Type Design: A Beginner's Guide

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TABLE OF CONTENTS WHY CREATE TYPE? PRELIMINARY INFORMATION LOWERCASE LETTERS UPPERCASE LETTERS NUMERALS SPACING AND KERNING ADDITIONAL INFORMATION

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WHY CREATE TYPE? With the advent of the internet making typography available to more and more people, it is no surprise that making typefaces has also became easier. To some, all this means is that there is an influx of poorly designed fonts or cheap knockoffs flooding the internet.

While this might be true to some extent, it is a very restrictive mode of thinking, especially in the realm of something creative like typography.

Personally, I find it important that something is accessible to as many people that are willing and curious enough to engage with it, and when it comes to typography, having more people involved keeps the entire field from becoming stale.

Just as everyone has a unique style of handwriting, every designer is fully capable of bringing something different to the realm of type design.

As designers, we should embrace new ideas and ways of thinking, including the creation and use of unique new typefaces.

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SKETCHING Before you even open your type design software of choice, it is wise to have a decent idea of what you are trying to create. Not having tangible ideas to refer to means that you are risking either trying out too many ideas in one typeface or drawing a blank when it comes to making important decisions about the look of the typeface. Whether it is done on paper or on a screen, sketching is a tried and true method of quickly getting your ideas in a visible form that can be inspected and critiqued.

One of the biggest benefits to sketching is the sheer efficiency of it. Thoughts can freely flow onto the page or screen with little effort. Any mistake that needs to be corrected can be done in less than a minute and without the hassle of manipulating vector lines or changing metric values. Sketches exist in a state of impermanence where anything can change during the process of vectorization. Any aspiring type designer should embrace this state and use it to learn and explore new ideas before they start the arduous process of making the typeface in their software of choice.

In addition to simply drawing the outlines of the letters in your sketches, there are a few other techniques that may help with getting consistently styled letters.

One way is to use a calligraphic pen, brush pen, or alternatively, a sharp pencil held at an angle to get a wide stroke. Many typefaces are created at least in partial to mimic the rhythm of handwriting, which means that looking into calligraphy could be widely informative to anyone creating a typeface. Another way to get started could be the use of a grid or the use of modular elements which letters can be constructed from. These are both simple ways of understanding how to create type and will teach you a lot about the process before you attempt a more complicated project

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OPTICAL CORRECTIONS The proper use of optical corrections is necessary for any typeface to be successful. It may seem logical at first to apply harsh mathematical rules to the measurements and placement of elements in your typeface, but upon closer inspection you will realize that doing so may cause your typeface to look “off”.

A typeface with a lack of optical corrections is more likely to run into issues of uneven color, “floating” letters above the baseline or below the cap-height, and letters appearing out of proportion when compared with the rest. Here are some necessary corrections which apply to nearly any font, regardless of style.

Keep in mind that certain letters may have their own special corrections to work around in addition to these described here.

The first optical correction you should be aware of is the use of overshoots. Essentially, overshoots are areas where a glyph goes past either the baseline, x-height, or cap-height in order to appear the same size as glyphs which terminate right at those lines. For example, since the letter /O is circular, it needs overshoots on the bottom and top in order to appear to be the same size as the neighboring letters. As a rule of thumb, any circular or pointed

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Notice the excess weight of the uncorrected letter /o on the left when compared to the corrected version on the right.

Here, the uncorrected /E on the left has noticeably thicker arms than it should have and appears unbalanced when compared to the corrected version.

In the top /B there is no ink trap at the join of the two bowls, resulting in a bloated appearence.

The corrected /B adds a generous ink trap to avoid this.

Although subtle, the triangle and circle on the top row appear smaller when compared to the squares. The bottom row has added overshoots to remedy this issue.

end of a glyph should overshoot the baseline, x-height, or cap-height should it encounter any of those lines.

