Environmental Impacts Across the Life Cycle of Lithium-Ion Batteries for Electric Vehicles

Life Cycle of Lithium Ion Battery in Electric Vehicles

Environmental Impacts Across the Life Cycle of Lithium-Ion Batteries for Electric Vehicles: From Production to End-of-Life Afifah Thahirah1*, Fawzaan Dwi Sulistiyanto2, Fairuz Zain3, Muhammad Rizqi Purnomo4, Aqila raihan5, Leonardus Magnus Dharma Danendra6 1Electrical Engineering, 2Mechanical Engineering, 3Chemical Engineering, 4Mechanical Engineering, 5Mechanical

Engineering, 6Mechanical Engineering — Faculty of Engineering, Universitas Indonesia, Depok, Indonesia

Abstract The rapid adoption of electric vehicles has driven the extensive use of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), raising critical questions about their environmental footprint from manufacture to end-of-life. Understanding each life cycle stage, such as battery production, operation with battery management systems (BMS), performance optimization, safety risks such as thermal runaway, recycling via hydrometallurgy, recovered‑product value, and overall environmental impacts, is essential to guide sustainable battery technology development. This study employs comprehensive literature review. Key technical processes in LIB production, usage metrics, and safety analyses were synthesized. Recycling methods focus on hydrometallurgical treatment of black mass, such as acid leaching, selective precipitation, solvent extraction, and characterization of recovered Li, Co, Ni, and Mn. Environmental impacts were quantified using published LCA data, and battery chemistries were compared on performance and end‑of‑life metrics. A holistic life‑cycle perspective reveals that optimizing electrode fabrication and BMS operation, coupled with efficient hydrometallurgical recycling, can significantly lower environmental impacts and enhance resource circularity. Integrating these strategies will be pivotal for advancing sustainable electric‑vehicle battery systems and minimizing the ecological footprint of future transportation. Keywords: lithium‑ion battery; life cycle assessment; battery management system; thermal runaway; hydrometallurgy; battery recycling; environmental impact; nickel‑based batteries.

1. INTRODUCTION 1.1. Background of LIBs in Electric Vehicles Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are the leading energy storage technology thanks to their high energy density, long cycle life, and efficient performance. Yet, their life cycle from raw material extraction through energy-intensive manufacturing, integration with battery management systems (BMS), and end-of-life treatment remains highly resource-demanding. Each stage raises technical, safety, and especially environmental concerns, including risks such as thermal runaway during use and the challenge of recycling critical yet hazardous metals. Addressing these impacts is essential for improving the sustainability of LIBs and reducing their overall environmental footprint.

1.2.

Objectives and Scope of the Review This review focuses on three main aspects: (i) production and process stages, from manufacturing to recycling technologies; (ii) theoretical foundations, including the role of battery management systems (BMS) and safety concerns; and (iii) performance, economic, and environmental impacts across the life cycle. Particular emphasis is placed on how production, operation, and end-of-life treatment influence the overall environmental footprint of LIBs, highlighting opportunities for sustainability through BMS optimization and advanced recycling strategies.

Life Cycle of Lithium Ion Battery in Electric Vehicles

2. BACKGROUND AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 2.1. Fundamentals of Lithium-Ion Batteries A battery is a device that converts chemical energy into electrical energy through electrochemical reactions (Omenya et al., 2023). The growing demand for portable electronic devices such as smartphones, laptops, and computers has accelerated the need for efficient energy storage technologies (Morita et al., 2021). More recently, the rapid expansion of electric vehicles has further intensified this demand (Muratori et al., 2021). Among the available technologies, lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) have emerged as the dominant choice, owing to their high energy density, long cycle life, high efficiency, and lightweight characteristics. 2.2.

