SCC English Dept. Scholarly Journal 2017 - Two Waters Review

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Two Waters Review

Student Essays from Fall 2016 – Spring 2017 Volume 1, Issue 3

Scottsdale Community College English Department Scottsdale Community College improves the quality of life in our communities by providing challenging, supportive, and distinctive learning experiences. We are committed to offering high-quality, collaborative, affordable, and accessible opportunities that enable learners to achieve lifelong educational, professional, and personal goals.

iii All student works collected here are copyright © 2017 by their respective authors. Licenses for publication in Two Waters Review by the English Department of Scottsdale Community College are on file at the college.

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Maricopa and Scottsdale Community College logos are copyright reserved.

Volume 1, Issue 3 September 2017

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Table of Contents Enduring Injustices

1….Brady Thurman – “Why Fight an Epidemic with a War?” 12….Christopher Popov – “African Americans: the Majority” 25….Natalia Evans – “The Future of Prostitution Law in the United States” 39….Paige Vannarath – “Harmful Modern Day Journalistic Integrity” 48….Lina LiVolsi – “Turkey’s Honor Killings” 57….Ashley Clark – “How Ordinary People Become Perpetrators of Genocide: A Look at the Psychological Factors”

Shattering Misconceptions

75….Esther Choe – “The Promise of Bitcoin” 87….Gillian Bryant – “I Am Not Throwing Away My Shot” 97….Lexi Nikolaus – “Passing Bonds: A Possible Solution for Funding Public Schools”

A Unique Take

103…. Garrett Maeshiro – “The Cycle of Media Dominance: Chapter 2017”

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1 Brady Thurman English 102 Why Fight an Epidemic with a War? In 1971, citizens and governmental figures, including the President of the United States, saw a huge drug addiction problem on the rise. President Nixon thus declared a “War on Drugs”.

Immediately, he increased the governmental anti-drug power, although there was much resistance at first. Then, during the Reagan Era, crack cocaine gained a powerful presence and everyone’s kneejerk reaction was to prohibit everything. And now, 45 years later, so many costs and resources have been spent to combat the drugs with prohibition that those costs seem to even outweigh the pros of the war. On top of that, the drug war has also unintentionally caused many contradictory consequences, including making drug addiction rates higher than they have ever been and making drugs extremely profitable towards violent, drug-running cartels. Due to the fact that it causes more harm than good, the United States' War on Drugs must come to an end, and new strategies must be sought out, in order to effectively counter today's drug addiction epidemic.

The War on Drugs has been a 45-year prohibition strategy to eliminate the presence of drugs around the world. Prohibition is the act of eliminating all production, consumption, manufacturing, transportation, and sale of a particular product. It is the hope that this type of wholesale ban on all narcotics will one day render drugs nonexistent around the world, and therefore there will be no drug addiction and no drug-related crimes. The War on Drugs in America has fought by using governmental legislative policy to create and enforce these prohibition laws against narcotics for years, and it does not seem like this process will come to an end anytime soon.

The war has been fought primarily through the government enacting legislation that seems to closely resemble military operations. As Jelani Cobb explains in his New Yorker article, “A Drawdown to the War on Drugs”:

2 The war on drugs has been a multitiered campaign that has enlisted legislation, private-sector initiatives, executive-branch support, and public will. But it actually looks like a war, with military-style armaments, random violence, and significant numbers of people taken prisoner. It has been prosecuted throughout eight Administrations and has had the type of social and cultural impact that few things short of real warfare do. (Cobb) No matter how one may feel about the drug war, there is no argument that the drug policy legislation enacted by the government, especially in America, has had a large cultural impact. People, therefore, develop strong, even largely emotional-based opinions about drug policy, and is why individuals can very easily just take an either all-or-nothing approach to dealing with drugs. But, the fact that drug policy has the same level of effects on society as does war in many cases is precisely why many solutions to the drug epidemic, besides prohibition, for example, must be considered.

Despite how heroic an all-out ban on drugs from a government that enacts powerful legislative acts equal to that of military actions, there have been serious negative effects caused by the drug war. In the Wall Street Journal article, “Have We Lost the War on Drugs?”, Gary S. Becker and Kevin M. Murphy say that: President Richard Nixon declared a "war on drugs" in 1971. The expectation then was that drug trafficking in the United States could be greatly reduced in a short time through federal policing—and yet the war on drugs continues to this day. The cost has been large in terms of lives, money and the well-being of many Americans, especially the poor and less educated. By most accounts, the gains of the war have been modest at best. (Becker and Murphy) The War on Drugs enacted by the US government has indeed had profound effects since the 1970’s, only they have been unintentional and adverse costs and effects. And to add salt to the wound, drug

3 trafficking has been greatly increased rather than greatly reduced. Yet, the war still continues. This is most likely due to the fact that most people do not know enough about the war to care and the politicians in power who do care are far too emotional when employing anti-drug policies. Either way, the cons of the war are seemingly endless and even have outweighed nearly any possible pros of the war.

The war has also cost countries billions of dollars and drug addiction rates are higher than they have ever been. Kofi Annan, the previous UN secretary-general, in his Huffington Post article, “Why I’m Calling an End to the War on Drugs”, says the drug war has failed. Claiming that the drug war has cost at least $100 billion, Annan also states that around 300 million people use illegal drugs worldwide today. He says that its illicit global market of $330 billion makes it one of the largest global commodities today. The fact that the former UN secretary-general who received the 2001 Nobel Peace Prize says that the war has failed simply due to the costs means this fact should not be taken lightly. Also, even though he does claim the same population of the US uses illegal narcotics globally, he doesn’t mention the fact that over 24 million people shoot up unlawfully in America itself, according to the “Nationwide Trends” of the National Institute on Drug Abuse. A large portion of this huge population of drug users have also been arrested since the act is illegal, which has greatly contributed to another problem in American society – the prison overpopulation crisis.

Since drug offenses are treated as crimes rather than afflictions, the War on drugs has greatly contributed to the US prison system becoming grossly congested over the years as well. So much so, that according to the BBC News article "World Prison Populations', the current incarceration rate in America is greater than any other countries in the world, at 2 million people, which is about 500,000 more prisoners than that of China in second place. In fact, one in FIVE Americans who were in jail were imprisoned due to non-violent drug offenses in 2016, according to Peter Wagner and Bernadette Rabuy article, “Mass Incarceration: The Whole Pie 2016”. They both claim that “The

4 American criminal justice system holds more than 2.3 million people in 1,719 state prisons, 102 federal prisons, 942 juvenile correctional facilities, 3,283 local jails”. Those are some horrendously ridiculous numbers that take very large sums of American tax dollars to manage as well. One would think the US would do whatever it can to keep those numbers down, but sometimes emotion overtakes logic, especially when it comes to drug policy.

On top of that, the war on drugs furthermore fuels the assumption that some have that many or most people of color are in possession of drugs. Especially in the US, police often racially profile poor citizens and minorities, due to the fact that drug trade is often present in more rundown urban areas. Asha Bandele wrote in her New York Times article, “Jay Z: The War on Drugs is an Epic Fail”’, that “...African-Americans can make up around 13 percent of the United States’ population - yet 31 percent of them are arrested for drug law violations, even though they use and sell drugs at the same rates as whites”. Not only does the prohibition strategy of the drug war fuel the possession of drugs for blacks and whites, and this sad assumption of many officers and other citizens, it also has led to the mass incarceration of mostly minorities in the US as well.

The drug war not only has greatly contributed to the overflowing of the American prison system, but it greatly works against the country that is prohibiting the drugs in the long run too. In Randy Paige’s "Interview with Milton Friedman on the Drug War", Milton Friedman says in response to Paige’s first question about his opinion on the legalization of narcotics: I see America with half the number of prisons, half the number of prisoners, ten thousand fewer homicides a year, inner cities in which there's a chance for these poor people to live without being afraid for their lives, citizens who might be respectable who are now addicts not being subject to becoming criminals in order to get their drug, being able to get drugs for which they're sure of the quality. You

5 know, the same thing happened under prohibition of alcohol as is happening now.

(Friedman) If the United States wishes to terminate these short and long-term issues permanently, the government must stretch its imagination beyond the simple, emotion-based strategy that is prohibition. After all, there were profound negative effects to the country during the prohibition of alcohol, and as soon as it was lifted, violence over the product stopped, the country made money thanks to taxation, and the mobs based on the smuggling of alcohol stopped making money almost immediately.

Despite all of this, there are still many countries today that believe doubling down on prohibition by rallying others to their cause and spending even more resources is the answer to effectively combating the drug epidemic, according to the article “The Secret of World-Wide Drug Prohibition” by Harry G. Levine. However, after Mexico tried a full measure like this in the mid2000s, it was apparent this would not work. The cartels have only increased their own fanatically violent drug distribution agenda in the years since. The New York Times author José Luis Pardo Veiras, who wrote the article “A Decade of Failure in the War on Drugs”, describes the downside of the war on drugs in Mexico. He explains that after 2006 Mexican President Felipe Calderon declared all-out war on drugs in the streets, the murder rate has doubled and cartel operations have greatly expanded dramatically since. Veiras then says that Mexico needs to reevaluate its drug policy and perhaps search for other solutions, such as decriminalization since it has worked for other countries.

It really was a valiant effort by the Mexican president, but it has led to nothing but even more chaos, in both Mexico and America. This “fight-fire-with-fire” strategy was far too emotional on Mexico’s part - the idea, going forward for all countries is now to be more tactical, considering the damage that has been done as evident in Mexico.

6 Luckily, there are far less emotion-based, alternative long-term objective solutions to prohibition that have been proven to effectively halt the drug epidemic, most of which involve employing the opposite strategy of prohibition. First, there is decriminalization, which lessens the penalty of drug-related crimes but doesn’t necessarily make the drugs legal. Next, there is legalization, which eliminates all criminal penalties and encourages governmental drug regulation and is the exact opposite of prohibition. Lastly, there is rehabilitation, which is therapeutic medical treatment for those who are addicted. There are a lot of other tactics, but typically they fall under and go along with these three general strategies.

The decriminalization of drugs could possibly work, but still doesn’t quite eliminate the business of cartels. Decriminalization makes it to where all economic dealings become legal but does not affect personal consumption. Don Winslow, an author and news reporter, who has spent 15 years on the Mexican-American border, says in his CNN article, “America’s War on Drugs is Empowering Mexico’s Drug Cartels”, that seizures, sales, and imports of marijuana in the US have been halted dramatically since many states have decriminalized it. Unfortunately, Winslow says that as a result of cannabis not making the money it used to, the cartels have resorted to greatly increasing their operations involving the unwarranted shipment of crack, meth, and heroine sevenfold. And on top of that, there is still some money made off of marijuana. Perhaps this means decriminalization is too much of a half-measure in turning away from prohibition. Maybe something much more prevalent, like a full-measure such as complete national legalization, is to be called into play in order to thoroughly stamp out the drug problem.

Moving towards the legalization of drugs would be a much more ideal way to end the drug trade and the addiction problem that plagues America. Legalization is where adults can consume, buy, and possess a product. The sale of the product, especially in the case of narcotics, is heavily

7 regulated and controlled and often is restricted at times in some cases. In the article “Drug Legalization - A Guide to the Arguments and Facts”, Peter Guither says that the Legalization of drugs is fully compatible with regulatory efforts restricting access to children, forbidding use while driving or while working in safety-sensitive jobs, banning use in certain locations or situations, controlling the means for manufacture and distribution (including taxation and labeling), and creating standards for purity and potency. (Guither) Legalization would lead to the safe and regulated use of currently illegal drugs, which would result in fewer deaths, less violence, the cartels losing money, and the government would make money due to taxation. However, in order to truly ensure that this tactic would work, institutions dedicated to helping cure those who are addicted to drugs would need to be opened.

Rehabilitation would be the second part of completely eliminating the drug epidemic after legalization, which would help those in need of a cure to addiction. And even if it wasn’t combined with legalization it would still be quite effective. Mark A.R. Kleiman, Jonathan P. Caulkins, and Angela Hawken in the jointly-written Wall Street Journal article, “Rethinking the War on Drugs”, say there are more ways than legalization and prohibition to combat the drug trade. They say together that rehabilitation programs may simply be the answer to the huge incarceration and self-harm rates.

After all, people who use drugs aren’t inherently just junkies who are lazy and harm themselves and others, they are simply fellow human beings with a problem they need help to fix - they are essentially sick people who need help and must be treated rather than punished.

Many other countries have resorted to legalizing all drugs and opening countless rehabilitation centers to counteract the drug epidemic, which has thus improved their situations significantly more than prohibition has. For example, in Switzerland, “innovative policy of providing drug addicts with free methadone and clean needles has greatly reduced deaths while cutting crime

8 rates” (Nebehay). The drug problem has been completely slashed in Switzerland, whilst even providing to the European economy, due to a sudden shift in the country’s attitude. According to Nebehay, the country began this strategy when a few years ago, “Swiss authorities authorized experiments such as syringe exchange programs and safe injection rooms offering a shower, bed and hygienic conditions under medical supervision”. Since extraordinary reductions in the likeliness of death were projected from this series of experiments, the Swiss government enacted to put this policy in full effect, while also providing rehabilitation centers for the addicted. Since emotion was not a factor any longer, victims of drug addiction were treated as sick patients, rather than criminals - and thus, things have improved greatly for the Swiss.

In the same article, Nebehay says that now 70 percent of all opioid users in Switzerland receive treatment thanks to the enacted legalization and rehabilitation combination strategy. She also says that HIV and overdose mortality ratings have dropped over 50 percent in the last decade, along with a great reduction in delinquent drug use. As well, Nebehay states that doctors have recommended 60 percent of those being treated for addiction. It appears there have been nothing but positive effects from the legalization/rehabilitation strategy that are even still improving to this day. This is simply because their drug crisis was treated as a harm reduction policy for neighbors in need, rather than a hardline policy for criminals of wrongdoing.

Perhaps the 2019 G20 meeting involving drugs moving all the way up to 2016 represents a shift to the likeness of Switzerland’s attitude towards the War on Drugs. Josh Zepps interviews Johann Hari in the 2016 Center for Inquiry podcast, Johann Hari: The Beginning of the End of the War on Drugs, where the baseline of their discussion is the act of the UN General Assembly’s special session on drugs moving back from 2019 to 3 years earlier. Mexico and 95 other countries needed to move it up due to the many, many problems the drug “epidemic” has been causing, which Hari believes to be the sign of a major shift in a negative perception of the drug war. Hari predicts that many of

9 these countries will begin to put pressure on the US to end the drug war and use different, more humane tactics when dealing with drugs. Hari believes that perhaps this will turn UN drug summit conversations into a global discussion about the regulation and criminalization of drugs. This is a much-needed change in the opinions of those in power. 95-countries calling an emergency meeting move-up is progress, but it is only a start. If the international community, including the US, is to truly solve the drug problem, they must go all in with changing tactics together, if the epidemic is to be truly stamped out for good.

The Drug War needs to come to an end now, and those who are addicted must be looked upon as patients who need to be treated, rather than as criminals. After all, drug addiction is an affliction, not a crime. It should be treated as an epidemic, rather than a crime wave. The war has been nothing but a short-sighted, overly emotional attempt to eradicate substances that will always exist and to punish addicts as if they were mindless animals without any self-control. As a result, even more drugs exist and even more people are addicted. The solution carrying forward should be a logic, sound, and tactical one that gives people the right to choose what to do with their lives. The minute that freedom is taken away, is the same moment all individuals involved lose their humanity since it turns men against one other. There are far too many instances of men fighting each other, and mankind could use one less reason to fight itself. So now, it is time for the people in power to rise up and help these people in need, since the ability to come together and work together is what makes one human after all. It is an epidemic that people should be working together to cure, not just another war they should be fighting amongst themselves. It is time to come together, for better or worse.

10 Works Cited Annan, Kofi. “Why I'm Calling to End the War on Drugs.” The Huffington Post, TheHuffingtonPost.com, 19 Apr. 2016, www.huffingtonpost.com/kofi-annan/why-im-calling-to-end-the-war-on-drugs_b_972727 8.html. Accessed 2 May 2017.

Bandele, Asha. “Opinion | Jay Z: 'The War on Drugs Is an Epic Fail'.” The New York Times, The New York Times, 15 Sept. 2016, www.nytimes.com/2016/09/15/opinion/jay-z-the-war-on-drugs-is-an-epic-fail.html?_r=0.

Accessed 2 May 2017.

Cobb, Jelani. “A Drawdown in the War on Drugs.” The New Yorker, The New Yorker, 19 Aug. 2016, www.newyorker.com/magazine/2016/08/29/a-drawdown-in-the-war-on-drugs.

Accessed 2 May 2017.

Guither, Pete. “Drug Legalization - a Guide to the Arguments and Facts.” Legalization Facts by Pete Guither Heading Image, www.legalizationfacts.com/. Accessed 2 May 2017.

Kleiman, Mark A.R., et al. “Rethinking the War on Drugs.” The Wall Street Journal, Dow Jones & Company, 22 Apr. 2012, www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052702303425504577353754196169014. Accessed 2 May 2017.

Levine, Harry G. “The Secret of World-Wide Drug Prohibition.” The Secret of World-Wide Drug Prohibition: The Varieties and Uses of Drug Prohibition, 25 May 2016, www.cedro-uva.org/lib/levine.secret.html. Accessed 5 May 2017.

National Institute on Drug Abuse. “Nationwide Trends.” NIDA, June 2015, www.drugabuse.gov/publications/drugfacts/nationwide-trends. Accessed 2 May 2017.

Nebehay, Stephanie. “Swiss Drug Policy Should Serve as Model: Experts.” Reuters, Thomson

11 Reuters, 25 Oct. 2010, www.reuters.com/article/us-swiss-drugs-idUSTRE69O3VI20101025. Accessed 2 May 2017.

Paige, Randy, and Milton Friedman. “Interview with Milton Friedman on the Drug War.” Drug Library, www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/misc/friedm1.htm. Accessed 4 Mar. 2017.

Rabuy, Bernadette, and Peter Wagner. “Mass Incarceration: The Whole Pie 2016.” Mass Incarceration: The Whole Pie 2016 | Prison Policy Initiative, 14 Mar. 2016, www.prisonpolicy.org/reports/pie2016.html. Accessed 2 May 2017.

Veiras, José Luis Pardo. “Opinion | A Decade of Failure in the War on Drugs.” The New York Times, The New York Times, 9 Oct. 2016, www.nytimes.com/2016/10/10/opinion/a-decade-of-failure-in-the-war-on-drugs.html.

Accessed 2 May 2017.

Winslow, Don. “U.S. War on Drugs Empowers Mexico Cartels (Opinion).” CNN, Cable News Network, 28 June 2015, www.cnn.com/2015/06/28/opinions/winslow-drug-war-folly/.

Accessed 2 May 2017.

“World Prison Populations.” BBC News, BBC, 20 June 2005, news.bbc.co.uk/2/shared/spl/hi/uk/06/prisons/html/nn2page1.stm. Accessed 5 May 2017.

Zepps, Josh, and Johann Hari. “Johann Hari: The Beginning of the End of the War on Drugs.” Point of Inquiry, 13 Apr. 2016, www.pointofinquiry.org/johann_hari_the_beginning_of_the_end_of_the_war_on_drugs/.

Accessed 4 Mar. 2017.

12 Christopher Popov Eng. 102 African Americans: the Majority For the last 40 years the United States’ criminal justice system has processed a massive intake in prisoners. In fact, the U.S. has increased its incarceration numbers by 500 percent since 1980, leading to the 2.3 million Americans who are behind bars today (“Mass Incarceration” 763). There are many reasons for these incarceration rates; however, the United States’ “war on drugs” has been the major contributor. According to the Uniform Crime Reports in 2009, fifty percent of the prisoners in federal facilities were incarcerated for drug offenses (Balboni). The aftermath of the tough on crime and war on drugs movements of the eighties and nineties has left America facing one of its most conflicting issues: the highest incarceration rate per capita of any developed nation.

With the largest prison system in the world, the U.S. now spends nearly $79 billion annually on corrections (“Mass Incarceration” 763).

The rise in incarceration has also brought with it a very uneven picture of the U.S. criminal justice system. The increase in incarceration has disproportionately affected African Americans.

According to the 2005 Bureau of Justice Statistics, 50 percent of the prison population is African American, even though African Americans only comprised 13 percent of the total U.S. population (Spohn 460). Uneducated black men living in impoverished communities seem to be the overwhelming demographic of arrests. About half of all African American men without a high school diploma will at some point in their lives go to prison (Gopnick). It is said that for each black male who graduates from college, there are one hundred others within the U.S. prison system (Lanier 170). The targeting of minorities within our criminal justice system has led to many infractions of basic human rights. Minorities have not been treated as equal before the eyes of the

13 law, have been subjected to cruel and unusual punishment before and after arrest, and have had their civil rights taken from them by the U.S. criminal justice system.

