MANGROVE PROTECTION & REGENERATION Langa Langa Lagoon, Solomon Islands
Prepared by Sebastian Cocks
Liberating Digital Design Research Seminar
September 2023
RMIT University Landscape Architecture Seminar Leader: Dr Ata Tara Semester 02- 2023
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Contents
Composition 10 xxxxxx <Page Number> xxxxxx <Page Number> xxxxxx <Page Number> xxxxxx <Page Number> xxxxxx <Page Number> Relationships 24 xxxxxx <Page Number> xxxxxx <Page Number> xxxxxx <Page Number> xxxxxx <Page Number> Summary/Distillation <Page Number> Generation 32 xxxxxx <Page Number> xxxxxx <Page Number> xxxxxx <Page Number> xxxxxx <Page Number> xxxxxx <Page Number> Conclusion 39
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RMIT University Landscape Architecture Design Research Seminar - Liberating Digital Seminar Leader: Dr Ata Tara Semester 02 - 2023
CLIMATE CHANGE
This research focusses on the incredibly vulnerable situation of the Solomon Islands. The nation is geographically, economically, socially and environmentally threatened. Whilst the climate mitigation processes are needed, immediate and clear climate adaptation strategies are equally necessary. The naturebased solution of mangroves is one such potential strategy.
SEA LEVEL RISE
ET AT IO
N
MANGROVES
C
TI
ON
CLEARING FOR AQUACULTURE & DEVELOPMENT
G
TE
This project attempts to address ways of improving mangrove health in the Solomon Islands by identifying areas of high quality and potentially sustainable mangrove forest for protection, offering locations for alternate energy sources to reduce reliance on mangrove timber harvesting, and then locating areas suitable for and requiring mangrove regeneration. This three-pronged approach will hopefully offer some potential pathways for improving the overall health of mangroves in the Solomon Islands, and subsequently providing a potentially powerful nature-based climate solution.
BIODIVERSITY LOSS
PR O
Mangroves are a critical coastal environment buffer, habitat area and food and fuel resource. Unfortunately, due to the incredible wealth disparity of the world, people of the Solomon Islands must consume their mangrove resources at an unsustainable rate to live. On top of this, the looming devastation of climate change is threatening the mangrove forests of the world.
EXTREME WEATHER
Introduction
OCEAN TOXICITY
EROSION
A LT E R N ATE E N E R GY
OVERCONSUMPTION FOR TIMBER & FUEL
V RE
E
WATER POLLUTION & CLIMATIC CHANGE
This project was entirely conducted using open source data and QGIS.
SOLOMON ISLANDS Project approach tree diagram. 3
Introduction
Global Climate Context Climate change is now an inescapable consequence of human action. Its effects are already being felt around the world – it is no longer a distant threat. We don’t have time for action, every moment of inaction simply exacerbates the devastation that has already begun to occur. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) stated in 2021 that “[s]cientists are observing changes in the Earth’s climate in every region and across the whole climate system … Many of the changes observed … are unprecedented in thousands, if not hundreds of thousands of years, and some of the changes already set in motion — such as continued sea level rise — are irreversible over hundreds to thousands of years” (Leitzell, K. and Caud, N., 2021). The IPCC’s 2023 report, AR6 – described as “an atlas of human suffering” by United Nations Secretary-General Antonio Guterres – confirmed the 2021 conclusions. Not only this, but AR6 went on to claim that “adverse climate impacts are already far more far-reaching and extreme than anticipated” (Boehm, S. and Schumer, C., 2023). Destruction of homes, loss of lives and fragmentation of communities – human and non-human – are just some of the consequences of climate change that the world is now facing. Temperatures are increasing, ice sheets are melting, sea levels are rising, the ocean is becoming toxic, and extreme weather is becoming more and more common. On top of this, wealth disparity is at an all-time high. The communities that will most rapidly and severely feel the impact of the climate crisis – who also produce the least carbon emissions – are ill-equipped to deal with the impacts of disease, displacement, and natural disaster recovery.
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Whilst climate mitigation strategies must progress slowly through technological, financial, and political cogs, more rapid adaptation strategies are also needed. One of the most cost-effective, logical, and future-proofed approaches to climate adaptation – which also acts as a form of mitigation – is the nature-based solution of coastal wetland and intertidal zone restoration. These coastal ecosystems act as critical carbon sinks, sea level rise and extreme weather buffer zones, and wildlife habitats. One of the most environmentally significant and widespread of these coastal ecosystems is the mangrove forest. As can be seen in the map to the left, mangrove forests are generally concentrated around the equator. Given the area’s vulnerability to climate change impacts and concentration of mangroves, the Pacific region – specifically the Solomon Islands - was chosen as the study area for this research to assess mangrove conditions and investigate methods of protection and restoration. In the map to the right, the globe is re-projected to a coordinate reference system that re-orders the world by placing the Solomon Islands at the centre of the projection. It is important to bear in mind the inherent subjectivity of mapping-based research and reflect upon my own biases and potential biases in datasets during this research process.
Solomon Islands
The adjacent map is reprojected to re-prioritised the globe with the Solomon Islands at the centre, highlighting the subjective nature of map reading and representation.
Introduction Solomon Islands
Legend Mangroves Extent 2020 (Global Mangrove Watch) Mangroves Loss 1996 - 2020 (Global Mangrove Watch) -
+ Sea Surface Temperature (NOAA AVHRR Pathfinder) Global Ocean Currents 5
Choiseul
Isabel
Malaita
Central Western
Introduction
Guadalcanal
Temotu Makira-Ulawa
Rennell
The spatial arrangement and population density spread across the Solomon Islands archipelago.
A market in Honiara, the capital of Solomon Islands.
