Boundary Echoes: A Series of Cautionary Tales

Boundary Echoes: A Series of Cautionary Tales by Shayla Dick A Design Thesis Presented to the Faculty of The College of Architecture at the University of Nebraska In Partial Fulfillment of Requirements For the Degree of Master of Architecture Major: Architecture Under the Supervision of Professor Lloyd Shenefelt Lincoln, Nebraska May 2020

CONTENTS

Abstract............................................................1 Thesis Statement.............................................3 Prologue...........................................................5 Research: The Boundaries..............................7 El Paso/Ciudad Juarez................................9 Belfast........................................................15 Nicosia.......................................................21 Jerusalem...................................................27 Design: The Echoes.......................................33 Echo 1: The River Between Us..................39 Echo 2: Community Islands.......................53 Echo 3: No Man’s Land.............................67 Echo 4: Second-Class Citizens.................81 Appendix: The Boundary Catalogue.............95 Bibliography.................................................137

ABSTRACT

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Around the world, people live in places where boundaries define their lives. Cities like Nicosia, Jerusalem, Belfast, and El Paso must contend with the constant struggle of us versus them, solidified through physical barriers. Unfortunately, these places and their very real problems are removed and seemingly unimportant in our safe and familiar reality. But these are real cities where real people live. Those people could be us. Their cities could be our cities.

Thus, a radical approach is taken in this thesis. A satire of sorts. Four divided cites are examined to understand the spatial and social factors of their boundary. Those conditions are then projected onto the landscape of Lincoln, Nebraska, breaking into the apathy and indifference of our familiar. Four parallel narratives are constructed which become echoes of the true condition. The narratives seem far-fetched, outrageous really, in our stable Midwest landscape.

But in many cities around the world, these stories aren’t outrageous but a stark reality. Thus is the aim of this project: to “make one cry “ridiculous!” at the very things that are most familiar to us.”1 The purpose of this experimentation is not to create more boundaries in the world. Rather, the purpose is to force those who are unaffected by boundary architecture to take a closer look. One must confront the issues when they move into our backyard. Would we think about our world differently if boundary became a part of our familiar? Would we look at our neighbors differently? Would we take action, have empathy, and create change? Will anyone hear the echoes resonating from these boundaries?

1. Tylevich, Katya. “Freedomland: A Biting Satire.” DOMUS, February 10, 2012.

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THESIS STATEMENT

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This thesis aims to better understand the realities experienced in boundary cities around the world through the exercise of echoing existing boundary scenarios onto the landscape of Lincoln, Nebraska.

The purpose of echoing boundaries is to amplify and personalize those boundary conditions through their replication within the familiar.

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PROLOGUE

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The idea for this thesis began as I looked around and wondered why our world was so divided by boarders, boundaries, and walls. The divisions all seemed so arbitrary with essentially equal people on both sides. Why are were we so content to be divided? I questioned if something could be done to combat this global phenomenon, to unite people despite their differences.

One of the constant struggles in crafting this thesis was approaching the issues in a contextualized manner as an outsider unfamiliar with the context. Some of the locations have colonial pasts, and I never wanted to approach the project as an outsider charging in and prescribing how the “walls in the head” should be torn down. The best way I found to mitigate my “outsider” status was to reconceptualize these boundaries within my familiar context. The goal of the thesis outlined here is not to propose a solution, but rather to make one think about these topics and how we play a part, even halfway across the globe.

Each one of the sites examined below is unique and carries different challenges. Any further examination of how resolution can be brought to these divisions would require extensive contextualized research, ideally including an extended period on-the-ground interacting with the people. Unfortunately, the circumstances of this thesis made such research impossible. However, efforts toward devising a resolution but could benefit the continued storyline of the Boundary Echoes.

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THE BOUNDARIES

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The following four boundary cities were investigated and cataloged to better understand their spatial, historic, and contextual realities. Maps and axonometric drawings document the physical manifestations of the boundary while the concept of the “Wall in the Head� helps to describe the psychological implications of division.

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EL PASO/ JUAREZ

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Located along the southern border of the US, the border wall spans about 53% of the border line. In the other areas, scorching dessert and the Rio Grand are deadly deterrents to border passage. Thousands of immigrants fleeing drug and gang related violence in Mexico, Guatemala, El Salvador, and Honduras attempt to cross the border each day. This architecture not only deters migration but impacts the daily lives of those living in the region. Sometimes called the “Third Nation�, the culturally unique area is split in two, often straight through cities.

One of the divided cities is El Paso (US) and Ciudad Juarez (Mexico). These two cities each run up to the border, creating one large urban area. In the studied area, there is only one border crossing, but there are three in the larger urban area. This crossing organizes the urban structure of both halves, with the city centers of both located directly on this connecting street. Every day, thousands of people cross this bridge on foot or by car to work, shop, or visit loved ones.

The urban fabric of Ciudad Juarez is incredibly dense and El Paso, by comparison, has very little density.

Interestingly, despite the intense density of Juarez, there remains a roughly quarter-mile zone left mostly undeveloped near the border, a buffer zone of sorts.

Most of the landscape around this area is desolate, as the Rio Grande has been completely encased in concrete. The area contains some parks, but very few buildings besides border patrol facilities. Both sides of the border here are lacking in public space amenities.

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POVERTY

TRADE & LABOR

An economic divide exists between the US and Central America, which often persists in migrants located within the US. Americans dislike this transfer of poverty into “their” country.

Immigrants and Central American workers are seen as cheap labor, as a way to decrease cost of imported goods. This stereotype follows them to the US, diminishing the value of their labor.

IMMIGRATION In 2019, over 800,000 migrants attempted to cross the border and were apprehended by Border Patrol. The number of successful migrants could be much higher.

HISTORY OF CONQUERING

LANGUAGE Language is a constant reminder of difference.

Once in the US, those from Latin America are expected to become fluent in English, a requirement of passing the citizenship test.