The next optical correction to be aware of is how horizontal bars appear to be thicker than vertical bars of the same size. To find good examples of this correction in use, investigate any successful sans serif and you will find differences in the measurements of horizontal and vertical bars. Even in typefaces where each letter appears uniform in stroke weight, these corrections can be found all over, sometimes by a surprising amount. Similarly, there is also the correction where rounded characters should be adjusted to be slightly thicker than the straight characters. This is because straight characters maintain their thickness

for the entire stroke, but rounded characters are only as thick at their apex, thus needing to be optically corrected.

Another key correction to account for is the usage of ink traps. Ink traps are small incisions into a glyph, typically at a point where two strokes meet. The purpose of creating ink traps is to avoid “lumps� appearing in the letter and to prevent excess amounts of ink from distorting the shape of the glyph when printed.

The heavier a font’s weight is, the bigger the ink traps must become to compensate. While ink traps are primarily a functional aspect of type design, more and more typefaces have embraced this technique and at times exaggerated them to achieve a unique style.

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VECTORS When you begin to make your glyphs, it is important that all your glyphs are constructed without any extraneous points that may cause the glyph to look worse or render incorrectly. For this reason, type designers stick with putting points at the extrema (the outermost extremes of the glyphs) to keep the point count low and the curves smooth. In some cases, an extra point or two may be necessary in order to get the shape you desire, and in those cases, it is up to you to use your best judgement on how to best create that shape.

Another beneficial habit you should incorporate into your type design process is having the handles of your vector points be perfectly horizontal or vertical if possible.

While it may be possible to create shapes easily with angled handles, editing them later will be much simpler by having them perfectly straight. To make this process easier, most font creation software should have a “simplify” or “nodes at extremes” feature somewhere, which can automatically shift the points for you. Another habit that is going to make editing your vectors much easier is the use of overlaps. Keeping certain letters in manageable parts will make editing them less of a hassle, and if you are exporting the font with the overlaps removed, the final glyphs will not be affected.

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LOWERCASE LETTERS

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LOWERCASE LETTERS – nmhru The lowercase /n is one of, if not the most important characters to design first for any font you create.

Not only can its base shape be used immediately to create four other letters, but it establishes a regular spacing that all other lowercase letters can reference later. Creating the /m from the /n is simple, as the /m is essentially two slightly condensed /n’s which have been connected. The /h is even more simple: an /n with the left stem raised to the ascender line. The /u is primarily a flipped /n, and in sansserif styles this is usually the case. In serif styles, the serifs on the top of the /u are different than the ones on the /n and can be either angled or flat. The /r can be made by removing the right side of the /n and having the arm end in a terminal. This terminal can vary greatly in shape and sets up the base for how all terminals in your typeface will look.

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Gradual transition from thin to thick. Thickest weight is at the apex of the curve.

Slight ink trap reduces visual weight at the join.

The space inside the /n sets up a regular rhythm that the typeface shares.

The /u has altered top serifs and is not simply a rotated letter /n.

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Dots slightly overshoot the cap height.

LOWERCASE LETTERS – i j l The lowercase /i share the basic stem that makes up the left part of the /n, only requiring a dot above it to become its own letter. The /i is equally as simple, just raise that same stem to the ascender line. The only thing to remember about the /i is that the dot should be a bit wider than the stem in order to be optically correct. The /j is simply an /i with a tail that reaches the descender line.

Keep in mind that the tail of the /j should relate or echo other terminals in the typeface, such as in the /f, double story /a, and /r.

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Tail of the /j is closely related to that of the /f.

Dots of the /i and /j are a few points wider than the stems are.

Curve of the /f and /j is nearly identical.

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Weight is thinner at the points near the axis and thicker at the points furthest from the axis.

LOWERCASE LETTERS – o The lowercase /o is also a key letter that opens the doors towards creating the other letters in your alphabet, and like the /n, sets up guidelines for how rounded characters should be spaced. As for optical corrections, the o should not be a perfect circle, and the counter space of the /o should be approximately equal to the space inside the /n.

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Overshoots on both the x-height and baseline.

Significant thinning of the horizontal sections when compared to the vertical sections.

