Sea History 112 - Autumn 2005

No.112

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SEA HISTORY 112, AUTUMN 2005

SEA HISTORY

No. 112

AUTUMN 2005

CONTENTS FEATURED IN THIS ISSUE 8 "Bright Lookout on a Dark Night," the Loss of USS Saginaw,

by Hans Van Tilburg In 1869, the Navy's first west coast-built steamer struck a reefand was lost in the Pacific Ocean, more than a thousand miles ftom Hawaii. 7he story ofher survivors, their own efforts to find help, and their ultimate sacrifice and rescue is moving in itself, but that much more so since 2003, when NOAA archaeologists located and began documentation ofthe shipwreck offKure Atoll.

12 H eroes of the Sailing Navy: William Bainbridge, by William H. White William Bainbridge, a hero for his defeat ofHMS ] ava as commander of USS Constitution, was as famous for his surrender ofanother US frigate to the Barbary Corsairs in 1803. Part two in a series, William H White looks at Bainbridge's unconventional conduct in a celebrated naval career in the early years ofthe US Navy. ~ ~

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16 Military Sea Lift Command Delivers, by Frank Randall When the US engages in war and other military exercises around the globe, it's American merchant mariners in the Military Sealift Command who get fuel, equipment, food, and whatever else is needed to ports and ships around the globe.

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19 Maritime History on the Internet: Beyond Google by Peter McCracken

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26 "Humanity After Victory," How Nelson's Victory at Trafalgar Changed the Course of History, by Peter Stanford NMHS President Emeritus and Editor-at-Large Peter Stanford examines the longlasting ramifications ofNelson's win at Trafalgar 200 years ago, ftom the immediate effects in the Napoleonic Wtir to the twentieth century.

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30 MARINE ART: Gloucester Ships and Fishermen, the Art of Thomas Hoyne, by Reese Palley 7homas Hoyne (1924-1989) left a successful career as a commercial illustrator to document the men and schooners ofthe Gloucester fishing fleet at work. 7he historical detail and accuracy, not to mention the beauty, ofhis works leave a legacy unparalled in his time for which we can all be grateful.

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COVER: Morning Launch, by Thomas Hoyne (1982, oil on panel, 24 x 30 inches). In the days of the all-sailing fishing fleet, New England fishing was carried on ftom small dories launchedftom a mother schooner. All crew members wentfishing, save the captain and the cook who most often stayed aboard to handle the vessel. On the schooner in the foreground, a dory is being loaded up with trawl tubs and fishing gear prepatory to launching. -TH (See pages 30-34 for more about Hoyne and his paintings.)

DEPARTMENTS DECK LoG & LETTERS

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NMHS:

42 CALENDAR

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A CAUSE IN MOTION Sea History FOR Krns

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MARINE ART NEWS

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SHIP NOTES, SEAPORT & MUSEUM NEWS

REVIEWS PATRONS

26 SEA HISTORY (issn 0146-9312) is published quarterly by the National Maritime Historical Society, 5 John Walsh Blvd., PO Box 68, Peekskill NY 10566. Periodicals postage paid at Peekskill NY 10566 and add'! mailing offices.

COPYRIGHT Š 2005 by the National Maritime Historical Society. Tel: 914-737-7878.

POSTMASTER: Send address changes to Sea History, PO Box 68, Peekskill NY 10566.

NATIONAL MARITIME HISTORICAL SOCIETY

DECK LOG Society Joins North American Society for Oceanic History For a joint Meeting in Savannah in May

Good Conversation NMHS trustee Bill White on the ramparts at Fort Jackson with dinner committee member Bob Kamm.

In the background, chairman Walter Brown and treasurer Ron Oswald look out on the Savannah River from Georgia's oldest brick fortification. After three days of impressive papers by NASOH members highlighting the significant contributions of the South to our maritime history, our members had a lot to discuss.

Great Trips Here we are on one of the three boats we took for a tour of the Savannah harbor, both the historic and the active port of today. Savannah is so rich in maritime history we barely scratched the surface. We visited two of the city's fine historical museums, the Savannah Museum and the Ships of the Sea Maritime Museum. My cousin, Alvin Nealy, hosted a reception for us in his beautifully-restored home in the Savannah Historic Landmark District, giving us a glimpse of gracious southern hospitality. We also toured Tybee Island and explored the lighthouse, Fon Screven, and Fort Pulaski National Monument.

Where Are You? Our last event was at Old Fort Jackson, where we talked with Civil War reenactors, walked on the parapet and through the casements, feasted on the traditional low country boil, and enjoyed the fiddlers and rifle firing demonstration. Here we are ending the conference with a bang, quite literally, waiting for a re-enactment group to fire both the 32-pound cannon and a 9-inch Dahlgren from the parapet. Can you find yourself? If you're not here, will you join us next year?

A Triumph Joseph Meany, program chairman and New York State Historian Emeritus, was congratulated by John Hattendorf, President of NASOH, and Walter Brown, Chairman ofNMHS, for a joint program that was, most assuredly, a triumph.

We are honored to welcome Carla Rahn Phillips to the Editorial Advisory Board. Dr Phillips is a professor of history at the University of Minnesota and an authority on Spain's influence in the Age of Sail. She has written Six Galleons for the King of Spain: Imperial Defense in the Early Seventeenth Century. With William D. Phillips she wrote The World ofChristopher Columbus and Spain's Golden Fleece: Wool Production and the Wool Trade from the Middle Ages to the Nineteenth Century.

--BURCHENAL GREEN,

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Executive Vice President

SEA HISTORY 112, AUTUMN 2005

LETTERS The Merchant Marine and World War II

Numbering among the approved were four WWII seamen's groups:

In reference to Roger Tilton's notice entitled "Belated Thank You to the Merchant Marine of World War II" (Sea H istory 111 , Summer 2005 , page 35), I must disagree with two of his statements. First, he wrote that "merchant mariners suffered a far higher mortality rate than members of the military services." Such an erroneous claim can only be m ade through statistical manipulation. Compilers of such extravagant claims disregard the total fo rce figure of those who were employed both at sea and within US waters during the entire period of the war. They also disregard the shoreside staffs of the many private shipping companies and the War Shipping Administration as well as what was a very large WSA mariner training organization.

Conversely, sim ilar entities were all part of the Armed Forces uniformed total force and are included as part of the basis from which all Armed Forces combat casualties are computed. Yes, the US merchant mariner suffered high losses, bur not near to the extent of Mr. Tilton's claim.

Second, he also mentioned the Seaman's Act of 1988. H is reference can give the reader the incorrect impression that the veterans benefits given to seamen in 1988 came about direcdy through legislation. More accurately, the benefits were bestowed through an administrative ruling of the Defense Department, which eleven years prior had been charged by Congress with administering the provisions of Public Law 95-202 tided, "The GI Bill Improvement Act of 1977." The Secretary of Defense subsequendy delegated the Secretary of the Air Force with creating a Review Board (DODD 1000.20) to judge applicant civilian groups under five qualifying criteria to determine whether the subject group had performed a wartime role "equivalent to active military duty." If so judged, rhe group would receive benefits as administered by the Veteran's Administration . The first applicant group, the Women's Air Service Pilots of WWII (WASPs) , was approved in 1977. To date, ninety-six groups have applied for veterans status under PL 95-202. Of that number the Review Board has approved twenty-nine.

• Army Quartermaster Corps, Henry Keswick Group, Corregidor 1942; • US Oceangoing Merchant Marine of WWII, together with the Army Transport Service (later Transportation Corps, Water Division) 7 December 1941-15 August 1945; • Civilian Crewmen of the US Coast and Geodetic Survey Who Served in Areas of Military Hazard; • Merchant Mariners, Blockships at Normandy.

SEA HISTORY 112, AUTUMN 2005

In the 1990s, two of the seamen's subgroups were addended by the addition of those who served on vessels operated overseas by the Army's Signal Corps, the Coast Artillery, the Corps of Engineers, and Army Air Force WWII; and also by the addition of crewmembers of the USCGS ships Oceanographer, Hydrographer, and Pathfinder.

I was a primary participant in the PL 95-202 process, having served as an historical consultant to the attorney representing Oceangoing Merchant Marine of WWII. I was also the applicant author for the Army seamen group and for the US Coast and Geodetic Seamen group (as well as the follow-up addendums for those groups).

The true and accurate story of the sacrifices and heroism of merchant mariners

and other civilian seamen during WWII are laurels enough and in no need of exaggeration. By diminishing the proportionately higher death losses of the Armed Forces, which Mr. Tilton has done, is not only unnecessary for what he is trying to accomplish, but it is also an embarrassment to many of us who his insert purports to represent.

CHARLES DANA GIBSON

Camden, Maine

Japanese Battleship, Mikasa Mark Lander (Sea History 111, Summer 2005) is correct in his call for more precision in use of the term "battleship." Like most nautical terms, the word has a very precise meaning, and USS DesMoines does not fit in that category. Lander's characterization of the vessel "ostensibly" a battleship, is somewhat less correct. The vessel in question is Mikasa, flagship of Admiral Heihachiro Togo at the Battle ofTsushima in 1905. In that batde, Togo crushed a Russian Beet, announcing Japan's presence as a world power.

Mikasa measured 415 feet on the waterline, displaced 15, 140 tons, and carried four 12-inch guns as main armament. She was built in the UK by Vickers and was widely regarded as a state-of-the-art battleship upon her launch. By way of comparison, the roughly contemporary USS Illinois

Join Us for a Voyage into History Our seafarin g heritage co mes alive in the pages of Sea History, from the ancient ma riners of Greece to Portuguese navigators opening up the ocean world to the heroic efforts of sailors in this century's conflicts. Each issue brings new insights a nd discoveries. If you love the sea, ri vers, la kes,

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LETTERS Mikasa in the 1980s in Yokosuka, japan

NATIONAL MARITIME HISTORICAL SOCIETY PUBLISHER'S CIRCLE: Peter Aron, Donald McGraw, William H. White OFFICERS & TRUSTEES : Chairman, Walter R. Brown; Vice Chairman, Richardo R. Lopes; Executive Vice President, Burchenal Green; Treasurer, Ronald L. Oswald; Secretary, Marshall Srreiberr; Trustees, Paul F. Balser, Donald M. Birney, Thomas F. Daly, David S. Fowler, Virginia Steele Grubb, Rodney N. Houghton, Steven W Jones, Richard M. Larrabee, Warren Leback, Guy E. C. Maitland, Karen Markoe, Michael McKay, James ]. McNamara, Howard Slotnick, Bradford D. Smith, Philip ]. Webster, William H . White; Chairmen Emeriti, Alan G. Choate, Guy E. C. Maitland, Craig A. C. Reynolds, Howard Slotnick; President Emeritus, Peter Stanford FOUNDER: Karl Kortum (1 917-1996)

(BB7), commissioned in 1901 , measured 374 feet, displaced 12,250 tons, and carried four 13-inch guns. Mikasa was rated at 18 knots, Illinois at 16.

Mikasa is currently on display at Yokosuka H arbor, Japan. She is the last surviving pre-Dreadnought battleship.

OVERSEERS: Chairman, RADM David C. Brown; Walter Cronkite, Clive Cussler, Alan D. Hutchison, Jako b Isb randrsen, John Lehman, Warren Marr, II, Brian A. McAllister, John Stobart, William G. Winterer

CHARLEY SEAVEY

Columbia, Missouri Kudos to Mark Lander for clearing up the confusion of the Navy's n ames for battleships and submarines. He also mentions a "pre-1900 ship, ostensibly a battleship, berthed in concrete somewhere in Japan ."

The ship is Mikasa, and it is, indeed, encased in concrete all the way up to the boot-top. She sits in Yokosuka, Japan, at the Mikasa Park located next to the Naval Repair Facility. I have enclosed some photos I took when I was the Manager of the Fleet Support Office in Yokosuka in the late 1980s. The ship is well preserved

NMHS Annual Awards Dinner

New York Yacht Club 26 October 2005 $300 per person; $6,000 Sponsors Table (for ten).

Call 800-221-6647, ext. 0 for reservations or more information.

Limited seating.

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Admiral Heihachiro Togo (1847-1934) studied naval science in England from 1871to1878 at the Naval Preparatory School in Portsmouth and at the Royal Naval College at Greenwich. and the battle damage at Tsushima is still marked on the steel, givi ng you a real sen se of the actual battle.

ROBERT

T. WILSON

Biloxi, Mississippi

NMHS and Sea History 5 John Walsh Blvd., PO Box 68 Peekskill NY 10566 Ph: 914 737-7878 or 800 22 1-NMH S NMHS e-mail: nmhs@seahisto ry.o rg; Sea History e-mail: editorial@seahistory.org; Web sire:www.seahistory.org.

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N MHS ADVISORS: Co-Chairmen, Frank 0. Braynard, Melbourne Smith; D. K. Abbass, Geo rge F. Bass, Francis E. Bowker, Oswald L. Brett, RADM Joseph F. Callo, Francis J. Duffy, John W. Ewald, Timothy Foore, W illiam Gilkerson, Thomas Gillmer, Walter J. Handelman, Steven A. Hyman, Hajo Knurrel, Gu nnar Lundeberg, Joseph A. Maggio, Conrad Milster, William G. Muller, David E. Perkins, Nancy Hughes Richardson, Shanno n]. Wall SEA HISTORY EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD: Chairman, Timothy J. Runyan; No rman J. Brouwer, Robert Browning, W illiam S. Dudley, Daniel Finamore, Kevin Foster, John 0. Jensen, Joseph F. Meany, Lisa No rl ing, Carla Ralm Phi llips, Walter Rybka, Quinten Snediker, William H. White

NMHS STAFF: Executive Director, Burchenal Green; Membership Director, Nancy Schnaars; A ccounting, Jill Romeo; Marketing & Executive Assistant, Janet Miller; Membership Assistant, Jane Maurice SEA HISTORY: Editor, Deirdre E. O'Regan; Director of Advertising, Steve Lovass-Nagy; Advertising Assistant, Meaghan Sch ick; Sea H istory for Kids Editor, Myka-Lynne Sokoloff; Editor-at-Large, Peter Stanford

SEA HISTORY 11 2, AUTUMN 2005

NMHS:

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A CAUSE IN MOTION

Annual Awards Dinner to Honor Admiral David Brewer, USN; Donald McGraw; and Nathaniel Philbrick Annual Awards Dinner Chairman David Fowler is pleased to report that the Society will honor the work of three distinguished gentlemen at the New York Yacht Club on Wednesday, October 26th. Members are invited to pay tribute to those who have made such a lasting contribution toward advancing our maritime heritage.

Vice Admiral D avid L. Brewer III, US Navy Caprain James McNamara, NMHS rrusree and presidenr of rhe Narional Cargo Bureau, will presenr Vice Admiral David L. Brewer III, US Navy, Commander, Milirary Sealifr Command, wirh rhe NMHS D istinguished Service Award . This award is given ro recognize individuals who, rhrough rheir personal efforr and creariviry, have made oursranding conrriburions ro our maririme herirage. In Augusr 2001 Vice Admiral Brewer assumed command of rhe Milirary Sealifr Command, headquarrered in Washingron, DC. He has led rhe MSC's ship transporrario n of equipmenr, fuel, supplies, ammunition and troop supporr for US forces in Afghanistan and Iraq . In addition, Military Sealifr Command deployed rwenry ships operated by nearly 1,200 civilian and commercial mariners ro deliver aid and supporr relief ro the rwelve countries mosr affecred by rhe tsunami disasrer. Vice Admiral Brewer has served as Commander of rhe US Naval Forces Marianas/Commander in Chief US Pacific Command Represenrarive Guam/ Commonwealrh of the Norrhem Marianas Islands/Federated States of Micronesia/Republic of Palau, and Vice Chief of Naval Educarion and Training in Pensacola, Florida. He has served as Commander, Amphibious Group Three.

Nathaniel Philbrick Narhaniel Philbrick is the recipienr of rh e NMH S Robert G. Albion/James Monroe Award given ro recognize exemplary work in maritime hisroriography. Nathaniel Philbrick is aurhor of Sea of Glory: America's Voyage ofDiscovery-The US Exploring Expedition, 1838-1842. His previous books are In the Heart ofthe Sea: The Tragedy ofthe Whaleship Essex and Revenge ofthe Whale, an accounr of the Essex disaster for young readers. He is currenrly at work on a book about the voyage of the Mayflower and the settlemenr of Plymourh Colony.

A former inrercollegiate All-American sailor and Norrh American Sunfish champion with degrees from Brown and Duke Universities, Philbrick has also written extensively abour comperitive sailing and the hisrory of his adopted home, Nanrucket Island. Philbrick is a founding direcror of the Egan Instirute of Maritime Srudies on Nanrucker, where he has lived with his wife and rwo children since 1986. In addition, he is a fellow of rhe Nanrucket Hisrorical Association, the Massachuserrs Hisrorical Sociery, the American Antiquarian Sociery, and the Sociery of American Hisrorians.

NMHS trustee and aurhor William H . White will present the award. Nat Philbrick will give the keynote address on the remarkable srory of Lt. Wilkes' voyage of discovery.

Donald C. McGraw Jr. Donald C. McGraw, Jr. was founder and publisher of Nautical Quarterly and owner and presidenr of Soundings-the national boaring newspaper. Nautical Quarterly won a National Magazine Award for design-the first boating magazine so honored. With his extensive background in maririme publicarions, Mr. McGraw has provided Sea History with advice, counsel, and support essenrial to its success. It is fitting that he be the first recipient of the D avid A. O'Neil Sheet Anchor Award, given ro recognize extraordinary leadership in building the scrength and outreach of the Sociery. The former Founder's Sheet Anchor Award was recently renamed ro honor former overseer Dave O 'Neil, its 2003 recipient. Mr. McGraw served in the Navy and graduated from the Carnegie Institute of Technology, where he srudied graphic arts and engineering. He worked for McGraw-Hill as a group publisher-heading up Standard & Poor's and other publications. In addition ro his dedication ro maritime publishing, Mr. McGraw collects marine art and is an accomplished yachtsman.