CITIZENSHIP Many people from Mexico and Central America migrate as undocumented.

Because they do not have citizenship or legal status, their legal rights within the US are limited.

Since the days of Columbus and Cortes, Native Latin Americans were seen as inferior subjects to be conquered. Remnants of this attitude remain in US education and society.

“AMERICAN DREAM”

GANG VIOLENCE Competition between gangs has created an extremely hostile and deadly atmosphere in many Central American countries.

Most migrants are fleeing this violent conflict.

The US is given a persona, both by those internally and externally, of the “American Dream”, of being a utopia for the everyday man. This status is viewed as “superior” to many adjoining countries.

CURRENT POLITICS Recent political narratives have pushed the MexicanAmerican border to the forefront.

Often these sentiments are divisive and nationalistic, intentionally fostering fear of the “other”.

FEAR OF LOSING MAJORITY

There is a rising tide of nationalism and white supremacy in the US, and even the most moderate of these views see migrants as a threat to a white majority.

DRUG TRAFFIC Drug trafficking is a profitable business which follows supply and demand: the demand for drugs is in the US, the supply of drugs is in Mexico, thus the goods must travel over the border.

However, the perception that all migrants traffic drugs just isn’t true, as many are fleeing real conflicts.

“THE WALL IN THE HEAD” EL PASO/CIUDAD JUAREZ

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BELFAST

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Built as a barrier between conflicting Protestant and Catholic areas of Belfast, the Peace Lines carve the city into segregated sections. Neither side specifically built the barriers, as both groups view the walls as necessary to restrict violence between the two groups.

The Peace Lines give residents a sense of protection from the “other� side and ties their sense of community to the territory on which they reside. There is hope that the Peace Lines may come down soon, but most residents still view them as essential.

The urban fabric of Belfast lends itself perfectly to the segregation, almost as if it were designed for that very purpose. The city is cut into pieces by the main connecting roads, and each of those pieces is a weaving community of cul de sacs and row houses. There are very few connections between each area, making it easy to construct walls to divide differing residents. This is especially true of the area of Short Stand, where with only three walls, the entire community has been encircled and cut off from the urban fabric. While each of these smaller communities often have a public building, there is rarely a public space meant to operate between communities and across demographics.

The psychological division is especially prevalent in Belfast, where many resident view the Peace Walls as essential to their safety and protection. The multifaceted conflict involving religion, politics, and nationality reaches into many areas of everyday life.

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Catholic Protestant Vehicular Opening

POLITICAL PARTY

EDUCATION

A major political quarrel in Northern Ireland exists between Loyalists who wish to remain apart of the United Kingdom and Nationalists who wish for a united and free Ireland.

Starting in 1697 and lasting 250 years, Penal Laws barred Catholics from secondary education.

Today, most Catholics attend private schools and Protestants attend public.

RELIGION Religion in Northern Ireland is split into those that are Catholic and those who are not (often protestant but not always).

NORMALIZED VIOLENCE Violence in Northern Ireland began in 1641 and has persisted through changing political and economic conditions. It has become second nature to most

“THE TROUBLES” Beginning in 1960 and lasting until 1988, this time period saw incredible violence and conflict over the status of Northern Ireland.

ORANGE ORDER MARCHES A series of summer marches culminating on July 12th by Protestants celebrating the Battle of the Boyne. These marches often turn violent.

NATIONALITY Groups in Northern Ireland are divided based on their perceived nationality: either settlers from Great Britain or natives of Ireland.

RESIDENTIAL SEGREGATION Over time, residential areas in Belfast have become voluntarily segregated as violence between Protestants and Catholics remains active.

IRISH REBELLION This conflict in 1641 was the beginning of the continued violence in Ireland as the Catholic Nationals fought British Rule. They were not successful in forming a free Ireland until 1932

HOUSING DISCRIMINATION Many state run housing programs discriminated against Catholics and gave priority housing to Protestants.

BREXIT The United Kingdom’s exit from the EU has the potential to create a hard barrier between north and south Ireland. The divide would further anger Nationalists.

“THE WALL IN THE HEAD” BELFAST

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NICOSIA

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The city of Nicosia is abruptly divided into two halves by the UN-occupied Green Line, a demilitarized zone which stretches across the entirety of the Cyprus island. The Green Line was imposed in 1964 after Turkey invaded Cyprus and claimed the northern third of the island, creating the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus which is not internationally recognized. The Green Line creates a third space, an abandoned area of houses and roads which were left behind in the reorganization after the division.

The events which led up to the creation of the Green Line and its near complete segregation ever since have created a psychological divide, a wall in the head which is just as formidable as the physical presence of the buffer zone. Most notable in Nicosia is the near complete separation and lack of interaction between these two nationalities. Over the last 50 years of history, very little cooperation and coordination has occurred, increasing the fear and misinformation of the unknown.

The urban fabric of Nicosia has always been dictated by the circular city walls, and more recently by the buffer zone. Vehicle circulation occurs primarily outside of the city walls, with pedestrian traffic dominating within the old city. Within the city, there are only 2 points where pedestrians can cross the buffer zone (a vehicle checkpoint is located outside of the city). Public parks ring the city walls, but true public space is lacking within the old city, and dual-nationality public space is rare.

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BRITISH COLONIAL RULE

Cyprus was a British Colony from 1878-1959.

In an effort to curb anti-colonial sentiment, Britain pursued divisive policies which encouraged racial conflict.

EDUCATION Because schools are completely segregated and controlled by opposing state powers, education does not represent a balanced perspective of the other group.

RELIGION The Cypriot Turks are predominantly Muslim while the Christian Orthodox church holds significant power with the Greeks.

VIOLENCE

LANGUAGE The north speaks almost exclusively Arabic and the south speaks almost exclusively Greek. The language barrier is a noticeable difference between the populations.

TURKISH INVASION

Violent exchanges between the two parties culminated in 1974 with the Turkish Invasion, which left resentment and deaths on both sides from the conflict.