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LOWERCASE LETTERS – e c The /e and /c can be constructed quickly once the /o has been completed, since the /o can be sliced and used as a base for the left side of both the /e and /c. The terminal of the /c usually relates to other terminals in the typeface. The crossbar of the /e can be horizontal or diagonal, depending on how angled the axis of your typeface is. It is efficient to make the /c first, as it can more easily be modified into an /e than making the /e from an /o first.

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Both the /e and /c adhere to roughly the same axis as the /o.

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Bar of the /e is sometimes slightly thinned for even color.

The /c’s flat end points make it slightly wider than the /o.

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Also keep in mind that ascenders and descenders will not be the same height within most typefaces.

LOWERCASE LETTERS – bpqd These characters are all closely related and can all share a common curve. The bowl used in the /b and /p is flipped and adjusted to make the bowl of the /q and /d. There are a few differences that set these letters apart though, especially in serif typefaces. In serif styles the /b, /p, and /d all have their top serif pointing to the left. The top of the /q and the bottom of the /b can have either a smooth connection or a vertical spur. The /p and /q have flat serifs extending in either direction, although sometimes the serifs under the bowl of each letter is extended slightly for better balance.

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The /p and /b share the same bowl construction.

The same is true of the /q and /d.

These letters can be constructed out of an /o and an /l, then optically adjusted afterwards.

Inktraps at each join to prevent congestion.

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Approximately equal space inside the bowl as in between the top arc and the bowl.

LOWERCASE LETTERS – a The double story /a can be difficult both to design and to balance. The bowl on the lower portion should be wider than the arc on top for balance, but should not make the entire letter wider than the /n. This lower bowl should also match the upper arc’s angle, for example, a rounder arc equals a rounder bowl.

The terminal on the upper arc should match other terminals in the typeface, but usually is smaller than the others to avoid top-heaviness.

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Terminal resembles others found throughout the typeface.

Thinning at the join reduces congestion.

Bottom bowl wider than the top arc of the /a.

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LOWERCASE LETTERS – vwy The tail of the /y should usually relate to the tail of the /j. The /w is simply two condensed versions of the /v stuck together, which can connect in different ways depending on the design of the /v. In some cases, the center serif may be omitted to avoid congestion at small sizes. The /y is simply a /v with a tail. This tail usually relates to or is an adjusted version of the tail on the /j, which means that it should be similar to the other terminals in your typeface.

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The /v and /v both have slight overshoots.

Each /v shape in the /w should be narrower than the original /v.

Each /v shape in the /w should be narrower than the original /v.

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Lower leg extends beyond the upper arm.

Junction at the center of the /k has the thin stroke connect before the thick stroke.

LOWERCASE LETTERS – k The lowercase /k is a combination of a left side stem and two diagonal strokes. The diagonal strokes should reach to the baseline and to the x-height, but never go beyond those lines. Connections to the stem usually follow one of two styles for the junction. The first junction style is an overlap where the bottom diagonal connects to the top one, and the second style being where both diagonals meet at the same point on the stem.

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Thinner diagonals ensure even color and prevent the legs from looking too large.

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LOWERCASE LETTERS – f t The lowercase /f can be made from an /l, modifying it with a hooklike shape and a terminal which relates to others in the typeface. A shorter hook on top means that the /f is less likely to run into issues of overlapping with other letters but may also not be as clear of a shape, especially at smaller sizes. If you do have a more pronounced hook on your /f, be prepared to make ligatures that combine with the /f, including the common standard ligatures of /fi, /fl, /ffi, and /ffl.

The lowercase /t also has a similar curve to that of the /j but is not always identical to it. Another important aspect of the /t is that the top of it should be well above the x-height but should not reach all the way to the cap-height or ascender line. The crossbar of both the /t and the /f should hang down from the x-height and can generally match in terms of width.

Terminals share basic shape as other letters in the typeface.

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Unobtrusive hook to prevent collisions.

Crossbar hangs down from the x-height.

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Thin strokes are offset towards the left and the right in order to appear connected at a distance.

LOWERCASE LETTERS – x The lowercase /x, while simple in appearance, is more complicated than it seems. Optically correcting the /x in serif styles requires the thin strokes to be offset at the junction in order to appear as if they are connected. For sans-serif styles, the /x usually has tapered joins or ink traps to reduce excess weight.