-Burchena/ Green

SEA HISTORY 11 2, AUTUMN 2005

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II

"Bright Lookout on a Dark Night the Loss of USS Saginaw

by Dr. Hans Van T ilburg ometimes even the smallest and most rem ote coral atoll can offer a window into Pacific and naval history. That is the case with Midway Atoll and USS Saginaw, a small navy vessel lost on one of the most remote coral reefs in the world. The recent discovery of the 19th century shipwreck site by NOAA researchers has opened the door on a part of o ur maritim e heri tage.

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The Ship Launched in 1859 at Mare Island Navy Yard near San Francisco, USS Saginaw 1 was the fi rs t naval vessel built on the ' West Coast. O f shallow d raft and only 15 5 feet in length , she was a small ship, lightly ri gged as a two-masted brig. A transitional craft of the Old Steam Navy, she was powered with two oscillating, inclined steam engines-a side-wheel steamer with sails. Saginaw was built no t for war but for peace. In 1857 the US Navy was redefining its needs fo r shallow-draft vessels. "What we m ore especially need in time of peace is a larger number of vessels capable of entering the rivers and harbors of all foreign countries as well as our own .... The fre quent presence of a ship-of-war, though no t of the largest class, exerts a powerful restraining influence." 1 C hina fit the bill for a region deemed in need of a US N aval presence. By 1842 America stood to benefit from expanded commerce followin g the first Opium War, and the United States was anticipating another clash between China and Britain . By 1853 Japan, thanks to Matthew

Galbraith Perry, had been forced open to trade after some 250 years of near isolation from the west. W ith the decline of monopolies such as the British East India Company and the changing fortun es of

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Painting by Marshall C. Campbell, 1861; courtesy Robert McGuffin Sr.

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The Last Mission

Saginaw's las t service involved M idway Old World Spanish colonies, the Pacific represented a new phase of economic potential. Saginaw was judged an appropriate too l fo r the job.

Her Service In M ay 1860 Saginaw arrived at Shanghai and took up various duties including showing the flag, searching for pirates, and in general "exerting an influence." Her service in East Asia cam e to a quick end, however, with the outbreak of the American Civil War. In 1861 the las t thing any American officer wanted, northern or southern, was assignment to a distant station abroad.

USS Saginaw (right) was built at the Navy Yard on Mare Island, California, in 1859.

She was the first US naval vessel built on the west coast. (Photo was published in 1912 in The Last Cruise of the Saginaw by George H Read; photographer unknown.)

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Fortunately, an answer to Saginaw's predicam ent was at hand. In D ecember 186 1, an inspection revealed timbers on the port side to be unsound, "ro tten as junk .. . destroyed from the inside." 2 Ship's stores were transferred ashore, and on 3 January 1862 Saginaw was condemned as unseaworthy and abandoned at H o ng Ko ng. Jam es T. Watkins, a civilian skipper, and a fresh crew brought the decommissioned and "unseaworthy" ship back to the Uni ted States with little tro uble. There she was repaired and recommissioned into naval service with the Pacific squadron

by March 1863. The next few years saw her operating between Alaska and Central America, escorting steamers, monitoring rumored Confederate activity, and even assisting in laying submarine cable in the Puget Sound.

Atoll in the remo te No rthwes tern H awaiian Islands. Later the location of the pivotal World War II sea battle, Midway's importance was equally clear to nineteenth-century strategists as well. The low sandy islands, some 1,200 miles from Honolulu, were the first lands claimed o utside US co ntin ental borders, the first fr uits of Secretary of State W illiam Seward's expansionist policies.

The charts of the survey represent .. . a perfectly secure harbor, accessible to vessels drawing less than twenty feet, and affording an abundant supply of pure, fresh water. These islands .. . on the track of the mail steamships, furnish the only known refuge for vessels passing directly between the two continents . . . the bar at the entrance of the harbor might be deepened at a very small expense, and a port vastly superior to Honolulu be thus opened to mariners, where a depot might be established for the supply of provisions, water, and fuel.. .3 Though this description is a wild exaggeration of Midway's barren and exposed setting, thousands of miles away Congress forged ahead. A coal depot required clearing a channel into the lagoon. In 1869 Congress appropriated $50,000 for im-

SEA HISTORY 112, AUTUMN 2005

provemem s, and some wo ndered if even that much would be necessary. USS Saginaw was chosen to serve as the support vessel for the commercial divers from Boston who wo uld labor for six months on the deserted island. They set off with the bare essentials: " . .. seven Yankee experts in submarine diving and blasting, twenty-one Chinese laborers, 1,000 bags of powder, with lumber and material ... "4 But there was only one suit of heavy di ving gear. By October 1870 the money had run out but the dredging of the channel had barely begun; the operation was terminated. Saginaw picked up the sunburned contractors and, departing for San Francisco o n a Friday, first made for nearby Kure Atoll some sixty nautical miles to the wes t.

The Wreck The actual loss of USS Saginaw is a study in slow motion as well as indicative of the remarkable hazards of the No rthwes tern H awaiian Islands. Lieutenant Commander Montgom ery Sicard, a responsible and capable officer (later Rear-Adm iral), shaped his course for Kure Atoll to check fo r castaways. Knowing that the atoll lay ahead (but ignorant of the westerly currents), Sicard navigated his ship cautiously th ro ugh a heavy swell under reduced sail.

The moon had set, but they did not expect to be with in vis ual range until dayb reak.

The night orders h ighlighted the need for a "bright lookout" and co nstant vigilance. Eyes strai ned in to the inky darkness fo r any indication of rocks, shoals, or discolo red water. The engines were kept below six revolutions, the minimum required to turn the paddlewheels. At least nine crewmen and officers, including the captain, remained on deck in the early hours of O ctober 29th. Saginaw was m aking less than three knots, the pace of a leisurely stroll. None of this helped them one bit. At 03 13, the forward lookout asked the Officer on Deck "if those are not breakers ahead . .. " and then starting running aft. Rising from his seat at the port paddle box, C aptain Sicard confirmed breakers ahead and ordered the topsails clewed up and halyards let go; the engines were o rdered back hard. Wo rd was passed for "all hands," but in just a few minutes the ship was going omo the reef.

SEA HISTORY 112, AUTUMN 2005

Lt. Com mander Montgomery Sicard A design Raw m ay have contributed to the disaster as well. Saginaw's inclined oscillating steam engines featured a single eccentric fastened securely to the paddlewheel shaft. The sidewheels were designed to work fo rward only; in backing, the valves had to be operated by hand. Even that effort was doom ed. The reef punched th rough the hull just starboard of the keel when the ship struck, steam connections were broken, and the compartment was has tily abandoned . Herschel M ain, 2d assistant engineer, recalled: We had hardly gotten down into th e fire room, when a great volume of smoke and gas came pouring These sketches by Lt. Commander Montgomery Sicard depict the initial wrecking and subsequent break-up of the stern as the ship's stranded crewmembers tried to salvage as much of the ship's timbers and provisions as possible.

through the furn aces. This was owing to the smoke stack being carried away just at that moment; being perfectly suffocating, we were compelled to leave the fire room d irectly, and I again reported to Mr. Bu tterworth , and the engine room was abandoned .. .. Everything at this time seemed to be in perfect co nfusio n, and the m en seemed paral yzed. The waves were dashing over the ship, each wave driving her further o n the rocks. 5 Retrieving provisions from the holds became their immediate priority. With daylight, the ship's boats were lowered, and the crew made their way onto the reef. They needed to locate a path through the surf and co ral into the relative calm wa ters of the lagoo n. From the boats, they could make our a low island less than a m ile away to the southwest. Provisions were passed across the reef and through the surf to the boats in the lagoon, a chain of men and boats stretching to the sandy beach of Green Island. Miles to the north, the crew could make o ut the rimbers of tl1e Brirish whaler Gledstanes, lost on Kure Atoll th irty-three years earlier.

I,

9

As much as they could possibly salvage was taken to the beach, bur the surf soon broke apart the ship itself. Her heavy guns and equipment sank beneath the waves, very little protruding above the sea.

Remarkably, no one was lost in the wreck.

Ninety-eight castaways established a camp on the highest part of the island, elevation ten feet. One march, all that was saved, was used to start the fire. Shorr rations were a concern, bur even more critical was the limited amo unt of fresh water. Albatross, turtles, fish, rats, and monk seals provided sustenance, while a make-shift still built from a portable boiler rendered a slow bur reliable supply of fresh water.

In such a remote location, the captain and crew did nor count on being saved by a passing ship. Parts of the w recked ship were cur into planks, and the captain's 22-foor gig was modified for a long rescue journey.

Saginaw's executive officer, Lr. J G. Talbot, rook command of the gig. Peter Francis, John Andrews, James Muir, and William Halford served as crew. The boat put to sea on 18 November with the five aboard. The remaining ninety-three survivors waited on Green Island, kept busy by fishing and constructing a small schooner named Deliverance. D ays passed slowly; Ensign Perry Garst noted "the rime will be very dull, and we will have nothing to do bur eat, sleep, and build air castles about home, when we get there."

The Open Boat Voyage Poor weather and spoiled provisions made the open ocean crossing difficult. The five

Lt. John Talbot navigated Saginaw s 22-

ft. gig to Kauai, sailing more than 1,700 miles. He drowned when it capsized in the surf as they attempted a landing. volunteers were in desperate shape by the rime they found themselves off the north shore of Kauai. Weakened by their 3 1day 1,700 mile ordeal, they were unable to keep control of the gig-it was swept into the surf and capsized. Andrews and Francis immediately washed away, never to be seen again. Lieutenant Talbot clung to

rhe boar's hull; trapped by his heavy clothing, he sank to his death. Only coxswain Halford, who stripped our of his garments, and Muir, who had stayed inside the boar when it flipped, made it through to the outer reef. Muir, however, was exhibiting signs of insanity, and Halford lashed him to the wreck.

Alone in rhe su rf, Halford dragged his injured shipmate and the remaining equipment and documents ashore, before passing our from a loss of blood-a splinter from the mast had wedged in his leg.

Reviving at daybreak, Halford found Muir dead, his face strangely blackened. C hildren screamed when they saw the naked, bearded, and half-starved Halford staggering towards them, bur local residents cleaned his wounds, and he soon found passage to Honolulu.

Within seven hours of Halford making his report to the American Minister at Honolulu, the schoo ner Kona was dis-

(Inset below) Sketch of"Camp Saginaw" on Kure Atoll; (background photo) The likely site of Camp Saginaw, as seen in 2005 by a team ofNOAA ~aritime Heritage Program nautical archaeologists. Photo by Robert V Schwemmer.

parched fo r Kure. Ar the insistence of His Royal Highness Kamehameha V, King of Hawaii, the royal steamer Kilauea also set out on the rescue voyage. By 3 January 1871 both vessels reached Kure. The surv ivo rs were taken onboard the steamer, sixtyeight days after their shipwreck. They also learned their rescue was purchased at the cost of fo ur of their shipmates. The story of the loss of USS Sagi,naw and the rescue of her ship's company has become a permanent part of our naval legacy.

The ship's gig after her rescue journey.

Maritime Heritage Today, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) M arine Sanctuary Program, together with state and federal parmers, manages and protects the coral reef ecosystem of the Northwes tern H awaiian Islands (NWHI); this includes submerged cultural resources such as USS Saginaw. This 1,200-mile chain of atolls and coral reefs is an extraordinary and pristine natural resource. As the story of Saginaw confirms, it is also a chain of navigational hazards second to none.

Approximately sixty vessels are known to have been lost in the NWHI, (and at least that many naval ai rcraft). Some of these shipwrecks date back to the 1820s.

In the summer of 2003, N OAA researchers located portions of USS Saginaw on the eastern reef of Kure Atoll.

Cannon, anchors, boiler pieces, fas teners, and rigging lie scattered in the rough coral

Coxwain William Halford was the only survivor of the open boat journey in the ship's gig. Within hours after he reported the loss of Saginaw and the survivors waiting at Kure to the American Minister at Honolulu, two vessels were dispatched to rescue them. Halford retired from the navy in 1910.

Promoted to Lieutenant on the retired list, he returned to the Navy in 191 7. USS Halford (DD-480) was named for him.

topography. Ships wreck in difficult and dangerous locations, and the seaward reef has not changed over the years. The sire was only accessible for a single dive-many other clues wait to be discovered on future multi-disciplinary research cruises. William Halford recalled, "There was very little of anything saved, only what was washed over rhe reef into the lagoon in the shoal water, which we later fished up from the bottom." Archaeologists with NOAA's Maritime Heritage program returned to Kure in 2005 bur were kept off the sire

by high seas and thirty-five knot winds.

Further attempts to complete the survey will be scheduled in the fut ure, bu r it will always be very taxing and unpredictable to work in the location.

Sagi,naw's artifacts cannot speak directly of rransPacific ambition, of the promotion of American commerce overseas and Asian connections across the Pacific, bur they do speak to the very real hazards involved in seafaring in any age. The transitio n to steam propulsion and the extension of American influence into the Pacific were slow processes, sometimes accompanied by the loss of life. The low and inconspicuous characte r of the NWHI makes for formidable obstacles to navigation . In th is case, the atoll reef defeated the brigh tes t lookout, the most careful navigation, and most cautious nigh t orders. The sire of USS Sagi,naw is now a window into our past, and entry poi nt into our own maritime heritage.

Notes 1 Reporr of the Secretary of the Navy, 1858 2 Marshall C. Campbell, Deck Logs, USS Saginaw, December 6th 186 1, RG 24, NARA. 3 Reporr of the Secretary of the Navy, 1868 4 Charles Walcott Brooks, Cruise of Gambia "Our Furrh est O urposr" Old and New (I 8701875) June 1870.

5 Herschel Main, 2nd assistant engineer USN, Court oflnquiry records RG 125, NARA Ham Konrad Vtm Ti/bu rg holds an MA in maritime history and nautical archaeology from East Carolina University and a PhD from the University ofHawai'i, where he fo cused on the maritime history ofA sia and the Pacific. H e is the M aritime H eritage Coordinator far N OAA's National Marine Sanctuaries Program in the Pacific Is/,ands region.

(Above) Dr. Bradley Rodgers measures Saginaw sboiler face; (right) In 2 003, archaeologists located two unshackled iron anchors resting on the sea flo01: These anchors may have been spares, stowed low in the vessel as ballast. Both seem too small far use as the main bower anchors ofa 155-faot warship. One-half ofa broken iron anchor stock lies on the reef near the boiler face, possibly from an anchor that was used, and broken, during the wrecking event.

SEA HISTORY 112, AUTUMN 2005

11

'lferoes oftfi.e SaiUntJ 'Jfa:vy: WifUam '13ain6ridfJe

by William H. White This is the second of a series for Sea History in which we are examining the lives of some of the celebrated, as well as a few of the lesser known-but equally as important-men of the American Navy during the Age of Fighting Sail. These men defined the American Navy by setting the bar for generations of naval officers to follow. Still revered and studied by the current iteration of naval officers, many learned their trade the hard way; they simply went to sea, often under hard commanders, and learned what was effective and what was not. The United States had no Naval Academy then (that would not come until 1845), and midshipmen were often at sea for more than six years before winning a commission as lieutenant. Some never did and remained passed midshipmen until they went ashore. This article portrays one of the hard commanders, one who demanded superior performances from his officers and crew, but, sadly, lacked sound judgment in many instances.

tis iro nic that William Bainbridge, a schooner and a more skillful commander! taken from his ship. While surely this did commander of USS Constitution, was Prophetic wo rds they were, as we shall not restore his pressed sailor to American '] as famous for his defeat of the British soon see. service, it did serve to put the British on frigate HMS Java off the South American This encounter solidified his reputa- notice that American rights would not be coast in 18 12 as he was for surrendering tion in his homeport of Philadelphia, and violated with impuni ty when entrusted his ship to the enemy and spending to the care of William Bainbridge. nearly rwo years with his crew in a Obviously he felt a strong sense of North African dungeon in 1804. honor, but as it would appear later, Bainbridge was born in May he seemed equally able to put it aside 1774 in Princeron, New Jersey, a dewhen necessary. scendent of Sir Arthur Bainbridge, It was when the difficulties with of Durham County, England, whose France began in 1798 (later to be called the "Quas i War") that his luck son settled in New Jersey in 1600.

At an early age, William chose to began to change. Bainbridge secured follow a life at sea and entered the a naval co mmiss ion and command merchant marine at age fifteen. He of the armed schooner Retaliation, shipped with a "bully" captain and captured only a month before by equally hard mate, most likely the Stephen Decatur Sr. On his first influences that shaped his own becruise, his ship was recaptured by havior later in his career. He learned the French, and Bainbridge and his fast and was granted command of crew were thrown into a dungeon a merchant ship in just four years. in G uadeloupe, a French island in At sea he maintained order with his the Caribbean. After a relatively fi sts, often referring to his seamen as brief incarceration, the governor of "those damn ed rascals," a practice he G uadeloupe released Bainbridge and continued after he entered the naval restored his ship to his care. Upo n service. In spite of his sometimes offhis return to the United States, c o u •TESv NAVAL 11 isT0 • 1cAL cENT• • Bainbridge reported on the outrages beat ways, he proved a good seaman, fiercely loyal, and well-trusted by his committed by the French on AmeriCommodore William Bainbridge, USN (1774-1833) employers.