In 1974, as Greece began to exert more control in Cyprus, Turkey invaded.

After just a few weeks they controlled 37% of the island land. No country besides Turkey recognizes this invasion as legal.

NATIONALITY Southern Cyprus is linked to Greek nationality and Northern Cyprus to Turkish.

Cyprus is a sovereign nation but Northern Cyprus is not.

ENOSIS Enosis is the popular Greek Cypriot idea to unite with mainland Greece. Turkish Cypriots despise the idea as they fear they would lose all rights. This fear fueled the Turkish Invasion.

POPULATION MIGRATIONS Between 1960 and 1975, 40,000 Turkish and 200,000 Greek Cypriots had relocated to their respective “sides” of the island. Today, ethnicity is nearly homogeneous in both areas.

OTTOMAN EMPIRE The Ottoman Empire controlled Cyprus for three centuries. During that time, ethnic segregation was institutionalized through the millet system.

LIMITED INTERACTION For nearly 30 years, Greek and Turkish Cypriots did not interact. Tight restrictions on movement across the Green Line kept people from learning about each other, furthering division.

“THE WALL IN THE HEAD” NICOSIA

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JERUSALEM

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Marking the border of two nations entrenched in a battle for sovereignty, the West Bank Barrier is internationally controversial. Israelis argue they are building the barrier to protect themselves from terrorists entering from Palestine. However, the wall has been built well into areas internationally recognized as Palestine, creating enclaves of people separated from their nation. The barrier is often seen as a way for Israel to annex land.

The wall and other obstacles restrict the movement of Palestinians operating within the region, making daily life unpredictable.

One example where the wall has been used to annex land is in Jerusalem. In 1949, the Green Line was drawn as an official separation between Israel and Palestine land and it split Jerusalem in half. In 1967 however, Israel began taking more land and claimed all of Jerusalem. They have built the Separation Barrier well outside of Jerusalem, claiming it all for Israeli. The Palestinians living in Jerusalem, however, are not treated equally. For them, the wall still exists.

Checkpoints dictate their movement across the line, and very few Israelis travel to the Palestinian side.

There are, however, efforts by Israel to settle closed-off communities in East Jerusalem to further their claim to the land in the area.

Analysis of the city shows a disconnect. Almost all traffic movement occurs in the West. Almost all parks and public buildings are located there as well. There are two distinct sides despite the lack of a physical wall.

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DEMOGRAPHICS Israeli Palestenian No Man’s Land Christian Quarter (Old City) Muslim Quarter (Old City)

PUBLIC SPACE

Armenian Quarter (Old City)

Public Building

Jewish Quarter (Old City)

Public Park

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Israelis

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Palestians

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LAND DIVISION The international community gave Israel the right to reestablish their homeland, and gifted them over half of Palestine’s land even though they held 1/10 of the population at the time.

They continue to annex land.

FOREIGN INFLUENCE The Israeli-Palestine issue is often seen in news around the world. Every country has chosen whether they recognize Palestine, and the debate further fuels tension.

RELIGION The Jews in Israel are defined by their common faith.

Palestinians are predominantly Muslim.

These differences are magnified in the Holy Land (for both) of Jerusalem.

TEMPLE MOUNT

POPULATION TRANSFERS As Israel continues to annex land from Palestine, Palestinians are forcibly displaced when their homes are taken.

TERRORISM The strong differences between these two groups has often resulted in violence escalating to terrorism. While both side participate, this is predominately a fighting tactic of the Palestinians.

This area of the city holds historical and religious significance for both religions. Each side desires to control the area to hold worship.

NATIONALITY

DIVINE RIGHT

Israel has a strong national identity based on their common religion and beliefs. Palestinians national pride is also strong because they inhabited the land for 1300 years prior to the return of the Israelis.

Jews believe that the land that is Israel has been gifted to them through God as their Holy Land. This is their justification in ceasing the land.

INVASION

REDUCED RIGHTS FOR PALESTINIANS

The Palestinians had been residing on their land for over a thousand years before it was decided that Israel could reestablish a homeland. Jews quickly migrated to the area, disrupting the status quo.

Palestinians are subject to the control of the Israelis especially when it pertains to the movement in the area. They are not, however, considered citizens nor can they vote.

CULTURE The culture of Palestine is highly hierarchical, genderbased, and age-based. This makes it difficult for even liberal Israeli’s to connect with the values of the culture.

“THE WALL IN THE HEAD” JERUSALEM

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THE ECHOES

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To “echo� means to replicate in a fictitious manner an existing spatial condition utilizing elements of the history, context, imagery, and physical environment, projecting those elements onto a new landscape. The following four echoes explore the results when spatial conflicts from around to the world become apart of our everyday reality in Lincoln, Nebraska.

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El Paso/Ciudad Juarez

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ECHO 1: THE RIVER BETWEEN US Inspired by division in El Paso/Ciudad Juarez

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The University of Nebraska-Lincoln was founded as a Land Grant University in 1869, just thirteen years after the founding of the city of Lincoln. It began as four city blocks with a single building, but within four years had established a second campus known until the 1960s as the Farm Campus. Today, we know it as East Campus.

These two campus locations have been shaping the urban fabric of Lincoln ever since.

The two campuses of the University of Nebraska-Lincoln have developed independently over the past 150 years, despite a brief period in 1915 when the state legislature proposed a consolidation of the campuses onto East Campus. However, the differences between the two campuses proved too great for unification and the proposal was defeated.

As is signaled by its original title of Farm Campus, East Campus has been historically agrarian in focus. It specializes in agricultural studies, retains a feel of the countryside, and is home to many agricultural test fields.

City Campus, on the other hand, is known for its urban vibe in the heart of downtown and for hosting a diverse range of majors. The friction between these opposing world views, agrarian versus urban, has always been present but predominantly remained subdued.