Regardless of what style, the bottom half of the /x should be slightly wider than the top half in order to appear optically balanced.

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Angle of the lowercase /x differs from that of the uppercase /X.

Junction set above the mathematical center of the letter /x.

Lower half slightly wider on both sides.

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Decorative spur adorns the top of the /z and overshoots the x-height.

LOWERCASE LETTERS – z The lowercase /z is constructed by two flat strokes on the top and bottom connected by a diagonal stroke. In serif styles, the typical method has the two flat strokes as thin and the diagonal as the thick stroke, but some typefaces use a more calligraphic /z, where the contrast is reversed.

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Angle of the /z changes from upper to lowercase.

Different widths for the horizontal and diagonal strokes for even color.

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Even in sans-serif styles the bottom of the /z is wider than the top.

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Using as few points as possible keeps the /s looking smooth.

LOWERCASE LETTERS – s The /s is a particularly tricky letter to construct, as balancing weight among so many curves can prove difficult. Point placement for the /s is very important, since extra points along the spine of the /s can make the letter appear to have “lumps” on it. To avoid this, use only two well-placed points on the spine with handles reaching far enough to the curves of the /s. Like the /x, the /s must have a slightly wider bottom half to appear balanced.

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The bottom half of the /s should be wider than the top; this is easily seen by flipping the /s upside-down.

Spine of the /s is slightly thinner than the outer curves of the /s.

Ends of the /s match with other round glyphs like the /c or /e.

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LOWERCASE LETTERS – g A double story /g can be one of the most interesting, yet difficult letters to get right in any typeface.

Part of the difficulty comes from balancing out the three gaps of space throughout the letter and by ensuring both the positive and negative shapes are well-made. To begin, the top circular part of the /g is usually a smaller scale version of the /o, leaving enough room for the loop below. The ear of the /g should echo other terminals in the typeface (i.e. the /a, /r, /f, etc.). The loop on the bottom of the /g should be wider than the parts above. One common way of doing this is to have the parts start wider at the base and narrow at the top, balanced as a snowman would be. The negative space in between the “/o” part of the /g and the loop should appear to be the about the same as the negative space inside the loop itself.

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Thinning of the bottom and connecting loop share a similar direction and transition of weight.

Significant thinning required to fit the connecting curve to the top loopof the /g.

Bottom loop of the /g is wider than the top loop.

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UPPERCASE LETTERS

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The stem of the /I will be referenced and reused throughout the capitals, so take care to design it right the first time.

UPPERCASE LETTERS – H I Like the lowercase /n, the capital /H is the standard character used for proportions and spacing for the uppercase set of letters. Each of the stems of the /H is identical to an /I, and this base stem shape will be used in many letters throughout the capital alphabet. The/ H is a very simple letter to construct, although you must remember that the crossbar of the /H should be optically adjusted a bit higher than the mathematical center.

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Crossbar is placed slightly above the mathematical center to balance the letter.

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The tail of the /Q can take many forms. One of the most common is a right-facing tail that comes from the bottom.

UPPERCASE LETTERS – O Q The /O is simply a lowercase /o but scaled up and adjusted to fit the proportions of the uppercase.

Depending on the style of your typeface, the /O should either be approximately as wide as the /H or noticeably wider. Just like the lowercase version, your capital /O should have proper overshoots. The tail of the /Q can take many forms, extending from either the middle bottom or right-side bottom of your /O. The construction of the /Q’s tail should reflect whatever calligraphic system your typeface is referencing.

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Capital /O follows the same axis that the /o was built upon.

Unusual tail which does not go below the baseline. Note how this design needs a slight ink trap to work properly.

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Throat of the /G is the same width as a stem from the other capital letters, such as /I.

UPPERCASE LETTERS – C G The capital /C has a left side which can be made from the /O and an open side on the right. In serif styles, the right side can either have one or two serifs depending on preference.