Painting by john Wesley Jarvis (1780-1840), circa 1814. can prisoners held in the Caribbean, In 1796, while in command of resulting in the "retaliation act" the ship Hope, en route from Bordeaux to he could have gained command of almost against French citizens captured on the St. Thomas, he was attacked in mid-Atlan- any merchant ship he desired. Bainb ridge high seas. He wo n command of the brig tic by a British schooner of eight guns and was hugely patriotic and refused to be Norfolk (18) and pursued the war with thirty men. His little ship had only four cowed by even the mightiest of the Royal France, but did not further distinguish guns-nine-po unders-and a crew of nine Navy. After HMS Indefatigable, command- himself, either positively or negatively. men, but he returned the British fire and ed by Sir Edward Pell ew (lionized by C.S. With his reputation still sound in kept it up until the British vessel struck its Foreseer in h is Hornblower series), stopped spite of having lost a ship, Bainbridge was colors! Instead of taking the schooner as a Hope at sea and impressed one of his sea- put in command of the America n fri gate prize, to which he was entitled, he hailed men, Bainbridge stopped and boarded George Washington and sailed for Algiers her cap tain, instructed him ro go about his the first English merchantman he fo und to delive r American tribute to the Dey. business, and tell his masters that if they at sea, took out her best seaman, and told This payment, held in abeyance for many wanted Bainbridge's ship, they had bet- the captain that William Bainbridge had years, simply because the US government ter send out a greater force than one puny taken his sailor in retribution for a seaman was unable to pay it, was significant and

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SEA HISTORY 112, AUTUMN 2005

represented the first opportunity this country would have, not only to reopen trade in rhe Mediterranean, bur, and perhaps more imporranrly, to ransom American sailors held captive by the Dey of Algiers .

These men and their ships had been seized and their crews incarcerated by Algerian corsairs because the US government had failed to pay the tribute the Dey demanded for unharassed passage through the Mediterranean. The tribute, together with rhe ransom, amounted to over $640,000, a staggering amount for the impoverished, Aedgling US administration.

Ir was here in Algiers that a combination of bad luck and poor judgment bedeviled Captain Bainbridge. Making a mistake that might be expected of a neophyte captain, Bainbridge anchored his ship unThe Mediterranean playing field-as a naval commander, Bainbridge sailed to the Barbary der the guns of the Algerian fort guarding Coast to help secure safe passage into the Mediterranean Sea for American merchant ships. the harbor and quickly found himself at the will of the Dey. He delivered the trib- favor and was able to secure the release of chased by, several of the enemy gunboats. ute and ransom and waited for the release the American seamen as well as some four H e ran his frigate onto an uncharted reef of the captured seamen to the American hundred Maltese, Veneti an, and Sicilian and stuck fast. The pirates of the Bashaw wasted no time in rallying their fellows Consulate. Meanwhile, the Dey suggested prisoners. he would like George Washington to "run A brief stint as skipper of the frigate and firing into Philadelphia, though with an errand" for him. Bainbridge found Essex was followed by a tour ashore, su- lirde effect. Nonetheless, Bainbridge orhimself in an untenable position; his ship perintending the construction of the brig dered most of his guns thrown overboard was anchored under the guns of the fort Syren and the schooner Vixen. Both were in an effo rt to lighten his ship and, hopecontrolled by the Dey, and he was being fine vessels and saw action in the Medi- full y, reAoar her. When the ship remained coerced to use his US warship to carry an terranean against the Barbary Corsairs. In on the hard, he ordered his men to cur off Algerian ambassador to the Ottoman Em- 1803 he met his own personal Waterloo: the foremast some six feet above the sparpire along with the Dey's own tribute to he received command of the frigate USS deck, again hoping that the reduction in Constantinople (tribute which included Philadelphia (36). weight forward would free him . All the The war with the corsairs of Tripoli while, the Algerian gunboats continued to a veritable menagerie of exotic animals).

The most humiliating part of this expe- was in its second full year and the fleet fire (though ineffectively) into his helpless rience to all onboard the frigate was that assigned to stop the pirates and protect ship. The few guns he had lefr would not they would sail under American shipping bear, and the pirates positioned their boars Captain Bainbridge dutifully delivers had been bolstered by our of their field of fire. Finally, the capthe Algerian Aag, nor US tribute to the Dey ofAlgiers. the American ensign. the arrival of Constitu- tain decided to surrender with the hope of Bainbridge had little tion, Philadelphia, Ar- saving his crew and officers from annihilagus, Syren, and several tion. Thar was 3 1 October 1803. The folchoice bur to accede to rhe Dey's request. other vessels. In Oc- lowing February, Stephen Decatur would tober 1803, Philadel- lead a small band of sailors, midshipmen, When he returned to phia, with Bainbridge naval officers, and marines in an heroic Algiers, he found the in command, and the raid to burn the ship, thus denying the good sense to anchor schooner Vixen were Tripolirans her service. beyond the range of The corsairs boarded after Bainbridge ordered to blockade the fort's guns, thus had struck his colors and rampaged the harbor at Tripoli. ensuring he would After sending his throughout the ship, raking all manner be free to leave when smaller consort af- of personal property, stores, and powder. he chose. Having huter some Tripolitan They then forced the crew to row themmored the Dey with corsairs, Bainbridge selves ashore where the Americans were his "errand" to Confound himself at first paraded through the streets of Tripoli on stantinople, he found chasing, then being their way to the Bashaw's dungeon. himself in the Dey's COURTESY WIKIPEDIA.COM

SEA HISTORY 112, AUTUMN 2005

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Within days, the corsairs had refloat- the Navy. Legend has it that he quashed by David Porter) and Ho rnet, commanded ed the frigate , recovered her guns from two mutinies during this time by himself by James Lawrence. The newly-formed squadron was instructed to proceed to the bottom, and moved her to an anchor- using just his fists.

When the war with England began sea, double Cape Horn to enter the Pacific age closer to the fort defending Tripoli's harbor. They kept the battery loaded and in June of 1812, he returned to the Navy, Ocean, and rake British merchants and whalers. manned the ship with Now this man, a small crew of sailwho had previously ors. '/ lost two ships to the For the Amerienemy, spent time in can prisoners, life was foreign prisons, and hard. To his credit, been humiliated by a Captain Bainbridge foreign power, would and his officers did find his luck changtheir best to help their ing once again; in sailors until such time December of 1812, as the seamen were he commanded Conseparated from the stitution to her seco nd officers, but meager glorious victory over rations, abuse, ina Royal Navy frigcluding being forced ate, HMS Java. This to work as slave labor time (the third for the on what was known fledgling American as the "English Fort" Navy-Stephen D e(due to all the capcatur had taken HMS tured seamen forced Macedonian in single to build it), fo llowed "Philade/,phia at Tripoli, October 31, 1803" (Watercolor by Irwin John Bevan.) ship combat just a for nearly two years.

Despite Captain Bainbridge's efforts to Lighten his ship, she remained hard aground few months befo re), Repeated bombardat the bow, vulnerable to attack from the corsairs. H e surrendered the ship and spent ment of Tripoli's the battle rook place most ofthe next two years in an Algerian prison with his officers and crew. harbor and fort by off the coast of South the American fleet, including USS Constitution and the fireship Intrepid (which, under the command of Richard Somers, exploded prematurely with the loss of all hands) , seemed to accomplish little in convincing the ruler to negotiate for the release of the Philadelphias. Ir would not be until the summer of 1805 that the Bashaw agreed to a peace with the American government and, after payment of ransom, the release of Bainbridge, his officers, and crew. Upon his return to United States soil, a court of inquiry strangely acquitted him of any blame for the disaster.

Subsequently, Captain Bainbridge was given command of the Navy Yard at New York, but after nearly two years of captivity, his embarrassed circumstances obliged him to relinquish the command and rejoin the merchant service. In an effort to restore his personal prosperity, he spent most of the next seven years commanding merchant vessels, interspersed with short stints in various ass ignments in

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seeking a frigate command. He received, instead, command of the Navy Yard at Charlestown (Boston), Massachusetts.

He was still commanding the Navy Yard in August of that year when Isaac Hull commanded USS Constitution to a smashing victory over HMS Guerriere.

Upon Hull's triumphant return to Boston, he learned his brother had died and requested a shore assignment, so as to properly serrle his brother's affai rs and provide for the widow and children. Hull suggested to Secretary Paul H amilton that he be allowed to exchange commands with William Bainbridge. Naturally, Bainbridge was only too happy to help our his colleague and return to sea in command of the most famous warship in the American Navy! Nor only did Secretary of the Navy H amilton see fir to approve the exchange, he made Bainbridge a commodore, giving him command of, not only, Constitution, but also the frigate Essex (a previous command for Bainbridge and now captained

America, where Commodore Bainbridge had established a rendezvo us with the other members of his squadron. After destroying Java and sinking the hulk, he determined that he should return to Boston, leaving Hornet and David Porter's Essex to fend for themselves. Captain Porter, who had not made the rendezvo us before Bainbridge's departure, subsequently fo llowed his original orders and took Essex around Cape Horn, making him the first American Naval officer to sail the route. He carried out his orders, sailed in the Pacific, and ravaged the British whaling fleet until the Royal Navy caught the American ship in a neutral port and pounded her into matchwood. Lawrence found a British naval brig in a Brazilian harbor, enticed her captain to engage in single ship combat with him , and, in a widely-acclaimed victory, turned the brig into a hulk in short order and then sunk her. He, too, returned to Boston a hero.

By 1813 Commodore Bainbridge had resumed his command of the Charlestown SEA HISTORY 11 2, AUTUMN 2005

Navy Yard. The Royal Navy was effec- could not be run solely by civilians. He Bainbridge." tively blockading Boston Harbor, and the believed that a preponderance of naval It was also widely held that both seccommodore was at odds for most of the professionals should work in connection onds in the duel, each of whom had the year with the governor and council about with the civilian administration. During obligation to prevent the confrontation how to properly defend their harbor and the following years, this commission was if possible, failed to carry out that obligathe Navy Yard. With his fiery disposition, indeed established and, in 1823, while in tion. Reportedly, Barron had apologized determination, and, ultimately, by trad- command of the Naval Station, Boston, to Decatur, saying, "I hope when we meet ing on his renown, Bainbridge won out; he was appointed to head the Board of in the next world, we might be better his wishes to vigorously defend the harbor Commissioners. Immediately before that friends." Decatur responded by saying, and the Navy Yard, rather than leave them assignment, Bainbridge commanded the "I have never been your enemy, sir." Afvulnerab le to the British, were carried Mediterranean Squadron from the quarter- ter the great naval hero died, Barron said deck of his new flagship, the line-of-battle repeatedly that he had spoken the words out.

It proved to be more or less a "non- ship Columbus, followed by a tour as com- in reconciliation, and that they were heard event." The British, while maintaining mander of the Philadelphia Naval Station. by all. Bainbridge and Elliot ignored the their blockade, had shifted their "salt waHis friendship with Stephen Decatur effort by both their principals, and the ter" focus to the south, specifically, on the resulted in his acting as Decatur's second com modore ordered them to make ready.

Chesapeake Bay. Bainbridge finished the in his duel with James Barron. Decatur Following his term on the Board of war in Boston and saw to the construction Commissioners, Bainbridge commanded of a new ship-of-the-line, Independence, several Navy Yards, including Phi lawhich would become his flagship for delphia and, yet again, Boston. In an expedition to the Mediterranean 1833 he was stricken with pneuin 1815 to help put down a threat monia and died on 28 July of that posed by the Barbary States. As a year. He was buried in the Christ matter of interest, a second squad- .

Church Burying Ground in Philron commanded by Stephen Decaadelphia. tur is credited with the restoration of Wi lliam Bainbridge continues to be an interesting study in peace to the region. contrasts. He demanded complete Bainbridge returned to Boston to take command of the Navy forces Engraving of the medal authorized by the US Congress in loyalty from those who served him afloat at Boston for the balance of honor of Captain Bainbridge's 29 December 1812 victory and expected they would always act in the best interests of their ship, the decade and, in 1820-21, flew his in the battle between USS Constitution and HMS Java. their service, and their flag. He flag in the ship-of-the-line, Columbus, for yet another Mediterranean cruise. had served on the court martial board was capable of holding grudges for years Unlike his previous visits, this cruise was that suspended Barron after he surren- and, in some cases, decades. He instisimply an opportunity to "show the flag," dered USS Chesapeake to HMS Leopard tuted courts of inquiry against rwo of his and he returned to resume command of in 1807. When Decatur argued that the contemporaries, Isaac Hull, in 1822, and Navy deny reinstating Barron after his Charles Stewart, in 1814, but neither rethe Charlestown Navy Yard, once agai n .

To his credit, in 1816, Bainbridge five-year suspension, the rwo engaged in sulted in a court martial as he had wished. established a school in the Yard for naval written battles for years. In March 1820, His temperament was ardent, fiery, and officers, which, some three years later, re- Decatur and Barron met on the dueling often impetuous. W hile these attributes sulted in the first board convened for the grounds at Bladensburg, Maryland, faced created difficulties for him on occasion, he examination of young officers for promo- each other with pistols and fired. Both rook what came his way in stride, though tion. The board was, of course, presided men were wounded, but Decatur's wound he frequen tly blamed others for his own shortcomings. Never did he lose his fervor over by William Bainbridge. While this wo uld prove mortal.

Decatur's widow blamed Bainbridge, for his country. ..t should not be confused with the United States Naval Academy, not established along with Captain Jesse Elliot, Barron's until 1845, it is worthy to note that the second, for the duel that resulted in her William H. White is a maritime historian commodore did recognize early on the husband's death. Her accusation indicated specializing in American naval events durneed for some type of formal training for that her husband had "never had a per- ing the Age ofFighting Sail. He has written sonal misunderstanding with the author four novels of naval fiction and is a trustee fledgling naval officers.

He also was a strong advocate for a of his death' The whole affair was gotten of NMHS, USS Constitution Museum, board of comm issioners to oversee naval up through malice and cowardice on the and a consultant to the 1812 reproduction operations; Bainbridge realized, whether part of one the seconds, Captain Elliot, privateer Lynx. Further information on the from personal frustration or simply com- and accomplished through envy and jeal- author and his books may be found at: www. mon sense, we do not know, that the Navy ousy of the part of the other, Commodore sea.fiction. net.

SEA HISTORY 112, AUTUMN 2005

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1r

he moving of military equipment and personnel across the oceans can be seen as one of the miracles of World War II. The architects of that vicrory, General of the Army Dwight Eisenhower and Fleet Admiral Chester Nimitz, however, found the situation a nightmare. No less than four government age ncies competed for merchant ships and crews. From the ashes of WWII sprang the Navy's Military Sea Transportation Service (MSTS) and its successor, the Military Sealift Command (MSC). The o rganization and duties of the MSTS/MSC mark one of the most important, yet uncelebrated, aspects of American military activity in the post-World War II and post-9/11 worlds.

Secretary ofDefense James Forrestal (left) and Fleet Admiral Chester Nimitz (right) were instrumental in creating the Military Sealift Command to streamline the transportation services ofthe four branches ofthe military.

In December 1948, Secretary of Defense Jam es Forrestal announced that all military ocean transportation wo uld be consolidated under Navy command.

By July 1949, funding issues had been resolved, and the newly-appointed Secretary of Defense, Louis Johnson, issued a memorandum officially forming the Military Sea Transportation Service (MSTS) under Rear Admiral William M. Callaghan. The new MSTS would act as a carrier service for overseas military operations, assuming responsibility for cargoes once they were loaded. Port operations would still be controlled by the respective military services.

The first MSTS ships had been Naval Transportation Service (NTS) ves-

by Frank Randall

sels and were, thus, commissioned in the US Navy and manned by military crews.

On 1 October 1949, when the NTS was dissolved and its assets and personnel transferred to MSTS, fifty-seven tankers of the Petroleum and Tanker Branch of the Chief of Naval Operations office (OP422) joined the MSTS fleet. These ships were government-owned tankers, operated by four commercial firms and manned with licensed civilian merchant mariners.

Between M arch and November of 1950, operational control of over one hundred Army Transport Service ships was transferred to MSTS. These ships were also run by civilian crews.

Almost immediately, the new MSTS got its first test. With President Truman's decision to commit US forces and to expand the M utual Defense Ass istance Program to South Korea in June 1950, the new MSTS diverted every sh ip available to the Far East. The coastal transport USAT

Sgt. George D. Keathley and the cargo ship USNS Cardinal O'Connell were rerouted to transport vital ammunition to Pusan.

With just six ships under charter when the war began, this total peaked at 255 before the war was over. More than 85 percent of all the cargo shipped to Korea by sea went onboard US commercial ships. The lessons and effects of the Korean War rem ain with the Military Sealift Co mmand today; recognizing the limitations of the WWII Maritime Commission-built fleet of merchant ships, Admiral Edward L. Cochrane initiated a program to foster ship construction and oversaw the design and building of thirty-five Mariner-class freighters. One of these ships, ex-SS Empire State Mariner, is still in operation as USNS Observation Island. MSTS's first test, coming only nine months after its initial activation, vindicated the concept of a unified sealift service under the Department of D efense.

Renamed Military Sealift Command (MSC) in 1970, the service became o ne of three component commands of the newlyestablished US Transportation Command in 1987. In addition to reporting to the US Transportation Command, the commander of MSC also reports to the Chief of Naval Operations and to the Assistant Secretary of the Navy for Research, Development and Acquisition. MSC's ships are fully integrated into the operational structure of the Navy's fleets worldwide.