The Solomon Islands Background The Solomon Islands is a nation at the forefront of the climate crisis. The country is incredibly vulnerable to the climatic threats of global warming and encapsulates the dire socio-economic and political conditions that exacerbate these threats. It is one of just four nations that account for 97% of the total mangrove area in the Pacific region, alongside Fiji, Papua New Guinea and New Caledonia (Bhattarai, B. and Chandra, G., 2011). Given the nation’s vulnerability to climate change and the large role mangroves play in the existing ecological and social systems, the Solomon Islands will provide a powerful case study for this research. The Solomon Islands is a double archipelagic state of nearly 1,000 islands located in the Pacific Ocean, approximately 2,000kms northeast of Australia (DFAT, 2021). Its total land mass is around 28,000km2, making it the third largest country in the South Pacific, after PNG and New Zealand (Ramohia, P., and Da Wheya, N., n.d.). The state is split into nine provinces: Malaita, Guadalcanal, Western, Choiseul, Makira/Ulawa, Isabel, Temotu, 6
Central and Renbel. The capital, Honiara, is located on Guadalcanal, which is the largest island. The country’s total population is estimated at 724,462, of which roughly 13% live in Honiara (DFAT, 2021). While 95% of the population is Melanesian, there are 63 distinct language groups, with many more diverse local dialects. The country’s official language is English, but Pijin is more commonly spoken (DFAT, 2021). It is important to understand that, whilst legally defined as a single state, the country is made up of a huge diversity of island communities, each with unique cultural values and practices. These communities do not always coexist peacefully, especially as poverty and a worsening climate force people to migrate between islands in search of employment, food, and shelter. The unrest caused by this displacement was highlighted by a period in the late 1990s and early 2000s known as ‘The Tensions’. The Tensions was a conflict between two ethnic militant groups from the country’s two largest islands: the Guadalcanal Revolutionary Army and the Malaita Eagle Force. The
Guales (people ethnically from Guadalcanal) resented the influence of people from other islands on Guadalcanal, particularly the Malaitians, who had moved there in search of better economic opportunities around the capital of Honiara. After several years of violence between the groups, and after the Malaita Eagle Force kidnapped and subsequently released then prime minister, Bartholomew Ulufa’alu, a peace treaty was eventually signed (RAMSI, n.d.). However, disputes between island groups, propelled by rogue militias and corrupt authorities, are pervasive issues. These complexities must be considered when analysing the infrastructure in place in the Solomon Islands or proposing changes that require collaboration between communities. More recently, the COVID-19 pandemic and the looming shadow of Chinese political influence have further impacted the country’s stability. All these problems are exacerbated by the physical separation of the country’s isolated island communities and infrastructure. The country is economically, socially, politically, technologically, and environmentally vulnerable.
Legend -
+ Population Density (people per km2)
-
+ Bathymetry (metres below sea level) 500m Contours
Choiseul
Isabel
Malaita
Central Western
The island of Kale in 2009.
Introduction
Guadalcanal
Temotu Makira-Ulawa
Rennell
This map shows the areas of the Solomon Islands that would be inundated if the ice caps were to melt entirely, which is predicted to cause an 83m sea level rise (Poore, R. Z , Williams Jr., R. S. & Christopher Tracy, 2000).
The island of Kale in 2014.
Climate Change in the Solomon Islands The Solomon Islands faces a future fraught with climaterelated hazards. Some of these include tropical cyclones, flash floods, drought, sea level rise, tsunamis, earthquakes, famine, and extreme weather events related to increasing sea surface temperatures (World Bank, n.d.). These dangers are all made more extreme by the physical separation of the country’s many islands and lack of connective infrastructure. The country’s vulnerability to, and dependence on, the ocean is particularly evident. Islands are already starting to disappear to rising sea levels. For example, Kale – once a much-loved and inhabited island in the northwest of the Isabel province – has now completely washed away under rising sea levels (Habu, G., 2020). The culture and history of the people of Kale is gone forever. Many other islands are starting to disappear, and displacement is already a major topic of conversation. The map above shows the areas of the Solomon Islands that would be inundated if the ice caps were to melt entirely, which is predicted to cause an 83m sea level rise (Poore, R. Z , Williams Jr., R. S. & Christopher Tracy, 200).
The islands are also threatened by rising ocean temperatures, ocean acidification, soil salinisation, erosion and the destruction of the marine ecosystems upon which they depend. Given the lack of existing infrastructure and the urgency of the issue, a low-cost, intuitive, and logical solution is needed. This is how we arrive at mangroves.
Legend 80m Sea Level Rise Inundation -
+ Ocean Current Velocity 500m Contours
7
Mangroves
•
Overfishing: overfishing and destructive fishing practices such as the use of explosives can cause physical damage to mangroves or lead to imbalance in their ecosystems.
•
Pollution: pollution from agriculture runoff, burning of diesel and other fuels and domestic waste can contaminate mangrove environments.
•
Water filtration: mangrove roots filter pollutants and sediments to improve the health and quality of water systems.
•
Nutrient cycling: mangroves absorb excess nutrients from runoff and sediment, which can help prevent nutrient pollution that might damage other marine environments.
•
•
Erosion: mangrove roots trap sediment to prevent coastal erosion.
•
Eco-tourism & recreation: mangrove ecosystems can provide tourist benefits through activities such as kayaking and bird watching and through eco-tourists traveling to be involved in the conservation effort.
•
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Food source: the mangroves of the Solomon Islands provide a key source of food for personal consumption and for the fisheries industry. This includes fish, crabs, prawns, other shellfish, and even edible seed pods.
Cultural significance: mangroves provide a significant cultural resource in the Solomon islands. They are used to make dyes and the timber is used for construction and as a source of fuel. It is important to understand that men, women and children all have different traditional roles in the use of mangroves.
•
Aquaculture expansion: fish, and in particular shrimp aquaculture are historically one of the most destructive forces as mangrove forests are cleared for pond systems.
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Invasive species: especially as the climate changes and new species migrate here, it is important to monitor the destructive impact of invasive species.
•
Natural disasters: earthquakes, tsunamis & cyclones cause obvious damage.
•
Land tenure issues: unclear land tenure and the development of ‘no man’s grove’ areas of informal inhabitation can lead to dispute over control and degradation of mangrove forests.
•
Lack of awareness & policy: education is one of the major tools that needs to be weaponised to ensure the future of the mangroves in the Solomon Islands. There is also currently no legislation legally registering any protection over areas of mangrove.
Areas of mangrove loss from 1996 to 2020 are highlighted in red on the map above.
1,400
CO2 in the atmosphere is taken in by trees during the C process of photosynthesis. C C
Above ground, live & dead Soils 0-30cm depth & roots Soils below 30cm depth
C C
C
C
C
Some CO2 is lost back to the atmosphere through respiration, the rest is stored in the leaves, branches and C roots of the mangrove plants.
C
0
e
Deforestation: deforestation inland can lead to excess sediment runoff in the waterways that lead to the intertidal zones where mangroves grow. This can smother their root systems or pollute their environment.
gr ov
•
an
Overconsumption: logging of the mangrove forests to burn for fuel or for use in construction is occurring at an unsustainable rate.
nd
Carbon sequestration: mangroves have the highest rate of carbon storage of any forest type, roughly 6-8 times higher than terrestrial forests. The mangrove trees store carbon from the atmosphere which is then buried in the soil as parts of the tree fall off. The oxygen-poor soil causes the plant material to break down very slowly, and the constant seal of water above even further reduces the rate of carbon release.