Every American man and woman has a right to be treated equally before the eyes of the law, regardless of gender, religion or race. Unfortunately, evidence shows that this is not the case for those of minority descent. The Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1986 introduced mandatory minimum sentences for drug crimes. This meant that if a person was tried and convicted in federal court with at least five grams of crack they would receive a minimum of five years in prison, and a minimum of ten years for 50 grams or more (Weikel 1). These minimum sentences were designed to capture the most dangerous drug peddlers and kingpins, as well as persuade people from drug activity. The results, however, have placed more and more petty, non-violent users and low level street peddlers behind bars for longer periods of time, the most of which have been predominantly African American. According to the National Institute on Drug Abuse, whites are more likely to use crack than any other racial group, yet 96% of the federal crack defendants are nonwhite (Weikel 1). About 75 to 90 percent of the drug offenders sent to prison in seven states are Black, and in New York, Blacks and Latinos represent about 94 percent of all drug related arrests (Small 897). A tactic federal agents have been known to use that adversely affects minority incarcertaions is called “bargaining up.” Agents approach a dealer several times each time asking for a larger volume of crack until that dealer broke the 50 gram threshold. At this point, the justice system could then sentence them for the ten year minimum (Weikel 1). It is difficult to see equality before the law with such blatant evidence to support an underlying bias is our criminal justice system.

As many headlines have portrayed recently, the right to be free from malicious abuse and torture is violated regularly by the United States’ law enforcement officials. One of the most infamous incidents was the L.A. police beating of Rodney King, an African American truck driver.

On March 3rd, 1991, twenty three officers stood and watched as three of their fellow officers brutally

14 beat, kicked, and shocked Rodney King with batons and stun guns; he was hospitalized for his injuries that were so severe he had to have reconstructive surgery on his face. This incident led to the infamous L.A. race riots when the white officers who openly beat Mr. King in the middle of the street were later acquitted of all charges. Since then, there have been many incidents of brutality and excessive force after the police have detained their suspects as well. In 2015, Freddy Gray, a 25 year old Black man, was arrested for what was thought to be an illegal switch blade. He was cuffed with his hands behind his back and put into a police van. However, the police failed to secure him with a seat belt and took him for what many have deemed as “rough rides,’’ an apparent staple of this law enforcement team. Freddy Gray died of injuries to his spine while at the hands of the Baltimore police, all of whom were acquitted by a judge (“Police Brutality”). As stories such as these become more prevalent in our news, it appears that the right to be free from unjust torture and cruel punishment does not apply if one is of minority descent and confronted by those who are sworn to protect and serve.

Once prisoners pay their debt to society, they are expected to reintegrate themselves back into their communities and adjust to becoming a regular citizen once again. Truth is that they are typically faced with much adversity for the rest of their lives. Many of their civil liberties are taken away from them. They cannot vote, receive federal welfare, public housing assistance, federal grants or support to go back to school, and even if they would like to pay for school out of pocket, it is nearly impossible to find a well-paying job as a convicted felon (Pinard 1214). In 2013, the unemployment rate former prisoners was 60 percent (“Mass Incarceration” 765). With little opportunity for personal growth, ex-felons usually return to the means of making a living that led to their incarceration in the first place, perpetuating the cycle of imprisonment, without the possibility of true rehabilitation.

15 The overrepresentation of minorities in prison is associated with a historical racial bias that has plagued the United States since its founding. It’s no secret that the United States, especially the antebellum plantations of the south, relied heavily upon slave labor to build a strong economy. After the Civil War, the passing of the 13th, 14th and 15th amendments, and the reconstruction era of the southern United States, the south remained resentful towards the African American population. As a result, the Jim Crow laws were enacted, segregating people of color from whites in schools, jobs, housing and public meeting areas. Also, ninety five percent of the prisoners found in the southern states penal system between 1865 and 1890 were African American (Small 899). They were leased out to businesses and farmers for labor purposes. Similarly, the purposeful concentration of minorities into poor communities, the lack of education provided, and the targeting of minorities by law enforcement through the “War on Drugs” is eerily reminiscent of the post-Civil War Southern states’ actions to disempower Black males.

Housing discrimination during the 20th century kept minorities within poorer communities.

One such effort in the nineteen thirties was known as “red lining.” After the Great Depression, there was a need to reestablish the economy by strengthening the housing market, which was achieved through building new homes and writing new mortgages. The Home Owners Loan Corporation (HOLC), however, wanted to make sure that their investments were going to flourish.

So, they hired local real-estate professionals in several different areas to create maps of the communities to assess risk. These “residential securities” maps were color coordinated to the degree of “risk” in a particular neighborhood. Red anywhere on these maps indicated higher risk; Red marked areas also happened to be poor minority communities, hence the name “red lining.” The HOLC then used these maps to channel mortgages away from these zones (Marshall 56). In 2010, census data revealed that several of these neighborhoods, such as those “redlined” in Louisville, KY, now have poverty rates above 40 percent. Also, 41 to 75 percent of the mortgage applications were

16 denied between 2011 and 2013 for four of these neighborhoods (Marshall 56). Records from the U.S. Census Bureau from 1950 to 2000 show that the home ownership and the average home value for African Americans were consistently lower than the rest of the country. In 2000, the home ownership rate for African Americans was about 48 percent compared to 72 percent nationally (Loubert 20). Even today, valuable home ownership remains an elusive luxury for many African Americans.

The lack of an education is also another factor that keeps minorities living within poor areas.

Education today is not blatantly denied, as it was during slavery and Jim Crow, but schools in poor minority neighborhoods are not funded as well as schools in more affluent areas. In the late 19th and early 20th century, funding was purposefully channeled away from schools African Americans attended, but now, it is done more discreetly. In many cases, funding for public schools comes from local property taxes. Therefore, when property values are low, such as in “redlined” areas, there is much less money for local schools (Loubert 19-20). African Americans also suffer from wage inequality; the average black man makes about 20 to 25 percent less than his white counterpart.

Consequently, African American families that cannot afford better homes, or cannot get a loan in a better neighborhood, are subjected to having their children attend these poorly funded schools.

Without a proper education, teens within poor minority communities are more likely to rely on illegal drug activity for financial support, than to finish their K-12 schooling and find a proper job.

This illegal activity and lack of education is indicated by statistics showing that 70 percent of the U.S. prison population is illiterate (Balboni). Ironically, each state in the U.S. spent three times more per pupil for prisoners than they did for public school students, according to a 2003 Children’s Defense Fund report (Lanier 172). The likelihood an individual will do time in prison at some point in his or her life is not only an issue of race and poverty, but the level of educational attainment. Living in

17 poorer communities with underfunded public schools almost guarantees minority students will lack the education and functional literacy they need to find gainful employment.

All these socio-historical factors lead to the major contribution to the mass imprisonment of African Americans, the United States’ “war on drugs.” While it still remains that Whites are more likely to use drugs, typically, African Americans and minorities are targeted as the main culprits in America’s fight against narcotics. As former “Drug Czar” William Bennett stated, “The typical cocaine user is a white male, high school graduate employed full time, and living in small metropolitan area or suburb” (qtd. in Small 897). Yet federal agents choose to concentrate their efforts almost exclusively in poor minority neighborhoods. Federal agents have admitted that they do not stakeout white neighborhoods because they can make more arrests in the inner city with much less effort (Weikel 1). The additional influx to the population of prisoners requires facilities to house the incarcerated. The prison industrial complex has come to rely on such programs as the war on drugs to fill its facilities throughout the country. Many rural communities rely on prisons as the main supply of income, and private corporations have come to rely on them as well. In 2013 the two largest private prison companies in the U.S. made a profit of $2.9 billion. These private prisons contract out labor to private corporations like Microsoft, Nordstrom’s, Macy’s, Victoria’s Secret and Target for wages recorded as low as $.23 an hour (“Mass Incarceration” 764). The use of prisoners as cheap labor and a source of revenue for private contractors continue to be an incentive to keep the prisons’ occupancy high rather than rehabilitating the inmates.

Supporters of the government’s war on drugs contend that enforcements like minimum sentencing have had success in punishing the high-level drug king-pins. A 2009 report by the Federal Sentencing Commission revealed that, over all, lower level drug offenders received less harsh sentencing than the higher up offenders (Dahl 278). However, the number of people and the racial profile of the individuals most frequently sentenced remains questionable. Because of this, many

18 movements, organizations, and people are taking action to curtail America’s epidemic of mass incarceration of minorities.

Many advocates have taken been multiple steps to decrease the prison population of nonviolent drug offenders. In 1993, Senator Ted Kennedy introduced a bill known as the “safety valve” provision that allowed federal judges to decide not to implement mandatory minimum sentences if the defendant did not have more than one other point of criminal history, was non-violent, did not have a deadly weapon at the time of arrest, and was considered to be a low-level dealer (Dahl 272).

However, very often black criminals do not see much relief through the “safety valve” provision because many of them have multiple past convictions. But because many of these crimes are classified as non-violent drug offences, there has been some consideration of expanding the “safety valve” provision. A 2011 report from the U.S. Sentencing Commission suggested to Congress that it should consider expanding the safety valve provision to include more non-violent offenders with more than one past offense (Dahl 294). Another initiative was the passing of the Equal Sentencing Act of 2010 which reduced the penalty for crack cocaine to powder cocaine by an 18:1 ratio; this ensured that those arrested for simply possessing the drug would not be susceptible to minimum sentencing, but rather an increased fine (U.S. Sentencing Commission). Expanding provisions such as these should greatly decrease the African American populations within some U.S. prisons.

In order to eradicate the perpetual cycling of minorities through the U.S. prison systems, the first step federal, state, and local governments can take is to increase investment in education in traditionally minority communities. Research shows that people who have been educated in a district that spends more money per student will earn more money later in their adult lives (Loubert 24).

Therefore, there needs to be a nation-wide effort to shift desperately needed funds to poorer schools. Such efforts have already taken place in several parts of the country. For example, Kentucky has allocated half a cent of sales tax, which will raise about $500 million annually, to help

19 fund schools in poor districts (Flanigan). Perhaps, if the United States would shift funds away from prisons and into education, the prison population would dwindle, and less funding would be needed to house and support prisoners. Ironically, state spending for corrections increased 166 percent between 1985 and 2000, while spending for education increased only 24 percent. About fifty percent of the inmates convicted of nonviolent drug offences do not have their high school diploma or GED (Lanier 173). If higher education leads to less criminal activity, then the logic follows that each passing high school or college graduate should equal fewer criminals behind bars.

An unorthodox idea that may help alleviate economically poor and disenfranchised communities is the implementation of co-housing facilities for families dealing with the incarceration of a family member. Some of the money that is used annually for public housing assistance could be allocated for the specific purpose of keeping families from becoming homeless because of the incarceration of a parent. One in twenty-eight children have a parent in prison; in African American communities, it jumps to one in fourteen. Having a parent in prison increases the possibility of that child going to prison later in life (Lanier 174). To end the vicious cycle that these families experience, there is a need to strengthen their households. Single parents often work more than one job to support their families, which gives them little time to cook meals, teach, and spend time with their children. What co-housing does is help strengthen and support communities through collaborating and socializing. These separate households share common activity buildings and areas.

Each family takes part in preparing meals on different nights of the week, which helps single parents working a double shift, feed their families. The children play together in common social areas and workshops, forming a strong bond with kids in a similar social situation, which in turn, may keep them from joining a street gang for support.

Another key ingredient of the co-housing model is the influence of other adults around the community to give the communal and emotional support a child needs and would ideally receive if

20 they had both parents at home. This initiative would give these disenfranchised communities of single-parent households the dire support that they need for their children to foster a better foundation for the rest of their lives. Without education and community support, those living in poorer, African American communities will continue to be victims of the nation’s war on drugs.

Their resulting incarceration denies them their human right to equality before the law, freedom from harsh punishment, and the denial of their civil liberties.

Law enforcement, the judicial system, and the United States’ prison industrial complex has devastated the African American community over the last several decades. African Americans have been subjected to discrimination and violence, and their communities have been torn apart by these injustices. It is time that the United States starts making its greatest wrong a right by facing its past.

The nation must recognize the forces that have led the nation to lock up so many of its citizens so disproportionately, threatening the basic human rights of many Americans based on their race and ethnicity. The darkest time in U.S. history continues to impact the nation to this very day despite efforts to change the historic bias in our criminal justice system. Fortunately, bipartisan support for decriminalizing certain drugs and decreasing sentences for non-violent drug offenders is growing as Republicans and Democrats have both realized the unjust impact and inherent racial bias in America’s war on drugs. However, currently the Trump administration has made it clear that it plans to continue more “tough on crime” initiatives reminiscent of the 80’s and 90’s. Attorney General Jeff Sessions has been an outspoken advocate for continuing mandatory minimum sentences and using harsh sentences on non-violent drug offenders. Sessions has been quoted saying “Drug trafficking is inherently violent” (Tanfani and Halper). He also believes that there is more violence associated with marijuana “than one would think,” despite the evidence of decreases in violence in areas where marijuana has been legalized for medicinal purposes (Gass). Sessions has already reversed policies of the former administration including former Attorney General Eric Holder’s

21 policies to reserve the harshest charges for high-level and violent offenders, and President Obama’s initiative to end federal contracts with private prisons (Tanfani and Halper). Although there has been a 14% decline in the federal prison population since the past administration’s efforts to dissuade the use of mandatory sentences, Sessions believes the country will need the private prison space for the “boost in inmate population that he sees coming” (qtd. in Tanfani and Halper). His words are a haunting vision of the past policies that led to the largest prison population in the industrialized world. These new policies could potentially reverse the progress that has been made toward criminal justice reform. The United States must remain vigilant and oppose the ideology of a few men from destroying the progression the United States has made to repent and amend the sins of its past.

22 Works Cited Balboni, Jennifer M. “War on Drugs.” The American Mosaic: The African American Experience, ABCCLIO, 2017, africanamerian2.abc-clio.com/search/display/1841922. http://ezproxy.

Scottsdalecc.edu:2450/search/display/1841922.

Dahl, Alan. "Eric Holder's Recent Curtailment of Mandatory Minimum Sentencing, Its Implications, and Prospects for Effective Reform." BYU Journal of Public Law, vol. 29, no. 1, Dec. 2014, pp.

271-297. EBSCOhost, ezproxy.scottsdalecc.edu:2443/login?url=.

Gass,Henry. “Why some Worry Jeff Sessions’ Crime-Fighting Approach Is Out of Date.” Christian Science Monitor, 28 Mar. 2017. EBSCOhost, search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=121637873&site=ehost-live.

Gopnik, Adam. "The Caging of America." New Yorker, vol. 87, no. 46, 30 Jan. 2012. EBSCOhost, search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN =70936345&site=ehost-live.

Flanigan, James. "Taxing for Schools, Investing in the Future." Los Angeles Times (pre-1997 Fulltext), Jun 03, 1990, National Newspapers Core, https://ezproxy.scottsdalecc.edu:2443/login?url=http://ezproxy.scottsdalecc.edu:2112/doc view/281055871?accountid=227.

Lanier, James R. “The Harmful Impact of the Criminal Justice System and War on Drugs on the African American family.” The State of Black America: Washington, National Urban League, Publications Department, 2003, pp. 169-179, 290. Ethnic News Watch, ezproxy.scottsdalecc.edu:2105/docview/223589038.

Loubert, Linda. "Discrimination in Education Financing." Review of Black Political Economy, vol. 32, no. 3/4, Winter/Spring2005, pp. 17-27. EBSCOhost, ezproxy.scottsdalecc.edu:2443/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=tr ue&db=buh&AN=19510794&site=ehost-live&scope=site.

23 Marshall, Anne. "Dividing Lines." Louisville Magazine, vol. 68, no. 3, Mar. 2017, p. 56. EBSCOhost, ezproxy.scottsdalecc.edu:2443/login?url=http://search.ebscohost .com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=f5h&AN=121733673&site=ehost-live.

“Mass Incarceration.” Gale Encyclopedia of U.S. Economic History, Edited by Thomas Riggs, 2nd ed.,vol.

2 Gale, 2015, pp 73-765. Gale Virtual Reference Library, go.galegroup.com/ps/i/.do? p=GRVL&sw=w&u=mcc_sctsd&v=2.1&id=GALE% 7CCX3611000520&it=r&asid=171092ab88a3f551c2aa0246d14d2b62.

Pinard, Michael. "Reflections and Perspectives on Reentry and Collateral Consequences." Journal of Criminal Law & Criminology, vol. 100, no. 3, Summer2010, pp. 1213-1224. EBSCOhost, search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN= 58547927&site=ehost-live.

“Police Brutality: Do U.S. police departments use appropriate force when dealing with the public?”

3 Aug. 2016. Issues and Controversies, Info Learning, http://icof.infobaselearning.com/recordurl.aspx?ID=14188.

Small, Deborah. “The War on Drugs Is a War on Racial Justice.” Social Research, vol. 68, no. 3, Fall 2001, pp.896-903. EBSCOhost, ezproxy.scottsdalecc.edu:2443/login?.

Spohn, Cassia. "Criminality and Social Factors." Encyclopedia of Race and Racism, edited by Patrick L. Mason, 2nd ed., vol. 1, Macmillan Reference USA, 2013, pp. 459-462. Gale Virtual Reference Library, go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?p=GVRL&sw=w&u=mcc_main&v=2.1&id=GALE%7CCX419 0600129&it=r&asid=c287c25dbc926158337f7c28a77d6fe7.

Tanfani, Joseph, and Evan Halper. "THE NATION; Tough Drug War Policies Restored; Sessions Tells Federal Prosecutors to Stop Avoiding the Triggering of Long Prison Terms." Los Angeles Times, May 13, 2017, National Newspapers Core,

24 140.198.8.124:2048/login?url=http://search.proquest.com.libproxy.maricopa.edu/?url=http ://search.proquest.com.libproxy.maricopa.edu/docview/1898370962?accountid=12329.

United States Sentencing Commission. “2015 Report to Congress: Impact of the Fair Sentencing Act of 2010.” http://www.ussc.gov/research/congressional-reports/2015-report-congressimpact-fair-sentencing-act-2010.

Weikel, Dan. “War on Crack Targets Minorities Over Whites Cocaine: Records show Federal Officials almost Solely Prosecute Nonwhites. U.S. Attorney Denies Race is a Factor. Los Angeles Times (pre-1997 Fulltext), May 21 1995, pp 1. National Newspapers Core, https://scottsdalecc.edu:2443/login?url=htp://ezproxyscottsdalecc.edu:2105/docview2931 95132?accountid=227.

25

The Future of Prostitution Law in the United States Natalia Evans English 102

Abstract This essay on two popular alternatives to the criminalization of prostitution (legalization and the Nordic model) with a focus on their potential adoption by the U.S.A. consists of a literature review examining various views on the nature of the sex industry, namely works by Murphy (2014), Johnson (2014), “A Personal Choice,” by an unknown author and published by The Economist (2014) and Post (1999); research of the Netherlands’ experience with legalization, paying special attention to the growing number of persons being trafficked into the country; and an exploration of the Nordic prostitution model introduced by Sweden, which decriminalizes the selling of sex but in turn criminalizes buyers. The conclusion is that legalization has vastly failed in the Netherlands and that the Swedish approach is by far the most successful, comprehensive and progressive prostitution model, making it the one with the most potential of achieving positive results in the United States.

Keywords: prostitution, Netherlands, human trafficking, Nordic model, Sweden

26 The Future of Prostitution Law in the United States The dialogue around prostitution has gained momentum in the western world in the last decade through feminist concerns and a wider trend of “sex positivity.” This mind shift makes room for a subject that not long ago would be considered too taboo for mainstream discussion. The main question surrounding the topic in the United States seems clear: should prostitution be legalized?

The subject proves to be much more complicated than it appears, however, shining a light onto very serious underlying issues and attracting many varying perspectives. To reach a conclusion, the two main alternatives to criminalization should be considered: the legalization of prostitution, as best exemplified by the Netherlands, and the Nordic Model, introduced by Sweden, where sex work is decriminalized but its purchase is not.

Literature Review Ample research has been conducted on both models, and proponents of each are frequently at odds.

