A Study of Cost-effective Building Materials and construction techniques for warm and humid climate

A Study of Costeffective Building Materials and construction techniques for warm and humid climate in India

Appendix-1

A Study of Cost-effective Building Materials and construction techniques for warm and humid climate in India

Dissertation Submitted in the partial fulfilment of the requirements for submission of Dissertation for

Bachelors of Architecture

By S.Lavanya Bala Reg. No. 1170100706

Guide Ar.Karthik ch Assistant professor

Department of Planning/Architecture School of Planning and Architecture, Vijayawada Dec 2022

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Appendix-2

UNDERTAKING

I, Ms. S.Lavanya Bala, hereby declare that the Dissertation titled “A Study of Costeffective Building Materials and construction techniques for warm and humid climate in India” is a record of original research work undertaken by me towards partial fulfilment of the requirements for submission of Dissertation in the Department of Architecture, School of Planning and Architecture, Vijayawada. The work has not been submitted to any other organization/ institution.

I hereby confirm the originality of the work and that there is no plagiarism in any part of the Thesis.

______________________________ Name: S.Lavanya Bala Reg. No. 1170100706 2021-22 Bachelors in Architecture Department of Architecture Date: 23-12-2021

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A Study of Cost-effective Building Materials and construction techniques for warm and humid climate in India

Appendix-3 (To be on Printed on SPAV Letterhead) CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the Dissertation titled “A Study of Cost-effective Building Materials and construction techniques for warm and humid climate in India” has been submitted by S.Lavanya Bala (Reg. No. 1170100706) at the Department of Architecture, towards partial fulfilment of the submission for Bachelors of Architecture. This is a bonafide work of the student.

RECOMMENDED

_________________________ Signature of the Supervisor 1 Name and Designation Department

ACCEPTED

_______________________________ Signature of the Head, Department of Planning/ Architecture

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Appendix-4 DISCLAIMER

The content produced in the dissertation report is an original piece of work and takes due acknowledgement of referred content, wherever applicable.

The thoughts expressed herein remain the responsibility of the undersigned author and have no bearing on or does not represent those of School of Planning and Architecture, Vijayawada.

______________________________ Name:S.Lavanya Bala Reg. No. 1170100706 2021-22 Bachelors in Architecture Department of Architecture Date: 23-12-2021

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TABLE OF CONTENTS S.No.

Title

Preliminaries

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS LIST OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES LIST OF FIGURES ABSTRACT

Page No. i-iv v vi vi vii

.................................................................................................................................

Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION

1-4

1.1 Need for the study 1.2 Aim 1.3 Objectives 1.4 Methodology 1.5 Scope 1.6 Limitations .........................................................................................................................

Chapter 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 4-7 .........................................................................................................................

Chapter 3 CLIMATE 7-8 3.1 Warm and Humid climate 3.1.1 Characteristics 3.1.2 Design objectives of warm and humid climate 3.2 Summary and material specifications .........................................................................................................................

Chapter 4 MATERIALS 9-16 4.1 4.1.1 4.1.2 4.1.3 4.1.4 4.1.5 4.1.6 4.1.7 4.1.8 4.1.9 4.2 4.2.1 4.2.2 4.2.3

Parameters for Material Selection Environment Friendly Recycled Waste Use of Natural Low Cost Locally Available building materials Energy Efficient Building Materials Non – Toxic Building Materials Longevity, Durability, And Maintenance Recyclability & Reusability Biodegradability Classification of alternative building materials Natural/vernacular Materials Man-made/Modern materials Recycle materials

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Chapter 5 COST-EFFECTIVE TECHNOLOGIES FOR COMMON MAN 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 5.10

17-19

Arch foundation Plinth Brickwork Rat Trap bonding Soil cement block technology Concrete block walling Domes and vaults Filler slabs Open prefab systems GFRG Panel Building System

.........................................................................................................................

Chapter 6 CASE STUDY AND ANALYSIS

20-23

The Hamlet – Bakers’ Residence at Trivandrum GFRG Demonstration Building, IIT Madras, Chennai

6.1 6.2

.........................................................................................................................

Chapter 7 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION .........................................................................................................................

Chapter 8 CONCLUSION .........................................................................................................................

Chapter 9 REFERENCES .........................................................................................................................

24-27 27-28 29-30

LIST OF TABLES S. No.

Title

1.

Availability of natural fibers in India and availability in building materials Recycled materials in construction applications

2.

Page No. 14 16

.........................................................................................................................

LIST OF FIGURES S. No.

Title

Page No.

1.

Climatic zones 7 2.

Depicting the material selection criteria 9 3.

Bakers house 20 4.

Depicting materials 21 5.

GFRG Demonstration Building 22 6.

GFRG Panel 22 7.

GFRG Panel construction 23 ...................................................................................................................................

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Abstract “They are not houses, but a home where a happy community lives. That is what finally matters” - B.V Doshi.

People's increasing awareness of materials, architecture, and aesthetics trends is a good sign for a better future in the field of architecture and developing city conditions and living standards, but it is a fact that everyone wants to build their house in an affordable and innovative way, but due to a lack of awareness and a limited budget, people avoid going for better construction practices, which designers and engineers provide. People are going for wrong practices and unauthorized people for their low-budget construction as a result of this. This is the major issue nowadays, that people are doing wrong practices, out of standards, poor working quality, and incomplete knowledge, all of which are reducing the lifespan and quality of building forms, materials, and architecture. Construction costs in India, on the other hand, are rising at a rate that is around 50% higher than the rate of inflation. It has risen by up to 15% each year, owing mostly to the rising cost of important building materials such as steel, cement, bricks, wood, and other inputs, as well as manpower. As a result, the cost of traditional building materials is becoming expensive, especially for low-income and a large cross-section of middle-income communities. As a result, there is a need to adopt cost-effective building methods, either via the advancement of old technologies utilizing local resources or through the usage of modern building materials and procedures with efficient inputs that result in cost-effective solutions Because of the large number of houses to be built in both rural and urban areas, as well as the limited resources such as building supplies and money, this has become the most significant component. The main objective of this paper is to give a detailed study of climate ( warm and humid ) and materials and techniques used for low-cost building design in that climate. Analyzing the cost-effective percentage, materials, and techniques used by doing Case studies(vernacular, modern) related to low-cost construction.