Operation of Lithium-Ion Batteries in Electric Vehicles Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) in electric vehicles store electrical energy chemically during charging. In this process, lithium ions move from the cathode to the anode through the electrolyte, while electrons travel through the external circuit to the anode. During discharge, the mechanism reverses: lithium ions migrate back to the cathode, and electrons flow through the external circuit to supply the motor as direct current (DC). The motor system then converts this current into mechanical torque, which drives the wheels and enables vehicle motion (Zhai, 2017; Zhang, 2023). Variations of Lithium-Ion Battery Chemistries Lithium-ion batteries are produced in several chemistries, each offering distinct trade-offs between performance, safety, and cost. Lithium cobalt oxide (LCO), once common in portable electronics and even applied in the Tesla Roadster, provides very high energy density. However, its limited cycle life and poor thermal stability reduce safety, making it less suitable for modern EVs (Haroon Junaidi, 2015). Lithium manganese oxide (LMO) offers better thermal stability and higher safety, with applications such as the Nissan Leaf. Despite this, its relatively low energy density and restricted storage capacity

reduce its competitiveness in long-range EVs (Haroon Junaidi, 2015). Lithium iron phosphate (LFP) is regarded as one of the safest chemistries due to its strong chemical and thermal stability, long cycle life, and the absence of cobalt, which improves its environmental profile. However, its lower energy density necessitates larger battery packs for equivalent performance (Haroon Junaidi, 2015). In contrast, lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NMC) has become the dominant choice for modern EVs, offering a strong balance between energy density, safety, and lifespan. NMC is widely used in models such as the BMW Mini-E and manufactured by major companies including LG Chem, Samsung, and Hitachi, though its reliance on cobalt increases cost and raises sustainability concerns (Haroon Junaidi, 2015). 2.4.

Definition and Components of the Battery Management System (BMS) A Battery Management System (BMS) is an electronic control system that oversees and regulates the operation of a rechargeable battery pack to ensure safe, efficient, and long-lasting performance. Structurally, a BMS typically integrates several key components: a Power Module (PM) for energy conversion, the battery pack equipped with voltage and temperature sensors, DC/DC converters for voltage regulation, and the load, which may represent the drivetrain or onboard systems (Gabbar et al., 2021).

2.3.

Functionally, the BMS performs two core roles: monitoring and control. Monitoring involves continuous measurement of variables such as cell voltage, current, temperature, and State of Charge (SoC). These data enable estimation of critical parameters, including State of Health (SoH), capacity fade, and internal resistance (Balasingam et al., 2020). Control functions then regulate charging and discharging processes based on the monitored data, preventing overcharge, deep discharge, or unsafe operating conditions (Bergveld, 2001).

Life Cycle of Lithium Ion Battery in Electric Vehicles

The sophistication of a BMS varies depending on product type and application. Low-cost devices may use simple circuits for basic protection, while advanced systems such as those in electric vehicles employ complex architectures with features like predictive algorithms, fault diagnostics, and balancing strategies (Balasingam et al., 2020). Intelligence within the BMS can be distributed across the PM, battery pack, and control units, while communication protocols (e.g., CAN bus) ensure reliable data transfer between modules (Gabbar et al., 2021). Finally, the system provides a battery status display, ranging from simple LEDs and bar indicators to detailed LCD readouts showing SoC and SoH values, enhancing both usability and safety. 2.4.1. Power Module (PM) in the Battery Management System

Figure 1. General structure of a Battery Management System (BMS) The Power Module (PM) plays a central role in the BMS by converting electrical energy from sources such as the power grid, on-board vehicle batteries, or renewable systems into a form suitable for charging the battery. In addition to energy conversion, the PM may also directly supply power to the device when the battery is weak, ensuring continuous operation (Bergveld, 2001). Energy efficiency is a critical requirement, as inefficiencies in conversion generate excess heat, which can damage cells and shorten battery life (Gabbar et al., 2021). The monitoring and control functions of the PM are generally divided into Energy Conversion Control (ECC), which regulates PM output in terms of voltage and current, and Charging Control