The first point of disagreement that surfaces is the very way people see prostitution as an occupation. The unnamed author of “A Personal Choice” (1999) is of the opinion that it is a job much like any other. The authors of “Is the Nordic Model for Us?” and “Legalizing Prostitution: A Systematic Rebuttal,” however, believe selling sex is nothing like other professions: Dianne Post (2014) notes that other actions that commodify the human body in similar ways (such as the selling of organs, or buying and selling babies instead of adopting) are utterly unthinkable today and that work that does not require specialized skill or knowledge can’t be considered a profession.

Additionally, Meghan Murphy (2014) reminds us that prostitution is an extremely dangerous activity, making the women involved in it much more likely to, for example, be murdered than women in other occupations.

Closely tied to the nature of prostitution, and a good indicator of it, is the reality of

27 prostituted women themselves. Murphy (2014) and Post (2014) agree that it cannot be said that most prostituted women have simply made a free choice, since marginalizing factors are, in the most part, what lead women into the sex industry (especially poverty, but also colonialism, addiction and other influences). To support her position, Murphy (2014) cites a 2008 survey including over 800 “sex workers” in which 89% reported they wanted to leave the industry. In “A Personal Choice’s” view, however, most prostitutes are, in fact, merely exercising free choice (A Personal Choice, 1999).

Elizabeth M. Johnson (2014) remarks on the fact that prostitutes, unlike people involved in other illegal trades such as drug trafficking, are often at an economic disadvantage compared to their customers (or, as they are usually called by women in the industry, “johns”). Johnson (2014) adds that those women are also at a higher risk of having violence inflicted upon them, usually by a customer, while having less legal recourses to protect themselves and seek justice.

While the impact of prostitution on women involved in it is relatively easy to see, its larger, more nuanced social impact must not be neglected. Murphy (2014) believes prostitution has a negative impact on how people view women, as well as the relationships and dynamics between the genders, reinforcing the patriarchal domination of women, and as such is incompatible with feminist thought. Similarly, in Post’s (2014) opinion, prostitution negatively affects all women by: objectifying them through the sale of their bodies as commodities; allowing men to define them by sexualizing their bodies; undermining their roles in society; and maintaining a moral double standard between men and women.

Having considered all of these major aspects of the sex industry, the ultimate, hardest question it raises is the juridical one: what is the best comprehensive legal approach to prostitution in the United States? Murphy (2014) is of the opinion that yes, the Nordic model should be adopted, decriminalizing prostituted women so that they have a better chance of leaving, as well as pursuing the legal system if violated, while criminalizing pimps and “johns,” and thus tackling the demand for

28 sexual services (it should be noted that decriminalization is not the same as legalization: the latter entails making the occupation and its professionals regulated and licensed by the government as they generate tax revenues—it means that if a woman were to go to an employment agency without any qualification, they could try to persuade her to take such a job, and possibly remove her unemployment benefit if she refuses). To back her position, she cites that the model has been giving Sweden great results, with prostitution being reduced by half and much fewer men reporting paying for sex (Murphy, 2014). She also adds that the government should adopt a long-term, preventative approach by tackling the factors that cause women to go into prostitution in the first place, as well as offer help for women who wish to exit it, and train the police force to properly deal with the new state of affairs.

Post (2014) is of the opinion that prostitution should not be legalized or in any way legitimized (for that would only further its social and economic relevance), and that individual prostitutes shouldn’t be criminalized. In his article, Johnson (2014) displays a mostly impartial position, merely calling for the end of discrimination in the enforcement of prostitution laws, whatever they are: both buyers and sellers should be persecuted equally. Additionally, he states that the standard of proof for the defense of discriminatory enforcement should be lowered. Standing with the most divergent position on the matter, however, the author of A Personal Choice (1999) believes that, unless children or human trafficking are involved, the government should not intervene. In the article, they suggest that the natural shift of prostitution to the online environment will make it safe and thus no longer a problem (A Personal Choice, 2014).

Prostitution is a challenging problem and an urgent concern for human rights advocates, involving several facets of our culture. Murphy stands out as the most thorough in her arguments, using a current, effective legal and social model designed to address the issue (the Nordic model) as an example, supporting the validity of her position. The same cannot be said of “A Personal

29 Choice’s” author, who set forth their view that prostitution is merely a harmless transaction between consenting adults without sufficient evidence to back up that claim. They made use of shallow, onesided arguments which failed to address the amply studied dangers and social repercussions associated with the occupation. When considering the sex industry, it is important that its many variables be taken into account. This has been shown throughout the sources analyzed in this review: every article had something different to contribute to the literature on the subject, even when they agreed with one another. This can be seen, for example, in the comparison between Murphy and Post: both authors agree that most prostituted women are forced into prostitution by marginalizing factors (Murphy, 2014; Post, 2014). However, while Murphy (2014) points out that most people in the sex industry wish to leave, Post (2014) chose to focus on the fact that women’s choices, no matter how seemingly “free,” should be considered within the context of their subordination to a patriarchy, thus adding a new perspective to the shared opinion, which is crucial to fully understanding and addressing prostitution.

Legalized Prostitution in the Netherlands The experience of the Netherlands, which has legalized prostitution in the year 2000, provides great insight into the nature of sex work and the challenges of regulating it. Giving the approach great popularity, with several countries discussing the possibility of adhering to the Dutch model, and some actually doing so (as is the case of Germany, Greece and other nations) proponents of legalization (both in the Netherlands 16 years ago and currently across the globe) argue that when prostitution is regulated by the state, sex workers are safer in every way as they are free to contact the police when victimized, and have easier access to social programs like health care.

They also hope that the stigma associated with the occupation will decrease. Examining the sex industry in the Netherlands over a decade after legalization, however, shows that this has not been

30 the case.

When prostitution became legal in the Netherlands, the biggest argument for legalization was that, other than making sex workers safer, it would be a huge blow to the organized crime of human trafficking, since women would supposedly be able to freely choose the occupation and there would be no need to coerce or force anyone into it. However, this prediction has proven wildly inaccurate: from 2000 to 2009, there had been a steady, steep increase in trafficked people coming into the Netherlands: in 2000 there were 341 possible victims, and by 2009 there were 909 (Staring, 2012), the vast majority of which were being exploited in the sex industry (Staring, 2012). This shows that prostitution is not an industry that privileged Dutch women with better prospects would choose, while women from poor countries who are struggling financially can be more easily lured or coerced into it.

Exposing and fighting this sector of organized crime has proven incredibly difficult—in a recent effort to curb trafficking, the Dutch government has criminalized illegal residence. Research shows, however, that the opposite is likely to occur: traffickers will have a very powerful blackmail strategy now that their victims will be more scared than ever to go to authorities, in fear of being arrested and deported. The high incidence of human trafficking into the Netherlands is organized crime’s response to a lucrative market: the legal status of prostitution creates a larger demand for it, in part from sex tourism, including for illegal forms of sex work, like underage (even prepubescent) prostitutes: studies have shown that far more men hire prostituted women in places where the trade is legalized than they do where buying sex is criminalized, with 1 in 4 men admitting to the practice in Germany under legalization, versus 1 in 13 in Sweden since they’ve created the Nordic model (Murphy, 2014).

Even though there is a boost in demand as men feel more comfortable paying for sex, the act of selling it is still far from socially acceptable in the Netherlands. Since legalization, prostitution

31 has not miraculously become something Dutch people decide to do out of passion or because they think it’s a fun or easy job: it’s still a last resort, made obvious by the fact that most prostitutes are immigrants from poor regions and that, according to a survey including 800 prostitutes from several countries of varying levels of criminalization and legalization, 89% wish to leave (Murphy, 2014).

This stigma is partially the result of the heterosexual double standard regarding sex which results in sex workers (especially women) being looked down upon. This trend, among other things, causes clients to objectify prostituted women, becoming less likely to empathize or care if they see abuse. It also leads to prostituted women lying to their families, hiding their true occupation, and often enduring ridicule and harassment from others when they learn of their livelihood, which causes a great deal of stress and psychological trauma (Vanwesenbeeck, 2005).

Immigrant prostitutes, including many that have ended up in the Netherlands as victims of human trafficking, have an even harder time: they often can’t go back to their families because they wouldn’t be accepted after working in the sex industry (Willemsen, 2006). Even those who have only done sex work for short periods of time and in a casual manner report feeling ashamed and dirty, and are often in denial about the nature of what they have done, stating that it was not quite prostitution, as shown in their testimonials in the study Young Dutch People’s Experiences of Trading Sex: A Qualitative Study (van de Walle, Picavet, Van Berlo & Verhoeff, 2012). Vanwesenbeeck’s study shows that emotional exhaustion is extremely high among sex workers and nurses alike, but the psychological distress seen in pathologically high rates among prostituted women is depersonalization: having been linked to low self-esteem and low autonomy, it serves as an unhealthy coping mechanism in which victims distance themselves from what they do, becoming very cynical towards their clients (Vanwesenbeeck, 2005). These patterns seen in the psyche of sex workers demonstrate that prostituted women (even those in a relatively privileged position) don’t feel equal to their clients in the context of the transaction, nor are they seen or treated as such.

32 While the psychological and emotional distress caused by social stigma is a significant burden that negatively impacts sex workers’ health, even more pronounced is the impact caused by the constant threat and reality of physical or sexual violence from clients: prostitutes are 16 times more likely to be murdered than other women (Murphy, 2014), and legalization hasn’t changed that. In Amsterdam, window prostitutes are murdered every year, and recently several brothels have been shut down because it was found that organized crime had taken over (Murphy, 2014). In her study containing a small sample of 105 relatively privileged sex workers, Vanwesenbeeck has found that within just one year, one in four had experienced bullying at work, while a quarter experienced physical violence, and almost half surveyed claimed to know of physical violence suffered by colleagues (2005). The hope that violence would cease once prostitution became legalized was based on the idea that they would now be able to press charges against their aggressors without fearing prosecution. This expected outcome hasn’t come to pass, due to the fact that large numbers of sex workers have been trafficked and are residing in the Netherlands illegally, in addition to the reality that even those working legally often do not wish to be exposed as prostitute by pursuing justice.

Furthermore, rape and other forms of sexual harassment thrive in cultures where women are objectified, and prostitution is the apex of sexual objectification of women—once it’s been normalized, it comes as no surprise that men’s attitude toward sex workers would worsen.

Sixteen years after legalizing prostitution, the Netherlands has only seen an increase in exploitation and human trafficking in its sex industry, which remains extremely dangerous, poorly regulated and socially unacceptable to most people. “In Amsterdam, the Deputy Mayor—who recently became Deputy Prime Minister of the country—took the position that no women chooses this work voluntarily” (Huisman & Kleemans, 2014, p. 220). The question raised by Holland’s failure is a fundamental one that all nations should ask themselves before following suit: is it really possible

33 to strip crime and abuse from an industry that is so intrinsically linked to human rights violations, objectification and sexism?

The Nordic Model The United States has legalized sex work in some cities in the state Nevada, and both legalization and criminalization have proved futile in tackling the problems imposed by the sex industry. A promising alternative is the Nordic Model, pioneered by Sweden and subsequently adopted by Norway, Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Northern Ireland and, most recently, France. The Nordic approach sees violence and crime as inherent to sex work and seeks to undermine it.

The Swedish prostitution model (locally called the Kvinnofrid law), established in 1999, has a comprehensive design but a simple premise: born primarily from the effort of female parliamentarians with a feminist agenda, the model focuses on tackling the demand for prostitution by criminalizing buyers of sex (by charging them with fines), while protecting prostituted women by decriminalizing the act of selling sex, in an attempt to avoid further victimizing people in an already underprivileged position and who often come from troubled backgrounds (Post, 1999). It operates in this fashion because it recognizes prostitution as a gendered issue—both a product of gender inequality and a tool in maintaining the subordination of all women—as well as a form of violence against women and a violation of their human rights; it recognizes the fundamental power imbalance in the dynamics between (overwhelmingly) men who pay for sex, and (overwhelmingly) women who sell their bodies, in which the male clients are in a privileged position relative to the sex workers, who usually choose prostitution as a last resort. Viewing prostituted women as victims of a patriarchal structure, the model also offers them exit strategies for those who wish to leave the sex industry, as well as social support services aimed at helping sex workers stay safe. This aspect of the

34 law is essential because, especially with prostitution under attack, people who would otherwise make a living off of sex work need alternatives and help preparing for a different industry.

Unlike both the partial legalization and the total criminalization of prostitution, which have persistently failed in making the industry respectively safer and more contained, the effort put into curbing the demand for sex work set forth by Sweden has proven extremely effective in crippling the sex industry: now, 1 in 13 men buy sex, compared to 1 in 8 before the adoption of the model (Murphy, 2014); the number of prostituted women has halved since the implementation of the Nordic model (Aleem, 2015); and violence against sex workers have also decreased dramatically (Berg, 2013), since they can now threaten to call the police on their clients. The decline in men who buy sex in Sweden, combined with the fact that over 80% of Swedes currently agree with the Kvinnofrid law (Murphy, 2014), shows that there has been a shift in mentality among Swedish citizens, where paying for sex is now frowned upon.

Despite its success, the Nordic model is not without its critics. A common concern of critics relates to the perceived double standard of decriminalizing prostitutes while prosecuting their clients.

While the rationale behind that policy has already been explained by the context in which men and women trade sex, it is worth addressing a particular critique regarding a different aspect of that supposed double standard, laid out very eloquently by Cas Mudde in “The Paternalistic Fallacy of the ‘Nordic Model’ of Prostitution.” Mudde argues that by criminalizing buyers while viewing prostitutes as victims, the Swedish model is removing agency from women and treating them like children, while holding men (clients) morally accountable for their actions, and that is at odds with gender equality and feminist theory (2016). Although this is an understandable concern, it is not true that the Nordic model is holding women to a lower moral standard than men, as if they are not accountable for their choices—it is, instead, looking at those choices while considering the context in which they are made, and attempting to level the playing field by not further marginalizing and

35 prosecuting an already oppressed group of people. Men are the ones held accountable for buying sex because, unlike prostituted women who overwhelmingly enter the industry from a place of desperation or coercion (Post, 1999), they truly, freely choose to indulge in the buying of other human beings for entertainment from a privileged position, which means they are essentially taking advantage of someone else’s unfortunate situation. The idea that sex workers and their clients play morally equivalent roles in the trading of sex is simply untrue.

A very important critique of the Nordic model is one put forth by human rights organization Amnesty International. Through their own research on the Swedish sex industry, they have found that, even though the model claims to protect prostituted women, many of them are negatively impacted by law enforcement which has made the “promotion of prostitution” illegal, even if not done by third parties; law enforcement may also racially profile and deport prostitutes residing in Sweden illegally, which is inhumane; as a result of this prosecution, social stigma has increased, causing many property owners to refuse leasing to assumed sex workers in fear of getting in trouble with the police (Grant, 2016). This is a legitimate concern and a real problem in Sweden: there certainly is room for improvement in the model, and there has been improvement throughout the years. Possibly the most damaging of such initiatives, “operation homeless” actively sought to find sites where prostitutes ran their business and pressured landlords to evict them under threats of charging them with running a brothel (this program was canceled in 2014). It is important, however, to keep in mind that these efforts exist in order to keep human trafficking, notoriously common in the sex industry, in check. The ultimate goal of the Nordic model is to eradicate prostitution, as it is seen as more than a local social problem or an unfortunate symptom of poverty, but as human rights violation and a significant threat to gender equality, and any struggle along the way is worthwhile for future generations where prostitution is but an embarrassment of the past.

36 Undoubtedly, the most common opposition to the Nordic model comes from proponents of legalizing prostitution, who believe it is unrealistic to strive for the eradication of the occupation and that it can, once regulated, be a healthy profession like any other. This position has, of course, proven greatly naïve and inaccurate, considering the Nordic model is indeed succeeding, whereas legalization has been an immense failure everywhere it’s been implemented (the Netherlands being the best example). Since legalizing prostitution in 2000, the country has seen human trafficking flourish and its sex industry has grown to an unmanageable size (Staring, 2012).

When trying to find a solution to a phenomenon as complex and as deeply ingrained in our culture as prostitution, it is of utmost importance to look at the big picture and think ahead.

Legalizing prostitution hasn’t worked because it is an extremely superficial and short-sighted approach that doesn’t foresee the challenges of distinguishing legal from illegal or exploitative forms of prostitution, and total criminalization does not work because it doesn’t address the underlying issues that drive women into sex work in the first place (such as poverty, addiction, troubled families, coercion, human trafficking and the wider context of a patriarchal society). The Nordic model, while not perfect from the point of view of the individual prostitute, succeeds because it attempts to take all of these factors into account, while looking to a future without prostitution as a goal. It is our best, most fair hope to tackle this obstinate, pervasive social ill.

37 References Grant, Melissa Gira (2016). Amnesty international calls for an to the ‘nordic model’ of criminalizing sex workers. Retrieved from: https://www.thenation.com/article/amnestyinternational-calls-for-an-end-to-the-nordic-model-of-criminalizing-sex-workers/ Mudde, Cas (2016). The paternalistic fallacy of the “nordic model” of prostitution. Retrieved from: http://www.huffingtonpost.com/cas-mudde/the-paternalisticfallacy_b_9644972.html Peters, Mary Ann (2016). Nordic model key to beating exploitation of sex workers.

Retrieved from: http://www.cnn.com/2016/04/18/opinions/prostitution-nordic-modelpeters/ The guardian view on criminal policy: sex, money and the long arm of the law [Editorial].

(2016). Retrieved from: https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2016/apr/07/theguardian-view-on-criminal-policy-sex-money-and-the-long-arm-of-the-law Aleem, Zeeshan (2015). 16 years since decriminalizing prostitution, here’s what’s happening in sweden. Retrieved from: https://mic.com/articles/112814/here-s-what-s-happened-insweden-16-years-since-decriminalizing-prostitution#.a7SBYg1Jt Goldberg, Michelle (2014). Swedish prostitution law is spreading worldwide – here’s how to improve it. Retrieved from: https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2014/aug/08/criminsalise-buying- notselling-sex Huisman, Wim; Kleemans, Edward (2014). The challenges of fighting sex trafficking in the legalized prostitution market of the netherlands. Crime, Law and Social Change, 61 (2), 215-228.

38 Johnson, Elizabeth M. (2014). Buyers without remorse: ending the discriminatory enforcement of prostitution laws. Texas Law Review, 92 (3), 717-748.

Murphy, Meghan (2014). Is the nordic prostitution model for us?. Herizons, 24 (4), 6-8.

Unknown author (2014). A personal personal choice. Economist, 412 (8899), 9-9.

Berg, Samantha (2013). New research shows violence decreases under nordic model: why the radio silence? Retrieved from: http://www.feministcurrent.com/2013/01/22/newresearch-shows-violence-decreases-under-nordic-model-why-the-radio-silence/ Staring, Richard H.J.M (2012). Human trafficking the netherlands: trends and recent developments. International Review of Law, Computers & Technology, 26 (1), 59-72. van de Walle, Robert; Picavet, Charles; van Berlo, Willy; Verhoeff, Arnoud (2012). Young dutch people’s experiences of trading sex: a qualitative study. Journal of Sex Research, 49 (6), 547-557.

Veen, Maaike; Gotz, Hannelore; Leeuwen, Petra; Prins, Maria; Laar, Marita (2010). HIV and sexual risk behavior among commercial sex workers in the netherlands. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 39 (3), 714-723.

Willemsen, Eline (2006). A safe return for victims of trafficking. Forced Migration Review, 25 (3), 30-31.

Vanwesenbeeck, Ine (2005). Burnout among female indoor sex workers. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 34

(6), 627-639, 13.

Post, Dianne (1999). Legalizing prostitution: a systematic rebuttal. Off Our Backs, 29 (7), 8.

39 Paige Vannarath ENG 102 Harmful Modern Day Journalistic Integrity The act of reading a newspaper should be regarded as truly precious nowadays. We’re all familiar with the traditional Sunday paper we often watch our parents read while sipping on a warm cup of coffee in the morning, but just how long have newspapers been around? The first ever newspaper publication in America was Publick Occurrences, which debuted in Boston in 1690.

Although this newspaper only lasted through one issue, it began the basis for spreading news in the most effective and satisfactory fashion, where credit is due to the pioneers of journalism such as Benjamin Harris and John Campbell. Three hundred years later and golly, have we seen a seismic shift in news and journalism, just within the beginning of the 21st century. With the surge in media use and the impact it has had on the journalism industry, loss of appreciation and production for print journalism is evident. The negative impact that new media has had on the journalism industry is exemplified by the constant lack of credibility and fact checkers in the works of online media journalists that undermines the jobs of professional journalists and overshadows the underlying importance of printed works.