Keywords cost-effectiveness, construction materials, Low-cost housing technology, Warm and humid climate

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Chapter 1 Introduction This Topic aims to point out the various materials and techniques used for low-cost construction. The basic need of a person in today’s world is food, clothing, and shelter. House construction is a dream for low-income People.

Construction costs are high due to expensive salaries and material costs. A poor man must invest his entire life to build a house(Sudesh Bharsakhale,2020). Lowcost housing is reasonable for low-income owners if they can invest 30% of their household income. India, as a developing country, has only 20% of the highincome population that can afford a house. (Mohd. Abuja,2016). There is a demand for low-cost building techniques and materials. A low-cost construction doesn’t mean sacrificing strength or building with operational materials but it means effective use of local materials and techniques that are durable and require less maintenance. Low-cost materials are used to reduce expenses by employing alternative approaches.

Low-cost housing projects are in high demand, owing mostly to urbanization.

The selection of building materials should meet the needs of local circumstances to improve the value of life for the most desired ones by building innovative structures and by refining existing structures. Sustainability regarding construction intends to progress new approaches to succeed human settlements and integrate energy and environmental issues. Achieving a sustainable housing project requires a balance of environmental, economic, and social issues with technical issues.

According to the findings, engineering and construction materials account for up to 60% of the entire cost of a low-income housing project. The source of the material, manufacturing techniques, and labor needs all have a significant influence on the choice of wall building material. (Ellie Fini,2015). A cost-effective solution to this problem would entail the repurposing of waste materials to make new items, relieving enormous strain on the nation's landfills. Recycling discarded construction materials conserves natural resources, energy, solid waste, air and water pollution, and greenhouse gas emissions.

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1.1 Need for the Study India, like any other developing country, is now experiencing a severe housing crisis. According to NBO projections, the country had a 31 million housing unit shortage in 2015, with 10.4 million units in the urban sector and the remaining 20.6 million units in the rural sector. The housing backlog is likely to reach 41 million by the end of the year. The situation at the bottom of the economic scale is unbelievably bad. According to UN estimates, more than one-third of the world's population lives in developing countries without a home. According to a recent UNCHS report, over a hundred million people are completely homeless, while over a billion people are forced to live in critically insufficient housing conditions that affect their health, security, and safety. ●

Adequate shelter for lower-income groups.

●

Pollution prevention.

●

Energy conservation.

1.2 Aim In a Developing country like India, the need for adequate shelter is more. The topic aims to study the various cost-effective techniques and materials for the construction of a building in a warm and humid climate.

1.3 Objective 1. To study the characteristics and design objectives, materials used in warm and humid climates.

2. To study low-cost materials which are sustainable.

3. Understanding the materials and construction techniques for low-cost construction.

4. To compare cost reduction by adopting different materials & techniques for different case studies.

1.4 Research Questions 1. How are these techniques helpful for the real world?

2. What are the various materials for affordable construction and usage in the building?

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1.5 Methodology

1.6 Scope The study focuses on the climate, low-cost materials which are sustainable, usage, techniques for cost-effective construction.

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1.7 Limitations The study is limited to the various materials and techniques for low-cost construction and does not deal with the embodied energy of the material. And not proving any Simulation.

Chapter 2 Literature Review The papers which are described below are about the various low-cost materials and techniques for the construction of a building and making it costeffective. They also talk about the climate and its characteristics, materials used in this type of climate.

Paper 1: Alternative Low-Cost Construction Materials & Techniques (Sudesh Bharsakhale (2020) Summary: The research focuses on a low-cost house that is planned and built in the same way as any other house in terms of foundation, structure, and strength utilizing Rat Trap Bond and Filler Slab. Cost savings are obtained by the appropriate use of locally accessible building materials and procedures that are durable, affordable, consumer, and do not need costly maintenance.

Inferences: Key understandings are about the scarcity of housing for the urban poor and suggest alternate construction technologies like Rat trap Bond and Filler slab. It explains the function, usage, and advantages of that technologies, and concludes with the cost-effective factors of both technologies by giving the approximate percentage of material and cost reduction

Paper 2: An Overview: Low-cost House materials and techniques.(Manoj katiyar1 Mohd. Abujar (2016)) Summary: The purpose of this study is to highlight the many materials and techniques utilized for low-cost housing. This research investigates the use of a mixture of cow dung, straw dust, and sand, as well as other materials, as a supplement to concrete and mortar in the construction of a low-cost, environmentally friendly house. The research covers real-life housing examples and emphasizes the construction approach as well as numerous inventive strategies utilized to make the building eco-friendly and cost-effective. More use of waste materials for green building construction in the future is necessary to

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advance sustainable development and achieve successful economic construction.

Inferences: Understandings are highlighting the significance and necessity of consumption of the various waste materials, low-cost materials, and other techniques for the manufacturing of sustainable green buildings which would serve as an example in the future. Materials such as cow dung, straw dust, and sand, and other materials are used as supplementary to concrete and mortar in the construction. And technologies like Rat trap bond, filler slab, Solid concrete, and stone blocks are been studied.

Paper 3: Cost-Effective House by Using Various Construction Techniques and Materials (PROF. U. J. PHATAK et al., 2011) Summary: This article compared the economic effectiveness of low-cost housing technologies to standard construction methods. Two case studies in India were carried out. It was discovered that employing low-cost housing technologies may save around 26.11 percent and 22.68 percent of the building cost, including material and labor costs, as compared to standard construction methods for walling and roofing, respectively.

Inferences: Understanding the In compared to typical building methods, the costeffectiveness of adopting low-cost housing technologies Construction techniques like Rat-trap Bond, Technology. , Filler Slab Technology, Aluform Technology, Gypsum Area Separation Wall are been discussed.

Paper 4:Utilization of Recycled and waste materials in various construction applications.(Johnny Bolden, Taher Abu-Lebdeh and Ellie Fini (2015) Summary: A review of various research concluded that the usage of recycled materials had a positive influence in a variety of ways. This includes the advantages of improving the sustainability of the building sector while lowering costs, addressing environmental degradation, and minimizing the demand for natural resources. A questionnaire survey was used in this study to learn about existing practices in the building industry for utilizing waste and repurposed materials. Several firms, according to the data, were ignorant of the availability, performance quality of the materials, cost savings, or any other benefits, including environmental benefits.