M
•
•
la
Coastal development: unsustainable land reclamation to develop roads and hotels is one of the most destructive influences on the mangrove forests.
up
•
al
Biodiversity support: mangrove root systems provide shelter for fish and crustaceans from predators. Their nutrient-rich water also helps to create the ideal nursery habitat for marine life.
ic
•
ra te
Climate change: mangroves depend on stable ocean currents, temperatures and pH levels. Rising sea levels and damaging storms are also major risks to the mangrove forests.
pe
•
Tr op
Coastal protection: mangrove forests buffer against waves during storm surges, cyclones and tsunamis. They also prevent erosion to further stabilise the coastline.
Te m
•
Areas of Mangroves Loss 1996 - 2020 (Global Mangrove Watch)
re al
Some of the major threats to the mangrove forests of the Solomon Islands are:
Carbon Storage (Mgha-1)
Some of the key benefits of mangroves, as well as some of their major threats in the Solomon Islands are explored:
Bo
Introduction
Mangroves are tree communities that are adapted to grow in intertidal zones in coastal areas. They have unique root systems adapted to absorb oxygen directly from the air as the tide rises and falls. They can expel excess salt through their leaves and their seeds germinate and begin to grow while still attached to the tree to increase chances of survival. Mangroves have the highest rate of carbon sequestration of any forest type and are critical as an intertidal habitat zone that buffers land from sea.19 types of trees are found in the mangrove forests of Langa Langa Lagoon, of which the dominant species are Rhizophora apiculata, Rhizophora stylosa and Bruguiera gymnorhiza (Ramohia, P., and Da Wheya, N., n.d.).
Mangroves have significantly higher carbon sequestration rates than terrestrial forests.
C
C
C
C
C
C
Image source: Damocean, WWF
C
Dead leaves, branches and roots containing the absorbed CO2 are buried in the soil, which is almost always covered by tidal waters. This oxygen-poor environment causes very slow decomposition of the plant material, resulting in significant CO2 storage.
Legend -
+ Sea Surface Temperature (NOAA AVHRR Pathfinder) Mangroves Loss 1996 - 2020 (Global Mangrove Watch)
Choiseul
Coconut Crops Coconut Forest Isabel
Coconut Plantation Cultivated Land Open Land & Wetland Rice Settlement Inland Water Tree Cover
Malaita
Central
Shrubland
Western
Grassland Herbaceous Wetland Mangroves
Introduction
Guadalcanal
Temotu Makira-Ulawa
Rennell
The land cover of the Solomon Islands show predominantly tree cover, grasslands and mangroves.
Site: Langa Langa Lagoon, Malaita Mangroves are the critical natural buffer between the Solomon Islands’ many coastally-concentrated communities and the sea. Mangrove forests sequester carbon, prevent erosion, improve water quality, buffer storm surges, provide a fuel & construction resource and act as a nursery habitat for fish and crustaceans. The Solomon Islands has the third highest estimated total mangrove area of any country in the Pacific region, but these mangrove forests are under threat from a worsening climate and unsustainable rate of consumption. (Bhattarai, B. and Chandra, G., 2011). The focus site for this research into mangrove protection will be Langa Langa Lagoon on the island Malaita - the second largest and second most populous island in the archipelago. Langa Langa Lagoon has been selected because it is one of the largest existing mangrove forests in the country – meaning we can examine what has enabled the ecology to thrive here – and it has a level of surrounding human infrastructure that will make a geodesign project here more easily transferrable to other mangrove forests threatened by more urban settings.
There are also existing mangrove conservation initiatives, including the Mangrove Ecosystems for Climate Change and Livelihoods (MESCAL) initiative, running in this area that could be benefited by this research and may be able to contribute to it. Langa Langa Lagoon’s geographical makeup also shows that there is a series of reefs and islands that run parallel to the coastline, meaning that mangrove forests may connect with this physical structure to provide extremely powerful buffering of the site’s coastal communities.
Auki
Langa Langa Lagoon
Malaita
Located on the western coastline of central Malaita, Langa Langa Lagoon is accessible by boat and road from Auki, the capital of Malaita. The lagoon is a complex system of coral reefs, natural islands, mangroves and artificial islands created with coral ‘stones’ taken from the reefs (Albert, J.A. and Schwarz, A.J., 2013). Langa Langa Lagoon has one of the highest population densities in Malaita, over 75 people per km2 (SPC, 2008). This population pressure is leading to pressure from overconsumption of mangroves and other marine ecologies. 9
COMPOSITION Mapping the individual components that create the context of our site and inform the social and environmental systems that influence mangrove health.
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Pacific Ocean Auki
MALAITA Ura Church
Composition
Fa’Arau Church
Maoro Community High School Auki Talakali Church
Busu Cultural Centre
Langa Langa Lagoon
Su’u Arabala Church
MALAITA
Bina
Namoluluga Church
Solomon Sea Solomon Sea
Legend
Human Infrastructure Mapping Question: What are the existing human conditions on the site and around the mangrove forests? Data Sources • Open Street Maps (Roads) • Google Earth Engine (Population) • ESRI satellite image • Global Mangrove Watch Data
Road Network
Findings Located on the western coastline of central Malaita, Langa Langa Lagoon is accessible by boat and road from Auki, the capital of the island. There are three airports on Malaita and one active port, at Auki. The road network mostly follows the coastline, with small clusters of villages dotted along the main road, nestled in between pockets of mangroves.
180
The spread of townships and growing population, both in Malaita and back in the capital of Honiara, is leading to pressure from overconsumption of mangroves and the marine life they support.
Population Count (people per km2)
1
Areas of Mangrove Loss 1996-2020 (100m buffer) Mangroves Extent 2020 (100m buffer) 250m Contours
11
Pacific Ocean Auki
MALAITA Ura Church
Composition
Fa’Arau Church
Maoro Community High School Auki Talakali Church
Busu Cultural Centre
Langa Langa Lagoon
Su’u Arabala Church
MALAITA
Bina
Namoluluga Church
Solomon Sea Solomon Sea
Legend
Land Cover & Land Use
0
Bathymetry (metres below sea level)
-4,447
Mapping Question: What is the land cover of Malaita and the context around Langa Langa Lagoon?
12
Data Sources • GPCRAFI Program Land Cover & Land Use Data • Google Earth Engine (Land Cover & DEM)
Findings Malaita is covered predominantly by forest, with crop expanses and coconut plantations also common. Mangroves and grasslands are the most common ecosystems outside the forested areas. Solomon Islands has seen a huge rise in aquaculture production since 2000, from 0 to over 12,000 metric tons of production in 2020 (World Bank).