(CHC), which manages charging according to parameters such as battery voltage and temperature (Bergveld, 2001). The CHC can be implemented in different configurations: within the PM (charger-managed charging), within the device (device-managed charging), or embedded in the battery itself as part of a smart/selfmanaged battery (Gabbar et al., 2021). 2.4.2. Components and Workflow A Battery Management System (BMS) coordinates several components to ensure safe and efficient operation. The process begins with the main electricity source, such as a household outlet, which is processed by the Power Module (PM). The PM converts incoming electricity into a form suitable for charging while its monitoring and control circuits regulate voltage and temperature to prevent unsafe conditions (Bergveld, 2001). The battery pack serves as the primary energy storage unit and is also equipped with embedded monitoring and control circuits to track parameters such as voltage, temperature, and State of Charge (SoC), ensuring long-term health and safety (Balasingam et al., 2020). A DC/DC converter further adjusts the stored energy, converting it into the appropriate voltage and current required by the device (e.g., from 3.7 V to 5 V). This converter is also governed by monitoring and control functions to maintain stable operation (Gabbar et al., 2021). Additional supporting components include the battery status display, which communicates SoC or charging conditions to the user via LEDs or LCD screens, and the load, representing subsystems such as screens, motors, or speakers that consume energy during operation. All modules are interconnected through a communication channel, often a dedicated bus system, which enables the continuous exchange of operational data (voltage, current, temperature) among the PM, battery, converter, and load. This communication ensures coordinated decisionmaking across the system, improving efficiency, safety, and user transparency (Gabbar et al., 2021).

Life Cycle of Lithium Ion Battery in Electric Vehicles

2.4.3. Energy Flow within the Battery Management System During charging, electrical current flows from the Power Module (PM) to the battery, denoted as I_charge. Conversely, during operation, current flows from the battery to the load, denoted as I_discharge. Each component integrates monitoring and control circuits, which act as the “brain” of the system by preventing unsafe conditions such as overcharging or deep discharge (Bergveld, 2001). To ensure coordination, communication channels allow the continuous exchange of operational data between the PM, battery, DC/DC converter, and load. This communication enables real-time tracking of parameters such as State of Charge (SoC) and State of Health (SoH), ensuring safe and efficient operation (Balasingam et al., 2020). The overall architecture resembles a biological system in which all subsystems interact and respond collectively to maintain balance, ultimately safeguarding performance, efficiency, and longevity of the battery (Gabbar et al., 2021). Thermal Runaway and Battery Safety Risks Safety is a critical consideration in the design and operation of lithium-ion batteries. Although the probability of failure under manufacturerrecommended conditions is extremely low, estimated at approximately 1 in 40 million (Wang et al., 2019), the consequences of failure can be severe. Overheating may degrade the Solid Electrolyte Interphase (SEI) layer and initiate exothermic reactions that exceed the system’s thermal management capacity, potentially leading to thermal runaway (Ouyang et al., 2019). Thermal runaway is defined as an uncontrollable self-accelerating reaction accompanied by rapid heat release, which can result in fire or explosion (Shi et al., 2025).

external heat, caused localized thermal runaway (Kurniawan, 2025). While such incidents remain rare, they highlight the importance of stringent safety protocols, robust battery management systems, and continuous awareness of thermal hazards to ensure user safety and mitigate environmental risks. 3. MANUFACTURING PROCESSES AND EQUIPMENT 3.1. Manufacturing of Lithium-Ion Batteries The production of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) is an energy-intensive process that consists of three main stages: electrode preparation, cell assembly, and electrochemical activation.

2.5.

A recent case illustrates the potential risks. In May 2025, a BYD Seal electric vehicle in West Jakarta emitted smoke due to overheating of its lowvoltage battery. Investigations showed that a short-circuit in the wiring system, aggravated by

Figure 2. Schematic of LIB manufacturing processes Electrode preparation begins with slurry mixing, where active materials, conductive additives, and binders are blended with solvents. Cathodes typically use polyvinylidene fluoride dissolved in N-methyl pyrrolidone (NMP), while anodes rely on water-based SBR/CMC binders. This stage accounts for approximately 7.9% of costs, with drying consuming the largest share of energy at 46.8% (Liu et al., 2021; Schünemann et al., 2023). Because NMP is toxic and costly, recovery systems are applied, though 20–30% of solvent is lost each cycle (Ahmed et al., 2016). Electrodes are then calendered, slit, and vacuum-dried for 12–30 hours to remove residual moisture. In cell assembly, electrodes and separators are stacked or wound, tabs are ultrasonically welded, and cells are enclosed, filled with electrolyte, and

Life Cycle of Lithium Ion Battery in Electric Vehicles

sealed. The final activation stage involves formation and aging, during which a stable SEI layer develops on the anode. This step ensures safety and longevity but represents the single largest cost share, about 32.6% of manufacturing (Schünemann et al., 2023). From a life-cycle perspective, scaling production to a gigafactory level can reduce greenhouse gas emissions by nearly 45%, while using low-carbon electricity sources achieves an additional 55% reduction. However, such scaling shifts environmental burdens upstream to raw material extraction, emphasizing the need for sustainable supply chains (Chordia et al., 2021). 3.2.