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Inferences: This research provides an early assessment of the practice's existing strengths and shortcomings in order to assist the construction industry in formulating appropriate rules governing the use of waste and recyclable resources as building materials. Because of the scarcity and rising cost of raw materials, the use of swine manure, animal fat, silica fume, roofing shingles, empty palm fruit bunches, citrus peels, cement kiln dust, fly ash, foundry sand, slag, glass, plastic, carpet, tyre scraps, asphalt pavement, and concrete aggregate is becoming more popular in construction.

Paper 5: Sustainable Building Design for Affordable Housing in Warm-Humid Climate Region of India (S. K. Singh (2018)) Summary: Sustainable construction strategies contribute significantly to long-term growth. Building environmental evaluation and energy efficiency audit is becoming essential criteria for sustainable design or green architecture. The materials utilized, technology, and cost all have an impact on a structure's sustainability. The goal of these buildings is to make better use of energy, water, and other resources while also increasing user productivity.

Inferences: Passive techniques increase the use of renewable energy sources, which reduces construction costs. Passive design strategies include building orientation, window location, sizes, shading devices, architectural form and shape, and settlement pattern, as well as effective use of locally available materials in warm-humid climates.

Paper 6: Cost-Effectiveness of using Low-Cost Housing Technologies in Construction ( Vivian W. Y. Tam (2017)) Summary: The idea of buying a home, particularly for low- and middle-income families, is becoming increasingly difficult to realize. It is critical to use costeffective, creative, and environmentally friendly housing technology in buildings.

This article compared the economic efficacy of low-cost housing technologies to standard construction methods. Two case studies in India were carried out.

Inferences: For the investigation, case studies from India are used. The foundation, walling, roofing, and lintel construction methods are compared. The structure's strength and durability, stability, safety, and mental happiness are all S.Lavanya Bala;1170100706;2017-2022

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top priorities when it comes to cost-cutting. In the case studies for walling and roofing, it was discovered that employing low-cost housing technologies may save around 26.11 percent and 22.68 percent of the building cost when compared to standard construction methods. This demonstrates that the use of low-cost housing technologies is a cost-effective construction strategy for the business.

Chapter 3 Climate 3.1 Warm and Humid Climate: A humid climate in which the sun heat received is sufficient to evaporate all moisture falling in the form of precipitation. This climate is located in a region around the Equator that stretches about 15 degrees north and south. Throughout the year, there is virtually little seasonal change. As seen in Fig.1, India is split into six distinct climate zones. Warm humid regions have relatively high temperatures, considerable rainfall, and relatively high humidity all year. The temperature

Climatic zones,(S.K.Singh (2018))

remain constant throughout the day, with just minor breezes. With significant precipitation and high humidity levels, the intensity of solar radiation is likewise high. The major elements of a warm-humid climatic zone are temperature, humidity, and wind. (S. K. Singh (2018)) 3.1.1 Characteristics Summer temperatures range from 30-35 degrees (day) to 25-30 degrees (night), while winter temperatures range from 25-30 degrees (day) to 20-25 degrees (night). Because of the proximity to the shore, there are very high humidity levels ranging from 75% to 90%. The area receives more than 1200mm of rain every year.

This region includes coastal areas in southern India as well as upland areas in the northeast.

This climate is prevalent in major cities like Goa, Mumbai, Visakhapatnam, Kolkata, and Chennai.

This environment is characterized by high humidity, bright sunlight, and sky glare.

Long monsoon seasons with significant rain occur. However, breezes, particularly

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in coastal settings, can significantly increase discomfort.

(S. K. Singh (2018)) 3.1.2 Design objectives -Resisting Heat gain by Reduction of indoor air temperature, Protection of the building from sunlight by creating maximum shading, Use of airflow to create natural ventilation ,The decreasing surface area of the building exposed to the outside, Using materials that take a longer time to heat, Providing buffer spaces between the outside and the inside., Increasing the shade of the building in general, Using materials that reflect heat.

-Promoting Heat loss by Building is well ventilated, Proper ventilation occurs throughout the day, Reducing humidity levels as much as possible.,The walls should be pasted with light pastel shades or whitewashed while the surface of the roof can be broken glazed tile (china mosaic flooring ) to reflect the sunlight back to the environment, and hence reduce heat gain of the building, The use of appropriate colors and surface finishes is a cheap and very effective technique to lower indoor temperatures, The surface finished should be protected from/resistant to the effects of moisture. ( C. V. Subramanian (2017)) 3.2 Summary A warm humid environment prevails mostly in the coastal strip; so, humidity becomes a significant aspect to be considered while building houses. The courtyard is a distinguishing feature that enables effective light and air circulation while also acting as a strong thermal insulator, as seen in Kerala Vernacular buildings. The planning scheme is scattered and spaced out, with enough open space to allow for optimum air circulation. Large window apertures aid in air movement. Deep verandas on the inside and outside the periphery of the home, as well as slanted roofs, are used to give shelter from rain and excessive heat.

Construction materials like laterite stone, Mangalore tiles, and coconut palms are employed, which are regionally specific.

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Chapter 4 Materials 4.1Parameters for Material Selection : The structure's current pattern is pre-construction, building, and post-building stages. Each step of the building should be designed with the purpose of preserving energy. These three phases show how construction materials evolve through the various stages of a structure. The pre-building step consists mostly of assembly, which is divided into preparation, pressing, and transport. The structural stage consists mostly of development, activity, maintenance, and elimination.

Figure 2 Depicting the material selection criteria (Bolden, 2013)

4.1.1 Environment Friendly The assembling of building components should be done in a comfortable environment. Attempts should be made to investigate and improve the technologies for offering high-quality assembly. effective structural materials and should reduce waste generated during production 4.1.2 Recycled Waste Reusable waste can be used in masons, while wooden waste can be employed in the assembly of compressed wood or delicate sheets.