Today, MSC's m ore than 10,000 employees operate an average of 120 ships every day aro und th e globe in support of US strategies and policies. More than

USNS Oberon was one ofthe first ships transferred to the Military Sea Transportation Service from the Naval Transportation Service in 1950.

delivered Air Force munirions ro distant Diego Ga rcia in the Indian Ocean and a fleer hospiral ro rhe US naval base ar Guantanamo Bay, Cuba, when Taliban and al Qaeda derainees were firsr moved rhere.

eighty percent of MSC's wo rkforce serves ar sea, from US Civil Service mariners and commercial mariners ro US Navy sailors and reservisrs. The Co mmand has fewer than 700 acrive-du ty Navy billets.

Naval Fleet Auxiliary Force ships provide combar logisrics supporr ro carrier and amphibious srrike groups. They can replenish food, fuel, and equipm ent ar sea ro keep Navy combar forces on srarion and prepared ro face any mission. Special Mission ships charr rhe sea floor, conduct undersea surveillance, lay and repair undersea cables, moniror srraregic missile lau nches, and supporr deep-submergence vessels and special operarions experimenrarion. Preposirioning ships place combar vehicles, equ ipment, and fuel in rhree srraregic locario ns aro und rhe world, ready ro deploy Army, Marine Corps, Air Force, and Navy cargo ro any region for any conringency.

Supporting the Military in the Twenty-first Century parr of irs Preposirioning Program, MSC ships remain on srario n in rhe Medirerranean Sea and easrern Arlan ric Ocean, rhe Indian Ocean, and rhe wesrern Pacific Ocean, ready ro deliver equipment, fuel, and supplies ro supporr US milirary forces in rhe evenr of a major rhearer war, hum anirarian operarion, or orher contingency.

Today, alrhough major efforrs in rhe fighr againsr rerrorism are focused on Afghanisran and Iraq, MSC is in place ro supporr milirary operarions, no matrer where rhey may be needed around the globe.

After 9/11 , MSC immediarely acrivared USNS Comfort, one of rhe Navy's rwo hospiral ships, ro provide on-sire relief for emergency workers ar Gro und Zero New York C ity. In mid-2002, rhey

Iraq War When rhe Unired Srares 111vaded Iraq in March 2003, rhe milirary needed rremendous amounrs of combar vehicles, helicoprers, supplies, and ammunition ro get ro the orher side of rhe globe, and it was MSC ships rhar delivered rhese voluminous cargoes from US and European ports ro Kuwair. From January ro May, 2003, MSC delivered 25.9 million square feer of combar cargo for US forces

heaviesr day of shipping came in March 2003 when 167 ofMSC's 214 acrive ships were directly supporting Operation Iraqi Freedom. 1his efforr included rhe hospiral ship USNS Comfort, which had deployed ro rhe Indian Ocean ro provide medical care for wounded US soldiers, Iraqi civilians, and prisoners of war.

Continuing Operations From January ro June 2004, MSC delivered nearly ren million square feer of equipmenr and replacemenr combar vehicles to Kuwai r. More rhan 14 million square feer of US fo rces gea r was scheduled for rerurn ro rhe Unired Srares, bur rhar shipment was placed on hold as milirary acrivity in Iraq increased. By rl1e end of June 2005, rhe Command had supported rhree major

USNS Supply (right) at sea bunkering USS George Washington.

involved in rhe war in Iraq. 1 his included Navy combar ships ar sea, which received nearly 200,000 pallers of munirions and food from rhe combar logisrics ships of MSC's Naval Fleer Auxiliary Force.

Meanwhile, MSC rankers and fleet replenishment oilers were busy delivering 378 million gallons of fuel for the war effort. In one atypical operation, an MSC fleer replenishmenr oiler resupplied a US submarine on extended patrol and running short of food and consumables. The MSC crewmembers broke down pallets of goods and loaded rhem into mail pouches to fir through the submarine's harches. The

troop rotarions into and our of Iraq and continuous re-supply of US forces in Afghanisran. This involved carrying more than 77 million square feet of milirary cargo ro pons aro und the world. To pur rhis number in perspecrive, 77 million square feet is equivalent ro more rhan 8 10,000 mid-size sport urility vehicles. Lined up, bumper-co-bumper, on the highways of America, rhose SUVs would stretch from New York C ity to Las Vegas. During rh e same period, MSC delivered more rhan 7.2 billion gallons of fuel.

As rhe war in Iraq conrinues, MSC remains a key player in rhe ongoing war

the disaster area, nesia. Their m1ss1on was to help restore crews onboard pre- the severely-damaged hospital to the point pared the reverse os- where Indonesian medical teams could mosis water purifi- provide medical care and treatment to tsucation units that the nami victims on their own. ships carry as part of In all, more than twenty MSC ships, their cargo, 43 units operated by nearly 1,200 civil service and in all. Upon their commercial mariners, delivered aid and arrival, they began supported relief efforts in the twelve counproducing potable tries most affected by the disaster. Whethwater-a precious er delivering food and medical supplies, commodity m a scouting coastal waterways for debris, proplace where drink- ducing fresh drinking water, or supportReady Reserve Force ship MV Cape Texas rides out a storm in ing water supplies ing carrier strike gro ups in the area, MSC the Mediterranean Sea in early March 2003. Cape Texas and had been destroyed, ships played a key role in the US mi litary's 30 other RRF ships transported cargo for the US Armys Fourth contaminated with humanitarian outreach to the region.

Infantry Division during the Iraq Wtzr. sewage, or infused Future Operations on terrorism. MSC's combat logistics with salt water. Each reverse osmosis w1it force ships travel with the Navy combat can make up to 600 gallons of potable wa- MSC's job is not complete until the last ships that form carrier strike groups and ter per hour. Five of the six ships are also tank, truck, humvee, and helicopter are expeditionary strike groups-the United each capable of making 25,000 gallons of safely back on American soil, and the last State's first line of defense. MSC supplies fresh water daily, using their onboard evap- patient is returned to family. the ships with food, fuel , and equipment, orators. The water can then be which allow them to keep on station, pumped ashore at 600 gallons per minute through nearly two ready for action.

One squadron of prepositioning miles of special hoses.

Meanwhile, two MSC ships remains strategically located in the replenishment oi lers, Western Pacific, laden with US Marine fleet Co rps equipment, while others continue USNS Tippecanoe and USNS to support the rotation of forces in Iraq john Ericsson, combat stores ship USNS San Jose, and fast and Afghanistan. combat support ship USNS Rainier, were diverted to the Tsunami Relief and Humanitarian Aid Despite the carnage of terrorist attacks area to provide food, fuel, and and the combined casualties of the war, supplies to other Navy ships in A Project HOPE nurse helps an Indonesian father the total number of deaths does not come the region and to relief activibring his daughter into hospital ship USNS Mercy's anywhere near the number of people ties ashore. Meanwhile, USNS Medical Treatment Facility during humanitarian aid killed, injured, or made homeless by the john McDonnell, an MSC efforts following the December 2004 tsunami. tsunami that struck Southeast Asia on 26 oceanographic survey ship, December 2004. By the end of February, only sixty days after the devastating event, the tsunami death toll stood at more than

300,000.

As the world united to bring aid to the people of Southeast Asia, MSC was in the vanguard. One day after the tsunami struck, MSC's Maritime Prepositioning Ship Squadron Three, operated by American Overseas Marine Corporation, Maersk Line Limited, Waterman Steamship Company, and Osprey Ship Management Company, was ordered to participate in relief efforts as part of "Operation Unified Assistance." As the six ships sailed to

began to chart the ocean floor near the coastlines of the affected areas to identify changes in seafloor features that might present a hazard to ships delivering relief supplies and water.

Finally, USNS Mercy, the other MSC hospital ship, reached the disaster area on 5 February. In just a few days, Mercy's Medical Treatment Facility had treated more than thirty patients aboard ship and was worki ng with US non-governmental organizations, as well as German, Australian, and Indonesian medical teams, to conduct daily operations ashore at Albidin Hospital in Banda Aceh, Indo-

No one can predict how long the current war will continue or where new confl icts or natural disasters may strike, but o ne thing is certain, when the time comes, MSC and America's merchant mariners will deliver! .t

Frank Randall is the senior writer for the Military Sealift Command Public Affeirs Office, Wtzshington Navy Yard, DC Additional information for this article came from Salvatore Mercogliano, PhD, from his series on the Military Sealift Command for www. usmm.org. Images courtesy MSC

MARITIME HISTORY ON THE INTERNET

Beyond Google-Exploring other Search Engines and Directories

by Peter McCracken

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his fall marks the bicentennial of Nelson's victory over the French at the Battle of Trafalgar and Nelson's death, as well.

In this issue, rather than just exploring sites that discuss Nelson and his life, I'd like to explore ways of finding more information about Nelson online: that is, ways of searching beyond Google.

Search engines like Google, Yahoo!, AltaVista, and others al l use computers to "crawl" web pages and compile data about each page. The results can be spotty, at best: a Google search for "paris hilton," for example, will return information about the fin e hotel in that great city, but also much that yo u didn't bargain for, unless yo u were searching for Paris Hilton, the . . . whatever she is.

Nonetheless, other systems do exist. Real people, looking at real web pages, place web sites into structures and assign organization.

One such site is Directory MOZilla at www.dmoz.org, "the largest human-edited directory of the web." Anyo ne can sign up to be an editor and assign sires to the existing directory or expand it as needed.

Like all web directories, dmoz has a search box in addition to its structure; so you can type in "horatio nelson" and find Society: History: By Time Period: Nineteenth Century: Wars and Conflicts: Napoleonic Wars: Personalities: Nelson, Horatio. About a dozen entries are included on Nelson, the top being the Nelson Society at http://www.nelson-society.org. uk/.

Similar projects include the Librarians' Index to the Internet at http://www.lii.org, which provides a link to a biographical site created by the BBC. The Internet Public Library at http:// www.ipl.org was created by the University of Michigan's School of Information and does similar work but does not have as many entries; a search for "horatio nelson" returned results for Nelson Mandela and Willie Nelson, but no Horatio Nelson .

Yahoo! maintains a directory at http://dir.yahoo.com, but it is primarily designed for businesses that want to advertise on the web. A search of that site turned up just 10 sires about Nelson, while a Yahoo! search found well over 100,000 . Google also has

a directory, at http://www.google. com/dirhp, and a search there returned nearly 100 useful sires .

There are, of course, many different search engines-nor just Google and Yahoo! Looksmart, for instance, at http://www. looksmart.com, searches millions of articles in addition to their human-maintained directory. You might find, for example, an article from the June 2005 Greater Baton Rouge Business Report about the "Lord Nelson Pub," in a Baton Rouge couple's home.

Because different search engines return different results, some folks like to search the search engines. Sites like http:// www.metacrawler.com, http://www.ixquick.com, and http:// www.ithaki.com take yo ur search, send it to a collection of major search engines (s uch as Google, Yahoo!, Looksmart, and others), and then compile and return the results. Most results pages have a nice '.:4.re you lookingfor?" box, which can help yo u narrow yo ur results to find the most relevant ones.

My favorite resource, though, is Wikipedia, at http://www. wikipedia.org. It's a fascinating attempt at creating the largest encyclopedia anywhere. Anyone can create or edit any entry in Wikipedia, so som e feel it does not have the accuracy or imprimatur of something like Encyclopedia Britannica. Bur with over 600,000 entries in English (and tens of thousands in dozens of other languages) , the project dwarfs any print encyclopedia, and the quality is remarkably high. Entries on a handful of controversial topics are fro zen , so only a few editors can change them, but on the whole, the system works quite well. Reading each daily featured article is a great way to learn a bit about many random topics.

Suggestions for other sites worth mentioning are welcome at shipindex@yahoo.com. See http://www.shipindex.org for a compilation of over 100,000 ship names from indexes to dozens of books and journals. J,

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S~!Wstory _.......,~~re in the world ... was Ferdinand Magellan?

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by Stephanie Allen erdinand de Magellan was 22 years old when Columbus sailed across the Atlantic Ocean . The exploration of the Americas must have had some impact on the young man.

Later in life, he would pick up where Columbus had failed , in search of a western passage to the Spice Islands.

The spice trade could produce great wealth for the Spanish Empire. The Portuguese already controlled the shortest trade route around Africa , so the Spanish would need to find another way to the East Indies. (Although Magellan was Portuguese, he sailed under the Spanish crown.)

Magellan believed he could find a western passage through the Americas to get to Asia .

Should he succeed, it would mean great riches for all involved. Astronomer Ruy Faleiro would help him use the stars to navigate uncharted waters for his fleet of five ships.

The Spanish had discovered the Rio de la Plata (between present-day Argentina and Uruguay) in 1516. Some believed that such a wide, deep body of water must be a navigable channel across South America. When Magellan reached the river in 1520, he discovered that the water upriver from the Atlantic was fresh , not salty. It could not provide the link to the Pacific Ocean .

Magellan decided to sail south to continue his search for a passage across the Americas.

By this time, winter had begun in the southern hemisphere. The fleet was forced to spend several months on the Patagonian shores.

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Although Magellan had renounced his Portuguese nationality, many of his Spanish crew still did not trust him, especially some of the ships' captains. Some of the men were already disappointed that the Rio de la Plata proved unsuccessful. Three of the captains attempted a mutiny. Because so many of the sailors respected Magellan , the mutiny failed. Magellan could have ordered the death of all the mutinous men, but instead left some of them on the uninhabited coast as he sailed on to find Asia.

Magellan hoped to resume sailing in August.

One ship he had sent on a scouting expedition was wrecked in a storm , so he decided to wait a few weeks longer for better weather.

On 1 November 1520, the fleet finally found the passage it had been seeking. The crew decided to name it All Saints' Channel, because they found it on All Saints' Day. Today the passage is called the Strait of Magellan , and it is infamous for its strong currents and frequent storms.

Magellan set two ships to the task of exploring the strait. One of the captains deserted and sailed his ship back to Spain. The remaining three ships continued to the South Pacific, which Magellan named mar pacifico, "calm sea."

Compared with the stormy seas of the Atlantic, Magellan thought the waters in this new ocean would provide smooth sailing .

No European had sailed across the Pacific Ocean before , and the fleet was ill prepared. Many

sailors from Magellan's crew died of disease or starvation on the three-month crossing.

Finally in March , the ships reached the Philippine Islands. Here , Magellan tried to form relationships with the local tribal leaders.

Because he was a deeply religious man , he also tried to teach them his Christian beliefs.

Some of the tribal leaders agreed to pledge their allegiance to the Christian God. In return , Magellan offered to help them fight against other non-Christian tribes. On 27 April 1521 , Magellan was killed in one of these inter-tribal battles.

Even without their commander, the crew was determined to continue . By this time , there were too few men to sail all three remaining ships. As their ship Concepcion burned in the water (so that it could not be used in battle against the fleet) , the two remaining vessels sailed towards the Spice Islands. They arrived in November.

The captains traded for spices and left the islands heavily laden with their valuable cargo.

Not long after the fleet's departure, the crew of Trinidad, Magellan's flagship , discovered a serious leak. They were forced to return to the islands to make the necessary repairs.

Finally, the repaired Trinidad and her crew set out to return home to Spain. This time , they were captured at sea by the Portuguese, who had been searching for the fleet since its departure. The fifty-five remaining crew members from Trinidad were eventually returned to Europe, but

the ship later sank under Portuguese command .

Victoria , the only remaining vessel from Magellan 's mighty fleet, carried on sailing across the Indian Ocean towards home . The Victoria managed to avoid the many Portuguese vessels that sailed the Indian Ocean. The Spanish ship successfully rounded the Cape of Good Hope and returned to Spain , almost three years after departing .

Victoria and her seventeen surviving sailors, under the command of Captain Juan Sebastian de Elcano, were the first to circumnavigate the world. Among their many discoveries were the distance around the earth-14,460 leagues (69,000km)- and new stars visible only from the Southern Hemisphere, including our two closest neighboring galaxies. The crew also realized that though they had carefully recorded events in the ship's log , a day was missing! This discovery led to the creation of the International Date Line. It is from this log and the journals of Antonio Pigafetta , a wealthy tourist who paid to be a part of Magellan's voyage , that we have so many details about the first trip around the world. j:, Source : Laurence Bergreen , Over the Edge of the World: Magellan 's Terrifying Circumnavigation of the Globe , HarperCollins Publishers, 2003 .

Stephanie Allen is a graduate student in Maritime Studies at Eastern Carolina University. She may be reached at StephAllen@gmail.com

Pacific Ocean

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at in the world?

by Marianne Della Croce

Can you guess what this is? a. a stove burner b. a cross used in a ship's chapel c. a tool for navigation d. a piece of radar equipment

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his is a copy of a mariner's astrolabe from 1550. The astrolabe is an old "computer" used by seamen to help them figure out where they were at sea.

A simple brass ring , it was marked with degrees and helped sailors find their latitude in the ocean. (Remember, lines of latitude run east and west and measure the distance north or south of the equator.

Lines of longitude run north and south from pole to pole.) When traveling through heavy winds and high seas, a ship would stay on course by keeping its latitude. The ship would sail to a known latitude and then sail east or west along that line.

The outer ring of an astrolabe is something like a protractor that is used to measure angles.

A mariner could measure the angle of the sun at a known time of day or a star at a known spot in the night sky, perform a simple mathematical calculation with that angle, and voila! He had his latitude.

The mariner's astrolabe was heavy so that it would not blow around on a ship in the wind and waves. It was invented by the Portuguese and was popular during the 1400s and 1500s. Those who sailed at sea would not dare to leave the shore without one.

(Magellan 's navigator would have used one like this to map the route around the world .) Nonetheless, the astrolabe was not very accurate. Errors of four to five degrees were common (one degree of latitude is sixty miles), making sailors quite lost. Over time , newer and more accurate instruments were invented to achieve the same purpose.

Only after the seagoing chronometer was perfected could navigators measure longitude and get a "fix," or position , on a chart.

That expensive tool was beyond the means of many navigators when it was invented in the mid 1700s.