A continuous problem that is often seen across media platforms with journalism are the errors in credibility and increase in journalist's carelessness, leading to misinformation that has a lost context. As talked about by Tom Price, writer for CQ Researcher, The always-on nature of the Internet and cable news channels pressures traditional print and broadcast newsrooms — the so-called “legacy media” — to forgo the delays that can be caused by fact-checking. Internet users' expectations that they can comment on the news strains the media's ability to hold all their online content to

40 traditional standards of accuracy and decency. So does the expectation that websites will provide links to outside sources of information. (Price) The overwhelming rush to produce work that will then have a positive, well received outcome puts a lot of pressure on online journalists. With that being said, writers should still be fairly crediting their sources from which they base their facts from. Furthermore, Price discusses a study conducted in 2009 that proves the point of error head on, saying “In a Project for Excellence in Journalism survey last year, online journalists — most of whom worked for legacy media websites — said the Internet was changing journalism values for the worse, especially because an emphasis on speed was causing carelessness and inaccuracy” (Price). The pressure to release breaking news on social media has created this tendency among people who post to rush and thus, lacking the fact checking of their content. Maybe a writer forgets a chunk of the story or chooses to not include it because it doesn’t fit their beliefs, and that, in every way, is faulty. Being inattentive feeds an audience falsified information that obviously exemplifies the absence of credibility. Also clearly illustrated in Out of Print, “Consumers can coverage both platforms and content. The frontiers between audio-visual and text have dissolved: the internet platform can carry them all. That convergence allows immediate comparison and allows anyone with the time and a little skill to re-edit or mash-up content” (Brock 88). The power of editing online is nothing short of absurd because this means that anyone, from anywhere can add to a person's written content at any time, regardless if what they are adding is correct or not. This leads to an audience being misled and given incorrect information, which should never slide in the realms of journalism. Why is preciseness so important exactly? As made clear in Credibility in Context: How Uncivil Online Commentary Affects News Credibility, “Credibility is of practical interest to journalists and news institutions because of the widespread belief that audiences are more likely to read, watch, or listen to news content provided by sources they trust. There is evidence to suggest that those who are relatively more trusting of mainstream news media are somewhat more

41 likely to use these sources than those who are more skeptical of the media” (Thorson, Vraga, & Ekdale 4). Of course we can’t forget about readers because without them, journalism would serve no true purpose. Delivering the truth, in full, and relating to all parties is the strongest way to grow a bond with audiences. This is why great, big time newspaper companies are popular and known for being reputable. In the end, journalism should be pure and trustful, in every way possible, no matter what platform.

Objectivity and the ethical issues regarding new media journalism is an ever growing issue commonly addressed among biases and plagiarism. Discussing the subject of objectivity, Price shares the opinion of the director of the University of Minnesota’s Silha Center for the Study of Media Ethics and Law, Jane Kirtley. She expresses, “When critics argue a reader needs to know a journalist's point of view in order to evaluate his work, they are assuming the reporter can't set aside his personal opinions when doing his job. But that's not a view I share. Part of being a professional is being able to do that” (qtd by Price). Due to the normality of biases in Journalism, which has been ever so heightened thanks to the internet, Kirtley defends the careers of those journalists who dedicate their practices to staying neutral. Being a proficient journalist should mean reporting the facts and only what is certain, leaving partiality separate from that. After all, journalism communicates true happenings and events and regardless of the circumstances surrounding those happenings, people are always going to have an opinion. However, opinion does not sway the truth.

Additionally, it is fair to argue that copyright should pertain to media in the same sense that it does with print, with an analysis by Diane Rowland, Does copyright apply to newspapers in exactly the same way as to other literary works? The straightforward answer is clearly ‘yes’. Although news reports are based on facts that by themselves cannot be copyrighted, there will be copyright in the way

42 those facts are expressed by a particular journalist and additional copyrights in the total compilation of the newspaper and the typographical layout. (Rowland 4) Copyrights protect the interior works of print publications such as newspapers and magazines, as well as the designs of these hard copies. With new media in the mix, plagiarism becomes more and more common as we progress into the technological age, as it is very easy to copy someone else's work and thrive on. It is a difficult process to try and maintain all of this because the internet is more immense than imaginable and thus, the amount of people who plagiarize is not necessarily measurable. The basis of ethics is an evolving concept in media journalism, overall, and should be respected by anyone who wishes to publish their work, whether they are highly skilled or sitting on their couch from home.

Now that the media has taken such a detrimental hold on the world of journalism, professional reporters and writers commonly witness underappreciation for their craft and what they work so hard to perfect. Another problem that professionals in the journalism field often face is competition with amateurity. As talked about in Hosting The Public Discourse, Hosting the Public, “Users can be invited not just to comment, but to provide leads, information, photos, and other content.

Outspoken users publicly challenge journalists and their sources, at times questioning their facts or engaging in harsh, ad hominem attacks..” (Braun, Gillespie 2). As if competition wasn’t steep enough in flourishing cities around the world; we now have an entirely different entity to confront: online media. People don’t necessarily need to be skilled in writing, reporting, or even investigating to publish works of their own. White collared journalists recognize an unfair circle of criticism and incompetence among the growing industry. Stephen Ward, certified director of the University of Wisconsin’s Center for Journalism Ethics commented on the controversy, stating that, “Journalists themselves are sitting in newsrooms and they're starting to worry about their own ability to be accurate informers, because advertisers, business interests and the publishers themselves are

43 threatening [the journalists'] independence” (qtd by Price). Ward highlights the way that sponsors have a direct impact on the news and specifically, the content that journalists speak upon. The power that advertisers hold is quite intimidating because they have the supreme control to leverage what the news reports on. Another concern for professionally trained journalists is that, “Journalists may worry that amateur-quality contributions from users will undercut the professional sheen of their own work; news organizations may find they must work harder to protect their brand as they incorporate user-generated content. Journalism scholars have begun to document these shifts, the ambivalence news professionals feel about this expansion of interactivity, and how journalists justify both the involvement of users and the curtailment of their participation” (Braun, Gillespie 384).

User-generated content, otherwise known as citizen journalism, conflicts with the business of practiced journalists and how their pieces of work are perceived. Professionals waste time challenging uneducated, naive journalist imposters who frequently sensationalize their content in order to grab the attention of the public. It is no longer shocking to witness incompetent people attempting to outshine the artistry of a true journalist.

The concept of print journalism has been around for such a long time, it’s impossible to imagine journalism without newspapers, magazines, and other forms of hard copies. This is why we must push to support these publications. The New York Tribune, which reigned all newspapers during its time and was led by arguably, one of the most inspirational and driven editors of all time, Horace Greeley, represents the heart of journalism. Greeley’s vision was examined in Brock’s book, explaining, “The Tribune would have its own correspondents, and not just in the United States but all over the world… This new form of editorial organization, Greeley assured his readers, would make the newspaper a “Great Moral Organ”. In his editorial organization and research, Greeley was ahead of his time” (Brock 33). Greeley wanted his journalists to make an impact on the population and not only that, but grow to be more immense than one could ever imagine. The idea of newspapers

44 changing how the world understood news was a prevalent one, indeed. Then, Henry Raymond founded the famous New York Times. Although his goals were less daring compared to Greeley’s, he implanted a crucial scheme of balance, centering more so on the importance of consistency for the public. “Historically newspapers have always played a significant role in both forming and influencing public opinion that is not played to any appreciable extent by other types of literary work. This is partly due to the innate curiosity of humans to know about events and individuals in both their immediate and not so immediate environments but is also a consequence of the prevalence and accessibility of newspapers” (Rowland 3). Newspapers appeal to the public and give people their independence.

As society dives deeper and deeper into the world of regularly receiving news online, there’s no denying that they also pull further away from reading tangible print copies and coming to understand the essence of traditional outlets. In Out of Print, the author's take on this change is explicitly stated.

As digital communications become the quickest and simplest ways of getting and sending information, the conventions of 20th-century print will fade in importance.

The rules and conventions of fairness, impartiality, objectivity and accuracy are relevant for news organizations anywhere and are imperatives for news outlets such as news agencies or public service broadcasters. (Brock 233) Brock is making a point that as the popularity of technological outlets are outshining print in this day and age, new developments and ways of reporting news are also overcoming long-established principles in print. While aiming to stay fair, neutral and accurate are all goals of journalists around the spectrum (as they should be), claiming that the foundations that print journalism was created on are insignificant by comparison is a clear blow to the journalists that came before us. Disregarding the values of the print industry, the proper and detailed ways in which journalists write their stories

45 and strive to impact, is not a strong way to defend new digital platforms. These ideas and elements that were formed by print led us to where we are today, so claiming that they will become irrelevant is quite intolerant towards those who worked so hard to perfect that craft. We truly owe all that we have learned, developed and even modified to the start of print journalism. Like the writers of Credibility in Context exemplified and appreciated, “In a print newspaper, care is taken to visually separate and identify different genres of news content. Opinion pieces are clearly labeled as such, and ‘‘news analysis’’ stories are distinguished from other news content in the ‘‘A’’ section of the paper” (Thorson, et al., 5). Attention to detail grew within the creation of the newspaper and the goal from the very beginning has been to give people a perspective on real, accurate, daily occurrences. Therefore, without print, journalism wouldn’t be known for its integrity, as its dependency wouldn’t be so high either. Print has given journalism it’s repute and in every way, its symbol of reliance and trust. As expressed by Brock, “Human beings like reading words from paper.

For many, paper is both optically more attractive and carries greater authority” (231). Not only is print journalism classic and original, but it is also regarded as highly intellectual and valuable, especially in modern day where media often overshadows it. For without the creation of the newspaper, wouldn’t we all be going crazy not knowing what’s going on in the world around us?

“Either write something worth reading or do something worth writing,” the influential Benjamin Franklin once preached. This quote can pertain to the world of journalism in a number of ways, but first and foremost, in that it should inspire journalists across all spectrums to write to the best of their ability. This means that journalists should be double checking their work, making sure that they give credit where it's due and understanding the challenges that come along with new media journalism. Secondly, regardless of the fact that partiality has always existed, doesn't mean that opinions hold the same virtue as reality. The internet can be a very illusional realm that makes it difficult to navigate the truth. Media is hurting journalism tremendously by threatening the very

46 foundation that it was built on: delivering news to the people. In the end, appreciation for the written word is righteous. It started a revolution for news telling and now, it is taken for granted thanks to degenerates on the web and a lack of respect to those who have worked so hard.

47 Works Cited Braun, Joshua, and Tarleton Gillespie. "Hosting the Public Discourse, Hosting the Public."

Journalism Practice, 2011, pp. 1-16.

Brock, George. Out of Print: Newspapers, Journalism and the Business of News in the Digital Age. Kogan Page Limited, London;Philadelphia;, 2013.

Price, Tom. Journalism Standards in the Internet Age: Are the News Media Sacrificing Ethics Online? vol. 20, CQ Press, 2010.

Rowland, Diane. "Whose News? Copyright and the Dissemination of News on the Internet."

International Review of Law, Computers & Technology, vol. 17, no. 2, 2003, pp. 163-174.

Thorson, Kjerstin, Emily Vraga, and Brian Ekdale. "Credibility in Context: How Uncivil Online Commentary Affects News Credibility." Mass Communication and Society, vol. 13, no. 3, 2010, pp. 289-313.

48 Lina LiVolsi English 102 Turkey’s Honor Killings Imagine anxiously awaiting your own death. You know it is coming, yet do not know when or where. Suddenly, your male relatives arrive and your fate is understood. Unfortunately, this scenario is not one of imagination. Instead, thousands of young women within the country of Turkey have experienced this exact scene. Most would consider this situation as one practiced from centuries earlier. Notorious rulers such as Roman emperor Claudius and England’s Henry VIII have been known for planning murders of their female counterparts due to rumors of disgrace and impurity. While most believe such acts of violence are a thing of the past, the reality is that these premediated murders of young women are still transpiring today. Practices known as honor killings are a common occurrence in modern day. According to the United Nation’s Declaration of Human Rights, article 5 affirms “No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment” (2017). Unfortunately, this proclamation is not exercised collectively throughout the world, specifically in Turkey. The victims of honor killings are degraded by society members, endure extreme torture, and ultimately murdered against their wishes, all of which contribute to the direct violation of article 5 in the declaration of one’s human rights.

To begin with, in order to fully understand the depth of this violation of human rights, one must define what honor killings entail. The concept denotes to the premediated and systematic slaying of someone for bringing shame and embarrassment to their family and peers (Corbin, 2014).

This dishonor can be brought on by many different factors such as marrying someone against family wishes, having premarital sex, or talking to someone that another is not intended to marry. While both genders can be victims of honor killings, most often, women are the ones who suffer the consequences. Once villagers get word of a woman’s impurity, leaders of the family and

49 community, which are exclusively men, meet and decide the fate of the woman accused. Together, they organize the step by step process in which how the girl will be murdered. The men then nominate who will be elected to kill the woman. The male chosen is usually the youngest in the family. This is done to ensure that the young man will not be tried as an adult and have a shorter sentence, if any. Ultimately, honor killings are seen as the only option to restore a family’s reputation and decency.

Moreover, women in Turkey suffer from degrading treatment. Within communities, men obtain complete control over the women. They are treated as mere property that the men govern.

Due to this sort of thinking, when women rebel against the norm and push to make their own choices, whether it be marrying someone against the families wishes or talking to a boy, they are killed for their disobedience and dishonor. As stated in the article, “Women are transformed into bearers of the public identity of the community that takes the family, kinship group or tribe’s values as common representative objects” (Gültekin, 2011). Evidently, women hold no influence over their own body or making their own choices. In this aspect, they are seen as property owned by their fathers or husbands. As women are considered lifeless objects rather than human beings, they are talked down upon and extremely humiliated, a clear violation of article 5, which prohibits any form of demeaning treatment. Ultimately, women are responsible for the way outsiders perceive the community. If the community is given a bad image, women are held accountable and punished.

Following this further, because a women’s purity is so highly valued, young girls are subjected to examinations which ensure they are telling the truth about their virginity. These tests are demeaning and make girls feel inhuman because even if they confirm their purity, their say is completely disregarded. According to the text, “Commonly forced on minors by their families, the exams have an immense effect on the girls who experience them. The feelings of shame and humiliation evoked are often precisely what the families want their daughters to feel” (Kogacioglu, 2004). In other

50 words, families aim for females to be ashamed of themselves and their bodies. This is done with the effort of preventing women from mingling with the opposite gender. Women in these Turkish communities are taught to be subordinate and inferior to men. They are not only perceived as unequal to men, but inhuman as well, an obvious example of article 5’s “degrading treatment”.

Likewise, the victims of honor killings do not experience a quick death. Instead, women are subjected to countless methods of torture and cruelty before they are murdered. For example, one can learn of Cemse Allak, a victim of Turkey’s honor killings. Presumably, Cemse was raped and soon became pregnant. Being an unmarried woman, Cemse tainted the name of her family. Her relatives and other male members of her village stoned her nearly to death. However, she was stronger than they thought. As described in an article from the New York Times, “For seven months after her stoning, Ms. Allak lay semi-conscious, her skull crushed, unable to move or speak” (Filkins, 2003). It is also noted that her unborn child held on to life for six weeks after their attempted murder. Cemse’s will to live died after her child did. Clearly, Cemse suffered for a long period of time before succumbing to her injuries. Not only did she experience cruel punishment by being stoned, but even worse, she lay imprisoned in her body for months, which is its own form of torture. Surely by that point, death seemed welcoming. Clearly, article 5’s “No one shall be subjected to torture” (2017) was not considered in Cemse’s life. Equally, women are exposed to grotesque methods of torture comparable to that of the Middle Ages. The last moments prior to their death, women experience extreme pain. For instance, male leaders intimidate and persuade other male members in the community with monetary incentives to punish and discipline females that disgraced their family through inflicting pain. The article details that, “These include various forms of physical amputations such as ear, nose, and tongue cuttings” (Ahmetbeyzade, 2008). In other words, when women are insubordinate and bring dishonor to their families, they are first maimed. Obviously, this sort of society resorts to medieval means to mutilate and torture victims, a direct violation of one’s

51 human rights that often results in their death. This practice is all done to serve as a lesson for not only the victim, but also other women. It demonstrates the consequences of bringing dishonor to the family.

Following this further, nearly all honor crimes result in death. In most cases, the idea of being killed is not the choice the victim wishes for. For instance, according to data records from Turkey, researchers approximate a minimum of 200 females are killed by their kin every year (Moore, 2001). Based on this information, the practice of honor killings is as strong as ever. While the number of deaths is astonishing, it is not completely accurate because it does not include honor suicides. This new term has been seen on the rise and is not recorded as “murder” because it is selfinflicted. Honor suicides are when women are persuaded by their family to kill themselves as a way to serve penance for their sins and restore honor within their family. The victims of honor suicides experience cruelty because they must plan their own death. For instance, a case study that discusses this is of a young woman named Derya who communicated with a boy against her family’s wishes.

As noted in the text. “The overwhelming shame and guilt forced Derya to jump into the Tigris River in an effort to commit suicide. But the attempt failed and she survived. Determined to fulfill her family’s wishes, Derya next tried to hang herself; an uncle saved her life. Finally, Derya slashed her wrists with a kitchen knife” (Corbin, 2014). Clearly, this young woman was brainwashed into believing she greatly sinned, which tormented her enough to try to kill herself three different times before finally succeeding. Honor suicides are the result of being pressured by family members who do not want blood on their hands. While the woman may by the one to actually kill herself, it is her surrounding peers who forced it upon her. An obvious violation in the Declaration of Human Rights is murder. Evidently, honor killings include this.

On the contrary, members of the Kurdish community in Turkey do not consider honor killings to be a crime. In fact, they see it as the only way honor can be restored in their families after

52 it has been tarnished. According to a documentary called “Honour Killings: Turkey”, a man interviewed describes how he himself murdered his sister. He nonchalantly mentions how he shot her and her lover with a riffle with no regrets. Based on his accounts, her actions brought disgrace to the family (2008). Ultimately, Turkey is a country that highly values reputations. In a society governed and run by patriarchal dynamics, reputations influence their lives and the way they are perceived by their peers. In this aspect, I understand why any acts of impurity reflect badly on the family. It is simply small town logic. However, regardless of the importance of reputation, it does not permit by any means that others can murder anyone. In addition, those who exercise honor killings defend the practice because they view it as a tradition. The text cites how “these traditions are also presumed to be resilient to change” (Kogacioglu, 2004). Remarkably, honor killings are viewed as a timeless custom that has been practiced for generations. While it is beneficial for societies to hold on to certain traditions within their ethnic or religious background, the tradition of honor killings is completely inhumane. One can look at ancient Rome’s “tradition” of having gladiators fight to the death. Obviously, this custom ended long ago because people recognized it as immoral and an unjust action. The same should go for honor killings. They simply must end.

In addition, the first step in finding a resolution to a problem is accepting it. Once the culprit of an offense understands why they are wrong, progress towards peace can be made. The families who practice honor killings must first understand why this method is unjust. Turkey’s Justice and Development Party attempts to end honor killings by establishing educational programs that are especially created for young women and their families. These programs teach modernized ideas that push away the “traditional” logic that honor killings stem from. (Kogacioglu, 2004). Instead, the students of these programs learn how women must be treated with respect and gain a more equal position with communities. Turkey furthers their progress in demolishing honor killings by educating young children of both genders of the importance of equality and mutual respect. The

53 documentary, “Honor Killings: Turkey”, highlights Turkey’s efforts by establishing such concepts of respect and equality for the next generation of citizens. The film depicts young children interacting and learning with one another, a sign of hope to end the inferiority of women. Through these efforts, Turkey hopes to rid of traditional honor killings.

Furthermore, in order to prevent lawbreaking activities, the government must take more disciplinary action. When it comes to honor crimes, Turkey has attempted to discourage the deed.

For example, in 2009, Turkey dramatically reedited its Penal Code to dishearten honor crimes.

These newly added provisions impose life sentences on the perpetrators of honor killings. As mentioned earlier, younger males are chosen to commit the murder to reduce the length of sentences. However, Turkey’s new Penal Code also includes a provision that tries minors who commit such crimes as adults (Kremen, 2015). Evidently, Turkey is making progress in eliminating honor killings. By imposing higher punishments to those responsible for the deaths, it will hopefully prevent violence in the future. While the murderers will never be punished in the way victims of honor killings experienced, a life sentence in jail is about as close as they will get to the living hell women in these communities experience.