4.1.3 Use of Natural Low Cost The absolute energy required to make material is referred to as basic energy. The more the contained energy of a substance, the greater the exploitation of non - inexhaustible sources. As a result, it is advantageous to use materials or composite materials derived from waste.

4.1.4 Locally Available building materials The use of local resources reduces dependency on transportation, whose commitment to the structural material expense is large across long distances. The use of locally available construction materials reduces development costs while also being environmentally responsible

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for the surrounding environment.

4.1.5 Energy Efficient Building Materials The energy efficacy of building material may be measured using many variables like as R-value, hiding coefficient, and glowing productivity. Energy-efficient materials must reduce the amount of energy produced.

4.1.6 Non – Toxic Building Materials The use of hazardous structural materials can have a significant impact on the development of persons and tenants of the structure. As a result, it is appropriate to use non-poisonous construction materials for development. There are a few synthetic substances accessible, such as ammonia, pitch resin chemicals for protection, and plyboards for decoration and building material. The influence on the strength of these hazardous elements must be considered before selecting them, and they should only be used when absolutely necessary.

4.1.7 Longevity, Durability, And Maintenance The use of strong development materials not only extends the life of the project but also lowers the cost of support.

Lower maintenance charges typically save a significant amount of construction operating expenditure. The materials used in construction determine the long-term viability of the structure.

4.1.8 Recyclability & Reusability The material should be available in a recyclable or reusable structure. Plastic trash, for example, maybe reused and recycled to create newer materials. The steel piece can be used to make RCC bars, limiting spreads, and other incidental things in building construction.

4.1.9 Biodegradability When disposed of, the material should be able to dissolve naturally. Common or natural materials would decay rapidly. It is also important to consider if a material decays naturally or emits poisonous gases. (B.M.T.P.C., 2015) 4.2 Classification of alternative building Materials: In addition to the traditionally utilized materials, numerous alternative technologies and materials produced by various research institutions, inventors, and manufacturers in India are advantageous in the building of housing. The following sections provide information gathered as part of this project. Low-cost housing materials are available. According to the source of the construction materials, building materials are widely categorized into natural and manmade materials.

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4.2.1 Natural materials Name of the material

Characteristics

Usage

Timber

strong thermal resistance, high heat storage capacity, and good humidity management due to the high moisture content in a warm-humid zone

doors, windows, cabinets, cupboards, shelves, tables, and railings, etc

Bamboo

similar tensile strength as that of steel. It is environmentally friendly, lightweight, durable, and long-lasting, with a low fire danger.

Corrugated Bamboo Roofing Sheet: These sheets are suitable for roofing, walling, door and window shutters, and other building components.

Laterite stone

The compressive strength of laterite stone, like that of clay building materials, diminishes with increasing moisture.

It is often coated with lime mortar and strengthens with exposure to air and sunlight.

Mangalore tiles

Inexpensive, long-lasting, and environmentally beneficial

They are used in roofs, kitchens, and bathrooms to eliminate smoke through air holes between the tiles.

They are constructed of laterite clay and are installed over sloping roofs in areas where there is a lot of rain.

Coconut palms

They are appropriate for warm, humid climates since they are eco-friendly.

are utilized as a vernacular building material in Tamil Nadu and Kerala because they are plentiful, inexpensive, and used to make thatch and mats from woven leaves.

Adobe brick

Is constructed of sand, clay, and chopped straw that has been wet with water. Cow dung is also added for strength. After that, it is dried in the shape of a brick. It is environmentally

It is used in the construction of foundations, walls, doors, windows, beams, and roof

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friendly, provides thermal comfort, requires little maintenance, and is inexpensive.

Earth

Earth is the earliest known construction material to humans.

However, its extensive usage is limited by restrictions such as water penetration, degradation of walls at ground level caused by splashing of water from ground surfaces, termite and insect assault, high maintenance needs, and so on.

These constraints can be addressed by employing compressed earth blocks and non-erodible mud plaster.

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1) Compressed Earth Block The compressed earth block is a refined version of the molded earth block, also known as the adobe block. This method provides cost-effective, environmentally sustainable brickwork. Stabilized earth blocks are made by manually compacting raw earth combined with a preservative such as cement or lime in a soil press.

2) Non-Erodible Mud Plaster The Central Building Research Institute in India has created a low-cost yet successful method of protecting mud walls by using non-erodible mud plaster. Non-erodible mud is made by combining bitumen cutback (a combination of bitumen and kerosene oil) with specific mud plaster. Water does not erode nonerodible mud-plastered walls.

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Straw

Cow dung

Straw is essentially an agricultural byproduct made up solely of plant stalks (mainly grains) after the grain and chaff have been removed. Rice straw has the greatest silica concentration, making it the hardest cereal straw. Straw is considered an environmental issue since its combustion creates respiratory issues. As a result, straw has a lot of potential as a building material alternative. It is also fire resistant due to the fact that it does not promote combustion, is thermally insulated, sound and moisture insulated, and nontoxic.

1. Life Extended Thatch Roofing: It is a readily available and environmentally beneficial alternative to corrugated sheets. Its life can be extended by treating it with copper sulphate solution, which reduces the effect of biodegradability. The second layer of treatment on the roof surface improves waterproofing, fire resistance, termite proofing, and weathering resistance by employing phosphorylated spray or CNSL oil infusions.

The cow dung ash is obtained from cow excreta which is dried to sunlight and subjected to burning as a result ash is obtained in black color. In many parts of the developing world, cow dung is used to line the walls of rustic houses as a cheap thermal insulator.

Cow dung that has been caked and dried is used as fuel. Dung may also be collected and utilized to make biogas, which can be used to generate energy and heat. Cow dung is also an optional element in the production of adobe mud-brick buildings, depending on the resources available. Caked and dried cow dung is utilized as a fuel in many underdeveloped countries.

Dung may also be collected and utilized to make biogas, which can be used to generate energy and heat.

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2. Improved Thatch Roofing: The Central Building Research Institute developed a solution to reduce the fire threat of thatch roofs while also making them water-resistant. It is critical that the thatch layers be coated with certain mud plasters to make them robust and fire-resistant.