Langa Langa people have limited access to timber sources and mangrove wood is seen as superior firewood and construction material, leading to widespread overharvesting (Albert, J.A. and Schwarz, A.J., 2013).
Cultivated Land Open Land
Areas of Mangrove Loss 1996-2020 (100m buffer) Mangroves Extent 2020 (100m buffer) Built-up Forest Cover Coconut Forest Coconut Plantation
Open Land & Wetland Grassland Inland Water Rice
Pacific Ocean Auki
MALAITA Ura Church
Composition
Fa’Arau Church
Maoro Community High School Auki Talakali Church
Busu Cultural Centre
Langa Langa Lagoon
Su’u Arabala Church
MALAITA
Bina
Namoluluga Church
Solomon Sea Solomon Sea
Legend
Mangrove Loss Mapping Question: Where are mangroves and reef structures currently located, and where are areas of historic mangrove disappearance? Data Sources • Allen Coral Atlas (Reef Structure & Bathymetry) • Global Mangrove Watch Data
Road Network
Findings Almost the entirety of Malaita has reef structures along its coastline. There is a large reef structure at the northern tip, and the stretch from Auki down to Langa Langa Lagoon is mirrored by a sand bank that supports both reef and mangroves. Langa Langa Lagoon is a complex system of coral reefs, natural islands, mangroves and artificial islands created with coral ‘stones’ from the reefs (Albert, Schwarz, 2013).
Areas of Mangrove Loss 1996-2020 (100m buffer)
The nation’s increasing population, and consequent increase in market demand, has led to unsustainably high rates of mud crab harvesting which is damaging the balance of mangrove ecosystems. Other marine life is also threatened by unsustainable fishing practices (Albert, J.A. and Schwarz, A.J., 2013).
Mangroves Extent 2020 (100m buffer) 250m Contours
13
Composition
Auki
Auki
Langa Langa Lagoon
Langa Langa Lagoon
MALAITA Solomon Sea
Auki
MALAITA Solomon Sea
Precipitation
Wind Strength
Data Sources • World Clim • Google Earth Engine (Land Cover & DEM) 14
Findings World Clim data - averaged for a chosen month over the period of 1970-2000 - was sourced to display precipitation levels, wind strength and solar radiation for Malaita. Precipitation levels were measured for the month of February, as this month has the highest rainfall in the Solomon Islands (Weather Spark). Wind strength was measured for August, the windiest month, whilst solar radiation was measured in December, the sunniest.
MALAITA Solomon Sea
Solar Radiation
Legend
Climate: Precipitation, Wind & Solar Radiation Mapping Question: What is the climatic context of Langa Langa Lagoon?
Langa Langa Lagoon
Road Network Areas of Mangrove Loss 1996-2020 (100m buffer)
It is clear that the coastal parts of Malaita receive higher precipitation levels and higher solar radiation. Interestingly, the dispersion of mangroves seems to more closely align with high solar radiation than high precipitation. We begin to gain an understanding of the climates within which mangroves appear to thrive on the island.
Mangroves Extent 2020 (100m buffer) 387
Precipitation - February, 1970-2000 (mm)
385 3.9
Wind Strength - August, 1970-2000 (m s-1)
1.8 3.9 1.8
Solar Radiation - December, 1970-2000 (kJ m-2 day-1)
Pacific Ocean Auki
MALAITA Ura Church
Composition
Fa’Arau Church
Maoro Community High School Auki Talakali Church
Busu Cultural Centre
Langa Langa Lagoon
Su’u Arabala Church
MALAITA
Bina
Namoluluga Church
Solomon Sea Solomon Sea
Legend
Climate: Precipitation, Wind & Solar Radiation Mapping Question: What is the climatic context of Langa Langa Lagoon? Data Sources • World Clim • Google Earth Engine (Land Cover & DEM)
Findings World Clim data averaged for the month of December between 1970-2000 shows a clear correlation between higher temperatures and mangrove forests. It is clear that mangroves thrive in the areas that are more gently sloped inland, where warmer temperatures can stretch further upstream and warm waterways.
Road Network Areas of Mangrove Loss 1996-2020 (100m buffer)
The zoom-in to Langa Langa Lagoon shows this, where slightly warmer average temperatures can be seen following the river network upstream, presumably because these rivers sit in valleys at lower elevations, meaning there are higher ambient terrestrial temperatures.
Mangroves Extent 2020 (100m buffer) 387
Average Temperature - December, 1970-2000 (0C)
385
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Pacific Ocean Auki
MALAITA Ura Church
Composition
Fa’Arau Church
Maoro Community High School Auki Talakali Church
Busu Cultural Centre
Langa Langa Lagoon
Su’u Arabala Church
MALAITA
Bina
Namoluluga Church
Solomon Sea Solomon Sea
Legend
Surface Soil (30m Depth) Mapping Question: What is the surface soil composition of the island and focus site? Data Sources • PCRAFI Program Surface Soil Data • Global Mangrove Watch Data • DEM-Derived Hydrology 16
Areas of Mangrove Loss 1996-2020 (100m buffer)
Findings This dataset measures the solidity of surface soil following the method developed by Allen and Wald (2009). The map shows the shear wave velocity of seismic waves in the top 30m of surface soil, denoted as Vs30. A high value (blue) refers to hard, rocky conditions, with low values (red) showing much softer soils.
Mangroves Extent 2020 (100m buffer)
It is clear that the flatter, southern part of the focus site has generally softer soils. It is interesting to compare the surface soil with mangrove extent and hydrology. It is clear that the mangroves occur only in the softest soils and have a more direct relationship with surface soil than hydrology. Although generally the mangroves are located in between river mouths.
1,050 0
Surface Soil Hardness (Vs30, high = hard, low = soft)
Pacific Ocean Auki
MALAITA Ura Church
Composition
Fa’Arau Church
Maoro Community High School Auki Talakali Church
Busu Cultural Centre
Langa Langa Lagoon
Su’u Arabala Church
MALAITA
Bina
Namoluluga Church
Solomon Sea Solomon Sea
Legend
Deforestation Mapping Question: Where is tree loss and gain occurring on the island? Data Sources • Google Earth Engine (DEM) • World Forest Watch (Tree Cover, Tree Gain & Tree Loss) • DEM-Derived Hydrology
Road Network
Findings This data from the World Forest Watch indicates areas that have undergone tree gain or loss, as well as overall forest coverage. It appears that, particularly south of Langa Langa Lagoon, deforestation follows the hydrological paths inland. This could impact mangrove health downstream as deforestation increases the rate of sediment deposition, and may lead to more polluted waterways.