Similarly, what victims in any circumstance crave most is safety and security. People who are in difficult situations, such as women in Turkey who live in communities that practice honor killings, must maintain an environment in which they feel protected. Turkey in recent years has made an effort for women seeking refuge, however they are not as successful as they could be. In fact, when describing facilities that have been created, Kogacioglu’s journal mentions, “shelters or hotlines to protect women from honor crimes and other types of violence are extremely few or altogether absent” (2004). In other words, while there are some safe homes, the number is so few that it offers little help. In this case, I propose a small solution that may aid in the war of honor crimes and all together violation of human rights is that more refuge homes be available for women seeking

54 protection from their families. These homes should be secluded enough that families who want to kill their daughters cannot find, but women who are seeking help have easy access to. Should an increase in safe homes for women occur, women who suffer from honor crimes will be able to regain some of their natural rights. Women will no longer have to experience degrading and embarrassing treatment from their community members. They will not suffer from torturous methods of inflicting pain. Most importantly, women will not have to be murdered for the sake of honor.

All in all, as women of honor killings are embarrassed by their community, subjected to cruel punishment, and murdered without their consent, article 5 of the United Nation’s Declaration of Human Rights is completely violated. Every human being is entitled to each of the articles listed, yet women in Turkey are denied of them and ultimately killed for the idea of honor. Evidently, honor killings are not an extinct practice of the past, but rather a traditional custom exercised in modern day. Now, imagine being in the same position as countless women just moments from their death.

While they may think there are not any alternatives left in their short life, you know there are other methods that can help save them. Ultimately, society must recognize any and all violations of human rights and take immediate action to restore every human’s liberties.

55 Works Cited Ahmetbeyzade, Ci˙han. "Gendering Necropolitics: The Juridical-Political Sociality of Honor Killings in Turkey." Journal of Human Rights, vol. 7, no. 3, July 2008, pp. 187-206. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1080/14754830802286095. Accessed 23 Mar. 2017.

Corbin, Bethany A. "Between Saviors and Savages: The Effect of Turkey's Revised Penal Code on the Transformation of Honor Killings into Honor Suicides and Why Community Discourse Is Necessary for Honor Crime Eradication." Emory International Law Review, vol. 29, no. 1, Oct. 2014, pp. 277-325. EBSCOhost, ezproxy.scottsdalecc.edu:2443/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=tr ue&db=aph&AN=100141897&site=ehost-live. Accessed 06 Apr. 2017.

Filkins, Dexter. "Turkey: Honor Killings Still Continue in Rural Areas." The New York Times, vol. 29, no. 4, Oct. 2003, p. 44. EBSCOhost, ezproxy.scottsdalecc.edu:2443/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=tr ue&db=f5h&AN=11084819&site=ehost-live. Accessed 23 Mar. 2017.

Gültekin, M. Nuri. "Tradition, Society and the Concept of Honor: Stories on Implementation." Eurasian Journal of Anthropology, vol. 2, no. 2, June 2011, pp. 70-84.

EBSCOhost, ezproxy.scottsdalecc.edu:2443/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=tr ue&db=aph&AN=83134079&site=ehost-live. Accessed 09 Apr. 2017.

“Honour Killings: Turkey.” Youtube, uploaded by United Nations, 23 Jun. 2008, www.youtube.com/watch?v=FtUS_JSxnwI. Accessed 06 Apr. 2017.

Kogacioglu, Dicle. "The Tradition Effect: Framing Honor Crimes in Turkey." Differences: A Journal of Feminist Cultural Studies, vol. 15, no. 2, Summer2004, pp. 118-151. EBSCOhost,

56 ezproxy.scottsdalecc.edu:2443/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=tr ue&db=aph&AN=14092002&site=ehost-live. Accessed 09 Apr. 2017.

Kremen, Ayla M. "Suicide in the Name of Honor: Why and How U.S Asylum Law Should be Modified to Allow Greater Acceptance of Honor-Violence to Prevent "Honor Suicides"."

William and Mary Journal of Women and the Law 21.1 (2015): 214-35. http://scholarship.law.wm.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1399&context=wmjowl.

Accessed 29 Apr. 2017.

Moore, Molly. "In Turkey, 'Honor Killing' Follows Families to Cities." The Washington Post, 08 Aug. 2001. www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/2001/08/08/in-turkey-honor-killingfollows-families-to-cities/514d15c2-7e98-4b65-abeed94e3fdfe3ce/?utm_term=.5dc3d762c17a. Accessed 09 Apr. 2017.

"Universal Declaration of Human Rights." United Nations. United Nations, n.d. Accessed 01 May 2017.

57 Ashley Clark English 102 How Ordinary People Become Perpetrators of Genocide: A Look at the Psychological Factors “Who killed her family?”

This was the question posed to a survivor of the Rwandan genocide by filmmaker Daniel Goldhagen in his documentary Worse Than War. “[S]he says they were neighbors,” the translator replies, “… they were even friends to the family.” Goldhagen captured on camera the shock that neighbors and friends could commit such atrocious crimes. This shock echoes through the communities of the victims, scholars, and even the perpetrators of genocide. Furthermore, studies have shown that many perpetrators are, in fact, ordinary men, neither insane nor sadistic. Hannah Arendt, author of The Origins of Totalitarianism, was quoted by Steven Baum in his paper A Bell Curve of Hate. In doing research on the German Nazi and major organizer of the Holocaust, Adolf Eichmann, Arendt had to say this: “The trouble with Eichmann was precisely that so many were like him, and that many were neither perverted nor sadistic, that they were and still are terribly and terrifyingly normal.” Psychiatrist Doug Kelly went on within the same article to further eliminate any doubt that an ordinary person could commit such atrocities. “[W]ell-integrated, productive and secure personalities are no protection against being sucked into a vortex of myth and deception.” In order to understand how an ordinary person could become a perpetrator of genocide, it becomes necessary to understand the psychological aspects that can bring about such an extreme change: the mindset of the individual, the need for categorization by the individual, and the effect of a group on the individual.

The first psychological aspect is the mindset of the individual. This can be understood greater through exploring what the factors are, how they influence or are influenced, and testimonies showing the effect of these factors. Understanding the mindset of the individual requires exploring

58 the factors that contribute to that mindset, such as, emotional development, locus of control, and liminal identities or dual self. Within the study of genocide, three groups have been identified to discern the extent to which an individual participates in genocide: bystanders, rescuers and perpetrators. One study by Steven Baum, found emotional development tiers to be an indicator of the group the individual will belong to. The three tiers distinguish separate phases of the “maturity of functioning” (Baum 568). The top tier, tier III, relates to individuals within the rescuer’s group.

The bottom two, tiers I and II, relate to individuals within the perpetrator’s group. Baum describes the bottom tier, which includes many perpetrators of genocide, as follows: Tier I [is] defined by narcissistic indulgence and characterized by self-absorption, impulsivity, naivete, opportunistic social exchanges, concern for survival and authoritarian needs, basic emotions (anger) and defenses, e.g. numbness; splitting (good/bad) hallmarked by rigidity and cognitive simplicity… and an exclusive social identity.

This study suggests that individuals within tier I and II who exhibit an “underdeveloped personal identity,” as well as an “overdeveloped social identity,” are prone to the rules, norms, morality, religion and politics of the prevailing culture (Baum 569).

Another factor that affects the mindset of the individual is locus of control. Studies suggest that having an internal versus external locus of control directly corresponds to the difference between rescuer and bystander/perpetrator groups (Monroe). Essentially, it is the difference between ‘they made me do it’ and ‘I have a choice so I choose not to.’ The individual with an internal locus of control is in charge of his or her own future, and the conscious creator of it. On the other hand, the individual with an external locus of control, is at the whim or disposal of the outside world. An example of an individual with an external locus of control would be someone claiming the classic Nuremberg defense: ‘I was just following orders.’ Furthermore, in what has proven to be

59 perhaps the most shocking finding of genocide research, studies have found that the mentality, or mindset, of the perpetrators is actually that of a victim (Monroe). This finding further proves that the perpetrators of genocide exhibit an external locus of control.

The last factor that affects an individual’s mindset is the liminal identity or dual self. In her talk during the genocide conference, Dr. Sharonah Fredrick described liminal identities as identities that are borderline or not being characterized within one group. Though Dr. Fredrick spoke of the liminal identities in regards to the victims of genocide, the theory can also be applied to the perpetrators of genocide. Kristen Renwick Monroe further explains this phenomenon as follows: [T]he doubling phenomenon noted among Nazis, experienced as ‘a form of desensitization… and incapacity to feel or to confront certain kinds of experience, due to the blocking or absence on inner forms or imagery that can connect with such experience’… The ‘psychological cutting off of one’s sense of reality’ fits nicely into the concept of cognitive stretching, the process whereby an individual is confronted with some political act so far outside the ordinary frame of reference that there literally has to be a widening of the cognitive parameters before the individual can grasp what is occurring… This stretching thus includes the ‘doubling’ (perpetrators who operate as a dual self.)

This description provides greater understanding of the process some perpetrators go through to psychologically separate his or her moral self, from that of his or her perpetrator self that committed the immoral crime. This process results in a dual self or liminal identity. Though there are many more factors that contribute to the mindset of the individual, these three factors, emotional development, locus of control and liminal identity or dual self, correspond to the extreme change from an ordinary person to a perpetrator of genocide.

60 The factors that contribute to the mindset of the individual can also influence and be influenced. Such influence can be achieved through education, propaganda and threats. Education plays a huge role in creating models of morals. Roger Smith’s article Perpetrators explains the role of education by describing the impact of recruiting children in both the Rwandan and Cambodian genocides. “When children commit brutal acts that are sanctioned by authority, and when, over time, such acts become routine; they learn to define morality strictly in terms of loyalty to the group.” Therefore, what a child comes to learn is good or bad, right or wrong, is taught and learned (Berreby). While individuals may still be taught that “killing is wrong,” the “moral sense” of an individual, as Berreby describes it in his book Us and Them, may alter or overshadow reason. Moral sense may be byproducts of automatic, unconscious and other innate bias mental codes. This can indicate why ordinary people behave differently than reason would dictate (Berreby 192-193).

A second factor that can influence the individual is propaganda. Skillful propaganda can shape, mold and solidify perceptions, bias and viewpoints. Propaganda can play on or create false fear or doubt and cause panic. Conversely, it can play on false hope in motivating the individual toward a fraudulent, destructive goal. In Figure I, propaganda is the factor that increased the killings of Tutsis by both civilians and military during the Rwandan genocide. The spike in the graph, is a direct result of a propaganda campaign broadcast over the airways. A study by David YanagizawaDrott concluded the following: The results show that the broadcasts had a significant effect on participation in killings by both militia groups and ordinary civilians. An estimated 51,000 perpetrators, or approximately 10% of the overall violence, can be attributed to the station. The broadcasts increased militia violence not only directly by influencing behavior in villages with radio reception but also indirectly by increasing

61 participation in neighboring villages. In fact, spillovers are estimated to have caused more militia violence than the direct effects.

The direct influence of propaganda on not only the militia, but on ordinary people as well, was explicitly shown by this study.

A final factor that can influence the individual is the threat of life. Frequent ‘either or’ choices were given to the perpetrators. Choices between his or her life, or taking the life of the victim (Monroe). This tactic was also used to stop bystanders from helping in genocides. Holocaust survivor Oskar Knoblauch, in his talk at the Genocide Conference, mentioned the threat of death posted on signs to those individuals who helped the Jews, death to them and to their family. A choice between one’s own life and that of another is a highly effective form of influence. This tactic further explains the victim mentality that is exhibited in the perpetrators of genocide. These studies provide a greater understanding into three factors, education, propaganda and threats, and how they are effective to influence the individual.

62

Figure I. Source: http://ft4rg2cl8h.search.serialssolutions.com/

Many personal testimonies show how these factors influence the mindsets and actions of the individual. A perpetrator, studied by Kristen Renwick Monroe in her paper Cracking the Code of Genocide, exhibits the internal locus of control when talking about the crimes he committed. “I didn’t have a choice!” (Monroe). Here, he blames his choices on external factors. Further interviews by Monroe, showcase the effect of propaganda on an individual.

We are too nice. We are defenseless against them. If you see all the people hanged at Nuremberg, I think you know it!... They (Jews) want to hang the Germans at

63 Nuremberg on Purim as proof of their own people’s power. They are powerful.

They made up the Holocaust!

A final example illustrates the dual self. Many perpetrators describe their actions as like being “on automatic… in an emotional block… [You] cross the border and enter the surreal… everything becomes a sort of blur, but you have to move,” (Monroe 705). The dual self aspect is also seen in the denial by both bystanders and perpetrators saying they were only “innocent cogs” that were a part of a “giant machine whose purpose was unknown to them,” (Monroe 705). These testimonies, provide a clearer picture of the mindset of the individual, what the factors are and how they influence or are influenced. Along with the mindset of the individual, the need for categorization by the individual provides greater understanding for how an ordinary person could become a perpetrator of genocide.

The need for categorization by the individual is the second psychological aspect that helps in understanding how an ordinary person could become a perpetrator of genocide. To understand categorization, it is essential to understand how categorization works, how it is used within the genocide context, and what testimonies reveal about categorization. The way in which categorization works can be understood by looking at models of human kinds, an us versus them model, and classification. For most things, models are created by the human mind in order to understand life and process information (Berreby). Without classifying things, the vast amount of information would prove useless in helping to understand and function in a complex world. A model serves as a means whereby the human mind can take in complex information and transform it into easy to understand categories. Human kinds, or categories for human beings, are no different. Though the process one takes to create or change these models is lengthy, the application as it applies to genocidal studies can be summarized in the following excerpt from David Berreby’s book.

64 Like all codes, the one for human kinds makes us think our perceptions are straightforward and natural and true. And it makes us think we know where those perceptions come from. But the actual sources of those perceptions are signs that are not recognized outside our conscious minds, according to rules of which we are not aware. If that’s so, it follows that human-kind code can be manipulated in experiments. It should be possible to make typical, conscious, aware people…stop believing in human kinds by changing the conditions of the experiment… but it has been done.

What this excerpt implies for understanding how ordinary people can become perpetrators of genocide, is that the perception in which one categorizes human beings, the lens or model used, can be altered, changed, influenced or taught. Us versus them is one such model.

The us versus them model has benefits as in the case of treating a mother differently than a stranger on the train. Conversely, it can enable one to create a separation of all human life (Berreby).

This model, of us versus them, has deep ties to moral regard. “This feeling – what is not ‘us’ is not moral – should strike people as deeply weird, but it doesn’t… Many of our feelings about right and wrong are actually feelings about Us and Them,” (Berreby 200). Berreby’s insight into the emotional strings that come along with use of this model, provides evidence for why it is such an effective model to influence the mind of the individual.

A final model that is used is classification. This model, beneficially used, is created to understand such things as the various breeds of dogs; however, it too has negative applications.

Classification creates a hierarchy in the minds of individuals. In this way, it becomes easier, and almost necessary, to separate the victim from being in the same class as the perpetrator. The victim then goes through a reclassification in the mind of the perpetrator, to assume a lower class than one that the perpetrator belongs to. “Classifying people as different makes it easier to justify mistreating

65 them, just as African slaves were not viewed as fully human by America’s founding fathers because of difference in skin color” (Monroe, 731). All of these models, human kind, us versus them, and classification, are effectively utilized to influence the change from an ordinary person to a perpetrator of genocide. For understanding this extreme change, understanding how these models are used is equally as important as understanding what the models are.

In a genocide context, the way in which these models are used are outgroup homogeneity, characterization of the enemy, and dehumanization. Outgroup homogeneity stems from the natural cognitive process in which one will place individuals into various social groups based upon their social group memberships (Stangor). Outgroup homogeneity is “the tendency to view members of outgroups as more similar to each other than we see members of ingroups,” (Stangor). Because the interactions with outgroup members tend to be less frequent and superficial, members of the outgroup tend to be lumped together. Individuals within the ingroup tend to attribute characteristics or intentions to the outgroup as a whole rather than attributing different characteristics or intentions to each individual of the outgroup.

Like outgroup homogeneity, categorization of a group as an enemy or threat is another use of these models. To characterize an outgroup as an enemy or threat, is to elicit a fear response within those in the ingroup. In Jack El-Hai’s book, The Nazi and the Psychiatrist, the American psychiatrist Douglas McGlashan Kelley observed the following “It is an established scientific fact that a person who is thinking with the emotional (thalamic) brain centers cannot think intellectually (cortically)…Hitler had an entire people thinking with its thalamus. In such a state they fell easy prey to… propagandists.” The pattern that can arise, the pattern of fear to susceptibility of propaganda to characterizing an outgroup as a threat to fear again, is a vicious cycle that is a profound influence on the individual.

66 A third but equally important use of these models is dehumanization of groups.

Dehumanization, or categorizing them as less than human, effectively separates the victim from any human characteristics. This creates distance and distinction (Berreby). Figure II displays a table that summarizes the findings of over 15 studies on objectification, dehumanization and classification.

The table is divided into three categories, “equating a human with something non-human or less then human, taking away something that is normally accorded to a human, and denying a person some portion of their essence” (Zurbriggen 193). The table marks the genocidal factors associated with each aspect. While the magnitude and wealth of information that this table provides could fill a book, the information can be summarized in this way; preceding genocide is a deliberate act to characterize or dehumanize the victim into something less than human, or lacking in human qualities or emotions. Throughout all of the studies in all three categories, only one factor is common among them all, devaluing the sub-group (Zurbriggen 193). In their paper, “Ordinary Men” or “Evil Monsters”?, Kerrilee Hollows and Katarina Fritzon summarize why the use of these models are so effective: [T]he use of propaganda techniques such as dehumanization are effective because the act of stripping individuals of their human qualities is believed to exacerbate intergroup prejudice and result in a form of psychological distancing, which then becomes justification for the enactment of violent behavior.

As both the figure and studies show, outgroup homogeneity, characterization of a threat or enemy, and dehumanization are key aspects in genocidal studies, particularly, when understanding how an ordinary person can become a perpetrator of genocide.

67

Figure II. Source: http://jspp.psychopen.eu/article/view/94/html

Testimonies of categorization provide further insight as to the potency of these aspects and their influence on ordinary people. The effect and ease of one person, especially a ruler, altering the categorization of human kind, is explained by Berreby.

The task is not difficult. All a ruler need do is arrange the lives of his subjects so that their human-kind codes are shaped to the ruler’s liking….. Ordinary subjects would not ask why those people, so much like themselves, were not considered human.

Moreover, ordinary people would work hard to avoid becoming like those bad kinds.

As an example of one such leader, Lothar Von Trotha, who was a key leader in the Herero genocide, issued an order that was to be read to all troops. “Hereros are no longer German subjects. They have murdered, stolen, they have cut off the noses, ears, and other bodily parts of wounded soldiers

68 and now, because of cowardice, they will fight no more” (Bartrop 9). This testimony illustrates both what Berreby spoke of as well as categorization of the enemy. Author Donald G. Dutton describes the actions of Reserve Police Battalion 101, their part in the Holocaust and the categorization of Jews as the enemy. “When hesitation manifested itself, the commander said… that the men should remember this was the enemy, and the enemy was killing German women and children” (Dutton, 115). Kristen Renwick Monore, in her extensive research on the psychology of genocide, quoted one perpetrator of the Holocaust as saying the following: “You know, they were not human anymore” (Monroe, 729). This quote, illustrates the dehumanization of the outgroup. Outgroup homogeneity can be seen in the following testimony of a girl living through the Cambodian genocide. Her testimony shows that attributing characteristics and intentions to a group as a whole can effectively work both ways. “The Khmer Rouge were very clever and brutal. Their tactics were effective because most of us refused to believe their malicious intentions… How could these worms have come out of our own skin?“ (Bartrop 122). The examples that these studies and testimonies provide shed light on how categorization works and how it is used within the genocide context. Along with the need for categorization by the individual, group dynamic can help in understanding the extreme change that occurs going from an ordinary person to a perpetrator of genocide.

The effect of a group on the individual is a third psychological factor. This group dynamic is illustrated through the individual factors, the effect of these factors, and testimonies illustrating these factors. Understanding the individual factors about group dynamics, begins with learning about the creation of a “skin”, having common mental state, and group culture. The “skin,” or mental skin of a group, effectively acts as a container both to hold things in, and keep things out. James M. Glass in his paper, Group Phantasy: Its Place in the Psychology of Genocide, describes it in this following excerpt: It works both on the conscious level of reason…and unconsciously as the affective glue adhering group identifications and symbols. Boundaries, both rational and

69 psychological, become membranes or barriers; membranes holding in the collective anxiety; barriers in the sense of keeping our poisonous thoughts, toxins in the environment, defects in the gene pool, polluted flesh… [it] keeps inside those values essential to the belief structure of the group and outside, those values and others the group hates.