The astrolabe shown here is on display at the American Merchant Marine Museum in Kings Point, NY. If you guessed that this is a tool for navigation , you found your way to the correct answer!

Marianne Della Croce is Curator at the American Merchant Marine Museum. She can be reached at 516 773-5515.

SEA HISTORY 112, AUTUMN 2005

~~9 in the world .. .is a nautical archaeolo@st?

by Stephanie Allen eventy percent of the earth is covered with water. It's no surprise, then , that people have been traveling by boat for thousands of years. Most vessels reach their destinations without many problems; some sink to a watery grave. They lie on the sea floor, waiting to be discovered.

When a boat sinks, it doesn't necessarily go down in one piece.

Instead , it may break up, spilling its contents across the seabed.

Nautical archaeologists view the pieces they can find as parts of a puzzle. Each part tells a storyabout the lives of the people who built the ship and sailed it, and how the ship was lost. That is why it is so important that archaeologists carefully record every detail before touching or removing anything from a wreck. If one object

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is moved , the whole story can be interpreted differently. Remember, too, these puzzles may have missing pieces.

Though we can all picture a ship sailing across the water,

few people can imagine how a wreck might appear after years beneath the waves. A ship might look like a pile of boards or be covered with plants and tiny marine animals.

It might be buried completely Nautical archaeologists document shipwrecks using under mud or SCUBA equipment and simple tools like a measuring tape, pencil, and sheets of Mylar taped to a slate. sand , to be found only with high-tech equipment. Nautical use sign language to commuarchaeologists study ships care- nicate on the wreck site, but fully to understand what they these messages are mostly are looking at when they find a limited to emergencies. They shipwreck. They must also be- write with a pencil on Mylar, a come experts in identifying ship special underwater paper. They construction materials and build- document the wreck by drawing ing techniques. These skills help what they can see, measure, them determine the period when and feel on sheets of Mylar and the ship sailed and the purpose record any information they can for which it was used . gather from the wreck itself. archaeologists Underwater Nautical archaeology is use remote sensing equipment to hard work. It requires paying "see" underwater and find ship- close attention to details so imwrecks. Magnetometers, which portant information is not overare like giant underwater metal looked. Unlike archaeologists detectors, and side scan so- on land , nautical archaeologists nar, which uses sound waves , must deal with the dangers an help create a picture of the bot- underwater environment can tom . When archaeologists find a create. Sometimes the water is wreck, they may use SCUBA gear icy cold , very deep, murky, or to dive on the wreck and record it. turbulent. Being an underwater Some archaeologists use Remote archaeologist is not for everyOperating Vehicles (ROV). These one, but the thrill of discovery remote-control robots let them makes enduring the long hours reach wrecks that are too deep for and challenging conditions worthwhile. J, humans to access.

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"HUMANITY AFTER VICTORY" How Nelson's Victory at Trafalgar Changed the Course ofHistory

by Peter Stanford elson had a clear picture of how the Battle of Trafalgar wo uld be won. H e also had a sure feeling fo r what the battle was about. O n the m orning of 21 O ctober 1805, with the co mbined French and Spanish Beet in sight, Nelson wrote down his hopes for the battle in a prayer. H e first asked his God for victory fo r his country "and fo r the benefit of Europe in general."

As the m orning light wavered across the paper, for an uneasy swell set HMS Victory rolling in the ligh t winds, fo rerunner of the storm which arrived after the battle, he added : "and may human ity after Victory be the predominant feature in the British Aeet."

In this brief appeal ro the h igh est judgment, N elson tho ught not only of his own country, which he adored, but of "the benefit of Europe in general." The calm ass urance of victory in the impending co ntest is pure Nelso n, but calling for humanity as the predominant feature of the figh ting Beet suggests a rare and wonderful expanse of vision.

Nelson's patriotism, one that recognized a wider world, and his vision embracing the human nature of the an tago nists he was about to attack was widely shared in Britain in this era. H is was a vision understood and accepted in a fiercely aggressive organization, whose crews rattled their enemies by cheering as they flew into action. This vision held under the stress of combat. British sailors manned boats to rescue the French Achille's crew when that ship caught fire as the battle still raged, risking their own to save enemy lives when the ship blew up. After his surrender, the French Admiral Villeneuve was received as an honored guest in the Beet and subsequently feted in Lo ndon fo r his gallant defense. On his return to France, Villleneuve committed suicide rather than face N apoleon's wrath.

Nelson fell to a French sn iper's bullet on Victory's quarterdeck a few ho urs after writi ng o ut his brief prayer. His death did nothing to diminish the fo rce of h is message, rather it grew and carried far in the com ing years of the Pax Britannica.

W hat, then, were rhe res ults of Nelso n's victory? T he imm ediate consequence of Nelson's triumph ar Trafalgar was the destructio n of more than half the en em y's pri ncipal fleet -eighteen ships sunk or surrendered out of thir ty-three. This enabled Britai n to confine Napoleon to his territorial conquests in Europe. It also confirmed Britain's ability to "rule rhe waves" and prosper on growing wo rld trade fro m which E uro pe was excluded, excep t fo r an active smuggling trade which p assed thro ugh British hands.

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(left) England's Pride and Glory. "H e was a boy your age, " this Victorian mother may be teLling her son-not talking about N elson, but about the son of the French captain Casabianca. lhe captain's son was kiLled when France's L'Orien t blew up in the Battle of the Nile, won by Nelson in 1798, as depicted in the painting next to Nelson's portrait. lhe mother and son would have known about the boy because generations ofBritish schoolboys had to Learn the poem "Casabianca" in school. Few peoples, p erhaps, celebrate their most famous hero by a panegyric to a young victim of his battles-but Britons did, honoring Nelson's caLL fo r "H umanity After Victory. "Painting by Thomas Davidson, circa 1890, (oil on canvas, 3 0 ft. x 23 1h ft.), courtesy of the National Maritime Museum, London.

SEA HISTORY 11 2, AUTUMN 2005

Britain was rhus enabled to suppo rt up risings against Napoleon's rule-notably in Portugal and Spai n-which destabilized France's dominance of the continent. 1 his ultimately led to Napoleon's decision to invade Russia to break thro ugh to the eastward and wo rld conquest. When he failed in this rash stroke, the nations of Europe rose together and, with British support, d rove the Em peror into exile while achieving their own freedom- making victo ry a "benefit to Europe in general," indeed!

Ano ther gain of vital im portance to the future was the idea of what Nelson called "humanity" -the bel ief that manki nd is born free and endowed with undeniable rights. This concept had been inherent in English Common Law and was made specific in their Bill of Rights of 1689. In America's breakaway, the notion was resoundingly affirmed in the An1erican D eclaration ofindependence of 1776, which has been called freedom's mission statement, and confirmed in the US Constiw tion and Bill of Rights of 1789.

Fo r Britain, the o utcom e of these adva nces produced the co nviction , shared to a notable extent by all levels of society, that Britons were fighting fo r freedom in figh ting the Napoleo nic War. This m atter needs to be recognized fo r the major, hi story-changing facto r it was, as tested in the terrible fi res of wa r. John N icol, a deckhand in N elso n's Aeet, was drafted by the press gang but still considered himself a free m an, figh ting fo r freedom's cause. H is jo urnal portrays a person who stood on his own feet within the confines and restrictions of shipboard society and kept up his enthusias m to win the next battle and ultimately the war. These attitudes bred a cohes io n that m ade British crews formidable in action . Their custom of cheering as they went into action, N icol recorded , m ade as much impression on captured French officers as the overwhelming rate of fi re achieved by the crews of British sh ips.

O n the American side much the sam e ethos was at work, p roducing the stunning single-ship victories over British friga tes gained by U SS Constitution and other American vessels in the War of 1812. The American victories were hammered home by stronger-built American ships-but Britons were accustomed to winning in the face of unfavo rable odds. In this case, however, in fighting American crews of comparable discipline and spirit, their usual advantage was go ne.

A societal ethos, based on dedication to freedom, individual initiative and willingness to serve in freedom's cause, had a profo und effect on wo rld history once the Napoleo nic War was wo n.

W hen the young American Republic was coming of age and moving toward its continental destiny and the Pax Britannica was raking shape, that ethos of freedom cam e into play in ways that could not have been predicted and, in fac t, surprised rhe wo rld repeatedly, including rhe American and British acto rs who were making decisions on what happened o n rhe world stage. Vital decisions began to crowd o n both natio ns as soon as peace was achieved in rhe struggle against Napoleo nic France.

A Community of Principle The first peace brokered was one between rhe two English-speaking protago nists to end rhe War of 1812. The Americans had learned the great lesson that Canada had no desire to be "liberated"

27

the imperial powers, and the Royal Navy's dominance ensured that no European force reached American shores. This wave of British intervention ch anged the course of histo ry.

To make it stick, they proposed what became the Mo nroe D octrine as a joint accord with the US. Pres ident M onroe consulted with fo rmer Pres idents Adams and Jefferson, who suppo rted this, but, interestingly, Fo reign Secretary John Quincy Adams opposed it.

H e said that there might be a "community of interest" in the British proposal, but what Victory in Tow. H MS Victory under tow by HMS N eprune to safe harbor at Gibraltar after the we needed in such a binding damage she sustained at Trafalgar. Nelson's flagship went on to a long career as one of the Royal Navy scheme was a "communi ty of capital ships that underwrote the worldwide Pax Britannica. Today, she still carries that message as a principle."

In other words, a commissioned warship on exhibition at Portsmouth, England. Painting by Clarkson Stanfield philosophic commitment goand become pan of the United Stares, and G rear Britain had ing beyond the British interest in free trade with the Americas, learned to respect American rights ar sea. There was never any which a revival of the Spanish Empire in America would have requestion of Britain "reconquering" America in 18 12, a fantasy stricted . For this reason, he pointed out, the British were barring entertained by movie makers and, alas, some histo rians today- French and Spanish intervemion by sea anyway, without benefit bur ambiguities in the status-quo peace that was signed could of a pact that might ultimately prove embarrassing to the United have led to conflict. There arose poims of tension as rhe US and Stares. So when rhe Monroe D octrine was announced, the growing Canadian borders stretched westward in com ing years. No nethe- strength of the US was lined up w irh the British navy to contain less, rhe factual, on-the-ground achievement of that peace was European mili tarism , without a wrirren agreement. The Commuone unprecedem ed in recorded history- a 3, 000-mile undefend- ni ty of Principle, tho ugh nor declared, proved to exist when the ed fromier between two nations that had been at war. This is a chips were down. Later events made this very clear. remarkable early example of American and British determinati on A big tes t came with the American Civil War. British industo rise above the powe r politics of rhe day-in effect a rejectio n try depended on Southern cotto n and naval stores, and Southern of zero-sum military gam es in favor of cooperative relationships leaders, closely involved with the British aristocracy, felr King among nations. N ot heaven on earth, but a bold and successful Co tto n wo uld compel British recognition of their independence. step toward the lion lying down wirh the lamb. No t that America They had a rude shock com ing to them; from the o utset the Britwas anybody's lamb. ish pursued a strict neutrality. They allowed all co mers (i ncluding The second great developmem to ser the pattern of wo rld Southerners) to buy ships and arms for cash on the barrelhead. evem s was even more radical, rhe proclama tion of rhe Mon roe More serio us was the French expedition to Mexico to collect o n Doctrine in 1823. This much-misunderstood American initiative overdue debts, m ounted when the C ivil War had American forces followed on intense negotiatio ns launched by Britain, aimed ar fully occupied. The British joined in the French imervemion but gerring an Anglo-American proclam ation declaring the Ameri- pulled o ut when the expedition developed into an armed invacas off-bounds to European intervention. Europe posed a very sion . They then barred French reinforcements, which might have real danger in this regard, because once a European peace was sustained rheir Emperor Maximilian on his throne.

In the Spanish-American War and in rhe Open D oor Policy, established and rhe Bourbon monarchy reinstated in France, the leading E uropean powers united in a Hol y Al liance to quell revo- which preserved the territorial imegrity of C hina in 1899, Britai n lutions and maintain despotic societies. France and Spain par- aligned itself wirh America. These and other examples of ove rseas ticularly wam ed to recover their positions in the Americas, where cooperation also served the free-trade imeresrs of borh societies, South and Central American republics had arisen and thrown off but in one critical area commercial considerations clearly did not imperial rule. play a role. This was the seismic change in the wo rld order, which Britain naturally opposed this and, in fac t, aided the new led to the abolition of the slave tra de and ultimately of slavery American republics in "all measures short of war." British volun- itself in all English-speaking countries. From Britain's abolition of teers like Admiral Cochrane, who led ships and armies against slavery in England and Canada in. 1772 to rhe abolition of slavery 28

SE A HISTORY 11 2, AUT UMN 2005

He first asked his Godfor victory for his country ''andfor the benefit ofEurope in general."

He added, ''and may humanity after Victory be the predominantfeature in the British fleet." in the United States in 1865, in less than a hundred years, this wo rldwide evil, one that had sustained the economies of virtually all societies on earth througho ut recorded hi sto ry, was permanently outlawed in all English-speaking countries.

Revisionist historians have m aintained that Mansfield's decision of 1772 did not free slaves in Britain but only prevented them from being shipped from there to the Caribbean. This was refuted in these pages in Sea History 97 (S ummer 2001), and the actual freeing of all slaves in Britain has since been documented in widely-accepted studies. The complications of the institution and the insidious tentacles it extended into all branches of human affairs allowed violations of the law to arise, but the testimony of people vitally concerned at the time makes clear the actual effect of the M ansfield ruling. US newspapers predicted ruin of Southern plantatio ns if the ruling were extended to the American colonies, and a recent, well-documented book, Slave Nation, maintains that this issue sparked the outbreak of the American Revoluti on soon after. Certainly it led plantation owners, who had hitherto glori ed in their standing with the British royal court, w join in the pursuit of independence. Most telling was when, decades later, Frederick Douglass went to England to raise money to buy his freedom , he was called "a Mansfield."

The end of slavery within less than a century from a British judge finding that it was too "odious" a condition to exist on British soil was a stunning examp le of the reality of the C ommitment of Principle. This began to be felt throughout the civilized world as Britain and America increas ingly found themselves standing together in the years of the Pax Britannica. When that peace was threatened, America entered World War I to preserve the Atlantic lifeline that kept Britain alive. Exactly the same principle held in World War II, in which the US joined fully in the North Atlantic struggle, losing ships and men and severely cramping Germany's submarine offensive long before the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor plunged the nation into an all-out war.

The Commitment of Principle was finally articulated in the US and British Atlantic C harter of August 194 1, four months before the United States was legally at war. The document was unprecedented in form and substance. It com mitted the United States (a neutral nation) to the destruction of Germany's "Nazi tyranny." It reaffirmed each of President Roosevelt's Four Freedoms, and it added a provision for "the establishment of a wider and more permanent system of general security." FDR had to be careful abo ut that one because isolationist sentiment still ran strong in the US. Winston Churchill, as the writer of the charter, insisted on this vital clause and, attached as a rider to the popular cause of disarmament, it got by. This document was never signed by the partners. Nonetheless, the commitment to its goals was such that the founding partners adhered to its provisions during the war and in the ensuing peace. This was new in the long story

of human conAict-real action based on avowed principles, in both war and in the ensuing peace.

After US entry into Wo rld War II, the United Nations was formed as a m ilitary alliance, with each nation pledged to uphold the prin ciples embodied in the Atlantic Charter. In the long road th at led from Trafalgar to the Atlantic Charter, obstacles and setbacks were overcome. Today, the United Nations faces severe challenges in its mission. Surely, it can achieve the goals of the Atlantic C harter if the effort is pursued with the commitment of principle that brought us so far on the road to world peace and growing freedom. J, Further reading: The Life & Adventures ofjohn Nicol, Mariner, by John Nicol (Farrar& Rinehart, New York and Toronto, 1936: orig. edition 1822) for seamen's life in Nelson's navy The Wooden World: An Anatomy of the Georgian Navy, by N. A. M. Rodger (Naval Institute Press, Annapolis MD, 1986) for fu ll docum entation and first-hand testimony on how Royal Navy shi pboard organization worked in Nelson's time US Foreign Policy: Shield ofthe Republic, by Walter Lippman (Little, Brown & Co., Boston, 1943) for origins of the Monroe Doctrine and US intervention in WWI Life & Times ofFrederick Douglass: Written by Himse/f(Park Publishing Co., Hartford CT, 188 1; facsimi le ed. Carol Publishing Gro up, New York, 1995) Use this full edition; first edition covers only his experience as a slave, not what he did once free .

Slave Nation: How Slavery United the Colonies & Sparked the American Revolution, by Alfred W. and Ruth G . Blumrosen (Sourcebooks, Inc., Naperville IL, 2005) for the impact of the Mansfield decision

Peter Stanford has served as president ofNMHS and ofSouth Street Seaport Museum in New York City. He is editor-at-large of Sea History, a roving commission suited to his and his wife Norma's love of exploring the maritime world.

Prime Minister Winston Churchi!! aboard HMS Prince of Wales watches his friend President Franklin D. Roosevelt steam off in USS McDougal after their Atlantic Charter meeting. Fresh from battle with Germany's Bismarck, the British ship will be sunk by Japanese bombers fou r months later in this hard-fought war.