Relations between the East Campus and City Campus began to deteriorate as the global food crisis worsened.

As scarcity became a growing problem, all nations were desperate for solutions to create enough food to sustain the exponentially growing population of the world. This solution was bound to be profitable, as food costs had skyrocketed in the pandemonium of the crisis. Every university was actively researching solutions, including the University of Nebraska-Lincoln.

The two campuses had widely differing views on the ultimate solution to the food crisis. Those on East 41

Campus believed that improved agricultural practices and productivity were the only way to produce enough viable food to support the global population. City Campus, on the other hand, was thinking more radically. They believed that new technology could revolutionize the way we think of food, that agriculture would soon be altogether obsolete. University Administration were infatuated with this radical and potentially profitable idea. They pooled all of their research funds into the efforts occurring on City Campus, leaving East Campus without funds or a university backing.

East Campus was outraged. Not only was City Campus taking their funding, but they were attempting to eliminate their entire way of life. They felt their only option was to rebel, breaking away from the University of NebraskaLincoln and City Campus. They returned to their former name of Farm Campus, feeling it better reflected their research goals. Any member of the campus, such as the College of Law and the College of Dentistry, who didn’t fully believe in their vision of the future were asked to leave.

In order to fund their research, Farm Campus needed property taxes. They claimed the entire city east of Antelope Creek as their territory. They promised to be generous to their subjects with their agricultural spoils but asked that anyone who didn’t fully believe in their agrarian lifestyle and future vision leave their territory and utilize the food resources provided by city campus.

Both campuses were vehemently protective of their research and their food resources. A wall was constructed along the creek bed to prevent food immigrants from illegally crossing to attain food from the spoils of the opposing research. Conditions on either side of the wall varied greatly, dependent on the success of research. The urban fabric was forever cut in two, separated by opposing visions and complex global economics.

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ECHO 2: COMMUNITY ISLANDS Inspired by division in Belfast

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The people of Lincoln, Nebraska are passionate about their sports, especially the sport of football. While the choice of a college football team is a given, with Lincoln having a storied football program at their university, the choice of professional football team was more complicated.

Nebraska is a state without its own professional football team and lies within a ring of 6 major NFL teams which are nearly all equidistant from the state. No team is clearly favored within the city.

Historically, this was never a big problem within the city of Lincoln. People choose their team for whatever reason and that was that. They flew a flag outside their home and bought a bumper sticker to identify their fandom and went on with their lives. It was part of who they were, but it didn’t define their interactions.

But then an interesting trend began to pop up in the southern suburban developments of Lincoln. The flags flying on each street began to become more uniform. Gameday watch parties became a block-wide event, sponsored by community groups. Community developments began to identify themselves by the widely popular team in the area: “Bishop Park – Home of the Best Sharks Fans in All of Lincoln” and “Its not a Cheetah Party if its Not in Irvingdale”. Organically, these communities became more homogeneous in their football preferences.

Whether it was because the existing residents wanted to join the fun or because fans began to flock to these areas was never clear. But little by little, the urban fabric in this area of town became defined by team affiliation.

These rivalries were about more than just football teams.

These communities shared an identity centered on this commonality. It united them, but it also alienated the other communities which had a similarly strong identity based in a different team. Game days were especially problematic times. Violence would break out in the seams where 55

these communities met. Watch parties sabotaged other watch parties, throwing bottles and lighting fires at homes known to host events. When a rivalry game occurred, the streets in South Lincoln became treacherous, violent, and at times impassible. People had lost sight of the reality that the root of their conflict was born out of a commonality: an intense love for the sport of football. Somewhere along the way football teams became an inconsequential factor in the conflict, which really revolved around a collective identity based in us versus them.

The people of Lincoln pleaded with city officials to come up with some way to end this violence, even if it were only a temporary fix. The city obliged, and seeing that the community seams were the hotbeds of the violence, they began to install walls of varying permanence at these seams. Soon many of the community pockets in South Lincoln were completely walled off, creating community islands. It was an easy fix really, because these areas were already planned in the typical suburban fashion. With culde-sacs, winding roads, and few entrances from the main streets, all that was required was a few walls blocking a couple streets, and the community islands began to feel a sense of security.

The community walls helped to solve the immediate problem of violence, and the residents became used to their comforting existence. They knew the type of people who lived here and what type of people lived there, and they knew that there was a clean separation. It made it easier to villainize the “others� because the others were clearly and geographically defined. When the city sent word that the walls would soon come down in hopes of producing peace, residents were outraged. The walls brought them safety and peace of mind. Sure they seemed a bit hostile, but they were necessary. So the city dropped the matter, saying that perhaps one day in the future an undivided South Lincoln would exist again.

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ECHO 3: NO MAN’S LAND

Inspired by division in Nicosia, Cyrus

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For centuries the US and Canada lived as peaceful neighbors with an international border drawn at the 49th parallel. They were allies and friends, the level-headed powers of North America. They shared in wealth and made trade deals of mutual benefit. They exchanged people as well, with immigrants from both countries starting a new life in a familiar but different land. The countries were sleeping giants living symbiotically, sharing the same bed that is the American continent.

Over time, the US started to stray from the shared ideals which made the two countries symbiotic. They became increasingly isolationist and belligerent: cutting off trade deals with their former allies, picking fights and starting conflicts, destabilizing global nuclear weapon balance, and abandoning democracy altogether.

Canada watched in horror as this devolution occurred, urged by the Canadian diaspora living in the US to act.

It was their duty, these Canadian Americans argued, and the belligerent US may become too powerful and dangerous without an intervention. Democracy on the North American content may be jeopardized without it.

So the Canadians set their eyes on the 40th parallel across the US, hoping to split the country straight down the middle and capture much of the Canadian diaspora who lived in cities such as New York, Seattle, Detroit, Boston, Chicago, and Minneapolis. They successfully marched their way further and further south. Some Americans welcomed the change, while others refused to live under the rule of anyone but the US and were forced to relocate. Many of the Canadians living in the US south of the 40th parallel sought refuge in the north, the new Canada, as tensions rose for both groups.