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Stone

is the most ancient building material available in the form of blocks. They are durable, strong, and economical

different sizes for foundations, walls, columns, lintels, and road paving

(Chowdhury and Roy 2013),(Maklur and Narkhede 2018),(Saxena and Sharma, 2017) -Fibre Cement Composites As an alternative construction material, natural fiber is combined with cement. Bagasse, cereal straw, corn and cotton stalk, and kenaf/rice husk are examples of fibers utilized. Imparts Lightweight, with a high strength-to-weight ratio Resistance to corrosion, Exceptional fracture toughness High adaptability, Cracking resistance, Workability should be included.

-Rice Husk as Building Material Each year, India generates around 20 million tonnes of rice husk. Rice husk ash has been shown to be an effective construction material. It may be combined with cement up to 20% without impacting strength, lowering building costs and solving the problem of ash disposal.

Table 1 Availability of natural fibers in India and availability in building materials (Chowdhury and Roy 2013)

4.2.2 Man-made Materials Name of the material

Characteristics

Usage

Hollow Concrete

economical, environmentfriendly, and low maintenance,

Because of their inexpensive cost, these blocks are widely employed in

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Blocks

and have good thermal insulation, fire resistance, and load-bearing capacity. It saves cement in masonry work, bringing down the cost of construction considerably.

compound walls. These are lightweight and offer excellent ventilation. A hollow block structure allows for the hiding of electrical conduits, water, and soil pipes.

Ferrocem ent

thin in the section it has less steel and a lower embodied energy. It is strong, durable, and cost-effective

is made up of cement mortar and wire mesh reinforcement. used in the construction of hollow columns, walls, beams and for the repair of deteriorated structures

Fly ash bricks

it actually improves strength, segregation, and ease of pumping of the concrete.

It is an inexpensive replacement for portland cement used in concrete. Fly ash is also used as an ingredient in brick, block, paving, and structural fills.

1. Fly ash lime bricks,2. Fly ash sand lime bricks,3. Burnt clay fly ash bricks

Mosaic tiles out of waste

Terrazzo tiles are another name for mosaic floor tiles. The primary basic materials utilized in production are cement concrete and colored stone chips.

The tiles are used for both residential and commercial flooring. The top surface of the tiles is ornamented with marble stone chips of various colors, as well as a proper amount of cement color.

Coal Washery Rejects Bricks

Aftereffects of fluidized bed combustion. Water is used, and air and land pollutants are reduced. Energy-saving, Red mud, coal ash, and other byproducts of large-scale enterprises can be utilized.

These are mixed with lime pozzolana and cement to form bricks

Aerocon Panels

Sandwich panels made of inorganic bonded materials. 2 fiber cement sheets encapsulating a Portland

Suitable for seismic or cyclone-prone zones. relocatable, thin walls (spacesaving), smooth finish, minimum foundation or ground preparation

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cement mixture including silica fibers and micaceous particles, Lightweight, thermally insulated, resistant to fire and sound, termite, and weather

required, and easy workability

(Chowdhury and Roy 2013),(Maklur and Narkhede 2018),(Saxena and Sharma, 2017) -Calcium Silicate Plaster Derived from Wollanstonite's naturally occurring calcium silicate, it emits no VOCs or other hazardous gases and has a smooth finish.

-Fibre Reinforced clay plaster Improve sticking characteristics by using natural or synthetic fiber (polypropylene). There are fewer Brittles.

4.2.3 Recycle materials Recycling discarded building Natural resources, energy, solid waste, air, and water pollution, and greenhouse gas emissions are all reduced through using materials. The construction industry may begin to identify and profit from the advantages of using waste and reused materials. Several studies have been carried out to investigate the usage of acceptable waste, recycled, and reused materials and technologies. Due to the scarcity and rising cost of raw materials, the Construction is rapidly utilizing swine manure, animal fat, silica fume, roofing shingles, empty palm fruit bunches, citrus peels, cement kiln dust, fly ash, foundry sand, slag, glass, plastic, carpet, tyre trash, asphalt pavement, and concrete aggregate. (Jhon bolden 2013)

Table 2 Recycled materials in construction applications (Jhon bolden 2013)

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Chapter 5 Cost-Effective Technologies for the common man Any house is made up of two parts: the foundation, or substructure, and the superstructure. The superstructure is divided into four sections: walling, roofing/flooring, finishing, and doors and windows. Our collection includes sections on numerous housing solutions. We are combining traditional, vernacular, and alternative systems. The alternative solutions shown here are not only costeffective, but also energy-efficient, environmentally friendly, and in harmony with nature. They also assist in the establishment of medium to small businesses that rely on locally available materials. (B.M.T.P.C., 2015) -Foundation -Walling -Roofing/ Intermediate Floors -Others 5.1 Arch foundation This foundation was employed in the past when the spread foundation was replaced with an inverted arch. It can cut building costs by up to 40%. The benefit of this is that the depth of the foundation may be substantially lowered in soft soils; the downside is that the end piers must be carefully fortified by buttresses to avoid the push to arch action tending to tear the piers connection. (B.M.T.P.C., 2015) 5.2 Plinth It is recommended that the plinth be 1 foot above ground level and built with a cement mortar of 1:6. The usual plinth slab of 4 to 6′′ can be eliminated, and in its stead, brick on edge can be utilized to save money. The cost of plinth foundation may be decreased by 35 to 50 percent by using this approach. (B.M.T.P.C., 2015) 5.3 Brickwork Bricks made from black cotton and poor soil stabilized with fly ash were used in a 1:6 cement mortar. Rat-trap bond brickwork in a cement lime mortar/1:1.5:3 cement sand mortar ratio of 1:2:12. Masonry is made of hollow concrete blocks and cement mortar. Masonry is made of compressed mud bricks in mud mortar.