Battery Management System (BMS) Equipment and Workflow A Battery Management System (BMS) not only protects and optimizes battery performance but also materially reduces the environmental footprint of lithium-ion batteries by extending usable life, improving energy efficiency, and enabling circular-economy practices. By preventing overcharge/overdischarge, controlling charge rates, and maintaining temperature within optimal bounds, a well-designed BMS slows capacity fade and reduces premature retirement of cells (Bergveld, 2001; Balasingam et al., 2020). At the cell-pack level, functions such as active cell balancing and thermal management limit heterogeneity and local stress that accelerate degradation; this lowers the frequency of replacements and the volume of battery waste requiring treatment or recycling (Balasingam et al., 2020). In addition, accurate State of Charge /State of Health estimation and archival telemetry enable better second-life deployment and targeted recycling: packs with documented residual health can be repurposed while end-oflife units can be routed to the most appropriate hydrometallurgical or pyrometallurgical stream, improving material recovery rates and reducing primary mining demand (Gabbar et al., 2021). Finally, BMS integration with chargers, vehicle control units, and grid services can reduce lifecycle energy consumption by enabling smart

charging (off-peak/low-carbon electricity), regenerative-braking optimization, and V2G/energy-arbitrage strategies, systemic measures that further decrease greenhouse-gas emissions associated with battery operation and the broader electricity system (Gabbar et al., 2021). 3.3. Recycling of Lithium-Ion Batteries From a life-cycle perspective, scaling up production significantly reduces relative emissions. Chordia et al. (2021) demonstrated that transitioning from pilot-scale to gigafactoryscale can cut greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by nearly 45% under identical energy sources, while shifting to low-carbon electricity supplies can reduce emissions by an additional 55%. Lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries are now the dominant energy storage technology for portable devices and electric vehicles. The rapid increase in Li-ion battery use across various industries is expected to generate significant amounts of battery waste. Therefore, recycling Li-ion batteries is crucial to prevent environmental contamination and restore valuable metals to the supply chain (Vieceli et al., 2021). Recycling methods generally begin with pretreatment (discharging, dismantling, component separation) to produce a black mass rich in active materials. Pyrometallurgy (highheating) or hydrometallurgy (chemical dissolution) processes are then used to extract these metals. Hydrometallurgy is currently considered more environmentally friendly because it requires less energy and emits almost no harmful gases. Recent studies show that hydrometallurgy can achieve very high efficiencies (nearly 99%) in recovering pure Ni, Co, Mn, and Li (Vieceli et al., 2021). Hydrometallurgy involves several main steps: dissolving the metal from the black mass, then refining and recovering the metal from the solution. In the leaching stage, the black mass is reacted with an acidic (or sometimes basic) solution to dissolve the active metal. Sulfuric acid

Life Cycle of Lithium Ion Battery in Electric Vehicles

(H₂SO₄) and hydrochloric acid (HCl) are common solvents because they are inexpensive and effective. In practice, sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄) is often used for dissolution, capable of extracting >90% Li and transition metals from the black mass. After leaching, valuable metals are separated by adjusting the pH (precipitating certain metal hydroxides) and using solvent extraction to obtain pure metal ions (Zanoletti et al., 2024). The final product is a pure metal salt (e.g., Li₂CO₃, FePO₄) ready to be further processed into raw materials for new batteries (Vasconcelos et al., 2023). 4. LIFE-CYCLE ASSESSMENT RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 4.1. Comparative Performance and Environmental Impacts of LIB Chemistries Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) have notable environmental impacts that vary across chemistries, primarily due to the raw materials required for their production. The extraction and processing of lithium, nickel, and cobalt, which are the principal components of LIBs, contribute significantly to greenhouse gas emissions, land degradation, and groundwater contamination (Ellingsen et al., 2016; Notter et al., 2010). Among the available chemistries, lithium iron phosphate (LFP) and nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NMC) currently provide the most favorable balance between performance and environmental footprint, making them leading candidates in the transition toward sustainable electric mobility. NMC batteries are valued for their high capacity and strong performance, but their dependence on cobalt raises concerns regarding toxicity, environmental damage, and ethical mining practices. In contrast, LFP batteries completely avoid cobalt, resulting in improved safety, higher stability, and a lower environmental burden, although they have a reduced energy density compared to NMC. These chemistries illustrate the trade-offs between performance, cost, and environmental responsibility. Each type of LIB presents distinct advantages and limitations that determine its