This creates a unified belief, or unified front, as well as acting as a protective cover for those within the group (Glass).

The second factor of group dynamic is the group having a common mental state. Glass describes this as a group providing the feeling of being part of a whole which, provides a much superior feeling than that of being alone. This aspect is further summarized by James Waller, author of Becoming Evil “[The] fusion of individuals into a common spirit and feeling that blurs individual differences and lowers intellectual capacities.” Essentially, the views and perceptions of the group become the individual’s view and perception. The last aspect of a group dynamic is the group culture. Berreby explains that “every mind creates categories out of experience… This engineering of experience is what we call culture.” Berreby’s explanation illustrates the profound effect a group culture can have on the processes of the mind. If the willingness of the public, via the culture of that group, believes that mass murder, or genocide in this case, is the norm or needed, and that it is “essential national policy,” then the capability for a culture to commit it becomes a reality (Glass).

Effects of the group’s dynamics can be seen by studying changed perception, shared psychology and group consciousness. In a study done by Muzafer Sherif, individuals were all shown a light that came on, moved, and turned off. The individuals were asked, for the first trial, to record the distance the light traveled. They were then put into groups and answered the same question several more times. For the second trial, the individuals started in groups and were asked the same question multiple times. As seen in Figure III, a group can affect perception of even a single

70 stimulus. The shared perception of the group, became the perception of each individual, even if alone, they perceived something different. The second effect, shared psychology, is explained by James M. Glass.

For the political or culture group to work effectively, it must share psychological space that operated on both conscious and unconscious levels – conscious in the sense of guiding and orienting group behavior (the construction of ghettos to contain Jewish “contamination”), and unconscious in the sense of provoking similar forms of identification that forge the groups empathic connections.

This shared psychological space is not geographically contained but can span entire countries as it did in the Holocaust (Glass). Furthermore, group consciousness acts as a means to normalize or rationalize otherwise “psychotic” behaviors (Glass). What is deemed normal or rational for the group, becomes normal or rational for the individual. For Germany, the murder of schizophrenics was seen as necessary and a normal part of the culture (Glass). Group consciousness then, acts to overshadow the individual’s own consciousness. Understanding these aspects, changed perception, shared psychology and group consciousness, helps in further understanding how an ordinary person could become a perpetrator of genocide.

71

Figure III. Source: https://brocku.ca/MeadProject/Sherif/Sherif_1935a/Sherif_1935a_3.html

Testimonies of the effects of group dynamic illustrate the power it has over an individual. In Christopher R. Browning’s book, Ordinary Men, Browning commented from several of the men that, that no one in the group wanted to seem ‘too weak’ or ‘cowardly.’ “Who would have ‘dared,’ one policeman declared emphatically, to lose face in front of the troops” (Browning 72). Furthermore, he illustrates the strong conformity of the group. “As important as the lack of time for reflection was the pressure for conformity-the basic identification of men in uniform with their comrades and the strong urge not to separate themselves from the group by stepping out” (Browning, 71). Monroe in her studies, quotes the following of one perpetrator. “This was a visibly nationalist group, to instill in our youth a feeling of nationalism, love of country and devotion to their own kinds. As members, we wanted to serve the country with honor and camaraderie, with order and discipline” (Monore, 725). This testimony speaks to the education put in place at a young age to promote conformity and

72 nationalism of the group. As illustrated by these testimonies, the factors of group dynamic and the effects of them, are potent influences in the extreme change that occurs when an ordinary person becomes a perpetrator of genocide.

These three influential aspects, the mindset of an individual, the need for categorization by an individual, and the effect of a group on an individual, help to provide a greater understanding of how an ordinary person could become a perpetrator of genocide. However, it is important to understand that all of these aspects influence and are influenced by each other. Therefore, each aspect is not an individual factor nor single instigator. With this better understanding of how ordinary people can commit genocide, the question then becomes how to apply this knowledge to the movement called ‘never again’ that urges the end of all genocides. For that noble purpose, people can learn a lesson from the Disney movie, The Lion King II. At the end of the movie, when a war is about to be waged between the outsiders and the pride, Kiara, the King of the Prideland’s daughter, stands between the two groups. “Them…us. Look at them… they are us. What differences do you see?”

73 Works Cited Bartrop, Paul R. Encountering Genocide: Personal Accounts from Victims, Perpetrators, and Witnesses. ABCCLIO, Santa Barbara, California, 2014.

Baum, Steven K. "A Bell Curve of Hate?." Journal of Genocide Research, vol. 6, no. 4, Dec. 2004, pp.

567-577. EBSCOhost, ezproxy.scottsdalecc.edu:2443/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=tr ue&db=aph&AN=15984974&site=ehost-live&scope=site.

Berreby, David. Us and them: Understanding Your Tribal Mind. Little, Brown and Co, New York, 2005.

Dutton, Donald G. The Psychology of Genocide, Massacres, and Extreme Violence: Why "Normal" People Come to Commit Atrocities. Praeger Security International, Westport, Conn, 2007.

El-Hai, Jack. The Nazi and the psychiatrist: Hermann Göring, Dr. Douglas M. Kelley, and a fatal meeting of minds at the end of WWII. New York: MJF, 2015. Print.

Fiske, Alan P., and Rai, Tage S. Virtuous Violence: Hurting and Killing to Create, Sustain, End, and Honor Social Relationships. Cambridge UP, Cambridge, 2015.

Fredrick, Sharonah. “Genocide in the Renaissance: A New and Terrible World.” Genocide Conference, 19 Apr. 2017, Scottsdale Community College, Arizona.

Glass, J. M. (2008), Group phantasy: its place in the psychology of genocide. Int. J. Appl. Psychoanal.

Studies, 5: 211–221. doi:10.1002/aps.164 Goldhagen, Daniel Jonah, et al. “Worse than War: Genocide, Eliminationism, and the Ongoing Assault on Humanity.” PBS Distribution, Alexandria, Va., 2010, scottsdalecc.summon.serialssolutions.com/ Hollows, Kerrilee, and Katarina Fritzon. “‘Ordinary Men’ or ‘Evil Monsters’?: An Action Systems Model of Genocidal Actions and Characteristics of Perpetrators.” Law and Human Behavior, vol. 36, no. 5, 2012, pp. 458–467., www.jstor.org/stable/43586867.

74 Knoblauch, Oskar. “The Importance of Respect and Tolerance in our Society.” Genocide Conference, 17 Apr. 2017, Scottsdale Community College, Arizona.

Monroe, Kristen Renwick. “Cracking the Code of Genocide: The Moral Psychology of Rescuers, Bystanders, and Nazis during the Holocaust.” Political Psychology, vol. 29, no. 5, 2008, pp.

699–736., www.jstor.org/stable/20447159.

Sherif, Muzafer. "A Study of Some Social Factors in Perception." The Mead Project. 2007. https://brocku.ca/MeadProject/Sherif/Sherif_1935a/Sherif_1935a_toc.html Smith, Roger W. "Perpetrators." Encyclopedia of Genocide and Crimes Against Humanity, edited by Dinah L. Shelton, vol. 2, Macmillan Reference USA, 2005, pp. 790-794. Gale Virtual Reference Library, ezproxy.scottsdalecc.edu:2156/ps/i.do?p=GVRL&sw=w&u=mcc_sctsd&v=2.1&it=r&id= GALE%7CCX3434600258&sid=summon&asid=80e0972aa58b7f2cc84cdb904d9e3680.

Stangor, Charles. Principles of Social Psychology. N.p.: n.p., 2011. 26 Sept. 2014. Web. Waller, James. Becoming Evil: How Ordinary People Commit Genocide and Mass Killing. Oxford University Press, Oxford; New York;, 2002.

Yanagizawa-Drott, David. "Propaganda and Conflict: Evidence from the Rwandan Genocide*." Quarterly Journal of Economics, vol. 129, no. 4, Nov. 2014, pp. 1947-1994.

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Zurbriggen, Eileen L.. "Objectification, Self-Objectification, and Societal Change." Journal of Social and Political Psychology[Online], 1.1 (2013): 188-215. Web.

75 Esther Choe English 102 The Promise of Bitcoin In 2009, a computer programmer under the alias Satoshi Nakamoto released a white paper proposing a new type of digital currency called Bitcoin. In the paper, Nakamoto describes Bitcoin as a peer-to-peer electronic cash system where one party could send payments directly to another without going through a financial institution. This decentralized system of payment had never existed before; value could be exchanged over the internet from one person to another just like sending an email. This also gave Bitcoin the distinction of a currency without borders and without a government, bank or corporation in control of it. Nakamoto’s paper caused a frenzy among cryptographers, techies, and libertarians, many of whom have stated that they were unable to eat or sleep for days upon reading through Bitcoin’s protocol, realizing the significant potential of this technology. The general public, however, has had a difficult time grasping onto the concept of digital money, leading to confusion and skepticism. Hurdles in Bitcoin’s early years have also added to the atmosphere of distrust surrounding cryptocurrencies. While many have initially viewed Bitcoin negatively, society should feel optimistic about the revolutionary role cryptocurrencies can play in contributing to societal development around the world.

In order to fully understand Bitcoin and its benefits, one must have a general understanding of what money is. Taken completely off the gold standard in the Nixon era, the US dollar is not backed by anything anymore. The dollar is accepted as a medium of exchange because society trusts in its value. When people have a hard time wrapping their heads around a digital currency, they fail to realize that money is already digital. When one goes to the bank to deposit money, there is no physical representation of that money held in an account. Today’s fiat money is simply represented by a ledger of transactions verified by a trusted third-party mediator, to confirm that account A has

76 sufficient funds to transfer over to account B. A mediator such as a bank keeps track of all transactions.

This is where Bitcoin comes in. Nakamoto writes, “What is needed is an electronic payment system based on cryptographic proof instead of trust, allowing any two willing parties to transact directly with each other without the need for a trusted third party.” Nakamoto may have felt the need for a decentralized currency in response to the 2008 financial crisis where the overdependence and fraudulent practices of banks were exposed. Nakamoto also points out the weaknesses of the current system due to high transaction fees that are needed to fund these intermediaries and the fraud associated with relying on third parties. To accomplish this, Nakamoto writes, “A peer-to-peer distributed timestamp server [will] generate computational proof of the chronological order of transactions.” What Nakamoto proposes is that in order to not rely on a third party, a timestamped and chronologically ordered ledger of all transactions from the very first transaction is necessary.

The Bitcoin protocol distributes this ledger to every participating computer on the network. With these computers having the entire transactional history from the beginning, every computer is able to verify that the transactions are legitimate, and must reach consensus for the payment to go through. This system of ledgers is referred to as the Blockchain, which is the idea of distributed trust. So, Bitcoin relies on computational power to verify transactions rather than a central authority.

This decentralization also makes Bitcoin tamper-proof, as a hacker would theoretically need to hack into thousands of computers at the same time to commit any sort of fraud.

Nakamoto also based Bitcoin off of gold, which has proven to be the best store of value over time. Gold has held increasing value over time because of its scarcity and inability to be reproduced, which is in contrast to the current fractional-reserve banking system where banks have the power to create money. Nakamoto explains, “The steady addition of a constant of amount of new coins is analogous to gold miners expending resources to add gold to the circulation. In our

77 case, it is CPU [Central Processing Unit] time and electricity that is expended.” Like gold, there is only a finite number of Bitcoins that will be released into circulation via a system of digital mining, making it a deflationary currency. What may be important to note is that a full technical understanding may not be necessary. Similar to the average person that would not be able to explain exactly how a telephone works, society uses Bitcoin because it works.

One of the biggest benefits of Bitcoin is that anyone can download a wallet; all that is needed is an internet connection or a phone. However, early in Bitcoin’s development, criminals were quick to take advantage of this fact, which led to a couple of high-profile scandals. These events created a negative image that continues to follow Bitcoin. Yet a deeper look reveals misconceptions and shows that these events were necessary for the development of cryptocurrencies.

The Silk Road site led many to associate Bitcoin with drug dealers, money launderers, and hackers. This notorious site facilitated the sale of $1 billion in illegal drugs using Bitcoin as payment.

John Bohannon of Science Magazine explains, “Bitcoin’s anonymity is a powerful tool for financing crime: The virtual money can keep shady transactions a secret.” However, Bohannon continues, “The paradox of cryptocurrency is that its associated data create a forensic trail that can suddenly make your entire financial history public information.” Here, Bohannon exposes one of Bitcoin’s biggest misconceptions. Bitcoin is not totally anonymous; it is pseudonymous with users behind a cryptographic set of numbers. Although identities are not attached to a Bitcoin address, all transactions are transparent on an open public ledger. Because of this, detectives are able to track down a wallet address and follow the flow of money. They are able to prosecute by connecting the Internet Protocol (IP) address of the computers used for the transactions. So what was initially thought as an untraceable method to conduct illegal activity, criminals and prosecutors alike quickly found that Bitcoin was actually a useful tool for prosecution. This is how Silk Road creator Ross

78 Ulbricht was caught, and the site was shut down. In a surprising twist of events, this transparency also led to the arrest of two federal agents assigned to the Silk Road case who were caught siphoning money off of Ulbricht and the site. One can argue that, for a criminal, cash is still a better facilitator for illegal activity than Bitcoin. As cryptography expert Sarah Meiklejohn explains, “If you catch a dealer with drugs and cash on the street, you’ve caught them committing one crime, but if you catch people using something like Silk Road, you’ve uncovered their whole criminal history” (qtd. in Bohannon). The Bitcoin network enables prosecutors to sentence offenders to the full extent of their crimes. Although this scandal caused many to question the role of Bitcoin, the outcome was vital in understanding more about cryptocurrencies and contributed to overall development. Silk Road may not have been the ideal scenario, but this marketplace was Bitcoin’s first major use case, legitimizing digital currencies to buy hard goods. This case was also important for law enforcement to learn that Bitcoin was not an elusive concept to make their jobs harder, but in fact easier.

In addition, the collapse of Bitcoin exchange Mt. Gox led many to believe that cryptocurrencies are fraudulent and vulnerable to hackers. In early 2014, Mt. Gox reported that approximately 850,000 Bitcoins worth about $460 million went missing. Mt. Gox was Bitcoin’s first exchange, where one could sign up for an account and exchange fiat currency for Bitcoin and vice versa. In a response to the hack, cybersecurity expert Andreas Antonopoulos writes: Gox represents the failure of a poorly managed exchange that had full centralized control of customer funds, in custodial accounts, off the bitcoin blockchain. By keeping the funds off the blockchain, Gox removed the protections of transparency and end-user control and replicated the model of a centralized bank without any of the controls and oversight such institutions require.

In other words, this hack had nothing to do with Bitcoin and its core protocol, and everything to do with a poorly run centralized exchange. This was in itself contradictory to Bitcoin’s core values. It is

79 easy to see how the uninformed would mistake this as a hack on Bitcoin itself, but Bitcoin’s protocol was never compromised. In his book, The Internet of Money, Antonopoulos further explains the events of Mt. Gox as typical of any new technology making its way into society in what he says leads to an “infrastructure inversion.” According to Antonopoulos, “Every time you have a new technology that is disruptive, in the first few years of its adoption it has to be carried by the existing technology that it is disrupting.” So, in Mt. Gox’s case, the new decentralized technology of Bitcoin was carried by the only known infrastructure of a centralized exchange. But with time, new infrastructure can take hold to accommodate new applications while still allowing the old technology to exist. In a way, Mt. Gox played a part in the development of cryptocurrencies as can be evidenced by newer and safer ways to store Bitcoin, such as owning a Trezor, an offline wallet. With exchanges becoming more sophisticated with added security layers, it is really hard to imagine a situation like Mt. Gox happening today.

Negative image aside, Bitcoin supporters believe in the revolutionary role cryptocurrencies can play to reach the 2 billion people around the world who do not have a bank account or do not have access to a bank. Many believe the greatest impact will be felt in areas in sub-Saharan Africa.

Dr. Saifedean Ammous, Professor of Economics at Adnan Kassar School of Business, writes: The high cost of financial intermediation makes the world’s poor unattractive to financial institutions […] Bitcoin offers the intriguing possibility that developing countries could sidestep the development of a traditional financial system and move to mass adoption of international online digital currency. Bitcoin’s influence in developing countries could be similar to that of cell phones.

Ammous explains that the world’s unbanked do not have access to financial services because the poor in rural areas are not profitable business for financial institutions. But Ammous sees how Bitcoin can change that by its ability to completely bypass the conventional banking system just as

80 the mobile phone revolution has bypassed the conventional telecommunications infrastructure. In my own experience in Rwanda and Kenya, I remember being struck by the number of people in extreme poverty with mobile phones. I have since learned about the telecommunications boom happening in Africa supported by CNN’s findings: “In Africa, less than one in three people have a proper drainage system, half of the population live in areas without paved roads, and only 63% have access to piped water. Yet, 93% of Africans have cell phone service” (Parke). The timing of Bitcoin seems to be perfect with this mobile phone revolution. Anyone can download a digital wallet; all one needs is the ability to send a text message to be able to send and receive money on their mobile phones. Economic freedom is crucial to the development and growth of any society, and this is the chance for billions to finally be a part of a global financial network.

In addition, Bitcoin is serving as an important tool for those living in volatile economic climates. According to Jim Epstein of Reason, “[In Venezuela], a country lacking food and basic health care, there is nothing theoretical about it. Bitcoin is helping to keep pantry shelves full and medicine cabinets stocked making life tolerable-if not always easy- in the midst of a socialist hell.”

Here, Epstein shows how Bitcoin is serving as a lifeline to those suffering under government controls in Venezuela. In a country experiencing extreme hyperinflation, citizens are only able to take out $2 worth of money from their bank accounts a day. Venezuelans are turning to Bitcoin to buy Amazon gift cards to import food and other basic necessities from its Prime Pantry service.

Many other Venezuelans have put their savings in Bitcoin as a store of value, as a hedge against their own currency.

Perhaps the biggest use case of Bitcoin is for remittances. Epstein writes about Maria, a 32year-old who left Venezuela to Brazil three years ago. According to Epstein, Maria initially relied on a human courier to bring money across the border to her parents. Although dangerous and inefficient, she chose this method over services like MoneyGram because of their excess paper

81 work, low remittance limits and high fees. Epstein writes that with Bitcoin, Maria is able to send $350 home each month without a hassle. Maria is not alone. According to The World Bank, remittances to the developing world amounted to $431 billion dollars in 2015. Western Union and MoneyGram have a monopoly on this market charging up to 10% on transfers (“Remittances to Developing Countries”). Millions of families around the world rely on remittances from family members as a source of income, and Bitcoin allows for all their hard earned money to be kept with transfers happening instantaneously. Especially in a country like Venezuela, Bitcoin is proving to be essential.

Still others feel positive about the cultural change Bitcoin is promoting in traditional patriarchal societies. In many war-torn areas in the Middle East, women are not allowed to have bank accounts. If any money is earned, the money goes into the father or brother’s account to where she would have no control over it. In The Age of Cryptocurrency, journalists Paul Vigna and Michael Casey write about The Women’s Annex in Afghanistan, founded by Francesco Rulli and one of Time Magazine’s 100 most influential people, Roya Mahboob. The Women’s Annex is a digital literacy program where Afghani women can learn, contribute content to the site as bloggers, and get paid in Bitcoin. Rulli states: I am against welfare, we’re teaching them to be their own businesspeople. My logic is, how can I make sure the girls are safe? …[If she’s making money,] she is more likely to be protected by her brothers because she’s an asset to the family instead of a second-class citizen. Then eventually the family’s priority is not only to protect her but also to invest in her. (qtd. in Vigna and Casey) Rulli and Mahboob have seen a cultural shift take place through their program which is garnering increasing support from society and enabling women to become drivers of their own destiny. The

82 beauty of Bitcoin is that it does not discriminate. It does not matter whether one is a woman or what age, race, or credit history one has to set up a wallet and take part in this financial system.

A trending theme throughout is the idea of empowerment that Bitcoin provides. Bitcoin gives power and control back to the people instead of the ones who govern or the circumstances they are under. Whether one does not have access to a bank account, lives under corrupt government practices, or experiences cultural limitations, anyone can be a part and benefit. Just as the internet was the democratization of information, Bitcoin can be seen as the democratization of money.