Many territorial conflicts played out during this time, but the people of Nebraska were especially steadfast. They 69

understood the issues which faced their floundering nation, but they refused to give up on the American ideals and believed it was still possible to reconvene in the name of the American spirit. They lost much of their northern territory, including the urban hub of Omaha, but they held the line at their capitol, in the city of Lincoln.

This city represented their seat of power on the national stage, their government head, and they put all of their resources into retaining it for the US nation.

In the end, the UN negotiated a deal between Canada and the people of Nebraska (despite the fact the territory conquest by Canada was illegal under international law).

The city of Lincoln would be divided in half, through the geometrically perfect line of O street. The northern half of Lincoln would belong to Canada, the southern half would remain in the US. To avoid future conflict, the space of O Street and its adjoining buildings would become a buffer zone. Only the UN would have access to this space, all other human habitation was forbidden.

Passage across the buffer zone was highly restricted, especially for motorized vehicles. The identity of Lincoln was officially split.

People relocated to their preferred “side� and began to recreate their lives to function within the half of a city they could access. Many had to get different jobs, make different friends, and change schools. The urban fabric became irrevocably scarred. The once vibrant commercial corridor of O Street was gone, replaced by abandonment with slowly crept out from the No Man’s Land. Both sides saw the damage of the buffer zone and understood the need for a functional unified city, but neither was willing to concede their half. They were at an impasse.

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Nicosia

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BUFFER ZONE LINCOLN, NE

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ECHO 4: SECOND CLASS CITIZENS Inspired by division in Jerusalem

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Lincoln, Nebraska has long been known as a University Town. Home to the University of Nebraska-Lincoln, the city was planned with campus at its center. The University drives much of the activity within the city. From football games to move-in day, the entire urban experience is transformed in tandem with the academic calendar. The University also shapes the identity of the city. Everyone is a Husker fan and red is the universal favorite color, used in every application from buildings to t-shirts. Many actually attended the university for education, but many did not.

Over time, the cost of schooling at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln continued to rise. After a financial collapse similar to the housing bubble of 2008 caused by unpaid student debt, the government discontinued providing grants and loans to college students. Enrollment at the University dropped dramatically, but their power and authority within the community only continued to grow. The University became a group of the highest elite within the state. Only those with enough wealth or political sway were able to attend. The exorbitant tuition prices fueled the university’s wealth, and it became a power which the city government, and even the state government, could not control. They became the quasiruling class in a city already infatuated with their image.

This power allowed the University full control of the urban fabric, especially on campus territory which quickly became the most sacred of land to the Husker elite. It was their refuge from the uneducated, or worse, those educated elsewhere. It became a “holy site� of academics, valued by those who attended. The privilege of entering was granted only to those who had or were currently receiving their education at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln.

83

In order to protect the sanctity of the education received on campus, walls were erected around both City and East Campus by University administration. Traffic in and out of the holy areas was strictly monitored by University police, passing through designated gates, where NCards and alumni cards were examined prior to entry.

University administration began to notice that the walls, the seams within the urban fabric, were areas of conflict.

The outsiders disliked the constant reminder of their inferior or complete lack of education. Vandalization and violence were common, disrupting the holy site the University strove to convey. Thus security got even tighter, with roaming patrols within a half-mile radius of campus. The University Police had no technical power in these areas, but that wasn’t the point. The point was to make outsiders feel like second class citizens, to disrupt their lives with lengthy checkpoints and harassing questions. The point was to make them feel unwelcome in hopes that they would stay where they “belonged”, far away from the “holy site” of campus. Anyone suspicious was stopped, anyone using improper grammar was questioned, any sign that you were one of the uneducated and the University Police would make your life difficult.

People in the state of Nebraska and the larger US saw what the University of Nebraska-Lincoln was doing, creating separations and treating the outsiders as second class citizens. They spoke out publicly against the University, stating that they were violating the law.

But no physical action was taken. Those in power belonged to the elite club of the alumni and embraced their position. Others feared the power and connections and the University. So their injustices slid into the background, becoming an accepted reality of the urban condition in the city of Lincoln.

84

Jerusalem 98 5’ 0” 25’ 0”

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NORTH DAKOTA STATE UNIVERSITY

UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA SOUTH DAKOTA STATE UNIVERSITY

IOWA STATE UNIVERSITY UNIVERSITY OF WYOMING

COLORADO STATE UNIVERSITY

UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA

KANSAS STATE UNIVERSITY UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI

OKLAHOMA STATE UNIVERSITY

UNIVERSITY OF ARKANSAS

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APPENDIX: THE BOUNDARY CATALOGUE

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The following case studies offer examples of varying degrees of power and control. Each one is analyzed in terms of the line, the space, and the affects of the boundary. The last 6 case studies are theoretical, as an example of ways past architects and designers addressed this issue. These case studies were used as background research to more fully understand the global situation of boundaries.

96

97

ISRAEL WEST BANK BARRIER CUETA BORDER FENCE US MEXICO BORDER WALL BELFAST PEACE LINES BERLIN WALL TROOST AVENUE, KANSAS CITY KOREAN DEMILITARIZED ZONE 8 MILE ROAD, DETROIT ARCTIC CIRCLE US CANADA BORDER HAITI DOMINICAN BORDER

2000

1900

1800

1700

1600

GREAT WALL OF CHINA

98

US MEXICO BORDER WALL WHEN: 1990s - Present day PORTS OF ENTRY: 48 legal crossings LENGTH: 1,954 miles

99

3.4 % Unemlpoyement Rate

Population Below Poverty Line 46.2 %

Net Migration Per 1000 Population -1.8

59.5 % Population Using Internet

$19,900 GDP Per Capita (PPP)

USA

MEXICO

$59,800 GDP Per Capita (PPP)

76% Population Using Internet

3.8 Net Migration Per 1000 Population

Population Below Poverty Line 15.1 %

4.4 %

Unemlpoyement Rate

Located along the southern border of the US, the border wall spans about 53% of the border line. In the other areas, scorching dessert and the Rio Grand are deadly deterrents to border passage. Thousands of immigrants fleeing drug and gang related violence in Mexico, Guatemala, El Salvador, and Honduras attempt to cross the border each day. This architecture not only deters migration but impacts the daily lives of those living in the region. Sometimes called the “Third Nation�, the culturally unique area is split in two, often straight through cities.