Areas of Mangrove Loss 1996-2020 (100m buffer) Mangroves Extent 2020 (100m buffer) Areas of Tree Gain 100% 0% 22% 1%
Tree Cover (%)
Areas of Tree Cover Loss (%) 17
Composition
Auki
Auki
Langa Langa Lagoon
Langa Langa Lagoon
MALAITA Solomon Sea
MALAITA
Aspect Wind Strength
Landform: Elevation, Aspect & Slope
Data Sources • Google Earth Engine (DEM) • Allen Coral Atlas (Bathymetry) 18
Langa Langa Lagoon
MALAITA
Solomon Sea
Elevation
Mapping Question: What are the overall land form conditions on the site?
Auki
Findings The land appears to rise quite steeply from the coastline, especially south of Auki to Langa Langa Lagoon. The slope appears to be fairly consistent across the island, with few outlier areas of extreme steepness. Generally the coastline south from Auki has a predominantly more flat or south-facing aspect than the eastern and northern coastlines.
Solomon Sea
Slope
Legend Areas of Mangrove Loss 1996-2020 (100m buffer) Mangroves Extent 2020 (100m buffer)
N S
W
Steep 0 -4,447 1,275 0
Bathymetry (metres below sea level)
Elevation (metres above sea level)
Aspect
E
Flat
Slope
Pacific Ocean Auki
MALAITA Ura Church
Composition
Fa’Arau Church
Maoro Community High School Auki Talakali Church
Busu Cultural Centre
Langa Langa Lagoon
Su’u Arabala Church
MALAITA
Bina
Namoluluga Church
Solomon Sea Solomon Sea
Legend
Inundation Threat Mapping Question: How much of the site would be impacted by varying degrees of inundation? Data Sources • Poore, R. Z , Williams Jr., R. S. & Christopher Tracy, 200 (80m SLR) • Global Mangrove Watch Data • Open Street Maps
Road Network
Findings We can see that 80m sea level rise - which is the predicted level if ice caps entirely melt - would devastate Malaita. Much of its human infrastructure and population would be threatened by even a 5m sea level rise due to the island’s concentration along the coastline. The capital Auki would be under serious threat.
Areas of Mangrove Loss 1996-2020 (100m buffer)
Future mangrove initiatives should take these predictions into account, and plan more long-term initiatives for places less threatened by sea level rise or that may becomes better mangrove environments following the rise of sea levels.
Mangroves Extent 2020 (100m buffer) 5m Sea Level Rise 10m Tsunami Inundation Level 80m Sea Level Rise 250m Contours
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Pacific Ocean Auki Auki
MALAITA Ura Church
Composition
Fa’Arau Church
Maoro Community High School Auki Auki Talakali Church
Busu Cultural Centre
Langa Langa Langa Langa Lagoon Lagoon
Su’u Su’u Arabala Church
MALAITA
Bina
Namoluluga Church
Solomon Sea Solomon Sea
Legend
Ocean Turbidity & Reef Structures
50 1
Your Mapping Question: What are the surrounding ocean conditoins of Malaita? Data Sources • Allen Coral Atlas (Turbidity & Reef Extent) • Global Mangrove Watch Data 20
Findings Turbidity is a measure of suspended particles in the water column that make it appear cloudy. It can be caused by natural or human-induced events. It is measured in Formazin Nephelometric Units (FNU).
It is clear that the ocean to the east of Malaita has far higher concentration of suspended sediment than the western ocean. This may be because the predominantly south-westerly ocean current traps sediment against the coastline to the east, while drawing it around and away from the western shoreline.
Ocean Turbidity (Formazin Nephelometric Unit (FNU)) Areas of Mangrove Loss 1996-2020 (100m buffer) Mangroves Extent 2020 (100m buffer) Coral/Algae Rubble Sand Seagrass
Microalgal Mats Rock 250m Contours
Auki
Langa Langa Lagoon
Auki
Langa Langa Lagoon
MALAITA Solomon Sea
Stream Order & Catchments
Data Sources • Analysis produced with SAGA Tools in QGIS • Google Earth Engine (DEM)
Langa Langa Lagoon
MALAITA
MALAITA
Solomon Sea
Stream Proximity
Findings The hydrological system spans out to the coastline from the central spine of highest elevation. SAGA Tools for QGIS contains a wide range of analytical tools for hydrological and terrain-based systems.
Solomon Sea
Drainage Density
Hydrology: Stream Order & Catchments, Stream Proximity, Drainage Density Your Mapping Question: What are the hydrological conditions of the site?
Composition
Auki
Using SAGA in conjunction with QGIS in-built processes I was able to derive the stream order & catchments, stream proximity (Euclidian distance) and the drainage density (a measure of the stream length per 100m2 cell.
Legend
188 0 3,827
Stream Catchment Areas
Stream Order (Strahler)
Areas of Mangrove Loss 1996-2020 (100m buffer)
5
Mangroves Extent 2020 (100m buffer)
4 3
Stream Proximity (m)
2 1
Drainage Density - stream length per 1km (m) 2
0
250m Contours
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Composition
Auki
Auki
Langa Langa Lagoon
Langa Langa Lagoon
MALAITA Solomon Sea
Flow Direction
Auki
MALAITA Solomon Sea
Flow Accumulation
Hydrology: Flow Direction, Flow Accumulation & Sediment Transportation Index (STI) Your Mapping Question: What are the hydrological conditions of the site? Data Sources • Analysis produced with SAGA Tools in QGIS • Google Earth Engine (DEM) 22
Langa Langa Lagoon
Findings Flow direction is an analysis of the direction water will flow from each individual pixel of elevation in the map, in a similar way to aspect. Flow accumulation measures the accumulated weight of all cells flowing into each downslope cell in the elevation model. It gives a clearer, weighted sense of how water may pass from the highest to lowest point on the site.
MALAITA Solomon Sea
Sediment Transportation Index (STI)
Legend Areas of Mangrove Loss 1996-2020 (100m buffer) Mangroves Extent 2020 (100m buffer)
The sediment transportation index (STI) measures the extent to which a cell is likely to experience erosion based solely on its slope and elevation. The red areas are least likely and blue most likely to experience erosion. This process begins to highlight the riverbanks.