Most living in developed countries are not affected by the issues stated above, and use Bitcoin mainly as a speculative investment or as a cheap way to send money. However, many are exploring new applications made possible through Bitcoin’s technology. A practical application that is being developed is the ability for micro transactions. According to internet pioneer Marc Andreessen, “Micropayments have never been feasible, despite 20 years of attempts, because it is not cost effective to run small payments (think $1 and below, down to pennies or fractions of a penny) through the existing credit/debit and banking systems.” Bitcoin makes micropayments possible because it can be broken down to eight places after the decimal point and has a near free transaction cost, only the electricity needed to send the money. Andreessen sees this as a useful application to monetize digital content. He explains: One reason media businesses such as newspapers struggle […] is because they need to charge either all (pay the entire subscription fee for all the content) or nothing. All of a sudden, with Bitcoin, there is an economically viable way to charge arbitrarily small amounts of money per article, or per section, or per hour, or per video play, or per archive access, or per news alert.

83 This seems like a great alternative to the current bombardment of advertisements on websites. There are micropayment solutions already being integrated into web browsers, where one could choose a certain amount, say $5 a month, in a wallet and automatically send payments to sites by the amount of time spent on them. It will be interesting to see the different ways micropayments will be implemented in business models and individual content creators.

But beyond currency transactions, what really excites futurists all around the world is the underlying technology Bitcoin runs on called the Blockchain. As mentioned previously, the Blockchain is the breakthrough technology of distributed trust by a network of computers. In essence, the Blockchain is the operating system that makes cryptocurrency transactions possible.

Technologists have realized that Bitcoin the currency is just one application of the Blockchain. The Blockchain has the ability to store, move and track anything of value including contracts, medical records, and identification documents.

Of the numerous ideas on how Bitcoin’s technology can transform industries, the inefficient system of healthcare is a hot topic amongst many. Blockchain experts Philip Francis and Scott Roudebush explain, “Accessing [Electronic Health Records] across different hospitals, insurance providers, and doctors can be a vexatious task. Adding to the inefficiencies is the cost to maintain the databases. [The Blockchain] leads to a major reduction in human error as the redundant act of rekeying information is virtually eliminated.” Many agree with Francis and Roudebush on the redundancies and inefficiencies of filling out paperwork with every doctor’s visit. Especially with industries evolving and progressing with technology, managing health records have stayed relatively unchanged. Maintaining databases have become increasingly vulnerable to hackers as well, with Francis and Roudebush pointing out the recent Anthem Insurance hack where 80 million patients’ records were lost. Medical records in the hands of a hacker lead to devastating results, including billing fraud and identity theft. Putting all information on the Blockchain with the user in control

84 would streamline the whole operation. The impact of this technology goes beyond healthcare, but to any industry that uses databases. Nakamoto’s genius Bitcoin protocol inadvertently led to a whole new realm of applications, offering efficiency and security.

Bitcoin has proven to be resilient in its early years with an ever increasing number of supporters and enthusiasts coming together bonded by the underlying feeling that they are a part of something big. With the world becoming more interconnected through technology, major adoption of a global digital currency does not seem like a far out idea. In fact, it could just be the natural evolution of money. Growth can be seen in every measurable way: wallet downloads, ATM locations, price, number of transactions, number of merchants accepting Bitcoin, and the amount of funding for applications by venture capital firms. Bitcoin has come a long way, but still has ways to go. What is needed for mainstream use are easy to use interfaces, which many are already working on with the full support of major venture capital firms. This in turn will help to create a network effect, where Bitcoin will be more valuable and stable as more people use it. It is apparent that Bitcoin means something different to people all around the world. Whether someone can finally be a part of a financial system, take protection against an unstable economy, break through cultural limitations, or dare to dream up the next big technological application, all can agree that Bitcoin has the potential to fundamentally change the world for the better.

85 Works Cited Ammous, Saifedean. "Economics beyond financial intermediation: digital currencies' possibilities for growth, poverty alleviation, and international development." Journal of Private Enterprise, vol. 30, no. 3, 2015. Academic OneFile. Accessed 27 Mar. 2017.

Andreessen, Marc. "Why Bitcoin Matters." The New York Times, 21 Jan. 2014, https://dealbook.nytimes.com/2014/01/21/why-bitcoin-matters/. Accessed 10 Apr. 2017.

Antonopoulos, Andreas. "Statement on Mt. Gox." . , 25 Feb. 2014, https://antonopoulos.com/statement-on-mt-gox/. Accessed 15 Apr. 2017.

Antonopoulos, Andreas. The Internet of Money. First ed., Merkle Bloom LLC, 2016.

Bohannon, John. "Why criminals can't hide behind Bitcoin." Science, AAAS, 9 Mar. 2016, www.sciencemag.org/news/2016/03/why-criminals-cant-hide-behind-bitcoin.

Accessed 29 Mar. 2017.

Epstein, Jim. "The secret dangerous world of Venezuelan bitcoin mining: how cryptocurrency is turning socialism against itself." Reason, vol. 48, no. 8, Jan. 2017, pp. 27+. Academic OneFile. Accessed 27 Mar. 2017.

Francis, Philip, and Scott Roudebush. "How Blockchain Is Coming To Save Healthcare." Global Health and Diplomacy, 2016, : 19 pars. Accessed 25 Mar. 2017.

Nakamoto, Satoshi. "Bitcoin: A Peer-to-Peer Electronic Cash System." . , https://bitcoin.org/bitcoin.pdf. Accessed 25 Mar. 2017.

Parke, Phoebe. "More Africans have access to cell phone service than piped water." CNN, 19 Jan. 2016, www.cnn.com/2016/01/19/africa/africa-afrobarometer-infrastructurereport/. Accessed 16 Apr. 2017.

86 "Remittances to Developing Countries Decline for Second Consecutive Year." The World Bank, 21 Apr. 2017. Accessed 30 Apr. 2017.

Vigna, Paul, and Michael J. Casey. The Age of Cryptocurrency. First ed., New York, St. Martin's Press, 2016.

87

I Am Not Throwing Away My Shot Gillian Bryant English 102

88 “Just the other day, two years old, 2½ years old, a child, a beautiful child went to have the vaccine, and came back, and a week later got a tremendous fever, got very, very sick, now is autistic,” said now President-elect, Donald Trump, in the GOP debate in September 2015 (Miller, 2015). As Lemons (2016) details in her CQ Researcher report on “Vaccine Controversies,” vaccines have been controversial among small, but vocal groups since their invention (p. 177). Today, the Pew Research Center found only 17 percent of the public thinks vaccines are unsafe; however, younger adults were found to be more likely to fall into this group (Lemons, 2016, p. 172). Thus, with the upcoming generation skeptical of vaccines, the 2015 measles outbreak at Disneyland, and the words of our soon-to-be president, the debate over mandatory vaccinations for public school attendance seems poised to grow. It is imperative for the public to differentiate fact from fiction.

Vaccines are safe and effective and a necessity because the diseases they protect from are far more dangerous than the vaccines themselves. More important, parents have a civic duty to protect those who are unable to receive vaccinations due to compromised immune systems. Thus, vaccinations must be required for children attending public school.

Modern science overwhelmingly supports the safety and effectiveness of vaccines. Vaccines function by causing the body to create antibodies which protect the patient from the specific illnesses the vaccine immunizes against (“How do Vaccines Work?” 2015). To reach the public, a vaccine undergoes extensive review by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Once the vaccine satisfies the FDA, it is reviewed further by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP), and the American Academy of Family Physicians (“Vaccine Safety: The Facts,” 2016). In true scientific fashion, vaccines are peer reviewed before they are “published.”

Furthermore, these organizations involved in vaccine inspection are credible, objective, and respectable. They include the CDC and the AAP, highly reputable organizations, which

89 enthusiastically support vaccines. The CDC’s National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases is a member of the World Health Organization’s Vaccine Safety Net (“Finding Credible Vaccine Information,” 2014). The Vaccine Safety Net evaluates the credibility of vaccine information websites, holding them to standards of credibility, content, accessibility, and design (“Vaccine Safety Net,” 2016). They found the CDC’s website “...includes credible vaccine and immunization information” (“Global Vaccine Safety: CDC,” 2016). Additionally, the CDC states their “...vaccines and immunization web content is researched, written and approved by subject matter experts, including physicians, researchers, epidemiologists, and analysts. Content is based on peer-reviewed science” (“Finding Credible Vaccine Information,” 2014). The CDC is clearly a credible organization and states, “Like any medication, vaccines, can cause side effects. The most common side effects are mild. On the other hand, many vaccine-preventable disease symptoms can be serious or even deadly” (“Making the Vaccine Decision,” 2016). The AAP, meanwhile, is a membership organization of 64,000 pediatricians that advocate for childhood health care, host research programs, and have the largest pediatric publishing program in the world (“AAP Facts,” 2016). The AAP argues “... that immunizations are the safest and most cost-effective way of preventing disease, disability, and death” (“Where We Stand: Immunizations,” 2015). They also assert that despite possible risks, “getting vaccinated is much better than getting the disease” (“Vaccine Safety: The Facts,” 2016).

Additionally, a consensus report by The Institute of Medicine of the National Academies supports the safety of the current vaccination schedule. The Institute of Medicine seeks to provide “independent, objective, evidence-based advice” to the public and “uncovered no evidence of major safety concerns associated with adherence to the childhood immunization schedule” (Hinshaw, 2013). Furthermore, vaccines are shown to be incredibly effective. In fact, according to the AAP, “...depending on the study being cited, childhood vaccines are 85% to 98% effective” (“Do

90 Immunizations Really Work?” 2015). Evidence favors the safety and effectiveness of vaccines, and such vaccines are imperative to our society because they safeguard us from incredibly dangerous diseases.

Vaccines were so successful at eradicating diseases that parents today do not understand their severity. According to executive director of Every Child By Two, Amy Pisani, “The immunization effort has, in some ways, been a victim of its own success because many of today’s parents have never experienced the infectious diseases that vaccines keep away” (as referenced in Lemons, 2016, p. 171). In the state of Arizona, children are required to receive the following types of vaccinations in order to attend public school: DTaP, Tdap, Td, Meningococcal, Hep B, IPV, MMR, Varicella, and, in Maricopa county, Hep A. These inoculations protect children from the following diseases: Diphtheria, Tetanus, Pertussis, Meningococcal disease, Hepatitis B, Polio, Measles, Mumps, Rubella, Chickenpox, and Hepatitis A (“Immunization Screening and Referral Form for School K-12th Grade,” 2016). Diphtheria, for example, “...can lead to difficulty breathing, heart failure, paralysis, and even death” (“14 Diseases You Almost Forgot about Thanks to Vaccines,” 2016). The CDC has found, should a child contract Diphtheria, the case-fatality rate is five to 10 percent, up to 20 percent for children under the age of five (“Diphtheria: Clinicians,” 2016). A parent’s decision not to vaccinate his or her child not only flies in the face of science, but also risks the child’s health and endangers the lives of others.

Obviously, parents have a civic duty to immunize their children to protect those who are unable to receive vaccinations. These people may be unable to be vaccinated because they are too young or have a compromised immune system. This reliance upon the greater population to be inoculated to prevent the spread of disease is called “herd immunity.” To maintain “herd immunity,” vaccination rates must be between 96 percent and 99 percent (Lemons, 2016, p. 172). When parents object to vaccinations, they put the “herd” at risk. They exchange the miniscule chance their child

91 will have an adverse reaction to vaccines for the near certainty of illness and resulting complications for those unable to be vaccinated. As discussed earlier, these illnesses are very deadly, and those who cannot be vaccinated are at risk without “herd immunity.” One such example is Rhett Krawitt, a child with leukemia who cannot be vaccinated against measles and is completely reliant upon his classmates’ inoculations (Lemons, 2016, p. 172). With the best care and a healthy immune system, contractors of the measles virus have a one or two out of a thousand chance of dying (“Top 4 Things Parents Need to Know about Measles,” 2015). Therefore, vaccines are safe, effective, and a societal obligation.

Opponents of vaccinations argue vaccines are unsafe, and therefore, should not be required of children in order for them to attend public school. I concede that, yes, vaccines, like all medicine, carry a risk of complication. However, the risk of vaccines absolutely pales in comparison to the risk of contracting the diseases they protect from. The DTaP vaccine, for example, results in a serious allergic reaction in less than one out of a million doses (“Diphtheria, Tetanus, and Pertussis (DTaP) VIS,” 2016). Compare that with the aforementioned case-fatality rate of Diphtheria: up to 20 percent for children under the age of five (“Diphtheria: Clinicians,” 2016). The benefits of vaccination, statistically, far outweigh the risks of the vaccines themselves. Furthermore, the AAP states, “serious side effects are no more common than those from other types of medication such as antibiotics and fever reducers and pain relievers” (“Why Immunize Your Child,” 2015). Vaccines are no more dangerous than Tylenol from the local Walgreens. Vaccines not only carry a miniscule risk compared to the diseases one may contract without them, but they carry as much risk as over-thecounter medicine. Therefore, this is not an adequate argument against vaccinating children.

In response, the opposition may counter, as our President-elect thinks, that vaccines have been proven to cause autism. For this reason, anti-vaxers argue children should not be forced to receive vaccinations in order to attend public school. However, the research supporting this belief

92 has been discredited. The commonly cited report in the 1998 Lancet by Andrew Wakefield that attributed the MMR vaccine as a cause of autism has been disproven, and Wakefield lost his medical license as a result. Editor in chief of the British Medical Journal, Dr. Fiona Godlee, said, “the MMR scare was based not on bad science but on deliberate fraud,” citing, “clear evidence of falsification of data” (as referenced in Lemons, 2016, p. 173-174). Unfortunately, many still hold erroneous beliefs based upon this faulty information and often succumb to the availability heuristic. The availability heuristic is an error in thinking in which one “...judges the probability of events by how quickly and easily examples can come to mind” (“Availability Heuristic,” n.d.). This is seen in a reliance on a friends’ testimonial instead of scientific consensus. For example, Jacklyn Smoot, a mother interviewed in Lemons’ report, states, “Right now, the people telling me their personal stories influence me more” (as referenced in Lemons, 2016, p. 173). Many parents, she says, “...tend to trust their own online research or the experiences of others more than they trust research conducted by the scientific and medical communities” (as referenced in Lemons, 2016, p. 173). While these parents have the most noble of intentions in protecting their children from harm, their sources are questionable if not outright proven incorrect and rely on errors in thinking. Again, this reason does not support their argument against mandated vaccinations for children wishing to attend public school.

Furthermore, parents often claim mandatory vaccines impinge on their parental rights as another reason why they should not be forced to vaccinate their children. However, these parents do not understand the full meaning behind their constitutional rights. The Supreme Court of the United States (SCOTUS) has upheld the constitutionality of mandated vaccines twice. First, in 1905, SCOTUS “...held that mandating smallpox vaccination was a reasonable exercise of the state’s police power under the 14th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution” (as referenced in Lemons, 2016, p.

174). Then, in 1922 with Zucht v. King, SCOTUS ruled that “...children could be barred from

93 attending school if they didn’t get their vaccinations” (as referenced in Lemons, 2016, p. 174). Then, in 1944, SCOTUS affirmed the government’s ability to impede upon parental rights for the sake of the child’s well being (Lemons, 2016, p. 174). SCOTUS has ruled mandatory vaccinations are constitutional and, furthermore, parents’ rights to their religious or philosophical beliefs should not impede upon their child’s right to protection from deadly diseases.

The growing resistance against vaccinations is based on faulty beliefs and bad science.

Unfortunately, this misinformation is pervasive in our country, evidenced by President-elect Trump’s statement implicating vaccinations as a cause of autism. We have a duty to seek out the truth for the protection of ourselves, our children, and humankind. The truth is: vaccines are safe, effective, imperative to safeguard from deadly infectious diseases, and they are a civic obligation.

Yes, vaccinations should be required for children to attend school. I, too, value freedom of choice, but in regards to mandated vaccinations, I value the common good, public health, more.

94 References 14 diseases you almost forgot about thanks to vaccines. (2016, August 12). American Academy of Pediatrics. Retrieved November 22, 2016, from https://www.healthychildren.org/English/safetyprevention/immunizations/Pages/Vaccination-Protects-Against-These-Diseases.aspx AAP facts. (2016). American Academy of Pediatrics. Retrieved November 21, 2016, from https://www.aap.org/en-us/about-the-aap/aap-facts/Pages/AAP-Facts.aspx Diphtheria: Clinicians. (2016, January 15). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

Retrieved November 22, 2016, from http://www.cdc.gov/diphtheria/clinicians.html Diphtheria, tetanus, and pertussis (DTaP) VIS. (2016, October 18). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved November 22, 2016, from http://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/hcp/vis/vis-statements/dtap.html Do immunizations really work? (2015, November 21). American Academy of Pediatrics.

Retrieved November 21, 2016, from https://healthychildren.org/English/safety-prevention/immunizations/pages/DoImmunizations-Really-Work.aspx Finding credible vaccine information. (2014, January 8). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved November 21, 2016, from https://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/vac-gen/evalwebs.htm Global vaccine safety: CDC. (2016, June 20). World Health Organization. Retrieved November 21, 2016 from http://www.who.int/vaccine_safety/initiative/communication/network/nip/en/ Hinshaw, A. (2013, January 16). Childhood immunization schedule and safety: Stakeholder

95 concerns, scientific evidence, and future studies. Institute of Medicine. Retrieved November 21, 2016, from http://www.nationalacademies.org/hmd/~/media/Files/Report%20Files/2013/Childhood -I mmunization-Schedule/ChildhoodImmunizationScheduleandSafety_RB.pdf How do vaccines work? (2015, November 21). American Academy of Pediatrics. Retrieved November 21, 2016, from https://www.healthychildren.org/English/safety-prevention/immunizations/Pages/WhyImmunize-Your-Child.aspx Immunization screening and referral form for school K-12th grade. (2016, July). Arizona Department of Health Services, Immunization Program Office. Retrieved November 22, 2016 from http://azdhs.gov/documents/preparedness/epidemiology-disease-control/immunization/s chool-childcare/referral-notice-inadequate-immunization.pdf Lavoie, S. (n.d.). Availability heuristic. Study.com. Retrieved November 25, 2016 from http://study.com/academy/lesson/availability-heuristic-examples-definitionquiz.html#transcriptHeader Lemons, J. (2016, February 19). Vaccine controversies. CQ Researcher, 26, 169-192. Retrieved from http://library.cqpress.com/ Making the vaccine decision. (2016, April 15). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

Retrieved November 21, 2016, from https://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/parents/vaccine-decision/index.html Miller, M. E. (2015, September 17). The GOP’s dangerous ‘debate’ on vaccines and autism. The

96 Washington Post. Retrieved from https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/morningmix/wp/2015/09/17/the-gops-dangerous-debate-on-vaccines-and-autism/ Top 4 things parents need to know about measles. (2015, February 20). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved November 25, 2016, from https://www.cdc.gov/measles/about/parents-top4.html Vaccine safety net. (2016, November 10). World Health Organization. Retrieved November 21, 2016 from http://www.who.int/vaccine_safety/initiative/communication/network/vaccine_safety_we bsites/en/ Vaccine safety: The facts. (2016, May 11). American Academy of Pediatrics. Retrieved November 21, 2016, from https://healthychildren.org/English/safety-prevention/immunizations/Pages/VaccineSafety-The-Facts.aspx Where we stand: Immunizations. (2015, November 21). American Academy of Pediatrics.

Retrieved November 21, 2016, from https://www.healthychildren.org/English/safety-prevention/immunizations/Pages/WhereWe-Stand-Immunizations.aspx Why immunize your child. (2015, November 21). American Academy of Pediatrics. Retrieved November 21, 2016, from https://www.healthychildren.org/English/safety-prevention/immunizations/Pages/WhyImmunize-Your-Child.aspx

97

Passing Bonds: A Possible Solution for Funding Public Schools Lexi Nikolaus English 102

98 Passing Bonds: A Possible Solution for Funding Public Schools Most people are aware that American public schools are in need of additional funding. Many citizens, just out of the goodness of their hearts, want a solution for this problem. However, most of these people also tend to think that this problem is out of their hands, and that individually, they can’t make much of a difference. Bond elections give every registered voter the opportunity to assist in funding their local public schools. “School override elections generate additional tax revenue to fund local school districts. The funds augment what the state provides, and are often targeted for teacher salaries, benefits, supplies, art, music, and other operations” (Simplot 2015). Passing local bonds may not be the “cure all” answer to solving public school issues, but doing this can be beneficial to help schools and their communities in general. Passing local bonds can provide a solution for funding to increase in public schools. That being said, bond elections can have a positive effect for the public schools, the students who attend these schools, as well as the communities these schools are a part of.