suitability for electric vehicle applications. A summary of the key advantages, disadvantages, and current status of the most relevant LIB chemistries for EVs is provided in Table 1. Table 1. Comparison of Battery Types for Electric Vehicles No

Battery Type Lithium-Ion (Li-ion)

Advanta ges High energy density, lightweight, long lifespan

2

NMC (Nickel Manganese Cobalt)

High capacity and strong performance

3

LFP (Lithium Iron Phosphate) NCA (Nickel Cobalt Aluminum)

Stable, safer, cobalt-free

5

NiMH (NickelMetal Hydride)

Thermally stable, no cobalt

6

Lead-Acid

7

Solid-State

Mature recycling process, low cost Promising higher performance and safety

1

4

Sources:

High energy density, good performance

Disadvant ages Environmental and supply chain concerns (especially with cobalt) Contains cobalt, which has environmental and ethical issues Lower energy density Relies on cobalt and nickel, with supply chain challenges Lower energy density, lower efficiency

Heavy, short lifespan, low capacity High cost

Current Status Most widely used in EVs

Commonly used in many EVs

Popular in China’s EV market Used in certain EV applications (e.g., Tesla) Used in early hybrids (e.g., Toyota Prius), less common now Considered outdated

Life Cycle of Lithium Ion Battery in Electric Vehicles

4.2.

Environmental Burden Across the Battery Life Cycle The environmental impacts of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) extend beyond the usage phase of electric vehicles, encompassing raw material extraction, energy-intensive manufacturing, and end-of-life management. A life cycle perspective is therefore critical to capture the full extent of their environmental burdens. The production stage has consistently been identified as the phase with the greatest environmental burden. Mining of raw materials such as lithium, cobalt, and nickel leads to land degradation, groundwater contamination, and high carbon emissions. In addition, battery manufacturing requires a large amount of electricity, with the value showing up to 120 kg of CO2 emitted per kWh of battery capacity produced (Ellingsen et al., 2016). Beyond carbon emissions, lithium extraction is water-intensive, placing high pressure on arid regions such as South America, where large-scale mining operations are concentrated (Notter et al., 2010; Dunn et al., 2015). During the usage phase, lithium-ion batteries do not directly release emissions. However, the source of electricity used for charging remains close to the impact it has on the environment, whether it comes from renewable energy or fossil fuels. At the end of its life cycle, improper disposal of LIBs risks contaminating soil and water with heavy metals such as cobalt and manganese, along with other hazardous substances. While current recycling technologies are limited in efficiency and availability, this means that a large share of the end-of-life cycles of LIBs are not effectively recovered. While lithium-ion batteries support the transition to clean energy, their lifecycle still brings significant environmental impacts. These range from emissions and resource exploitation during production to reliance on energy during use, and

the risk of serious pollution if they are not properly recycled. 4.3.

Economic Efficiency and Value of Recycling

The recycling of spent lithium-ion batteries produces not only waste residues but also valuable compounds that can be reintroduced into industrial supply chains. After mechanical dismantling and extraction of the so-called black mass, hydrometallurgical purification processes yield high-purity products such as lithium carbonate (Li₂CO₃), nickel sulfate (NiSO₄), and cobalt sulfate (CoSO₄). These materials are directly applicable in the manufacturing of new cathodes, while precursor products like NCM (NiCo-Mn) hydroxides also serve as critical inputs for next-generation battery production (Zanoletti et al., 2024). In some cases, additional by-products such as manganese dioxide (MnO₂), copper sulfate (CuSO₄), or even minor rare earth elements can be recovered, further enhancing the economic value of recycling streams (Zhang et al., 2023). From an economic perspective, the recovery efficiencies are particularly significant. Recent assessments show cobalt recovery rates exceeding 90% and lithium recovery above 85%, figures that translate into the restoration of 30– 40% of the original battery’s economic value when commercialized (Zanoletti et al., 2024). Such outcomes demonstrate that recycling is not merely a waste management strategy but an economically viable pathway that can stabilize material supply and buffer against market volatility in critical minerals. Equally important, the environmental and strategic benefits amplify this economic value. Compared with conventional mining, recycling routes can reduce the carbon footprint by 25– 40%, while also lowering dependence on primary extraction from geopolitically concentrated mining regions (Andersson et al., 2022). In this regard, recycled products move beyond the label of “secondary materials” and instead represent