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US CANADA BORDER WHEN: 1843-Present day PORTS OF ENTRY: 119 legal crossings LENGTH: 5,525 miles

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Population Below Poverty Line

Unemployment Rate

9.4 %

6.3 %

5.7 Net Migration Per 1000 Population

89.9 % Population Using Internet

$48,400 GDP Per Capita (PPP)

USA

CANADA

$59,800 GDP Per Capita (PPP)

76% Population Using Internet

3.8 Net Migration Per 1000 Population

Population Below Poverty Line 15.1 %

4.4 %

Unemployment Rate

Dividing two countries of nearly equal means, the border between the US and Canada is notably friendly and unfortified. It is not, however, invisible. A mown path 20’ wide is maintained to demarcate the division between countries.

Periodically, small border monuments dot this line to further clarify the division. A number of cities and even buildings span the border, but the movement of the residents is rarely hindered by the split. The absence of a physical barrier visually and psychologically has maintained the sense of neighborly goodwill across this border.

CA NA US D A A

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ISRAELI WEST BANK BARRIER WHEN: 2000 - Present day PORTS OF ENTRY: 32 checkpoints LENGTH: 440 miles

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Population Below Poverty Line

Unemployment Rate

22 %

4.2 %

2.1 Net Migration Per 1000 Population

79.8 % Population Using Internet

GDP Per Capita (PPP)

ISRAEL

PALESTINE

$36,400

$4,300 GDP Per Capita (PPP)

57.4%

Net Migration Per 1000 Population -4.4

Population Using Internet

Population Below Poverty Line 18%

27.9 %

Unemployment Rate

Marking the border of two nations entrenched in a battle for sovereignty, the West Bank Barrier is internationally controversial. Israelis argue they are building the barrier to protect themselves from terrorist entering from Palestine. However, the wall has been built well into areas internationally recognized as Palestine, creating enclaves of people separated from their nation.

The barrier is often seen as a way for Israel to annex land. The wall and other obstacles restrict the movement of Palestinians operating within the region, making daily life unpredictable.

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BERLIN WALL WHEN: 1961-1989 PORTS OF ENTRY: 38 legal crossings LENGTH: 96 miles

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Population At Risk of Poverty

Unemployment Rate

17.8%

10.3 %

Population Growth -11%

€ 87,620 Average Value of a House

€ 2,078 Average Consumer Spending

EAST BERLIN

WEST BERLIN

€ 2,587 Average Consumer Spending

€ 199,160 Average Value of a House

8.2% Population Growth

Population At Risk of Poverty 15.3%

6%

Unemployment Rate

Following World War II, control of Berlin was divided by international powers into communist East Berlin and democratic West Berlin. The wall was built overnight in 1961 by the east to prevent people from escaping to the freedom of the west. The heavily militarized and multilayered wall was an incredibly effective barrier, as those found crossing it were shot on sight. In 1989 the wall was removed and Berlin reunified, but the repercussions of the division remain.

The economies and quality of life on each side noticeably differ even today.

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KOREAN DEMILITARIZED ZONE WHEN: 1945-Present day PORTS OF ENTRY: 1 Joint Security Area and 4 Tunnels of Aggression LENGTH: 155.3 miles

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Unemployment Rate 3.7 %

Population Below Poverty Line 14.4 %

2.4 Net Migration Per 1000 Population

89.9 % Population Using Internet

$39,500 GDP Per Capita (PPP)

SOUTH KOREA

NORTH KOREA

$1,700 GDP Per Capita (PPP)

0% Population Using Internet

0 Net Migration Per 1000 Population

NA Population Below Poverty Line

25.6 %

Unemployment Rate

Dividing the Korean peninsula, the Korean Demilitarized zone is a border with considerable thickness. While a single line is the definitive border between the countries, 1.25 miles on each side of that line is designated as the demilitarized zone in an effort to buffer the tensions between the countries. Military troops and civilian movements are not allowed in this zone and the consequences can be deadly.

Due to the lack of human intervention on the land, the DMZ has become a haven for wildlife.

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ARCTIC CIRCLE WHEN: 1925-Present day PORTS OF ENTRY: Fully permeable LENGTH: Disputed

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Average Temperature

Number of Oil Wells

-30 °F

259

Boat Passages Per Year

21,000 Number of Native Species

80

25,000 Polar Bears in Region

USA EEZ

25,000 Polar Bears in Region

CANADA EEZ

21,000 Number of Native Species

Boat Passages Per Year

Average Temperature -30 °F

80

Number of Oil Wells 529

The borders within the arctic mark each country’s Exclusive Economic Zone, extending 200 miles out from their land boundary. There is, however, a circular portion of this land in the center that has no automatic claim by this method. This open water surrounding the North Pole is up for grabs, based on a country’s scientific claims for how far their continental shelf extends into the ocean. Some of the current claims overlap, as countries attempt to annex as much area as possible in this region filled with natural gas and oil resources, opening up new opportunities.