SEA HISTORY 112, AUTUMN 2005

29

Ciloucerter Shftx Mid FidiermMt) the Art oj ~ HOJM

by Reese Palley r was rhe binh of an era; ir was rhe death of an era. Ir was rhe moment when C lio and Neptune, rhe muse of hisrory and rhe god of rhe sea, abandoned rhe smooth glide of rhe waltz and gave themselves ro rhe raucous jangle of rhe Charlesron. Ir was when rhe quiet urgings of rhe great clouds of sail gave way ro rhe strident and discordam bang of sreel on steel. Ir was in rhar irreversible momem rhar we wem from living in harmony wirh the earth ro gobbling up its capital. Ir was rhe beginning of rhe Industrial Revolution in rhe oceans which, in rhe subsequent brief span of rwo generations, ravaged our piscine resources so deeply rhar many species are already gone and others are struggling ro survive. Ir was also a momem when rhe fisherman, as an individual, became obsolete. When the soul-satisfying rug ar rhe end of a thin line was replaced by New Ways on Quero Bank, (1981, Oil on panel, 26 x 36 inches) rhe ruthless sack of rhe oceans by sreamThe schooner Annie M. Parker, Launched in 1901, is depicted sharing the powered draggers who scraped rhe sea fishing grounds in 1906 with the steel screw steamer Spray, built in 1905 Boor clean with orrer trawls. in Quincy, Massachusetts. Spray fished with an otter trawl.

As we jolted from rhe ninereemh ro rhe rwemierh cemury, side by side on rhe most terrifying fishing grounds in rhe world, rhe last of of circling gulls, has already filled irs holds and is off for home ro rhe great fishing schooners competed wirh the first of rhe steam- catch rhe early high marker price. Two lone figures man the deck powered vessels, which rook an our of rhe gleaning of fish and of rhe steamer, compared ro rhe numerous crew of the schooner.

The rwo are ar rest, labors completed, wages earned, in pleasurable amiciparion of a restful rrip home while rhe dorymen labor on. Hoyne painted this scene in rhe dark and gloomy colors rhar reBecr rhe quiet resignation of rhe dorymen ro their fare. A mericuluous researcher of rhe hisrory of his subject, he concrerized rhe very momem rhar seamen were forced ro join an irreversible challenge ro rhe balances of life on rhe eanh itself.

Tom Hoyne was one of those peculiarly fonunare men whose life, as he knew ir, was abrupdy canceled with a death semence by cancer. In mid-life, after a successful career as an illusrraror for rhe advertising communiry, Hoyne was diagnosed with an inoperable cancer and given rwo years ro live. 'Nothing so concemrares rhe mind as rhe rhrear of death,' and Hoyne, balancing his life's work against a foresh ortened future, put aside rhe 'roys of his childhood.' At char momem he dedicated rhe resr of Thomas Hoyne (1924-1989) his life ro winkling our from rhe fog of hisrory rhe great fishing replaced ir with rhe blind and ab usive power of industry. Ir was schooners rhar worked rhe terrible waters of rhe cold, foggy, and this inseam that Tom Hoyne caught with stunning impact in his ofren srormy seas of rhe Grand Banks.

A srubborn man, Hoyne refused ro die in the rwo years allotpaiming New Wtiys on Quero Bank. In ir, a handliner fishing from his smal l dory comemplares rhe steel behemoth which will soon ted and, perversely, lived for sevenreen more. Ulrimately, and persupplam his way of life. H e stands immobile, caught in a poi- haps more perversely, he died of something else. In rhar brief span gnant momem in which he sees his future, or rhe lack of ir, in of rime he produced a hundred paimings-demanding works rhe steam vessel heading for home. Scattered around his mother conceived, researched, and executed ar rhe rare of one every rwo schooner work rhe other dories ofhandliners returning with their momhs. From rhe day his cancer ended his former life, Hoyne, catches. The steam trawler, fully laden as evidenced by rhe cloud obsessively and with huge energy, made his cencury of paimings.

I

30

SEA HISTORY 112, AUTUMN 2005

car litter, which could better Ir is nor entirely clear rep licate rhe water's surface) . why this midwesrern landsHis peers acknowledged him m an, embedded almost as the greatest of all painters equidistantly from the great of water. His paintings ran oceans to the east and west, the gamut of an infinite vachose rhe prodi gious task of riety of sea states. From the recreating in exquisite and acoily sheen of a calm sea, heavcurate derail rhe communi ty ing gently from rhe memory of rhe great fishing schooners of a distant storm, to rhe of rhe rum of rhe century. vertically-crested thrusts of Even more puzzling was his a shoaling, gale-driven sea, choice of locale, as he could Hoyne was uniquely able to have m o re easily limned the Losing the Jib, (1981, Oil on canvas, 24 x 30 inches) express both rhe softness and sailing vessels of the Great The 47-foot pinky schooner Eagle was built in Essex, MA, in 1820. hardness of water, sometimes Lakes only a few hours from even within rhe same canvas. his home. He credited artist Gordo n Grant for advising him to paint the working people in In Losing the jib we can sense the weight and steely mass of water their element, as opposed ro the classic depictions of lofty ships bui lding into nasty short crests by half a gale.

Nonetheless, the sailors were ever ar the heart of his works. with their full spreads of canvas.

To ensure rhar he could envision the ships with precision, Hoyne caught their proud dedication to what must have been the he commissioned the doyen of ship modeling, Erik Ronnberg, to worst job in the world. On rhe headrig in Losing the j ib a fish erreplicate rhe ships that becam e subj ects of his paintings. H oyne man represents a theme that Hoyne revisited in many paintings. placed the m odels in a sandbox to recreate the vessels' heel and 1he epitome of danger and discomfort, this image of a lone man pitch in his small ocean of sand (actually, he fill ed his sandbox with grappling a wet, heavy, stiff, cotton jib against a tearing wind and

Hold Her To It! (1987, Oil on canvas, 24 x 38 inches) Named after a fast yacht, the M cManus-designed S rilerto was launched in 1910 and later stranded on a sandbar of/New j ersey in 193 0. Schooner captains and crews took as much p ride in their shiphandling prowess as they did in their fishing skills.

a dousing sea tells the whole tale of crewing on the Grand Banks. These were men who did it day in and day out, year after year, sometimes perishing in the act, as if it were only a routine thing to do.

In chis photograph (left) of Hoyne perched on a sloping board in his studio, watching himself in a mirror, he sought that snapshot of a sailor on a lurching, heeling vessel as his body acconnmodaces to che sea. le was chis son of passionate dedication to the truth of a moment chat led him to create the larger, historical truths of his paintings. Hoyne remains an historian of a different son, one who brought the past to life, not with words but with an image. His images of the ships and the seas, che skippers and sailor/fishermen going about their unimaginably h ard labors convey to us now an abiding truth of chat moment of our maritime past. Of the fishermen themselves he painted, wich great respect, the son of men they were and reminds us of how unlikely we are ever again to know chat breed. For whatever random concatenation of events that led Tom Hoyne to range in his mind the cold coasts of Newfoundland, we can be ever grateful.

Race to Market, (1978, Oil on panel, 22 x 28 inches) The high-spirited men who sailed the fast, beautiful fishing schooners couldn't resist racing each other. Inevitably, there were challenge races and exchanges of monies. Then came the international challenges that led to the famous cup races, which went on, not too peacefally, for many years.

Reese Palley is an art dealer, author, and sailor who circumnavigated on his sailing vessel, Unlikely, with his wife, Marilyn over the course ofeighteen years. In their new book, Wooden Ships and Iron Men, The Maritime Arr of Thomas Hoyne, Reese and Marilyn Arnold Palley have gathered all one hundred of Hoyne's paintings between its covers. In conjunction with the publication of the book, the Independence Seaport Museum in Philadelphia has mounted Hoyne's first ever one-man show. Almost halfofHoyne's paintings are mounted together in one exhibit space. (See: Quantuck Lane Press/WW Norton, New York, 2005, ISBN 1-59372- 013-0). Captions for Hoyne's paintings based on the artist's written comments on each painting. All images in this article courtesy ofand copyrighted to Dori Hoyne.

MARINE ART NEWS

Rowing Station and GimbledCup

In July, the Seven Seas Gallery in Nantucket, MA, celebrated the diversity of what we call Marine Art with a show highlighting the works of artist Mark C. Parsons. Originally from Marion, MA, Parsons and four childhood friends rebuilt a wrecked 42-ft. ketch and sailed it around the wo rld in the early 1990s. Though he wouldn't describe himself as a marine artist, many of his sculptures clearly show the influence of his fouryear, 30,000 mile sailing voyage. Parsons teaches drawing an d sculpture at Hunter College and archirecrure ar rhe Prarr Instirure in Brooklyn, where his studio is locared. He holds a BA in sculpture from rhe University ofMassachuserrs-Dartmourh and an MFA from Cornell University.

Among orher places, his wo rk has been displayed in the Arrists Gallery at rhe San Francisco Museum of Modern Arr, rhe ISE C ultural Foundation in New York, rhe Unired Narions in New York, rhe Kennedy Center For The Arrs in Washingron, DC, rhe Provincerown Arr Museum, and rhe New Bedford Arr Museum. For more information on Mr. Parsons, see: www.rharartist.com. (right) Mark Parsons' sculpture.

(left) "Security Boarding'

by Stephanie Fracasso, (oil on canvas, 18 x 14 inches) "Members ofa Coast Guard Marine Safery and Securiry Team conduct an at-sea boarding ofa commerical vessel. "

In June, the Coast G uard accepted 30 pieces of original artwork inro its permanent collection. Stephanie Fracasso's oil painting "Security Boarding" was awarded rhe George Gray Award for artistic excellence in depicting rhe missions of rhe USCG . The Coasr G uard Arr Program uses fine art as an ourreach rool for educaring audiences abour rhe USCG. Through public displays at museums, galleries, libraries, and events, Coasr G uard arr rells rhe srory of rhe service's missions, heroes, and hisrory.

TI1e Annapolis Marine Arr Gallery and arrisr John Barber have announced a new parrnership, whereby the Gallery is rhe sole disrriburor and publisher of his limired edirion prims. Barber has dedicated his wo rk ro documenting rhe endangered and vanishing aspecrs of rhe C hesapeake Bay and rheArlantic coast. Mr. Barber srudied ar Virginia Commonwealth University in Richmond, where he received his BFA in 1969. During rhar rime, he became arruned ro rhe plighr of rhe Chesapeake Bay and has devored much of his career ro painting rhe beauty of rhis valuable and rhrearened esruary. Each year, Mr. Barber spends considerable rime in rhe field, actually working on the decks of skipjacks, buy-boats, and crab skiffs ro develop a more intimate knowledge of his subj ects. Mr. Barber is a member of the American Society of Marine Artists, TI1e Nature Conservancy, the Virginia Coasr Reserve, and the Chesapeake Bay Foundation, of which he was recenrly made a rrustee, and has COU RTF.SY ANN APO LIS MARI NE A RT GALLERY made continous efforts ro protecr rhe heritage of the C hesapeake Bay. Through donations of his art work and copyrights, nearly a half-million dollars has been raised ro further the efforts of rhese non-profir conservation groups. (Annapolis Marine Art Gallery, 110 Dock St., Annapolis, Maryland 2 1401; Ph. 410 263-4100; www. annapolismarineart.com. Also: John Barber Arr, Inc., Ph. 804 814-475 1; www.johnbarberart. com; e-mail: info@johnbarberarr.com) (right) "Twilight Finish" by john Barber Twilight Finish depicts Wednesday Night Races at the Annapolis Yacht Club in downtown Annapolis.

SEA HISTORY 112, AUTUMN 2005

35

~SHIP NOTES, SEAPORT & MUSEUM NEWS

'f!jJfl

Guam and Hawaii are lobbying to be the Pacific homeport for a Navy aircraft carrier, eyeing che chousands oflocal jobs and millions of dollars ic could bring co one of che islands' econom ies. The Pencagon is considering moving one ofics twelve carriers co eicher Guam or Hawaii co be closer co pocencial flash poinrs in Asia. The pending decision pies two cropical economies, each heavily dependenr on courism

SPUN YARN nacive American culcures chriving along ics shores. Smich's 1612 map resulcing from chese exploracions was che firsc accurace depiccion of che Chesapeake and served as che definicive map of che region for nearly a cenrury. His noces describing che indigenous people and che Chesapeake Bay ecosyscem are scill widely scudied by hiscorians, environmenral scienciscs, and anchropologiscs. The Caprain John Smich Four-Hundred Projecc is an educacional iniciacive of Sulrana Projeccs, Inc., undercaken co commemorace che four-hundredch anniversary of chis imporcanc evenr. In che meamime, Sul ran a Projeccs, Inc. is building a reproduccion of John Smich's shallop in Chescenown, MD, co panicipace in che inauguracion ofche new John Smich Chesapeake National Wacer Trail during the summer of 2007 . ... The Hiscoric American Engineering Record (HAER) of che Nacional Park Service is seeking black & whice phocos of SS United States for documenracion of che ship for che Library of Congress. If you have large formac B&W phocos of che ship, please comacc che SS Uniced Scaces Foundacion ac: rhwescover@ssunicedsraces. org; Ph. 703 625-3037. For more informacion abouc HAER, visic cheir web sice ac: www.cr.nps.gov . . . Independence Seaport Museum in Philadelphia was presented with a 7-foot scale model of USS Monterey (CVL-26) during a ceremony in May. Ray Guyecce, who builc che model, donaced ic co che museum in che

and che milicary, in direcc compecicion for more defense dollars. The US cerricory of Guam, che largesc of che Norchern Mariana Islands, is a mosdy rural island of 160,000 people. Locaced jusc a few hours by plane from che Korean peninsula and che Taiwan Scraics, Navy and Air Force land covers a chird of che island. This year, che Air Force srarced roracing F- l 5s co Guam from Idaho and B-2s co che island from Missouri. 1hree accack submarines have been based here in che pasc chree years. Hawaii is headquarcers for che US Pacific Command, whose cerricory spreads from che Wesc Coasc co che Indian Ocean. . .. This summer, Congress passed legUSS Moncerey model and former crewmembers. islation authorizing a feasibility study for the establishment of a National Historic Trail on the Chesapeake Bay chac would crace che roures of John Smich's 1608 expedicion.

This is a significam seep forward in che effon co escablish che John Smich Chesapeake Nacional Wacer Trail, a cencral goal of che Capcain John Smich Four Hundred Projecc. In 1608, Caprain name of a former crewmember of che ship, John Smich and fourceen English colonises William Terheun (2nd row, 3rd from lefc sec ouc on a journey co explore and map in phoco). A wreach-laying ceremony also che Chesapeake Bay. Covering more chan cook place co commemorace che sai lors 1,700 miles in jusc over chree monchs, who served aboard che ship. • . • A new Smich and his men saw a Chesapeake Bay e-publicacion produced by S. Daniel chac is scarcely imaginable coday, wich ics Smich, war Stories journal, requests ecosyscem incacc and wich a mulcicude of stories from current and former mem-

36

bers of the armed forces. Firsc person narracives and phocos will depicc warcime and peacecime accivicies. (S. Daniel Smich, 12201 Mara Lynn Rd. #7204, Licde Rock, AR 722 11 ; Ph. 501 217-9004; e-mai l: sdansmich@gmail.com) ••• The Praeger Explorations in World Maritime History series is looking for maritime historians to author individual volumes in the series. The books are inrended co be narracive surveys chac serve as praccical incroduccions or handbooks co cheir copies. The books will be marketed coward general readers and advanced high school and college-level scudems. Individual cides may be wriccen by one or more auchors. Concacc series edicor, Lincoln Paine ac LPainel@maine.rr.com. Mr. Paine is an edicor and hiscorian whose books include

Ships ofthe World: An Historical Encyclopedia and Down East: A Maritime History of Maine. • . . The Historic Naval Ships Association has a new address. Please updace your informacion co: (HNSA, 409 Main Sc., Smichfield, VA 23430-1375; Ph. 757 356-9422; Fax: 757 356-9433; email: info@hnsa.org) ... In March, che DeTour Reef Light in Lake Huron was officially listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Two months later, Michigan Governor Jennifer Granholm named the DeTour Reef Light Preservation Society (DRLPS) as a recipient of the Governor's Award for Historic Preservation. Creaced in 2003, che awa rd recognizes individuals, developers, corporacio ns, academic insricucions, and unics of governmenr chac have undenaken rehabiliracion of hiscoric resources or archaeological excavacions, or implemenred sound public policy co promoce preservacion. DRLPS has worked si nce 1998 co rescore and preserve che DeTour Reef Lighc locaced a mile offshore in norchern Lake Huron. Builc in 1931 , che lighchouse is a scracegic and hiscoric landmark chat marks a reef endangering ship craffic between Lake Huron and Lake Superior via che Sc. Mary's River. Rescoracion was compleced in 2004 and public cours began this pasc summer. (DFLPS, POB 307, Drummond Island, MI 49726; www.

SEA HISTORY 112, AUTUMN 2005

drips.com; e-mail : drlps@lighthouse. net) . . . The few college semester at sea programs on ships are struggling to survive.

In May, the University of P ittsburgh suddenly severed its 24-year spon sorship of "Semester at Sea," citing concerns about safety and governance of the ship's operation. Enrollment is down for rwo established sailing semester programs, the Sea Education Association's Sea Semester (SEA) out of Woods Hole, MA, and Long

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Island University's SEAmester program.

SEA has can celled its secon d fall term this year, and SEAmester is barely hanging on since the close ofLIU's Southampton College campus in August 2005 . SEAmester will now be run out of LIU's CW Post campus and will be underway this fall on the Ocean Classroom Fdn.'s schooner Spirit of Massachusetts. Supporters of each program are encouraged to pass the word and help bring in new students. (SEA, POB 6, Woods Hole, MA 02543; Ph. 800 552-3633; www.sea.edu, and SEAmester, www.liu.edu or co nract Ocean C lassroom Fdn., 23 Bay St. ,Watch Hill, RI 02891; Ph. 800 724-SAIL; www.oceanclassroom. org; e- mail : mai l@oceanclassroom .o rg) ... Author William H. Bunting (Portrait of a Port: Boston, 1852-1914 and Sea Struck) has agreed to write a book on the maritime traditions of the Sewall family of Maine, using the Sewall Family Papers in the Maine Maritime Museum collection. NASOH awarded Mr. Bunring the prestigious John Lyman Book Award in May 2005 for Sea Struck. (MMM, 243 Washington Street, Bath, ME 04530; www.mainemaritimemuseum.org)

SEA HISTORY 11 2, AUTUMN 2005

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CLASSIFIED ADS North to California: The Spanish Voyages of Discovery 1533-1603. History book by Paul A. Myers. Cones and UUoa explore Baja, exciting new info on Cabrillo, Alarcon, Vizcaino, Manilla galleons. $22.95 from internet booksellers or Llumina Press, Ph. 866-229-9244.