N S
W E
Flow Direction
High Low High Low
Flow Accumulation
Sediment Transportation Index (STI)
Pacific Ocean Auki
MALAITA Ura Church
Composition
Fa’Arau Church
Maoro Community High School Auki Talakali Church
Busu Cultural Centre
Langa Langa Lagoon
Su’u Arabala Church
MALAITA
Bina
Namoluluga Church
Solomon Sea Solomon Sea
Legend
Topographic Wetness Index (TWI) Your Mapping Question: Which parts of the site have the highest TWI? Data Sources • Analysis produced with SAGA Tools • Google Earth Engine
Findings The topographic wetness index (TWI) is the strongest measure of topographic control on hydrological processes. It measures both the slope and flow accumulation of each individual cell and indicates the cell’s projected wetness.
Areas of Mangrove Loss 1996-2020 (100m buffer) Mangroves Extent 2020 (100m buffer)
As can be seen, the map generally follows the streamlines, however very interesting pockets of higher wetness (shown in greens and blues) are found along the coast adjacent to river mouths. This may be an ideal mangrove environment as sea levels rise, once soil an, human disturbance and other environmental elements are factored in.
Stream Catchment Areas High Low
Topographic Wetness Index (TWI)
250m Contours
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RELATIONSHIPS Studying the relationships between different contextual elements to illuminate potential connections.
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Pacific Ocean Auki
MALAITA Ura Church
Relationships
Fa’Arau Church
Maoro Community High School Auki Talakali Church
Busu Cultural Centre
Langa Langa Lagoon
Su’u Arabala Church
MALAITA
Bina
Namoluluga Church
Solomon Sea Solomon Sea
Legend
Human Development & Areas for Mangrove Protection Your Mapping Question: How does human influence on the site align with mangrove health? Data Sources • PCRAFI Program Surface Soil Data • Global Mangrove Watch Data • World Forest Watch (Tree Cover, Tree Gain & Tree Loss)
Findings The distribution of human populations seems to generally follow the path of watercourses. Deforestation, however, is more evenly spread across the site, however is is predominantly inland rather than coastal. The deforestation appears to mostly take place on the harder soils, suggesting these soils best support the timber that is most sought after.
It is important to note where deforestation has taken place and to try and predict where it may continue to occur in the future as this can impact the health of mangroves downstream through water pollution or oversedimentation. It is also important to note what may be causing deforestation, because increasing the health and sustainability of forest reserves will reduce the reliance on locals cutting down mangroves as a source of timber.
Areas of Mangrove Loss 1996-2020 (100m buffer)
High
Mangroves Extent 2020 (100m buffer)
Low
Areas of Tree Gain (250m buffer)
100%
19-22% Tree Loss (250m buffer)
0%
Human Population Density (people per km2)
Tree Cover (%)
17-19% Tree Loss (250m buffer) 14-17% Tree Loss (250m buffer)
Flow Direction
9-14% Tree Loss (250m buffer) 1-9% Tree Loss (250m buffer) 25
Legend Areas of Mangrove Loss 1996-2020 (100m buffer)
High
Mangroves Extent 2020 (100m buffer)
Low
Areas of Tree Gain (250m buffer)
100%
19-22% Tree Loss (250m buffer)
0%
Human Population Density (people per km2)
Tree Cover (%)
17-19% Tree Loss (250m buffer) 14-17% Tree Loss (250m buffer) 9-14% Tree Loss (250m buffer) 1-9% Tree Loss (250m buffer)
Human Infrastructure, Stream Network & Downstream Mangrove Loss
Relationships
Pac ific
Oc ea n
Tree Loss & Gain
Auki Su’u
MALAITA
Bina
Fulo Solom on S ea
Surface Soil
* Terrain height is exaggerated x3
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Flow Direction
Kwai Harbour
Relationships
MALAITA
Maoro Community High School
Namoluluga Church Su’u Bina Ura Church Auki
Fa’Arau Church
Arabala Church
Busu Cultural Centre Findings By visualising the flow direction through arrows on the DEM surface we can see which waterways have the highest potential to produce polluted sediment due to upstream deforestation destabilising the soil. These areas should be avoided for mangrove protection as they may begin to deteriorate due to sediment pollution. The finite protective resources should be more wisely conserved for cleaner waterways, some of which are highlighted on the 3D perspective above.
Auki Harbour
Locations for mangrove protection 27
Topographic Wetness Index (TWI) 25%
Auki Auki
Ura Church
Slope
Relationships
20%
Fa’Arau Church
Maoro Community High School
MALAITA
Talakali Church
Busu Cultural Centre Su’u Su’u
Surface Soil
Arabala Church
20%
Bina
Namoluluga Church
Solomon Sea
Legend Areas of Mangrove Loss 1996-2020
Elevation
Mangroves Extent 2020
15%
Stream Catchment Areas 5m Sea Level Rise Inundation High Low
Flood Susceptibility Index
High Low
Human Population Density (people per km2)
Stream Proximity 10%
Flood Susceptibility Overlay Your Mapping Question: Which parts of the site are most susceptible to destructive flooding?
Land Cover 28
10%
Data Sources • Analysis produced with QGIS on data previously presented • Google Earth Engine
Findings This weighted overlay analysis attempts to assess which parts of the site will be most susceptible to flooding based on factors beyond just elevation. Knowing where damaging flooding will occurr can help us to focus revegetation efforts in safer locations, where juvenile plants are less likely to be washed away in a flooding event.
It appears that the most susceptible coastline areas are the river mouths, as might be expected. This could explain why the existing mangrove forests are more concentrated between river openings, rather than within the mouth itself. Our revegetation efforts should focus on these areas, as well as areas further inland that may become more regularly wet but remain safe from flooding in the future.
MALAITA Relationships
Maoro Community High School Su’u
Auki
Arabala Church Ura Church
Fa’Arau Church Bina
Auki Harbour
Busu Cultural Centre
Findings It is clear that much of the coastline is potentially threatened by flooding, particularly when exacerbated by sea level rise. Flooding and sea level rise appear most extreme around the larger waterways, such as the river shown in the foreground of the 3D above. This, coupled with analysis of the potential threat of upstream deforestation and human disturbance, suggests that waterways such as this should not be a first priority for mangrove protection and revegetation, as resources should be expended on locations that are potentially more sustainable from flooding. 29
Surface Soil 15% Auki Auki
Ura Church
Elevation
Relationships
15%
Fa’Arau Church
Maoro Community High School
MALAITA
Talakali Church
Busu Cultural Centre Su’u Su’u
Slope
Arabala Church
20%
Bina
Namoluluga Church
Solomon Sea
Legend
Proximity to Coastline
Areas of Mangrove Loss 1996-2020
20%
Mangroves Extent 2020 Stream Catchment Areas High Low
Mangrove Suitability Index
High Low
Human Population Density (people per km2)
Existing Mangrove & Wetlands Proximity 10%
Mangrove Revegetation Suitability Overlay Your Mapping Question: Where on-site is most ideally suited to the revegetation of mangrove forest?