Stabilized mud bricks in stabilized mud mortar (4 percent cement or lime). Sand lime brick walls with a cement mortar ratio of 1:6. Sand block FAL-G with cement mortar 1:6.(B.M.T.P.C., 2015) The bond is the manner in which bricks overlap when being laid. The rat-trap bond

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is constructed by laying bricks on their sides with a cavity of 4 (100 mm) and an alternate course of stretchers and headers. To increase the strength of the walls, the headers and stretchers are staggered in consecutive levels. (B.M.T.P.C., 2015) 5.4 Rat Trap bonding This method saves around 25% of the entire cost of a typical 9" constructed structure. With the help of brick columns, the construction has shown to be strong enough to hold three levels. This approach decreases the cost of the wall by 25% since a standard English bond (9"thick wall) requires 350 bricks per cu. m, but the Rat-trap bond only requires 280 bricks, and the reduced number of joints reduces mortar consumption.(B.M.T.P.C., 2015) 5.5.Soil cement block technology This strategy saves around 25% of the total cost of a building "The typical 9" construction was built. The building has proven to be sturdy enough to support three stories thanks to the use of brick columns. Since standard English is used, this method reduces the cost of the wall by 25% "Bond (9"thick wall) takes 350 bricks per cu. m, but the Rat-trap bond requires only 280 bricks, and the fewer joints minimize mortar usage. (B.M.T.P.C., 2015) 5.6.Concrete block walling Given the high energy consumption of burnt brick, it is advised that a concrete block (block hollow and solid) be used instead, which uses around one-third the energy of burnt brick in its manufacture. Concrete block masonry reduces mortar consumption, allows for faster wall building, results in greater worker productivity, and eliminates the need for plastering, resulting in an overall savings of 10 to 25%.(B.M.T.P.C., 2015) 5.7.Domes and vaults Using suitable mortar in brick or stabilized mud block Upgraded thatch roof on the suitable structure. RCC "L" panel precast M15 concrete precast RCC cored units M15 concrete precast RCC channel units Precast M15 concrete waffle units Vaultstyle burnt clay tube roofing. (B.M.T.P.C., 2015) 5.8 Filler slabs M15 concrete precast RCC boards and joists. RCC joists and brick panels that were partially prefabricated RCC in a hollow concrete block that has been partially prefabricated. Thin ribbed RCC slabs Channels for Ferro cement On the outer beam is a brick funicular shell. Concrete with bamboo reinforcement RCC edge S.Lavanya Bala;1170100706;2017-2022

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beams on brick funicular shells RCC joists is supported by brick jack arches. M15 concrete precast RCC cored units M15 concrete precast RCC channel units. Cost reductions ranging from 15% to 25% are possible. However, the spacing between the reinforcing bars in a filler slab must be determined by a structural engineer.

Insulation against heat The air pocket created by the tile shapes serves as an efficient thermal insulation layer. A filler slab's design integrity requires careful planning that takes into consideration the negative zones and reinforcing regions.

(B.M.T.P.C., 2015) 5.9 Open prefab systems Based on an acceptable production level and tiny, easily handled pieces with rationalized production techniques, housing experts have identified this as a key solution for halting the fast-growing escalation in material and labor costs. Building Centers in various parts of India have played an important role in spreading several of these prefabricated solutions at the grassroots level. Partial prefabrication can be used for almost any feature of a structure, including foundations, walling systems, doors and windows, roofing systems, lintels, and staircase parts. Roof costs being one of the key components of any building project's construction expenditure, one of the focus areas has been the prefabrication of roofing elements. (B.M.T.P.C., 2015) 5.10 GFRG Panel Building System GFRG is especially important in India, where there is a pressing demand for costeffective building technology. The product is both environmentally friendly and fireresistant. Rapid wall and gypcrete are other names for GFRG panel systems. Used in load-bearing and non-load-bearing structures alike. Having modular cavities that may be used for both interior and exterior walls. RCC may also be utilized for roof and floor slabs. Advantages include a 50% decrease in dead load, an increase in carpet area, a 15%–20% reduction in building costs, resistance to corrosion and termites, material savings, and a reduction in CO2 emissions. The disadvantage is that in low seismic zones, only 10 stories may be constructed. (Cherian et al., 2017)

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Chapter 6 Case Study The analysis is done by finding solutions to the cost-effective problems through case studies of projects carried out successfully by prominent architects and new construction techniques in metropolitan cities. In these case studies, emphasis has been put on the materials and techniques implied to make the building costeffective and affordable to the lower-income group. Both the case studies are taken in the region according to the climate-specific (warm and Humid climate) Parameters for selecting the case study include the materials and techniques that should qualify the criteria of selection of building materials for cost-effective construction i.e Pollution prevention, Reducing Energy Consumption, Local material, non-toxic building materials, Longevity, durability, and maintenance of building material.

6.1 Case study based on vernacular materials and techniques - HAMLET (by Laurie Baker) Trivandrum

Fig 3 Bakers house (Tewari, S., 2015)

Location: Trivandrum Architect: Laurie Baker Built-up Area: 3972 sqft Project type: Residence The way an architect designs his own home reflects his own nature. It embodies his personality, ideals, and architectural beliefs. The construction process exemplifies Baker's above-mentioned phrase, which emphasizes the traditional and Cumulus Mumbai 2015 5 natural approaches to habitation and development.

The Hamlet - Bakers' Residence (Fig. 3) in Trivandrum is a live example of Baker's ideology. The home grew organically over time, from a multifunctional one-room hut to the initial construction on the summit and later expansions that followed the

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slope downhill. The architectural shape allows for flexible linkages and access to each room. Over time, the majority of the construction materials came from unusual sources. Fish tiles from a castle, dormers and roofing timber from a ruined home, wood from a jetty, and fragments of stone or tile he picked up all complement one other (Tewari, S., 2015). The building shape appears to have grown from the earth.

Analysis: Materials Used: mostly local and reused materials were used. Timber, Mud bricks, reused timber, reused metal pieces for grills, reused bottles which were inserted in walls to give stained glass effect, wall decorations from waste materials like pens, broken pottery, glass, roofs made of Mangalore tiles.

Construction Techniques Used for cost-effectiveness: -Conservation of Resources and Energy, in Turn, Reducing the Cost -Using corbelling instead of a lintel above the frame reduces the cost of RCC lintel.

-Using

Rat-trap

bonds

less

number of bricks to make a wall of the same thickness and provides cavities in between for insulation.

-Use of Jaalis for ventilation lead to enough light, less material requirement.

-Inbuilt

furniture

creates

a

permanent structure that is more durable than the Conventional furniture.

