digital image]. Available at: https://www.moma.org/explore/inside_ out/2013/04/17/momas-jackson-pollock-conservation-project-insight-into-the-artists-process/ [Accessed on 9th November 2018]

Fig 38 – Anonymous, 2018. Victoria and Albert Museum. [Digital image]. Available at: https://www.vam.ac.uk/articles/about-the-futurestarts-here-exhibition [Accessed on 14th November 2018]

Fig 25 – Young, R, 1997. Damien Hirst with Charles Saatchi. [Digital image]. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2015/jun/30/damien-hirst-what-have-i-done-ive-created-a-monster [Accessed on 9th November 2018]

Fig 39 – Anonymous, 2018. Victoria and Albert Museum. [Digital image]. Available at: https://www.vam.ac.uk/articles/about-the-futurestarts-here-exhibition [Accessed on 14th November 2018]

Fig 26 – Macdiarmid, P, 2008. Damien Hirst’s The Kingdom, featuring a tiger shark in formaldehyde, at Sotheby’s auction Beautiful Inside My Head Forever. [Digital image} Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2015/jun/30/damien-hirst-what-have-idone-ive-created-a-monster [Accessed on 9th November 2018] Fig 27 – Prudence Cuming Associates, 2012. For the Love of God. [Digital image]. Available at: http://www.damienhirst.com/for-thelove-of-god [Accessed on 9th November 2018]

[Digital image]. Avail-

Fig 40 – Devabhai, S, 2018. naqsh collection (nisreen and nermeen abudail), Shawl, 2015 (detail), walnut wood, paint and brass. [Digital image]. [Accessed on 25th November 2018] Fig 41 – Devabhai, S, 2018. Younes Rahmoun, Tâqiya-Nôr (Hat-light), 2016 [Digital image]. [Accessed on 25th November 2018] Fig 43– Spero, J, 2018. Modern patronage offers artists a new way to earn a living. [Digital image]. Financial Times. Available at: https://www.ft.com/content/a550a870-f6bb-11e7-88f7-5465a6ce1a00 [Accessed on 13th October 2018] Fig 44 – Screenshot, 2018. Instrmnt Kickstarter. [Digital image]. Available at: https://www.kickstarter.com/projects/8725678/instrmnt-01-a-minimalist-watch-with-a-swiss-moveme [Accessed on 25th November 2018] Fig 45 – Screenshot, 2018. Instrmnt Kickstarter. [Digital image]. Available at: https://www.kickstarter.com/projects/8725678/instrmnt-01-a-minimalist-watch-with-a-swiss-moveme [Accessed on 25th November 2018] Fig 46 – Anonymous, No Date. Instrmnt Shopfront Glasgow. [Digital image]. Available at: https://www.instrmnt.co.uk [Accessed on 25th November 2018] Fig 47 – Anonymous, No Date. Instrmnt founders. [Digital image]. Available at: https://www.instrmnt.co.uk [Accessed on 25th November 2018] Fig 48 – Devabhai, S, 2018. Design Museum. Yang Shiyi – Taipei Apple store commission 2018]

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[Digital image]. [Accessed on 25th November