Human Population Proximity 30
10%
Data Sources • Analysis produced with QGIS on data previously presented • Google Earth Engine
Findings This weighted overlay analysis attempts to factor in several elements that could help to determine ideal locations for mangrove revegetation. This is based on environmental factors such as coastline proximity, existing mangrove and wetland locations, aspect, slope and soils. The proximity to human disturbance is also considered.
The result, perhaps best visualised in 3D on the adjacent page, shows that logically the ideal environment for mangrove revegetation hugs the coastline. There are, however, small pockets where mangrove conditions are more ideal - generally found between the scattered human populations. These weighted overlays can be further refined and used to derive exact locations that are most ideal for mangrove revegetation.
MALAITA
Auki Su’u
Ura Church
Arabala Church Auki Harbour
Relationships
Maoro Community High School
Busu Cultural Centre
Bina
Findings Logically, the most suitable mangrove areas (dark green) are closest to the coastline. It would be interesting to take this data on-site to analyse why mangroves are specifically successful in some of these locations but not in others, where they are shown as equally suitable to sustaining mangrove forest life. This may be because soil conditions are more nuanced than we can know from GIS analysis, there may be other dominant ecosystems 31
GENERATION Building upon the studied relationships this section generates interventions for the site to better protect & regenerate mangrove health.
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It is crucial to understand that the importance, comnsumption of, and pressures placed upon mangrove ecosystems are not consistent across Solomon Islands and local context needs to be understood when designing management approaches with stakeholders. The mangroves are integral to the day to day livelihoods of the people of Langa Langa. Many people’s homes are constructed within the mangrove forests. The wood of mangrove trees is commonly used to burn for cooking, or to produce construction timber, garden tools boat shelters and shell money (Albert, J.A. and Schwarz, A.J., 2013). Mangrove fruit (from the Bruguiera gymnorhiza) is also a traditional food provided by these trees. Resources collected from the mangroves are often traded with communities further inland for garden supplies and other products less readily available on the shoreline (Albert, J.A. and Schwarz, A.J., 2013). We must also bear in mind that the collection and use of mangrove resources has highly gendered roles. Men, women and children all have differing relationships with the mangroves (Albert, J.A. and Schwarz, A.J., 2013). Land tenure is another complexity. As Albert, J.A. and Schwarz, A.J., 2013 claim: “In most regions of Solomon Islands, mangroves are managed under customary tenure systems, with resource owners and/or chiefs making decisions with regards to the use and management of the mangrove forests. In general, tribal members are allowed to access/ use mangrove resources for subsistence purposes while ‘outsiders’ and those needing more than basic subsistence requirements, need to ask permission from resource owners”
Threat
Geodesign Generation
Over-consumption/harvesting by locals • For fuel • Construction timber • As a food source (both fish life & mangrove berries) – destructive level of fishing & types (e.g. explosives)
• •
Pollution • Polluted water from inland agriculture runoff, diesel burning • Inland deforestation leading to sediment inundation & other pollutants
•
Climate/environment • Sea level rise • Ocean temperature • Ocean acidification • Air temperature • Rainfall • Extreme weather events (wind, waves, heat) • Natural disasters
•
•
•
Alternate energy sources to reduce reliance on fuel burning (e.g. solar) Analyse sustainable forestry potential (species, location etc.) as alternate timber source for Langa Langa Alternate employment to reduce reliance on mangrove products for income – e.g. promote sustainable agriculture (analyse where, what type etc) Analyse hydrology in relation to pollution sources (diesel burning, busy population centres, industrial areas or deforestation) Identify the major threats to Langa Langa Lagoon’s water quality to intervene
•
Locate the best areas for protection & rehabilitation – where degraded (develop a suitability index to assess) Ideal revegetation location suitability Overlay all possible threats to determine locations for replanting with best possible climate/environment E.g. somewhere with buffered sea, higher chance of filtering water (from inland or open ocean), somewhere that rainfall might collect etc. Map locations for interventions to trap sediment/other interventions to increase sediment accretion and ways to improve longshore drift Analyse the current sources of sediment to protect them and capitalise on them
Land clearing/development • Coastal development for hotels, tourism industry & roads • Aquaculture clearing (shrimp farms etc)
• • •
Analyse alternate locations for these developments (develop a suitability index) One series for coastal development/tourism One for aquaculture
Socio-political • Land tenure issues leading to confusion and degradation of mangroves • Informal settlements in mangroves • Lack of awareness/education • Lack of political intervention
•
The solution I need to offer here is about communication – developing a way of communicating my research that is culturally appropriate (which then other researchers may continue to develop) Can I use image/aerial overlays to express my maps more clearly? E.g. using Solomon Islands artworks or iconography? See Peter Grant’s submission Map so that there is a clearer story relatable to their world – at the scale of their interaction between villages
• • • •
• •
Relationships
Ideas for Geodesign Generation
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Aspect 30% Auki Auki
Ura Church
Flood Susceptibility Overlay Fa’Arau Church
15%
Generation
Maoro Community High School
MALAITA
Talakali Church
Busu Cultural Centre Su’u Su’u
Land Cover
Arabala Church
20%
Bina
Namoluluga Church
Solomon Sea
Human Population Proximity 10%
Slope
Solar Suitability Overlay Your Mapping Question: Which locations are most suitable to solar power farms as a renewable energy source?
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Data Sources • Analysis produced with QGIS on data previously presented • Google Earth Engine
25%
Findings This solar power suitability overlay was created to try and assess which locations on the site may be best suited to being developed as solar farms. This is important to know because one of the biggest threats to the mangroves is harvesting as a source of fuel to produce energy through burning. By providing an alternate, renewable source of energy, the demand for mangrove timber as a fuel source will drop and the ecosystem may benefit.
Legend Areas of Mangrove Loss 1996-2020 (100m buffer) Mangroves Extent 2020 (100m buffer) Open Land High Low
Suitability for Solar Farm
Generation Findings It is critical to suggest moving towards renewable energy types to relieve pressure on mangrove consumption as a fuel source. This overlay highlights areas suitable for solar (dark red) and compares them to human infrastructure and open land areas. The ideal locations for solar farms or similar renewable initiatives are areas of open land, accessed by roads, with high solar suitability overlay score. Some such locations are shown in the 3D above. Locations suitable for solar farms 35
Pacific Ocean Auki
MALAITA Ura Church
Generation
Fa’Arau Church
Maoro Community High School Auki Talakali Church
Busu Cultural Centre
Langa Langa Lagoon
Su’u Arabala Church
MALAITA
Bina
Namoluluga Church
Solomon Sea Solomon Sea
Legend
Areas for Mangrove Regeneration Your Mapping Question: Based on the data analysed, where is primed for mangrove regeneration?