Fig 4 depicting materials (Tewari, S., 2015)

-Filler slabs to reduce reinforcement.

- Curved walls instead of squares or rectangles.

-Sewage materials, door, window frames.

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6.2 Case Study based on Modern materials and techniques - GFRG Demonstration Building, IIT Madras, Chennai

Fig 5 GFRG Demonstration Building (T E R I., 2014)

Location: Chennai Architect: Civil engineering department IITMadras Buil up Area: 1981 sqft Project type: Demo building This project comprises a single two-story structure developed on the campus of IIT Madras by the civil engineering department.IIT Madras researchers developed a design and construction method that makes use of Glass Fiber Reinforced Gypsum (GFRG) panels, with R&D assistance from India's Department of Science and Technology (DST) and industry support from Australia's Rapid wall building systems. The IIT-Madras research team extended the product's use to the entire building system – including floors, roofs, and staircases – significantly lowering the consumption of reinforced cement concrete (RCC). The team also collaborated on the creation of a good waterproofing material in-house, which is crucial for the longterm lifespan of GFRG panels, notably on roofs and toilets.

The property has a total built-up area of 1981sft, which includes two EWS apartments (269 sft) and two LIG flats (497sft). (T E R I., 2014) Key features include the ability to create at a faster rate. The twostory prototype building with four units

was

constructed

in

months.

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two Fig 6 GFRG Panel (T E R I., 2014)

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The GFRG panels substantially minimize the consumption of RCC, water, cement, steel, and sand, lowering the building's energy and carbon footprint. This material savings translates into decreased building costs. Because GFRG is a lightweight material, it adds to foundation cost savings. Load bearing systems may be used to construct 8-10 story structures without the need for beams and columns. The demo building is aimed at low-income and low-income households. This project's cost per square foot was only INR 1250.

Analysis -Rapid construction: In one month, GFRG produced a demo building with four flats on two levels (total 1981 sq.ft.).

-Wall panels are just 124mm thick, requiring less built-up space per carpet area.

-Lower embodied energy and carbon footprint: significant reduction in Use of cement, sand, steel, and water; Gypsum recycling from industrial trash

Fig 7 GFRG Panel construction (T E R I., 2014)

-Lower construction costs: material savings; no plastering.

-Decreased building weight (panels weigh only 43 kg/m2), which helps to foundation savings and reduced earthquake design, especially in multi-story construction.

-This load-bearing technology may be used to create buildings up to 8-10 stories tall, eliminating the requirement for beams and columns.

-Excellent prefabricated GFRG panel finishes were used for all walls, floors, and staircases, with minimum embedded concrete: no further plastering was necessary.

-Reduce the use of rich agricultural land and energy-intensive burned clay bricks.

-It is concluded that GFRG buildings are more durable than similar conventional buildings, as the concrete and steel are encased by the GFRG shell.

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Chapter 7 Results and Discussion From Case study 1: -Rat trap bonding is a double-wall technology that greatly saves construction costs, decreases material and mortar consumption, and aids in achieving higher thermal efficiency without compromising wall strength. Almost 30% of the material (brick and mortar) is saved, lowering the entire building cost. Furthermore, the existence of an interior hollow provides heat and sound insulation in the home.

-Making use of filler slabs Mangalore tiles, a lightweight filler material, are utilized instead of traditional slabs. Filler slabs are used to reduce the weight of the slab and hence the cost of construction by replacing this purposeless concrete with a filler material. Because the weight of the slab is reduced, the need for reinforcing steel is reduced as well, lowering construction costs even more. This results in a 20-35 percent reduction in materials, a decorative, economical, and reduced selfload, almost no maintenance, and a 25-30 percent cost reduction.

-Because of their design, arch constructions have the capacity to minimize tensile strains when enclosing an open region. Arches, like bridges, offer immense structural strength and may span a huge open region without the need for supporting structures.

-Terracotta roofing and flooring tiles The bed's flooring is made of shattered brickbats (thus reducing the brick usage and hence the overall cost). The mortar layer is spread over the bed, followed by the Terracotta tiles. These tiles need little maintenance, are inexpensive, and come in a variety of visually appealing shapes and sizes.

Additionally, this sort of flooring does not obstruct the passage of electric lines; rather, the wiring may travel through the flooring. Terracotta roofing and flooring are eco-friendly, inexpensive, and long-lasting due to their visual perfection and capacity to provide good natural ventilation and rainfall drainage.

-The absence of frames on doors and windows is a distinguishing feature. To make cost-effective doors and simple pivotal windows, door boards are either bolted together with strap iron hinges or held together with horizontal or diagonal battens.

Door and window frames account for roughly half of all timber consumption.

-The architect in the case study replaced straight wall structures with a curved wall an innovative technique to enclose a bigger volume at a cheaper material cost

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since the consumption of material is decreased.

Innovative use of abandoned bottles inserted in the walls, generating a very effective light impact and the illusion of stained glass.

From Case study 2: -Within 29 days of the foundation being laid, the full superstructure was completed and ready for occupancy. Less embodied energy and carbon footprint: considerable decrease in cement, sand, steel, and water use; recycling of industrial waste gypsum. In terms of embodied energy, GFRG construction saved more than 50%.

-The demonstration structure was built of glass fibre-reinforced gypsum panels, which were initially planned for use as walls by Rapid Building Systems in Australia.

The IIT-Madras research team expanded the product's use to the complete building system including floors, roofs, and staircases – greatly lowering the usage of reinforced cement concrete (RCC).

-The team also cooperated on the in-house development of a good waterproofing substance, which is critical for the long-term longevity of GFRG panels, particularly on roofs and toilets.

- Coming to cost comparison Currently, the cost of GFRG construction is between Rs. 1,600 and Rs. 1,700 per square foot. The GFRG demo building on the IITMadras campus cost around Rs 23 lakh and has a total plinth area of roughly 1,981 sq ft. When the cost of this structure was compared to the cost of a conventional building of the same layout, the demo building was 25% less expensive.