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U SA

GREAT WALL OF CHINA WHEN: 17th Century - present day PORTS OF ENTRY: unknown LENGTH: 5,500 miles

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Unemployment Rate 3.9 %

Population Below Poverty Line 3.3 %

Net Migration Per 1000 Population -0.4

53.2% Population Using Internet

$16,700 GDP Per Capita (PPP)

CHINA

CHINA

$16,700 GDP Per Capita (PPP)

53.2% Population Using Internet

Net Migration Per 1000 Population -0.4

Population Below Poverty Line 3.3 %

3.9 %

Unemployment Rate

One of the oldest walls which still exists today, the Great Wall of China was constructed in the Ming Dynasty in an effort to deter Mongolian invaders. At first the wall was just constructed of rammed earth, but evolved into the stone structure seen today. The wall today is treated as a monument attracting tourists and doing little to restrict the movement of those living in the area. Cars drive through passes in the wall or through tunnels below. As one of the largest walls studied, it has virtually no impact on the equality of inhabitants on either side.

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BELFAST PEACE LINES WHEN: 1969-Present day PORTS OF ENTRY: Guarded gates which close in the evening LENGTH: Approx. 5.5 miles

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14.21%

23.11%

Population With College Degree

Homeownership

Unemployment Rate

93.41% Catholic

7.06%

4.46%

56.38% Protestant

Protestant

37.6% Catholic

CATHOLIC

9.99% Population With College Degree

PROTESTANT

17.08% Homeownership

7.41%

Unemployment Rate

Built as a barrier between conflicting Protestant and Catholic areas of Belfast, the Peace Lines carve the city into segregated sections. Neither side specifically built the barriers, as both groups view the walls as necessary to restrict violence between the two groups. The Peace Lines give residents a sense of protection from the “other� side and ties their sense of community to the territory on which they reside. There is hope that the Peace Lines may come down soon, but most residents still view them as essential.

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TROOST AVENUE, KANSAS CITY WHEN: 1969-Present day PORTS OF ENTRY: Guarded gates which close in the evening LENGTH: Approx. 5.5 miles

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Population Below Poverty Line 33.1%

Median Household Income $26,071

8.9% Population With College Degree

78.19% Black

6.35% White

96.43% White

EAST

0.92% Black

WEST

68.2% Population With College Degree

Median Household Income $81,548

6.3%

Population Below Poverty Line

Sometimes referred to as the “Troost Wall�, Troost Avenue splits Kansas city into an east and west side. Due to prejudiced laws and a practice called redlining, where banks would not give mortgages in predominately black neighborhoods, the two sides of Troost Avenue became segregated. What started as a divide from laws and policy has sustained into the present day as a divide based on social norms and prejudice. The two sides of Troost are not only split racially, but economically as well.

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NICOSIA, CYPRUS WHEN: 1964-Present day PORTS OF ENTRY: 6 official crossings LENGTH: 112 miles

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Unemployment Rate

64% Portion of Island Area

6.5%

3.9% GDP Real Growth Rate

2.5% Inflation Rate

$37,200 GDP Per Capita (PPP)

SOUTHERN CYPRUS (GREEK)

NORTHERN CYPRUS (TURKISH)

2.3% GDP Real Growth Rate

GDP Per Capita (PPP) $15,109

36%

Inflation Rate 9.1%

Portion of Island Area

Unemployment Rate 7.4%

The city of Nicosia is abruptly divided into two halves by the UN-occupied Green Line, a demilitarized zone which stretches across the entirety of the Cyprus island. The Green Line was imposed in 1964 after Turkey invaded Cyprus and claimed the northern third of the island, creating the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus which is not internationally recognized. The Green Line creates a third space, an abandoned area of houses and roads which were left behind in the reorganization and distribution after the division.

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8-MILE ROAD, DETROIT WHEN: 1940s-Present day PORTS OF ENTRY: 2 openings for road crossings LENGTH: 0.5 miles

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Population Below Poverty Line 33.1%

$26,760 Median Household Income

12.3% Population With College Degree

97% Black

White 1%

SOUTH

NORTH

51% White

Black 38%

Population With College Degree 36%

$54,250 Median Household Income

9.2%

Population Below Poverty Line

A wall which does little to actually physically divide people, the purpose of the 8-Mile Wall was to psychologically and legally separate an existing black neighborhood from the development of an adjoining white neighborhood. Only after the wall was built would banks agree to grant loans in the white neighborhood, a practice called redlining.

Today, however, the line of segregation has moved from this barrier wall to the 8-Mile Road which runs perpendicular to it.

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HAITI DOMINICAN BORDER WHEN: 1795-Present day PORTS OF ENTRY: 8 official crossings points but crossing the river is common LENGTH: 224 miles

121

5.1% Unemployment Rate

Population Below Poverty Line 30.5%

Net Migration Per 1000 Population -2.6

61.3% Population Using Internet

$17,000 GDP Per Capita (PPP)

HAITI

DOMINICAN REPUBLIC

$1,800 GDP Per Capita (PPP)

Population Using Internet 12.2%

Net Migration Per 1000 Population

Population Below Poverty Line 58.5%

-2

Unemployment Rate 40.6%

The border between Haiti and the DR is often said to be seen from space due to the stark contrast in deforestation practices. Marked by the Massacre River (an ever-present reminder of the violence inflicted on Haitians), the border carries high tensions. The two countries differ in prosperity, as Haiti is the poorest nation in the Western Hemisphere. In an effort to help ease tensions, a Bi-national market was constructed near the border, but it too is marked by prejudiced practices between the two groups.

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122

CUETA BORDER FENCE WHEN: 1993-Present day PORTS OF ENTRY: 1 official crossing LENGTH: 4 miles

123

Population Below Poverty Line

Unemployment Rate

21.1%

17.2%

7.5 Net Migration Per 1000 Population

80.6% Population Using Internet

$38,400 GDP Per Capita (PPP)

SPAIN

MOROCCO

GDP Per Capita (PPP) $8,600

58.3%

Net Migration Per 1000 Population -3.1

Population Using Internet

Population Below Poverty Line 15%

10.2%

Unemployment Rate

As the only shared border between Europe and Africa, the border around the Spanish enclave of Cueta is highly contentious. Cueta is a city controlled by Spain on the continent of Africa, despite Morocco’s refusal to acknowledge Spain’s right to the land. Seen as a gateway to the freedom and prosperity of all that Europe has to offer, many Africans attempt to cross the fortified fencing. This border is protected not only by the Spanish forces, but also by Moroccan forces which the European Union pays to help stem the flow of African migrants.