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Data Sources • Google Earth Engine • Global Mangrove Watch Data • World Forest Watch (Tree Cover, Tree Gain & Tree Loss)
Findings This map is the culmination of the data presented thus far, to assess which locations are most viable for mangrove revegetation and regeneration. This map illustrates the upstream health of river catchments based on the presence of deforestation, illustrates the flow direction of water travelling from these compromised upstream areas, and then presents open
Areas of Mangrove Loss 1996-2020 (100m buffer) Mangroves Extent 2020 (100m buffer)
land areas to assess the ways in which water might travel through the land form. The historic loss of mangroves (1996-2020) further illustrates which waterways may be hazardous to mangrove health. Prime locations for mangrove regeneration projects are shown on the adjacent 3D.
Stream Catchment Areas
Mangrove Suitability Index
High Low
19-22% Tree Loss (250m buffer) 17-19% Tree Loss (250m buffer) 14-17% Tree Loss (250m buffer) 9-14% Tree Loss (250m buffer)
High Low
Areas of Tree Gain (250m buffer)
1-9% Tree Loss (250m buffer) Open Land
Human Population Density (people per km2)
Findings This 3D illustrates locations for mangrove regeneration projects. These locations are selected because of the upstream river catchment health they show (based on the presence of deforestation & open land swathes), their accessibility to human infrastructure to support regeneration initiatives and the underlying mangrove suitability index measure. The height of the symbol represents the quality of location for a potential initiative.
Ura Church
Auki Harbour
Fa’Arau Church
Locations suitable for mangrove regeneration projects
Busu Cultural Centre
Maoro Community High School
Generation
Su’u
Arabala Church
Bina
MALAITA
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Generation
MALAITA
Maoro Community High School
Arabala Church Su’u Bina
Ura Church
Auki
Fa’Arau Church
Busu Cultural Centre
Auki Harbour Findings Multiple mangrove regeneration techniques are available to us, which will depoend upon site visit to assess the most viable option. TetraPod systems are most suitable to deeper water, they require far greater human infrastructure and wealth to implement but have larger potential upside in terms of coastal buffer and sediment accretion. Hand planting initiatives should only be undertaken in the most protected and optimal regeneration locations, such as around Arabala Church. Locations suitable for mangrove regeneration projects 38
TetraPod Planting
Hand Planting Seedlings
Bamboo Barrier Planting
Mangroves are an integral part of the “social-economic-ecological system” of Langa Langa Lagoon (Albert, J.A. and Schwarz, A.J., 2013). Mangrove management must be considered in the broader community context. They provide a unique free source of high-quality timber. We must consider this by analysing the cost and benefit of alternate energy sources or cooking methods which could ease the local reliance on harvesting mangrove timber. It is also crucial to diversify the local economy by increasing income from other means, such as agriculture, to reduce economic dependence on mangrove resources. Clearer policy protecting mangroves is also needed, coupled with increased community awareness and education. This mapping process has revealed some potential sites for mangrove protection, some viable locations for solar farms to releive economic reliance on mangrove timber harvesting, and also some potential locations for mangrove regeneration and revegetation. To continue forwards with this research, it would be critical to visit the Solomon Islands and gain a more in-depoth understanding of mangrove health and rthe socio-eonomic intricacies of the coastal communities of Malaita. This research sits in an academic bubble and will only be useful if it can be communicated clearly to and engaged with by the affected communities. Following a site visit, further steps towards mangrove nature-based geodesign initiatives should be made!
References Albert, J.A. and Schwarz, A.J. (2013) Mangrove management in Solomon Islands: Case studies fromMalaita Province. CGIAR Research Program on Aquatic Agricultural Systems. Penang, Malaysia. Policy Brief: AAS-2013-14.
Bhattarai, Bibek and Chandra, Giri, 2011, Assessment of mangrove forests in the Pacific region using Landsat imagery,vol 5, Journal of Applied Remote Sensing, 10.1117/1.3563584
Boehm, S. and Schumer, C. (2023). 10 Big Findings from the 2023 IPCC Report on Climate Change. [online] www.wri.org. Available at: https://www.wri.org/insights/2023-ipcc-ar6-synthesis-report-climatechange-findings#:~:text=The%20IPCC%20finds%20that%20there [Accessed 10 Aug. 2023].
DFAT (2021). Solomon Islands country brief. [online] Australian Government Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade. Available at: https://www.dfat.gov.au/geo/solomon-islands/solomon-islandscountry-brief#:~:text=Solomon%20Islands%20is%20an%20 archipelagic [Accessed 7 Aug. 2023].
Conclusion
Conclusion
Ellison, J. (2018). Effects of Climate Change on Mangroves Relevant to the Pacific Islands. PACIFIC MARINE CLIMATE CHANGE REPORT CARD Science Review, pp.99–111.
Habu, G. (2020). Engulfed by the sea: the loss and damage from climate change. International Institute for Environment and Development.
Leitzell , K. and Caud , N. (2021). Climate change widespread, rapid, and intensifying. [online] IPCC. Available at: https://www.ipcc. ch/2021/08/09/ar6-wg1-20210809-pr/#:~:text=The%20report%20 projects%20that%20in [Accessed 6 Aug. 2023].
Ramohia, P. and Da Wheya, N. (n.d.). SOLOMON ISLANDS. Secretariat of the Pacific Regional Environment Programme.
RAMSI (n.d.). The Tensions – RAMSI. [online] www.ramsi.org. Available at: https://www.ramsi.org/the-tensions/.
R. Z Poore, R. S. Williams Jr., & Christopher Tracy, “Sea level and climate,” US Geological Survey Fact Sheet 002-00 (2000). Available at http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/fs2-00/.
SPC, 2008. Solomon Islands Government provincial population profile, Malaita Province: discovering the relevance, In Pacific CommunityDemography-Population Programme. p. 41. Secretariat of the Pacific Community, New Caledonia.
World Bank (n.d.). World Bank Climate Change Knowledge Portal. [online] climateknowledgeportal.worldbank.org. Available at: https://climateknowledgeportal.worldbank.org/country/solomonislands/vulnerability#:~:text=Historical%20Hazards.
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RMIT University Landscape Architecture Liberating Digital Design Research Seminar Semester 02 - 2023