WANTED: Friends of the Meteor, the last whaleback in the world. For membership information comact Superior Public Museums. Also seekingwhaleback artifacts, history and personal stories. Call 7 15-3945712. www.superiorpublicmuseums.org

In spring 2006, the whaleship Charles W. Morgan will be hauled out for major restoration work. In conjunction, Mystic will explore the ship's history through new exhibits and demonstrations. Built in 1841 at Jethro and Zachariah Hillman Shipyard in New Bedford, Massachusetts, she has outlived all other whaling ships of her type. After her whaling career ended in 1921 , she was preserved by Whaling Enshrined, Inc. and exhibited at Colonel Edward H.R. Green's estate in South Dartmouth , Massachusetts, umil 1941.

In November of that year Morgan came to Mystic Seaport where she has been a focal poim on their waterfront. Charles W Morgan has an overall length of 113 feet, a 27-112-foot beam and draws 17-1/2 feet; her main truck stands 110 feet above the

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2005 brought back a famous race, celebrating its centennial this year. 1he original race was called the Kaiser Cup, and the winner received a solid gold trophy from Germany's Kaiser Wilhelm II. In 2005, Mari-Cha Iv; a 140-foot modern high-tech schooner, crossed the line on 1 June, smashing the century-old record. She rraveleled the 2,925-mile course

deck. When fully-rigged, she is capable of carrying approximately 13,000 square feet of sail. A major program of restoration and preservation was begun in 1968 to repair her structurally, and during the course of this work, it was decided to rig her as a double-topsail barque, which she carried from the early 1880s through the end of her whaling career. She appears today as she looked during most of her active career. Charles W Morgan was formally designated a National Historic Landmark by order of the Secretary of the Interior in 1977. . . . Ir is always curious when high-tech modern boars challenge sailing records of ships of yes teryear. Even when they can easily shatter those records, the attempt serves as an exciting reminder of the accomplishment from long ago, and the longevity of a given record attests to what a fear it was in the first place. This spring, rhe Rolex Transadamic Challenge

from Ambrose Light off New York in 9 days 15 hours 5 5 minutes and 23 seconds at an average speed for the course of 12.61 knots. The original record was set in 1905

by America's Cup veteran Charlie Barr onboard rhe three-masted schooner Atlantic at 12 days 4 hours 1 minute and 19 seconds. The 185-foor Atlantic was built in 1903 at the Townsend and Downey Shipyard in New York for Wilson Marshall. She also had served in WWI as a mother ship for submarine chasers and as a USCG training ship from 1941-1947.

The 1905 Cup was open to cruising yachts of at least 80 tons (Net Custom House Measurement). In addition to Atlantic,

Schooner Atlantic

SEA HISTORY 11 2, AUTUMN 2005

Base Realignment and Closure, 2005

B

ase Realignment and Closure (BRAC) is a process of the United States federal government directed at the administration and operation of the US Armed Forces, used by the US Department of Defense (DOD) and Congress to close excess military installations and realign the total asset inventory in order to save money on operations and maintenance, aimed at achieving maximum efficiency in line with Congress ional and DOD objectives. More than 350 installations have been closed in four BRAC rounds: 1989, 1991, 1993 and 1995. The conclusion of the 2005 round is expected in September.

The specific base closings that have been predicted are still in the negotiating stages. The DOD has targeted some high profile New England naval installations such as New London, CT, and Portsmouth, NH, where work on submarines has gone on for generations. Many still remember the shock associated w ith the closing of the Boston and New York (Brooklyn) Navy Yards a generation ago. The loss of jobs and the our-migration of talented yard workers and their families was and still is lamented. Ir cannot be denied that there may be political motives behind some of these changes.

Ir will be remembered that southern states benefitted from the loss of the northern states when the government later decided to enlarge existing or encourage construction of new shipbuilding installations in Mississppi and Texas.

The leaders of the communities where these bases are located will push back with all their political and financial strength because so many jobs, SEA HISTORY l 12, AUTUMN 2005

and indeed the economic welfare of their entire communities, depends on the outcome. Congress will surely get involved and try to deflect or minimize

capabilities; impact on operational readiness; availab ili ty and condition of land, facilities, airspace; capability of a facility to "surge" or expand with mobilization; the extent and timing of potential costs and Portsmouth Naval Shipyard savings; and environmental in New Hampshire impact of costs associated with environmental compliance, waste management, and environmental restoration.

The BRAC Commission will look into the DOD's recommendations and will report back to the president no later cNuGENERALPU•L•c u crnsE than 8 September 2005. The

the extent of the targeted closures or realignments. The basic reason given for the projected closures is the DO D's intention to economize with an eye to the nation's military needs as far as twenty years into the future. The less money spent on keeping bases open that will be only marginal in terms of the nation's long term strategy the better. The Secretary of Defense talks about "rationalizing the force structure" that will be needed to protect the US from possible threats.

The Navy has been downsizing its fleet and aircraft squadrons, as well as its personnel structure, for the last five years under CN 0 Admiral Vern Clark, whose catch word has been "realign," (that is, make sure that we are not supporting unneeded civilian and military personnel and activities with funds that are badly needed elsewhere). Not all military experts agree on where the curs should be made, but it is certain that with current huge expenditures on the global war on terror, cuts will be made and that they will be painful for the communities surrounding the targeted bases and installations. The criteria the military is using include the following: current and future

full impact of the closures and realignments will not be felt all at once but will rake effect gradually over a period of years.

-Dr. William Dudley, former Director ofNaval History Washington, DC

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SHIP NOTES the fleet included seven schooners, one lighthouse lenses, lighthouse yawl, and rwo square-rigged barques. artifacts, and Coast Guard This year's Rolex Transatlantic C hallenge memorabilia in the country. was open to monohull sailing vessels, 70 The collecrion was formerly feet LOD (length on deck) and longer displayed at the Shore Village with the goal of breaking the wo rld's old- Museum until its closing in est ocean-racing record. Organized by the October 2004. (One Park New York Yacht C lub, with the coopera- Dr., POB F, Rockland, ME tion of the Royal Yach t Squadro n, the 04841; Ph. 207 594-3301; 3,000-mile race started in New York on www.mainelighthousemuseMay 22nd and finished off the Lizard in um.com) . . . By the time of England, covering the same racecourse this printing, Ocean Classfo llowed by the competitors 100 years room Foundation, in conRear Adm. Robert C Olsen, Jr., (left) handed command ago. . • • Speakin g of high-tech equip- junction with NMHS and of the Coast Guard Academy over to Rear Adm. James ment for boats, NOAA's Office of Coast Hurricane Island Outward C van Sice in a formal ceremony. Coast Guard ComSurvey has made available free elec- Bound School, will have mandant Admiral Thomas H. Collins presided over the tronic navigational charts (ENCs) of completed their fust Oceanevent. Congressman Rob Simmons made a presentation US waters at http://chartmaker.ncd. Bound for History Produring Rear Adm. Olsen's retirement ceremony following noaa.gov/mcd/enc/download.htm. Be- gram. Twenty-four middle the change ofcommand. ware-these EN Cs are useless without the and high school history teachappropriate sofrware. While yo u are visit- ers sailed aboard schooner Westward for a Rear Adm. Robert C. Olsen, Jr., handed ing their web site, check out their "His- week in early August. The goal of the pro- command of the US Coast Guard Acadtoric Map and Chart Collection," which gram is to immerse history teachers in emy over to Rear Adm. James C. Van contains over 20,000 maps and charts maritime studies and ship operations to Sice in a formal ceremony in May. Rear from the late 1700s to present day. The encourage them to include a maritime his- Adm. Van Sice assumed duties as the 38th Collection includes some of the nation's tory component in their classroom during Superintendent of the Academy. Rear earliest nautical charts, hydrographic sur- the school year and guide them in creating Adm. O lsen will retire and has accepted the position as President of The Webb Inveys, topographic surveys, geodetic surveys, city plans and Civil War battle m aps. stitute in Long Island, NY. . . . The American Lighthouse Foundation reThe Historical Map & C hart Project scans each map or chart and offers the images cently appointed Bob Trapani, Jr., as its first executive director. The Foundation free to the public via the Coast Survey web site. The Project is managed by the Cartoconducted a yearlong search to run the graphic & Geospatial Technology Program eleven-year old organization. ALF runs the of the Coast Survey Development LaboraMuseum of Lighthouse Histo ry in Wells, tory. •.. In association with the National Maine, and has eighteen lighthouses under its care. (ALP, Ph: 207 646-0245; Maritime M useum in London, the National Historic Ships Committee has www.lighthousefoundation.org) . . . The launched a new, re-designed web site John Carter Brown Library in Providence, Rhode Island, has launched its listing UK historic ships. The web site Archive of Early American Images, open features over 1,200 vessels currently listed to the general public. The Archive is an on the National Register of Historic Vessels. The National Register provides inforonline database made up entirely of immation on the more important vessels in their curricula. (OCF, 23 Bay St., Watch ages of North and South America found the UK's historic ship fleet, the larges t col- Hill, RI 02891; Ph. 800 724-7245; WWW. in o bscure books and maps printed before lection of historic vessels in the wo rld. The oceanclassroom.org; e-mail : mail@ocean- 1825. W hen comp leted, the database will Register helps public and private owners, classroom .org) . . . The USS Constella- include approximately 6,000 images, covgovernment departments, and funding tion Museum in Baltimore has an- ering the entire territory from Hudson's bodies with information and guidance on nounced plans for a new Heritage Bay to Tierra de Fuego. Currently, there preservation priorities and gives earl y Center to be built on the adjacent pier to are just over 2,500 images online. All imwarning of any vessels "at risk." (www. the ship. The Center will house exhibits ages are from works in the library's collecnhsc.org.uk) . . . In June, the Maine and include space for lectures and special tion and contain descriptive information Lighthouse Museum opened to the pub- events. (USS Constellation, Pier 1, 301 E. abo ut the images and full bibliographical lic in Rockland, Maine. The museum is Pratt St., Baltimore, MD 2 1202; Ph. 410 records concerning rhe books in which home to one of the largest collection of 539- 1797; www.constellation.org) the images are locared. (JCBL, POB 40

SEA HISTORY 11 2, AUTUMN 2005

Schooner Virginia underway in the Chesapeake Bay in summer 2005.

1894, Providence, RI 02912; www.j cbl. org) . . • The John Carter Brown Library also has announced an application deadline of 10 January 2006 for their short- and long-term fellowships for June 2006-July 2007. Twen ty-five fellowships with stipends are available to applicants whose research is suited to the library's holdings. All fellows are required ro relocate to Providence and must be in continuous residence for the entire term.

Short-term fellowships have thematic restrictions. Included in the offerings are the Alexander 0. Vietor Memorial Fellowship in maritime history and the Marie L. and William R. Hartland Fund for research on maritime history. QCBL, POB 1894, Providence, RI 02912; www.jcbl.org) ...

In June, one of New England's most famous schoonermen was honored with a ceremony on Martha's Vineyard in conjunction with the re-release of Polly Burroughs's book, Zeb: Celebrated

Schooner Captain ofMartha's Vineyard.

An evening of song, stories, and fellowship included more than just tales of Zeb and his schooner Alice S. Wentworth. Speakers, including NMHS's own Peter Stanford, talked about the value of preserving maritime skills and wooden boat preservation-there was even talk of a reconstruction of T ilto n's schooner after efforts to save the original in the 1970s failed. The evening also honored Polly Burroughs, author of the book that has preserved Zeb's story in print. ~ ~ ~

NMHS President Emeritus Peter Stanford SEA HISTORY 112, AUTUMN 2005

41

Annual Maritime Art Exhibit, through 24 September 2005, featured artist: Austin Dwyer (Coos Art Museum, 235 Anderson Ave., Coos Bay, Oregon 97420; Ph. 541 267-3901; www.coosart. org; e-mail: info@coosart.org)

nearly 200 shipwrecks in and around Thunder Bay. Opening ceremonies, open house, and a concert by Great Lakes folk band, Song of the Lakes. (TBNMS, Ph. 989 3568805; www.thunderbay.noaa.gov)

•Marine Art of jack Wiberg and Dick Levesque, 27 - 29 October, USCG Lightship Sailors Reunion, Portsmouth, VA (www.uscglightshipsailors.org also www. levesque-art.com) •Nelson & Napoleon. 7 July- 13 November, National Maritime Museum, London. Includes recent discoveries, rare and unseen material, letters, iconic paintings, personal items and a series of objects lent from museums, galleries and private collections across Europe. (Park Row, Greenwich, London SElO 9NF; Ph. 44 (0)20 8312 6565-recorded information; web site: www.nmm.ac.uk)

• The Art of the Boat: Photographs from the Rosenfeld Collection, now until October 2006, Mystic Seaport Museum. (75 Greenmanville Ave., Mystic, CT 06355; Ph: 860 572-0711; www.mysticseaport.org) FEsTIVAlS, EvENTS, LECTURES, ETC.

•Restoration Tours of Coronet and Roann, an IYRS-Mystic Seaport Joint Program, 14-15 September. Spend two days immersed in these two major watercraft restoration projects. One day at each location (Mystic, CT, and Newport, RI).

Space is limited. (Info: Susan Daly at 401 849-1995; www.yachtcoronet.org; e-mail: sdaly@iyrs.org) •Grand Opening, Great Lakes Maritime Heritage Center, Thunder Bay National Marine Sanctuary in Alpena, Michigan, 17 September at l l AM. The rheater, education space, and exhibit area will feature the

COURTESY TBNMS

•Third Annual Classic Boat Show, Sat., 15 October at The Mariners' Museum (100 Museum Dr. , Newport News, VA 23606 Ph. 757 596-2222; www.mariner.org) •The Great Chesapeake G1;~1 Bay Schooner Race Chesapea e ' Bay l 12-16 October Balti- Schoone ' Race"" more, MD, to Hampton Roads, VA; entry is open to all schooner-rigged vessels.

(POB 81 76, Norfolk, VA 23503; Ph. 757 480-4402; www.schoonerrace.org) •Great Lakes Mariners Memorial and Edmund Fitzgerald Commemoration, 5 November (75 Maritime Drive, Manitowoc, WI 54220; Ph. 920 684-0218; www.wisconsinmaritime.org; e-mail: museum@wisconsinmaritime.org) •Lake Michigan Christmas Tree Ship Celebration, 3 December. Relive the days when families got their Christmas trees from the deck of a sh ip. A ship loaded with trees will sail into Manitowoc, arriving at the Wisconsin Maritime Museum (see WMM info above) •Nautical Nightmares: Maritime Ghost Stories at Mystic Seaport, 14, 16, 2023 , and 27-30 October. Experience the mystery of historic ghost tales, legends and unsolved mysteries of days gone by.

Tours leave every 20 minutes beginning at 7PM, last tour leaves at 9PM. *Not recommended for children under seven.* (75 Greenmanville Ave., Mystic, CT 06355; Ph: 860 572-0711; www.mysticseaport.org) CONFERENCES

•Council of American Maritime Museums Annual Meeting, 15-18 September at the Antique Boat Museum in Clayton,

Discussions and Strategies for Interpreting Small Craft Collections in Museum Settings." (www.councilofamericanmaritimemuseums.org) •Oceans Conference 2005, "One Ocean," 19-23 September. This is an annual technical and professional conference, sponsored by the Marine Technology Society (MTS) and the IEEE Oceanic Engineering Society (OES). It typically includes participants from government, industry, academia, educators, and all related disciplines, including policy and marine archaeology. (Information and registration forms available online at: www.oceans2005.org; e-mail: info@oceans2005.org) •33rd Annual Conference on Sail Training and Tall Ships, American Sail Training Association, 3-4 November 2005 in Bay City, Michigan. "Public and Private ParmerSHIPS: Building Bridges to the Future." (ASTA, 240 Thames St., POB 1459, Newport, RI 02840; Ph. 401 846-1775; www.sailtraining.org; e-mail: as ta@sailtraining.org) •Maritime Heritage Education Conference, 17-20 November at Nauticus: the National Maritime Center in Norfolk, VA. Brochure and registration form available online. Registration fee: $ 135. (www. sanctuaries. noaa.gov/ education/ mhec/; e-mail: sanctuary.education@noaa.gov) •17th Annual Symposium on Maritime Archaeology and History of Hawai'i and the Pacific, 18-20 February 2006, Hapuna Beach Prince Hotel, Big Island, H awai'i. Conference Theme: "Our Voyagi ng Ancestors," CALL FORPAPERSDeadline: 1 October 2005, (MAHHI, POB 8807, Honolulu, HI 96830; www. mahhi.org; email: finney@mahhi .org) •The Classic Yacht Symposium, Herreshoff Marine Museum and The Society of Naval Architecs and Marine Engineers, 31 March-2 April 2006 (HMM, POB 45 0, One Burnside St., Bristol, RI 02809; Ph. 401 253-5000; www.herreshoff.org) •99th Annual Meeting of the Organization of American Historians and the 28th A\nnual Meeting of the National Counci:il on Public History will be held jointly at the Hilton Washington Hotel in Wasshington, D C, 19-22 April 2006 (www.o:iah.org/meetings/2006/)

Revtew.