These days, public schools are facing several problems. Some of these problems include; lack of qualified educators, increasing emphasis on standardized tests, cutbacks in extracurricular activities, etc. (Howell 2016). It is plain to see that the insufficient funding schools are receiving is at the core of these problems (Mackenzie 2003). Bond elections provide a way for schools to acquire more money. There are several different types of bonds, and bonds that can be used for many different things, such as construction and reconstruction of schools, technological advancements, maintaining teachers’ salaries, and so forth (Schmidt 2014). Many voters are hesitant to vote in favor of school bonds because they question what the bonds are actually used for. This is understandable, however, not only are school districts obligated to inform the public before the election on what the bonds will be used for, but it is mandatory that they inform the public afterwards about what the money was actually spent on. Karen Schmidt, from the Arizona Republic, states the fact that “state

99 law requires that school districts release annual financial reports on how they've spent taxpayer money” (Schmidt 2013). This should give voters added confidence that they are not investing in an unworthy cause. In 2007, a bond was approved for Gilbert, AZ Public Schools that was up to $82 million. Schmidt confirmed what the spending goals of the Gilbert School District were, and what the money was actually spent on. Their goals were to “replace outdated student computer labs and network equipment; add new computers for instructional areas that currently lacked equipment; and increase student access to resources such as the Internet and electronic curriculum” (Schmidt 2013).

Schmidt later gave the answer to what the district actually had done with the money within the first few years of the bond passing: “The district: upgraded all computers and wiring at 40 schools, bought curriculum software, upgraded to Windows7, bought emergency-messaging software, hosted the district website, and bought a new management system” (Schmidt 2013). The Gilbert School District is just one of many that have benefited greatly from the passing of bonds. The lack of confidence registered voters may have toward their school districts may be argued, still, districts have to ask voters to look at what good can come from approved bonds. Not only does it benefit school districts, but also the individual students who attend these schools in these districts.

Naturally, citizens, especially those who do not have much interaction with local, public schools, may look at the American School Systems with a narrow vision, focusing only on what they are not doing right. People with these opinions often disregarded public schools for what they actually do, and how important they really are (Porter 2015). The fact that there are individual students, the key to America’s future, attending these public schools is too often overlooked. A poll was done by William Bushaw, executive director of PDK International, and Shane Lopez, a senior scientist in residence, comparing several different issues concerning American School Systems and how the public views them. In interviewing parents of school aged children, they found that “about one of five say high school graduates are prepared for the workplace. And one-third believe high

100 school graduates are ready for college” (Bushaw, Lopez 2012). It is understood that these numbers could be worse, but it it also obvious that there is much room for improvement. If students today are the future of America, these numbers predict that the American future is not looking too bright.

It is not only important for students to receive the best education possible, but it is just as important, if not more, that the students feel they are worthy of the best education possible. When a local bond passes for the school a student attends, they not only feel more confident in their school, but confidence increases in themselves as well. Cathryn Creno, from the Arizona Republic, did an interview with Derek Hall, who was at the time a senior at Dobson High School. Derek was serving on a committee of Mesa Public Schools administrators, teachers, students, parents and community members who were trying to get a local bond passed (Creno 2012). Hall explained that he was “surprised and ecstatic” when he was asked to be on the committee (Creno 2012). Hall was honored that he was given the opportunity to serve his school in this way. Later in the interview, Hall says that with the money from the bond, he would like to see a “much more accessible campus for his peers” (Creno 2012). Derek Hall is one student, in many, who is concerned for not only their own education experiences, but their peers as well. It would really make a difference if each citizen was similarly concerned for these students, and simply were open to supporting local bonds when needed. Doing so could go a long way to help secure the future of America.

If schools and students benefitting aren't enough, consider communities where the public schools are located, they can also benefit when local bonds are approved. In communities where bond elections are approved, confidence people have in that particular school district is demonstrated. If schools are funded a higher amount of money, their performance rate improves (Mackenzie 2003). Better schools attract additional people to their communities, including families and potential educators, and after a while the entire community is benefited. John Mackenzie, a member of the Christina School District (DE) Board of Education, said “The communities with

101 good schools will have significantly higher property values than the communities with bad schools.

Thus good schools benefit homeowners without children too” (Mackenzie 2003). Mackenzie is not the only one who sees the wide variety of advantages that come from increased funding for schools.

Tom Simplot, president and CEO of the Arizona Multi-housing Association, also addressed the relation between school bonds and local communities. He said, “These elections tend to draw only very committed voters and can be decided by a small number of votes. Some people think that if they live in an apartment, or they don't have children, these elections don't affect them. Of course, this isn't the case. Schools, especially good schools, affect everyone in the neighborhood. They are points of pride and can attract investment to an area” (Simplot 2015). Good citizens want what is best for the general public, and often wonder in what ways they can be of better service to their communities, but a simple vote can go a long way.

Voting in favor of local bonds for public schools may seem risky, but when looking at the long term effects of approved bonds, voters will realize that the many benefits far outweigh the potential risks. It is a small investment compared to what schools, students, and communities will gain from the additional money. The future of America is in the hands of the students attending these public schools. Registered voters can help determine how successful they will be by simply being open to supporting bond elections on local levels.

102 References Bushaw, W. J., & Lopez, S. J. (2012, September). Public education in the United States: A nation divided. Kappan. Retrieved from http://pdkintl.org/wp- content/blogs.dir/5/files/ 2012-Gallup-poll-full-report.pdf Creno, C. (2012, Jun 06). Student-advocate makes pitch for school bond. Arizona Republic Retrieved from https://ezproxy.scottsdalecc.edu:2443/login?url=http:// ezproxy.scottsdalecc.edu:2105/docview/1027057128?accountid=227 Howell, Z (2016, August 25). “Opting out” of Standardized Testing. Retrieved from http://amsterdamnews.com/news/2016/aug/25/opting-out-standardized-testing/ Mackenzie, J. (2003). Public School Funding and Performance. Retrieved from https://deutsch29.files.wordpress.com/2016/03/school_funding.pdf Porter, E. (2015, November 4). “America’s Students Are Lagging. Maybe It’s Not the Schools.”

The New York Times.

Schmidt, K. (2013, Nov 01). Gilbert public schools issues report on bond and override spend ing. Arizona Republic Retrieved from https://ezproxy.scottsdalecc.edu:2443/login? url=http://ezproxy.scottsdalecc.edu:2105/docview/1477775564?accountid=227 Simplot, T. (2015, Nov 01). Your vote counts in both school and bond elections. Arizona Republic Retrieved from https://ezproxy.scottsdalecc.edu:2443/login?url=http:// ezproxy.scottsdalecc.edu:2105/docview/1728530459?accountid=227

103 Garrett Maeshiro Eng 102 The Cycle of Media Dominance: Chapter 2017 The Star Wars franchise is universally recognized as an important contribution to cinema and science fiction. When it was announced that Star Wars would be continued by Disney, fans rejoiced.

Their childhood would be continued through new movies, the ultimate storytelling medium available to society, and the true home of Star Wars. The Force Awakens, a direct sequel to Return of the Jedi, and Rogue One, a direct prequel to A New Hope, have recently released to critical acclaim. With more films on the way, it seems that fans have been granted their wish. However, while the majority of fans possessed knowledge of the films, they did not possess the knowledge of the books, video games, shows, and graphic novels of Star Wars, collectively known as the “Expanded Universe.”

Numerous book series such as X-Wing: Rogue Squadron chronicled the continuing struggle against the Empire long after Return of the Jedi, and video games such as Knights of the Old Republic detailed events that took place nearly 4,000 years before A New Hope. Even when “Expanded Universe” fans point out the existence of this content, those who only enjoy the films are generally quick to dismiss the value of anything outside of movies, thus all but ensuring the EU's demise when Disney obtained the rights to Star Wars in 2014. This begs the question; are books, video games, and graphic novels all equally important art forms like films?

Video games and graphic novels are both struggling to find a broad academic audience that will validate their existence as legitimate art forms. A Pew Research Center paper found that while nearly 50% of American adults play some form of video games, roughly 26% of American adults believe that video games are a waste of time (Duggan 11). Graphic novels have also been discussed in similar terms in the past, rarely being seen as little more than a child’s pastime (Goldenberg 204).

Books are also becoming displaced as a modern art form. Another Pew Research Center paper

104 from 2016 shows that 65% of American adults had read a printed book in the last year (Perrin 2).

Even though over half of adults are continuing to read books, films that override or reinterpret books are rarely met with opposition. Media scholar and Provost Professor of Communication, Journalism, and Cinematic Arts Henry Jenkins brought forth the argument that numerous forms of media, such as books and video games, could contribute to a larger narrative, while simultaneously providing self-contained stories and experiences (6). Despite his calls for equality, Jenkins' vision of a transmedia future is not yet fully realized. Although there are various stances regarding the importance of different forms of media, film is arguably the most dominant art form in popular culture, which undermines the artistic value of established and emerging mediums alike. Creators of all kinds must understand that new mediums can no longer focus on becoming validated as art alone, they must now also prove their value in comparison to film. The cycle of art forms being rejected and uplifted has existed for generations. It is a cycle that must be broken. To accomplish this task, inclusive, future-proofed definitions of art must be created to allow for transmedia to become accepted.

Since humanity’s first letters were chiseled into stone, society has feared that the rapid spread of depictions of violent acts through new media would harm the minds of younger generations.

Today, violence in films and books is critiqued on an individual basis, whereas video games and graphic novels are labeled in their entirety as being psychologically harmful. Ancient Greek philosopher Socrates feared that “improper” stories would damage the developing minds of children (Bell). By 1993, video games were a new danger, and Senator Joe Lieberman from Connecticut claimed that video games taught children to enjoy torturing others (Gillespie 48). Today, roughly 40% of American adults believe people who play video games are more likely to become violent themselves (Duggan). From books to the internet, older generations have feared that new media would open the floodgates of violent content upon the next generation. While film is the latest

105 medium to overcome this cycle, video games and graphic novels continue to be treated as childish distractions at best, and collections of all of Humanity’s sins at worst. All three of these mediums are visual in nature, yet when violent films are released, society does not denounce all of film. This is because society recognizes the vast array of genres within film. The same cannot be said for emerging mediums, which are still wrongly believed to be mainly tied to violent genres. While a seemingly complicated task, there is a method that can be used to easily identify the artistic potential of a medium.

The storytelling capability of a medium is the most important aspect to show its impact as an art form. Films and books have undoubtedly proven that they are capable storytelling mediums, yet popular culture does not see that video games and graphic novels are equally effective at depicting stories. In a New York Times interview from January of this year, former President Barack Obama described how books helped him during his presidency. He stated that “At a time when events move so quickly and so much information is transmitted,” reading allowed him to “slow down and get perspective,” and also gave him “the ability to get in someone else’s shoes” (Kakutani). At the same time, he has lightly painted video games as a distraction to children throughout his presidency.

In a 2009 speech to the American Medical Association, he urged children to “step away from the video games” (Gillespie 48). An opposing viewpoint is brought by software designer Jack McDade, creator of Statamic, a program for building websites. McDade writes that he really enjoys “games with killer story lines and character development.” He listed Naughty Dog’s Uncharted series and The Last of Us, titles that have been critically acclaimed for the quality of their stories, as examples. It may surprise Mr. Obama that books were once seen as not only a waste of time, but also as a source of information overload. Like books, games also allow an individual to gain the perspective of others, and quite literally place themselves in those characters’ shoes. If films and books are judged on their artistic worth by their storytelling ability, all forms of media should be evaluated the same

106 way.

A main cause of the cycle of media dominance could stem from definitions of art being incredibly narrow, which at times invalidates targeted emerging art forms, as well as those currently accepted. Many definitions either refer specifically to visual mediums such as painting, or are explained in ambiguous language that some may find to be from outdated perspectives of past generations. In 2010, the late film critic Roger Ebert proclaimed that “video games can never be art.” He defended his claim by explaining that “art should be defined as the imitation of nature,” and is “usually the creation of one artist.” Furthermore, he explained that since games determine winners and losers, they are intrinsically invalidated as being a form of “artistic expression” (Gillespie 46). Ebert’s definition of art is baffling, as films expand far beyond a pure imitation of nature, and they are certainly not created by a lone individual. A broader definition would be that if a medium can utilize any number of visual, auditory, or textural forms of communication in a creative manner to tell a story, then it is an art form. Art is expression, and stories are a fundamental form of expression that can exist in different ways throughout all artistic mediums. That is not to say stories are the only form of art. As one can paint a picture for purely aesthetic value, so too can there be games, graphic novels, films, and more that are designed for pure entertainment.

An additional cause of this cycle are corporations and companies that place the importance of selling more products to a wider audience above respecting existing stories and art. Books, video games, and graphic novels are seen as disposable items that hold no real bearing on the storylines of films. Star Wars is currently the most prominent example of this cause for media inequality. When Disney obtained the rights to Star Wars in 2014, they declared that the original saga of films and the Clone Wars television series are the “the immovable objects of Star Wars history, the characters and events to which all other tales must align.” Disney also stated that all previous EU content would be renamed “Legends,” which will only stay in print so long as there is enough demand. Additionally,

107 they claimed that “while the universe readers knew is changing, it is not being discarded,” explaining that aspects of the EU will be applied to their new canon (“Expanded…”). Disney makes it clear that the films are what take precedence over all other media. Their new creations are not merely an alternate interpretation of the Star Wars universe, as they all but admit that they are “changing” the existing Universe. Instead, all stories must now be filtered through Disney’s new canon, which fundamentally changes history in a way that denies the existence of events and characters within previous books, games, and graphic novels. If Disney truly saw other forms of media as being equal to film, then they would have taken great care to assure fans that the films were indeed an alternate interpretation, and would have continued support of the existing EU material.

In a little over one hundred years, film has managed to not only endure the rhetoric that every medium has previously experienced, it has also managed to become the most renowned of all art forms within popular culture. While film is following the footsteps of previous mediums, there are opportunities to combat this cycle in ways previously unavailable to past generations. Video games and graphic novels present society with visual mediums that are incredibly unique, and they are continuing to shape preconceived notions of what art can be. While not accepted like film, there are already many examples of not only the artistic impact these mediums hold, but there are also examples of how they can co-exist in a transmedia world.

There have been numerous films which not only respect the “Expanded Universes” of various franchises, but that also separate themselves from the previous works that inspired them, ensuring that the original stories are not undermined. Prominent examples of films such as these include the new Star Trek films, Terminator Genisys, Mad Max Fury Road, and Starship Troopers. Star Trek and Terminator Genisys utilize time travel and explicitly stated alternate realities to create new events, while at the same time not discounting events that occurred in previously told stories. Mad Max also uses an alternate timeline, though this is not as heavily stated throughout the film. Instead,

108 the film uses ambiguity to its advantage, while allowing the alternate timeline to be explained through supplemental graphic novels. The original trilogy remains intact, while the franchise can continue to expand with new content. Starship Troopers provides an example of how a film can draw from books in unique ways, while still allowing the story of the book to be continued if creators choose to do so. The Television series Roughnecks: Starship Troopers Chronicles brings another interpretation of the Starship Troopers universe, and manages to blend elements of both the film and book. None of these interpretations of the original work override one another, therefore the book's value is not negated by the movie or the television series. Any number of these routes can be taken to allow for creativity, while at the same time, not discounting the artistic value of established or emerging mediums. While films can promote and respect broader universes, there must also be further attempts at specifically validating emerging mediums to society as a whole.

Recognition of emerging mediums by highly educated professions will help substantially not only with validating the value of those mediums, but will also help ensure their rights as art forms are protected for future generations. This level of acceptance has been given to films, which merit serious academic discussion in practically all colleges, but not to emerging mediums. Graphic novels are slowly beginning to be used in medical care. Michael Goldenberg, MA of Penn State Hershey Medical Center writes that graphic novels can assist with “educating medical students, mediating the difficult emotional state after diagnostic mistakes, showing examples of good and bad medicine and how to avoid/rectify mistakes, and allowing children to understand their participation in medical research.” He further describes how visuals can have an emotional effect on readers, and that graphic novels engage readers by encouraging them to imagine the motions that occur from one picture to the next (204). Video games have recently begun the process of becoming validated in the realm of law. In 2011, the now late Justice Antonin Scalia stated that “Like books, plays, and movies, video games communicate ideas” (Gillespie 49). While being accepted by popular culture is

109 also of great importance, being protected by the law and receiving government support are of vital importance for video games and graphic novels. These mediums have long been the targets of lawsuits and unfounded legal action in order to have their art censored as a result of the cycle of fear previously mentioned. They need to become protected by the law, rather than targeted. Justices such as the late Antonin Scalia have laid the groundwork for this to become a reality. Within the last decade, video games and comics have begun the slow process of becoming accepted as educational tools as well. If these mediums can be taught equally to new generations, in highly academic fields such as medicine, then society may take one small step closer to ending the cycle of fear.

While film is well known to award its most prominent examples of art, video games and graphic novels perform similar practices with extremely limited recognition from society. It is important for the public to recognize the depths of culture that video games and graphic novels possess in comparison to film. Like other mediums, video games and graphic novels can receive a vast number of awards from industry journals and events. They also have their own historically significant artifacts. Classic games such as DOOM, Quake, and even arcade hits such as Asteroids are hallmarks of video games and their evolution. Graphic novel universes such as Marvel and DC are equally revered for the way they explored and created a new medium. Video games are in a unique situation, as they are also sources of competitive entertainment. The emergence of E-Sports and Twitch are a few examples that have created the foundations for video games to be viewed not only as an artistic medium, but also as an entertaining spectator’s sport. More public awareness of the cultural value of emerging mediums is an incredibly important task to accomplish. Society must see not only that video games and graphic novels are expressing themselves, but must also recognize the methods in which these emergent mediums are able to do so. Even with new avenues of expression, emerging mediums are also showing that they are more than capable of displaying their value in methods that are already established.

110 In conclusion, the cycle of media dominance is once again completing another phase with a new generation. Film is the latest form of media to become accepted, and in doing so, it is pushing back against emerging mediums. In order to end not only this cycle, but future cycles, emerging mediums can use broader definitions of art as a way to prove their worth to society more quickly than previous generations. Story is also integrally tied to artistic expression, and if a medium can prove its ability to tell a story in its own way, then it may speed up the process of validation even further. While film is currently the dominant art form, it can also be used to embrace and share the stories and worlds from other forms of media. Emerging art forms are beginning the slow process of becoming accepted by academic fields, an incredibly important step to ending the cycle.

Finally, it is important to note that science fiction and fantasy are at the center of this discussion. Video games and comics have been created largely due to these genres, and are a large reason why those mediums are seen as childish. Even within the scope of film itself, the dominant art form in popular culture, science fiction and fantasy aren’t seen as truly artistic choices for movies.

No science fiction film has ever won an academy award for best picture, and as far as fantasy is concerned, only Lord of the Rings has been fortunate enough to be graced with that highly selective honor. Within this current cycle, these genres are now more prevalent than in past generations.

While it is important that all mediums show their value in relation to film, it will also be just as important for these specific genres to be held in equal light.

111 Works Cited Bell, Vaughan. “Don’t Touch That Dial!” Slate, 2010, http://www.slate.com/articles/health_and_science/science/2010/02/dont_touch_that_dia l.html Duggan, Maeve. “Gaming and Gamers.” Pew Research Center, Pew Research Center, 2015, pp. 1-22.

“Expanded Universe Turns a New Page.” Star Wars, Lucasfilm, 2014, http://www.starwars.com/news/the-legendary-star-wars-expanded-universe-turns-a-newpage Gillespie, Nick. "Are videogames art? Why games should be taken as seriously as novels, films, and other forms of creative expression." Reason, 2014, pp. 46-51.

Goldenberg, Michael D. F. "Guest Editorial. Comics: A Step toward the Future of Medicine and Medical Education?." ENT: Ear, Nose & Throat Journal, vol. 95, no. 6, 2016, pp. 204-205.

Jenkins, Henry. “Game Design As Narrative Architecture.” Henry Jenkins, 2005, pp. 1-15.

Kakutani, Michiko. “Obama's Secret to Surviving the White House Years: Books.” New York Times, New York, National Newspapers Core, 2017, http://ezproxy.scottsdalecc.edu:2114/2017/01/16/books/obamas-secret-to-surviving-thewhite-house-years-books.html?partner=bloomberg McDade, Jack. “Why I play Video Games.” Jack McDade, 2013, http://jackmcdade.com/blog/whyi-play-video-games Perrin, Andrew. “Book Reading 2016.” Pew Research Center, Pew Research Center, 2016, pp. 1-19.

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Two Waters Review was founded in order to showcase the exceptional work our students produce in first-year composition. To qualify for publication, an essay must be formal, eloquent, researchbased, and consistent with a standard citation style. The only changes made by the reviewers were with the purpose of formatting the text for publication.

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