Life Cycle of Lithium Ion Battery in Electric Vehicles

strategic resources that support industrial efficiency, supply security, and the advancement of a circular economy within the energy sector.

4.4.

Effectiveness of BMS in Extending Battery Lifespan and Mitigating Risks

Battery Management Systems (BMS) play a central role in improving both the safety and longevity of lithium-ion batteries used in electric vehicles. One of the critical functions of a BMS is state-of-charge (SOC) estimation, which directly influences the operational safety and efficiency of the battery. Accurate SOC modeling ensures that the battery operates within safe charge and discharge limits, preventing overcharging and deep discharging, both of which accelerate degradation. However, recent studies highlight that improper scaling in SOC modeling can lead to errors up to 90%, which significantly increases the risk of premature battery aging and unsafe operation (Balasingam et al., 2020). Another key function is battery impedance estimation, as internal resistance varies with temperature and state of health. Real-time impedance tracking enables the BMS to detect anomalies such as internal short circuits or thermal imbalances before they escalate into critical failures. Accurate impedance monitoring has been shown to improve battery reliability and extend cycle life by preventing unsafe operating conditions (Berecibar et al., 2016). Furthermore, capacity estimation ensures that the available energy of the battery is properly utilized without exceeding physical limits. Since capacity fade is a major factor in reducing battery lifespan, adaptive algorithms within BMS frameworks help maintain accuracy even as the battery undergoes aging. Probabilistic data fusion and adaptive models have been proposed to allow BMS designs to remain effective across evolving cell chemistries, ensuring long-term relevance and reliability (Zhang et al., 2020).

Finally, optimal charging strategies integrated into BMS significantly reduce degradation mechanisms such as lithium plating and thermal stress. Multilevel charging algorithms balance the trade-off between fast charging demand and minimizing capacity fade. Experimental findings demonstrate that optimized charging protocols can extend battery cycle life by up to 25%, while also mitigating the risks associated with rapid charging (Keil & Jossen, 2016). Taken together, these strategies underline the effectiveness of BMS as both a lifespan extender and a risk mitigator for lithium-ion batteries in electric vehicles. By integrating advanced modeling, adaptive estimation, and intelligent charging, BMS not only enhances the reliability of batteries but also ensures their safe and sustainable deployment in the long term. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION Lithium-ion batteries are now widely used, with NMC and LFP as the two leading chemistries. NMC gives high energy but depends on cobalt. LFP is safer and cobalt-free but has lower energy density. Manufacturing is costly and energyintensive. Electrode drying uses about 46.8 percent of production energy, and formation and aging account for about 32.6 percent of manufacturing cost (Schünemann et al.; Liu et al.; Ahmed et al.). Good hydrometallurgical recycling can recover most critical metals, for example, lithium >85 percent and cobalt >90 percent, and can return roughly 30 to 40 percent of the battery’s original economic value (Zanoletti et al.; Vieceli et al.; Chalmers). Recycling can also cut life-cycle carbon emissions by about 25 to 40 percent compared with primary mining. Scaling production to a gigafactory level and using low-carbon electricity reduces per-unit greenhouse gas emissions substantially (≈45 percent from scale, plus an additional ≈55 percent from low-carbon electricity) but may shift impacts upstream to raw material extraction if the supply chain is not improved (Chordia et al.). A well-designed Battery Management System extends pack life, reduces premature retirements, and enables smart charging and second-life use.

Life Cycle of Lithium Ion Battery in Electric Vehicles

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