Fathoming the Ocean: The Discovery accelerated as US shipping grew five-fold and Exploration of the Deep Sea, by between 1830 and 1860. More than a dozHelen M. Rozwadowski (Belknap Press en exploring expeditions were launched of Harvard University Press, Cambridge, under the leadership of the US Navy.

MA, 2005, 276pp, illus, maps, notes, inA fascinating discussion of attempts dex, ISBN 0-674-01691-2; $25.95hc) to lay the earliest transAtlantic telegraphic Noted underwater explorer Sylvia A. cable in the 1850s weaves into the narraEarle notes in her forward to Fathoming tive. Issues of ocean depth and terrain dethe Ocean: The Discovery and Exploration manded knowledge of the sea floor. Some of the Deep Sea, "Imagine what it would students of the oceans believed a cable be like to fly in a plane slowly, thousands would never sink to the bottom, instead of feet in the sky above becoming suspended . ;~' -" '~\ Boston, London, Sydat an unknown depth .

F A T H , 0 M I N G :.

Broken and lost cables ney, or Tokyo, a thick blanket of clouds obwere finally followed ______:__ scuring the view below. by the successful layWhat could be discoving of a transAtlantic The Di,1c 0Pny a11iJ ered about such places cable from the decks E.t"ploratio11 if you had to rely on of the huge Great Eastof the Dup Sea the time-honored ern in 1866. These exoceanographic techpeditions, sponsored niques-lowering nets by the American and or open-ended metal British navies, conboxes from high in the tributed greatl y to sky, then dragging such knowledge abo ut the devices across the sursea floor and ocean life. Edward Forbes's face of whatever is below or dropping baited azoic theory, that hooks fastened ro long there was no marine lines to see if some unlife below 300 fathwary creature could be enticed to bite and oms, was sternly challenged and eventube taken from its realm onto ours for care- ally dismissed.

This volume is a treasure of interestful examination? For many decades, methods such as these were used ro try to piece ing information punctuated with intrigutogether knowledge of the oceans by ob- ing illustrations, such as the "Curious servers sailing aboard naval ships, private Objects often seen on the Seashore at Low yachts, and eventually, dedicated ocean Water," a scene of the shore filled with research vessels." amusing Victorian beachcombers from an Helen Rozwadowski's study of deep 1858 cartoon in Harper 's Weekly. Other ocean exploration focuses on the mid- illustrations are matched with excursions nineteenth century when British scientists through the visions of poets, painters, and took to sea in several government-funded authors of the new literary genre of the sea. expeditions. She examines not only the ef- For them, oceans were much more than an forts to launch these ventures, but also the aven ue for trade and conquest. cultural factors that made exploring the Rozwadowski brings us to the present oceans a worthy objective. The 1823 edi- in the epilogue where she notes that the tion of the Encyclopedia Britannica entry 2000 US Presidential Commission recomfor "sea" reads, "Through want of instru- mended a commitment of $75 million per ments, the sea beyond a certain depth has year to open-ended ocean exploration. Albeen found unfathomable." Nonetheless, though not yet funded at that level, the OfSir John Ross had conducted systematic fice of Ocean Exploration was created withsoundings on his voyage to Baffin Bay in in the National Oceanic and Atmospheric 181 7-18, as later did Lt. Charles Wilkes, Administration (NOAA). The author's inleader of the US Exploring Expedition , clusion of maritime heritage, the involve1838-42. American interest in the oceans ment of humans with the seas and inland

, theOCE!~ . : _____ ~

0

SEA HISTORY 112, AUTUMN 2005

waterways, elevates the cultural element as an important complement to marine science. Cultural resources, including submerged resources, are incorporated in the mission and research programs of Ocean Exploration and also NOAA's National Marine Sanctuaries Program. Fathoming the Oceans is not only an excellent read but a pathfinder through the history of oceanography, which indeed "remains a science whose relationship to political and cultural interests continues to be dynamic."

TIMOTHY

J. RUNYAN

Greenville, North Carolina

That Anvil of Our Sou/,s by David Poyer (S imon and Schuster, New York, 2005, 414pp, ISBN 0-684-87135; $25hc) That Anvil of Our Souls, a novel of the historic battle between Monitor and Merrimack (Virginia), is the third volume of David Payer's fictional "Civil War at Sea" cycle. Poyer created a throng of Yankee and Confederate characters in his first two Civi l War maritime adventures, Fire on the ~ters and A Country of Our Own. That Anvil of Our Souls moves his surviving characters plus a few more through the most extraordinary naval engagement of the Civil War. Poyer, a master storyteller, creates "you are there" scenes surrounding the construction and conflict of Monitor and Merrimack through his characters in a framework of historical figures like Ericsson, Mallory, Seward, Stanton, and Welles. The story interlaces governmental interferences, engineering problems, attempted bribes, an impending hanging for piracy, spy searches, and an escaped slave's struggle with his past and newly-found freedom. Payer's characters create a plausible tale for one of the most significant conflicts in American naval history.

That Anvil of Our Souls appears purposely written in an old-fashioned style, giving the impression that it is contemporary to the period. The author frequently employs unusual terminology or outdated definitions of words. Stunted sentences or 43

REVIEWS punctilious sentence fragments introduce most chapters. Sporadic neologisms mix with the dialect of slaves or landsmen.

Still, lhat Anvil of Our Souls is a beautifull y-written and rousing read. Maritime historians will appreciate Poyer's attention to detail and m eticulous research in his description of diverse topics.

Lours ARTHUR NoRTON West Simsbury, Connecticut

1he Doryman's Reflection: A Fisherman's

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Press, New York, 2005, 266pp, ISBN 15602-5669-9; $24hc) Paul Molyneaux entered the commercial fishing world in 1976, an auspicious and optimistic year when the United States extended its economic boundaries a full cwo hundred miles offshore. Twenryeight years later, che fisherman-rurnedjournalist has written a "reflection" on , or more accurately, an obituary of, an industry plagued by regulation, overproduction, and runaway technology.

Despite a distracting organization, lhe Doryman's Reflection is an excellent read for those interested in commercial fishing or in the social transformation of coastal New E ngland. We see th is primarily through the experiences, stories, and journals of Del, Alton, and Bernard Raynes, three generations of New England fishermen whose careers collectively span more than a century. Molyneaux's own sense of identity as a commercial fisherman developed through his multi-year association with the Raynes family as a deckhand and friend. For these men, fishing is more than just about making money; it's abo ut working hard and living a sustainable and modest way of life. The skillful telling of the Raynes' family history marks the book's highpoint and testifies to the author's talent as both listener and storyteller.

This is also an angry book where Molyneaux attempts to document and explain the destruction of traditional, and in his opinion sustainable, systems of fishing. The enemy in this fishing story is not a killing sea, but the c:apitalist system and the politicians, scienctists, and regulators who design and enfmrce management regimes that promote corp>orate control of fishing, overproduction, amd the removal of smal l scale SEA HISTORY 11 2,AUTUM

2005

fishers. Ultimately, M olyneaux's commercial fis hermen come across as powerless pawns who, in their reaction to this sys tem, contributed to the decimation of m any fish stocks. The D oryman's Reflection is an often poignant and engaging acco unt of a declining way of m ari time life, but readers might look to other sources fo r a m ore balanced acco unt of fisheries policy.

JOHN ODIN JENSEN Wakefield, Rhode Island

Resolution: Captain Cook's Second Voyage of Discovery, by Peter Aughron (Cold Spring Press, Cold Spring H arbo r, NY, 2005 , 189pp, maps, notes, index, ISBN 1-5 9360-044-5; $13pb) Resolution was the name of Captain James Cook's flagship for his second voyage of discovery; it is, aptly, also the nam e of this fin e effort by Peter Aughron, which details the trials and tribulations Cook and his crew experienced on their threeyear voyage of discovery.

Two ships sailed from England on a mission to fill in the gaps from Coo k's first voyage in Endeavour and to verify the location of islands previo usly identifi ed by o ther explorers. The second vessel, Adventure, was smal ler than Cook's Resolution and carried more than eigh ty onboardship's company plus four supernumeraries, including as tro nomers. Each ship carried copies of the latest navigational invention , H arrison's chro nom eter, inval uable fo r determining their position.

The autho r researched his topic thoroughly, using contemporary acco unts, logs, letters, and m odern histories of the cruises of Adventure and Resolution. H e regularly used the words of witnesses to describe events-frequent contributors to this effo rt were the fa ther-son team of naturalists, Johann and George Forster.

Each documented his experien ces from the fr ustra tions of rhe freezing sub-Antarctic regions to the bal my and som etimes hostile islands of the Pacific. Augh to n provided wo nderful insight to the frequent infighting between the civilian scientists and their displeasure at being at sea for so long. Nonetheless, they did a superb job of findin g and mapping new lands, describing their inhabitants, and documenting new fl ora and fa una. They also studied the SEA HISTORY 112, AU TUMN 2005

languages of the Pacific islands peoples, discovering commonalities previo usly unkn own.

Ravages of the cold seas, ice, and gales of the southern latitudes (below 60 S) took their roll; detours to locate landm asses Cook believed must exist caused further consternation am o ng the civilians aboard bo th vessels and added to their

Qiptain Cook's Seco nd Voyage orDiscovery

Author of Endauour and ~·eon~ Appk:

frustration at having nothing on whi ch to "ply their trade" (as naturalists) save penguins, albatrosses, and pack ice w ith, of course, nothing growing on it. They did, however, reach 67° South by 39° 35' East, an incredible achievement for a sailing ship, and o nly about sixty miles from the Antarctic Continent.

W hile at times the tale was a bit repetitive (bur then , so was the cruise), Resolution is a solidly-crafted and well-told tale of a great explorer's tribulations .and discoveries. For any who revel in the exploits of Jam es Cook or eigh teenth-century sea exploration, I would surely invite them to read Peter Aughron's epic tale of Cook's second voyage of discovery, 1772- 1775 .

WIL LIAM

H. WHITE

Rumson, New Jersey

A Mariner's Miscellany: Things Forgotten, Recalled-Things Known, Illuminated by Peter H . Spectre (Sheridan H ouse, D obbs Ferry, N Y, 200 5, 304pp, ISBN 1-57409-1 95-6; $ 19. 95pb) This latest wo rk by the ed itor of Maine Boats and H arbors is, in a wo rd, a deli ght! It's a potpo urri of wit, wisdo m, and

enlightenment, all packed in a convenient forma t. Peter Spectre acknowledges that this book grew out of bo th The Mariner's Book ofDays and his earlier M ariner's Catalog, and readers familiar with them will find this book has the same characteristic abili ty to grab one's attention and lead it alo ng paths it otherwise might never have considered fo llowing.

H ere yo u'll fi nd both serious poetry and light-hearted rhym es interspersed with topics such as seafaring superstitions, guidance fo r standing effective watches at night, lists of great books about rhe sea and the mariner's life, and practical nitty-grit ty such as instructions for washing clothes at sea. From tall ship lo re to small boat savvy, fro m grog recipes to rowing terms and techniques, Spectre has collected a vas t store of knowledge and recounted it in a most enjoyable fas hi on. Ir's a book one can open to any page and find something that will educate, entertain, and motivate.

Whether o ne reads it several chapters at a time o r simply dips into it fo r a few minutes when there is a lull in activity, A Mariner's Miscellany delivers good in fo rmation and does it in a quick and pleasant manner.

CAPTAIN HAL SUTPHEN Kilmarnock, V irginia

Unknown Seas: How Vasco da Gama Opened the East by Ronald Watkins (John Murray, distributed by Trafalgar Books, North Pomfre t, VT, 2005, 336pp, illus, notes, biblio, index, ISBN 0-7 19564 17-4; $ 15pb) Vasco da Gama's discovery of the sea route aro und Africa to India in 1497 to 1499 changed the course of Euro pean history. This is a gripping tale of four ships that sailed fro m Lisbo n, manned by a crew of abo ut 150, eventually reduced to two vessels and about 50 m en , sailed 23, 000 nautical miles to reach Calcutta and then return to Europe. Navigational problems were dwarfed by difficulties in finding supplies and port fac ilities to repair ships in Africa and India. The hostili ty of the Muslims, who wished to maintain their monopoly on the spice trade, proved as dangerous as rhe perils of the unknown sea. Shipboard artillery was as important as navigati o nal instruments and charts in 45

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opening up this new route to India.

The bibliography is mainly limited to general histories in English. Watkins is aiming for the lay reader rather than the scholar and tends to gloss over some complex issues . He unjustifiably discounts Herodotus's report of the Phoenician circumnavigation of Africa and is not quite clear on why King Manuel gave Vasco da Gama, a relative unknown in 1497, such an important assignment, and to the degree the great explorer depended on his older brother Paulo who accompanied him on the voyage and died just before returning to Lisbon. The two pages the author devotes to discussing the unsettled problems with primary sources and the scholarly controversy about the roles of the men of the previous generationHenry the Navigator, Bartolomeu Dias, and King John II-should have been extended to a dozen.

Ir would be churlish to end on a negative note. Watkins, a fine writer, has produced an eminently readable, good book. The early chapters provide a readable survey of the age of exploration, naval technology in the fifteenth century and Portuguese h istory. Once Vasco da Gama sails from Portugal seeking spices, Prester John (the legendary Christian king of some mythical eastern realm), and India, halfWay through the book, it is hard to put it down.

ANTHONY

J. PAPALAS

Greenville, North Carolina

Engi.neer in Gray: Memoirs of ChiefEngi.neer James H. Tomb, CSN edited by R. Thomas Campbell (McFarland & Company, Inc., Jefferson, NC, 2005 , 214pp, photos, illus, maps, notes, appen, biblio, index, ISBN 0-7864-1991-1; $45hc) James Hamilton Tomb's memoir is short, but it is also one of the most important Confederate naval memoirs to come out of the Civil War. Serving as an engineer, Tomb devoted almost twelve years to naval service, beginning as a Third Assistant E n gineer in the Confederate States Navy. During the American Civil War Tomb fought in both the eastern and western theaters on gunboats, ironclads, and torpedo boars. He began his career as an engineer on CSS Jackson and later

SEA HISTORY 112, AUTUMN 2005

transferred to the Confederate gunboat McRae. While on this ship, he participated in the Barde of New Orleans. Captured after the battle, he spent several months of confinement in Fort Warren in Boston, Massachusetts.

After his exchange, Tomb traveled to South Carolina to serve onboard the ironclad Chicora in Charleston Harbor.

H e later became rhe engineer on rhe small steam torpedo boat, CSS David. H e participated in the attacks on both the New Ironsides and the Memphis. Tomb later served onboard the converted blockade runner Juno. He was on special torpedo service, mining the approaches to Savannah, when the war ended. H e moved to South America, as

did many ex-Confederates. His Civil War experience with torpedoes and explosives allowed him to ' marker his rare expertise, and the Argentinean Emperor Dom Pedro II offered him a position with rhe Brazilian Navy during the War of the Triple Alliance.

Included with Tomb's memoir are four appendices including Tomb's "Submarines and Torpedo Boars, C.S.N.," originally published in rhe Confederate Veteran in 1914, as well as a manuscript he prepared giving a derailed description of his experiences with David and the submarine H. L. Hu nley. The appendices also include articles by William T. Glassell and General P. G. T. Beauregard, written about their experienc-

New&Noted Decision at Sea: Five Naval Battles that Shaped American History by Craig L. Symonds (Oxford Univ. Press, Oxford and New York, 2005 , 378pp, notes, index, ISBN 0-19-5 17 145-4; $30hc) The French Navy and the Seven Years' 'War by Jonathan R. D ull (University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln, NB, 2005, 445pp, maps, notes, appen, index, ISB N 0-8032-1 73 1-5; $35 hc)

Sailors in the Holy Land: The 1848 American Expedition to the Dead Sea and the Search for Sodom and Gomorrah by Andrew C. A. Jampoler (Naval Institute Press, Annapolis, MD, 2005, 344pp, illus, maps, appen, notes, biblio, index, ISBN 159114-413-2; $32.95hc)

Seize the Trident: The Race for Superliner Supremacy and How It Altered the Great 'War by Douglas R. Burgess Jr. (McGraw-Hill, New York, 2005, 296pp, illus, notes, biblio, index, ISBN 0-07- 143009-1; $24.95hc)

The Wreckers: A Story of Killing Seas and Plundered Shipwrecks, from the 18th Century to Present Day by Bella Bathurst (Houghton Mifflin, New York, 2005, 288pp, illus, biblio, index, ISBN 0-618-4 1677-3; $24hc) Young Men and the Sea: Yankee Seafarers in the Age ofSail by Daniel Vickers with Vince Walsh (Yale Univ. Press, New H aven, 2005 , 336pp, illus, notes, index, ISBN 0-300-10067-1; $35hc)

The Wreck ofthe William Brown: A True Tale ofOvercrowded Lifeboats and Murder at Sea by Tom Koch (McGraw-Hill, New York, 2005, 296pp, illus, maps, notes, biblio, index, ISB N 0-07143468-2; $12.95pb) ,t SEA HISTORY 112, AUTUMN 2005

es with the torpedo service in Charleston H arbor. Throughour the text are a number of rare photographs ofTomb and some drawings of early torpedoes. There are also illustrations that pertain to Tomb's career in the Brazilian Navy; however, their quality is sadly inferior.

Tomb's manuscript is both insightful and revealing. Interspersed explanatory text from the editor supporrs rhe narrative. Ar the memoir's beginning, Campbell introduces Tomb, provides the readers with a background of his life, and then completes his life's story. Campbell performed an admirable job with rhe editing, and McFarland Publishing has done the field of Civil War History a service by making this manuscript available to a wide audience.

ROBERT BROWNING Dumfries, Virginia

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