Comparative analysis btw conventional type of construction and costeffective type of construction

Construction type

Conventional method

Cost-effective method

Advantages

Foundation

Spread footings, mat or raft footings, etc depending on the soil, building type

Arch Foundations for ordinary soils, Under reamed Pile foundations for Black cotton soil, other soft soils, etc

The foundation cost comes under 10 -15% of the construction cost and by using costeffective methods like arch foundation, Under ream pile foundation depending on the soil type, the cost can be

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reduced by 20- 25% over the conventional foundation.

Column

Rcc column with steel reinforcement

Use of Bamboo, FRP for reinforcement, etc

The column cost can be reduced by 10 % by using cost-effective reinforced materials and also bamboo emits less carbon and ecofriendly material.

Beam

Steel reinforced beam

Use of Bamboo reinforced beam, Precast T beam, etc

For precast t beam, it can save the labor cost and for bamboo, reinforcement can save up to 9 to 10% of the total reinforcement cost.

Slab

Rcc slab

Filler Slab, Flat slab, etc

Walling

Normal Brick wall(English bond) burnt clay brick

Rat trap bond, soil cement block technology, concrete block walling, and using materials like fly ash, rice husk brick, straw bale brick, mud block brick, etc

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For filler slab 20-35% Fewer materials, Decorative, Economical & Reduced self-load, Almost maintenancefree,25-30% Cost Reduction. for flat slab it reduces the cost of false ceiling Rat trap bond saves almost 30% of the materials which eventually refuses the construction cost, soil cement block technology is more energy-efficient and saves up to 15-20%, concrete block walling is also energy efficient and it saves mortar, speedy construction. and the materials such as fly ash, rice husk, straw bale, mud block in bricks are energyefficient and ecofriendly materials.

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Plastering

Conventional cement sand plaster

Gypsum plaster, calcium silicate plaster, etc

gypsum board, calcium silicate board has the great advantage of being waterproof, fireproof, thermal insulation, sound insulation, high strength, corrosion resistance, and long application life.

Overall construction

Conventional method

Paneling systems like Aerocon Panels, GFRG panels

Aerocon panels are Lightweight, thermal insulation, fire, and sound resistant, Termite and weatherresistant, whereas GFRG panels Advantages are dead load reduced by 50%, carpet area increased by 8%, 15–20% reduction in construction cost, resistance to corrosion, termite, saving in materials, reduction in C02 emission

Chapter 8 Conclusion Every human being requires a decent home. Everyone wants to live in large, pleasant homes. People want residences that are appealing, have a longer life span, a greater space area, are environmentally friendly, and are less expensive.

As a result, cost-effective and low-cost housing are required to meet demand. Lowincome persons can benefit from locally accessible resources and technologies.

Using cost-effective technology not only saves money, but also reduces CO2 emissions, saves time, and speeds up production. The cost savings achieved by employing the different technologies described above can range from 20 to 30 percent. People will be able to obtain all primary and basic services at a reasonable cost. Congestion will be reduced. This study emphasizes the importance and need of consuming various waste resources, low-cost materials,

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and other ways for the creation of sustainable green buildings that will serve as an example in the future. Low-cost construction may be possible by substituting traditional ways of planning and executing building operations that are categorically based on particular and individual demands and accept the lowest common denominator; based on surveys, population needs, and sensible use of materials and resources. Adoption of any alternative technology on a wide scale requires a stable market, which cannot be formed unless the product is both effective and cost-efficient. Building housing for low-income households is currently a major challenge. It takes a significant amount of work to create new technologies for the use of various alternative materials in the building sector. Low-cost housing technologies were investigated in this study, and the possibility for the materials to be employed as alternative construction materials were highlighted. Despite the development of several low-cost housing technologies, there is still a housing shortage. We are still unable to give refuge to those from low-income families.

There are no established rules for the structural features of these alternative construction materials. There is also a lack of understanding among builders about the usability and benefits of certain materials. Cooperatives specialized in low-cost housing must be established in order to minimize the costs of transportation and material importation, which will instantly cut the entire cost of building budget by 20 to 30 percent. This will assist today's common man in making his dream home a reality. In terms of safety, security, self-esteem, social standing, cultural identity, fulfillment, and success, housing is one of humanity's basic necessities. After analyzing various methods for low-cost building systems, the best method to adopt is using natural materials, renewable materials, eco-friendly building materials, using locally available materials, minimizing resource allocation, and implementing innovative methods to reduce costs and achieve sustainable and green building.

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9. Bibliography PROF. U. J. PHATAK, P., PROF.C.S.CHAVAN, P., RATHOD, L., NACHARE, V. and SURYAWANSHI, A., 2011. Cost-Effective House by Using Various Construction Techniques and Materials. Indian Journal of Applied Research, 4(4), pp.194-196.

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Ar.Vidya, A. R., 2016. ALTERNATIVE LOW-COST BUILDING MATERIALS. Research gate.

Bharsakhale, S., Sudesh Bharsakhale. Alternative Low-Cost Construction Materials & Techniques. International Journal of Innovative Research in Science, Engineering, and Technology.

Council, B.M.T.P.C., 2015. Demonstrating Cost-Effective Technologies, s.l.: Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation, Government of India.

Katiyar, M. and Abuzar, M., 2016. An Overview: Low-Cost House Materials and Techniques. RIET-IJSET: International Journal of Science, Engineering and Technology, 3(2), p.97.

Chowdhury, S. and Roy, S., 2013. Prospects of Low-Cost Housing in India.

Geomaterials, 03(02), pp.60-65.

Tam, V., 2011. Cost-Effectiveness of using Low-Cost Housing Technologies in Construction. Procedia Engineering, 14, pp.156-160.

TERI, 2014. Report on Green Building Initiatives for Affordable Housing, Bangalore: The Energy and Resources Institute.

Tewari, S., 2015. Laurie Baker, A model for Sustainable Architectural Design.

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Bharsakhale, Sudesh.

Techniques.”

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International

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<https://www.nbmcw.com/article-report/infrastructure-construction/infra-realestate/sustainable-building-design-for-affordable-housing-in-warm-humid-climateregion-of-india.html> Cherian, P., Paul, S., Krishna, S., Menon, D., and Meher Prasad, A., 2017. Mass Housing Using GFRG Panels: A Sustainable, Rapid and Affordable Solution.

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