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CONTINUOUS MONUMENT WHEN: 1970 AUTHOR: Superstudio LOCATION: Worldwide

125

Sited

Continually Evolving

Temporary Emphasized Aethetics

Allows Passage Through

Engourages Interaction Across

Intent To Do Good

Program Withinn Wall

One of the first theoretical projects which began to speculate on the symbolism of division, Continuous Monument by Superstudio was primarily an exploration of the grid and continuity in a globalizing world. The project is primarily portrayed in images which contrast landscapes or cityscapes with a ubiquitous gridded monument. The effects are haunting yet beautiful, and while not their original intent, begin to raise the question of division by this monumental architecture. Future architects will examine the work further through this lens.

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LOST IN THE LINE WHEN: 2012 AUTHOR: Leopold Lambert LOCATION: Israeli West Bank Barrier

127

Sited Continually Evolving

Temporary

Emphasized Aethetics

Allows Passage Through

Engourages Interaction Across

Intent To Do Good

Program Withinn Wall

Conceived as a story told through graphic novel, Lost in the Line critiques the division caused by the Israeli West Bank Barrier. A young girl starts the story confined by the wall, trapped within the architecture. However, as the story progresses, the architecture begins to morph and change into first something that she can climb over, and later something that she is able to walk right through. The dividing wall slowly disintegrates as it fractures into small rods. The fuzzy border structure leaves a memory of the wall without restricting movement.

128

METASTRUCTURE WHEN: 1993 AUTHOR: Lebbeus Woods LOCATION: Bosnia and Herzegovina border

129

Sited

Continually Evolving

Temporary Emphasized Aethetics

Program Withinn Wall

Engourages Interaction Across

Intent To Do Good

Allows Passage Through

Responding to the violence occurring in Bosnia and Herzegovina at the time, Lebbeus Woods theorized on a proposal which would slow the violent conflict. Those wanting to enter Bosnia would have to pass through the Metastructure: a labyrinth of architecture designed to slow or completely stop the flow of combatant forces.

Opponents would be lost in the complexity of the wall, forced to live inside the architecture.

Those from Bosnia and Herzegovina could capitalize on the opportunity, also moving in to sell to the occupants, creating a new community.

130

EXODUS WHEN: 1972 AUTHOR: Rem Koolhas & Elia Zenghelis LOCATION: London

131

Sited

Continually Evolving

Emphasized Aethetics

Program Withinn Wall

Temporary

Allows Passage Through

Engourages Interaction Across

Intent To Do Good

Drawing heavily from the ideas and imagery of Continuous Monument by Superstudio, this thesis begins to speculate on the implication of such a monumental architecture in a city. The project is also heavily inspired by the Berlin Wall and its ability to separate “Good” from “Bad”.

The “Strip” becomes a desirable haven for the inhabitants of London, causing an Exodus within the city as people voluntarily become prisoners within the architecture. The resulting society is highly problematic and dystopian, overruled by control and order.

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MALECON TERRACE WHEN: 2010 AUTHOR: Lebbeus Woods LOCATION: Havana, Cuba

133

Sited

Continually Evolving

Emphasized Aethetics

Temporary

Allows Passage Through

Program Withinn Wall

Intent To Do Good

Engourages Interaction Across

This unique example of a theoretical wall does not divide one people group from another, but rather protects a group of people from the raging sea. This project is exemplary in its ability to make use of the wall structure and to create a structure which is always moving and adapting to its environment. The terrace, located at a cliffs edge, acts as a public park and gathering space in most instances. However, when the sea rises, the wall has the ability to rotate and become an environmental protection from the rising sea waters.

134

THE WALL GAME WHEN: 2004 AUTHOR: Lebbeus Woods LOCATION: Israeli West Bank Barrier

135

Sited

Continually Evolving

Temporary

Program Withinn Wall

Emphasized Aethetics

Engourages Interaction Across

Intent To Do Good

Allows Passage Through

A programmatic exploration of the possibilities of a wall, the wall game creates a scenario where the wall becomes a canvas for creativity and collaboration. In the game, each side is tasked with building an architectural system which cannot touch the ground but must rely on the weight from the other side to balance.

This makes it impossible to play alone, relying on cooperation from the other side. Both sides win as long as the construction can continue.

The game offers a productive way for the sides to interact, hopefully spurring more goodwill.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

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Chisholm, Michael. Shared Space : Divided Space, Esssays on Conflict and Territorial Organization.

London: Unwin Hyman, 1990.

Choi, Rebecca M. “Reconstructing Urban Life.”

Places 21, no. 1 (2009): 18–20.

Daniel, Arreola. The Mexican Border Cities. The University of Arizona Press, 1993.

Dear, Michael. Why Walls Wont Work. New York: Oxford University Press, 2013.

Ex-desert-aid worker. No Wall They Can Build : A Guide to Borders & Migration across North America. Salem, Oregon: CrimethInc. Workers’ Collective, 2017.

Martin, Laura Frances. “Presidents Medals: The Bookhouse; the Library of Chance,” 2009. http:// www.presidentsmedals.com/Entry-23211.

McCallister, Meghan, and Mahdi Sabbagh, eds. “Perspecta 50: Urban Divides.” The Yale Architectural Journal 50 (2017).

McK. Camp II, John. “The Athenian Agora: A Short Guide.” American School of Classical Studies at Athens, 2003.

The Divided City. “No-Man’s-Land: Entering the UN Buffer Zone,” October 11, 2012. https:// thedividedcity.wordpress.com/2012/10/11/nomans-land-entering-the-un-buffer-zone/.

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