Most of the /G is identical to the /C except for the bottom right, which can either be a spur pointing down, a spur pointing right, or a smooth transition into the vertical “throat”.

In some cases, it may be needed to expand the /G slightly as the throat can add weight absent in the /C.

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Throat of the /G makes it slightly wider than the /C while also adding additional weight.

Thinning at the join to stop the throat of the /G from becoming congested or too thick.

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In this example, the /F has a lower middle arm than the /E, as well as an extended right serif.

UPPERCASE LETTERS – E F The /E and /F both have a single stem and arms which extend out from it. Proportionally, they should be somewhat narrower than the /H. Optically correcting the /E involves a shortening of the two upper arms so that they do not extend up to or past the bottom. The middle arm of the /E should also be slightly higher than the middle of the letter for balance.

In the /F, this middle arm should be moved down slightly to compensate for the open space of the bottom.

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Both middle arms fall below the x-height.

Here, the sans-serif /F is narrower than the /E, since it lacks serifs which can otherwise help fill large gaps of space.

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The /T can have decorative spurs that slightly overshoot the cap height.

UPPERCASE LETTERS – L T The basic shape of the /L is an /E without the top two arms, although the /L can sometimes be narrowed to avoid large gaps of space. The /T can be made from two legs of the /L attached to the top of a stem. Like the /L, the /T also has potential issues of excess space. To remedy this, the /T can be slightly narrowed, or have its serifs extended downward if applicable. Be aware that if the serifs of the /T extend down too much, kerning with lowercase letters can become problematic.

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Serif of the /L is slightly larger and extendeds further than the /T.

With such large gaps of space within the letters, the /T and /L need kerning in most cases.

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UPPERCASE LETTERS – DBPR The /B, /D, /P, and /R are all closely related characters, as they all have a curve on their right side. The simplest character is the /D, made up of a stem and one large curve that makes the entire letter rather wide. The /P has a single raise curve that creates empty space below it.

This can be remedied by extending the serif below the curve of the /P. The /B has two curves, with the bottom curve being both wider and taller than the top curve for proper balance. This bottom curve is typically higher than the x-height.

Finally, the most complex of these is the /R, which has a single curve like the /P but has an extending leg. The curve of the /R is generally smaller than the curve of the /P, since the /P has only empty space below it while the /R does not. The leg of the /R generally relates to the leg of the /K and can either have or not have an inner serif. The leg of the /R can either extend a modest amount or an extravagant amount, and while a larger leg can look more interesting, it also makes spacing more difficult and kerning more necessary. Finally, keep in mind that the curves of all these letters should relate to the axis that can be seen in round letters such as the /O or /C.

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Bottom of the /D, /B, and /R can have “bracketed� transitions at the base.

The top bowl increases in size as you progress from the /B to /R to /P. This is because of the differing amount of space below each bowl.

Noticable ink traps on the /B and /R to eliminate extra weight.

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UPPERCASE LETTERS – M N The /M and /N are related forms which both have upright stems as well as diagonals, often making them some of the wider characters in the uppercase alphabet. In serif styles, the contrast of the /M and /N always follow the same alternation of thin and thick strokes, and any alteration in this pattern will look incorrect. In both the /M and /N, there is often some tapering at the joins to reduce excess weight. This is especially true in sans-serif styles, where the diagonal strokes often need to be significantly thinned just to fit.

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Interior serifs on both letters are widened to minimize empty space.

Slight thinning of interior diagonals helps keep even color.

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The /A can have a spur that differs from the point found on the /V.

UPPERCASE LETTERS – A V The capital /A and /V can use the same exact shape to create both, though the /A usually has more to it than the /V. The top of the /A may have a spur or other decorative element that would not be found on the simple point of the /V. Since both characters can have a more pronounced point, the overshoot for this point should be greater than that of the round characters.

In general, these letters should not be designed wider than the /H, as it would not only lead to spacing issues but also an incredibly wide /W, /Y, and /U, since these characters all reference the /V.

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Join of the /A and /V is thicker than a regular vertical stem.

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UPPERCASE LETTERS – WYU Like the lowercase version, the /W should be made of two copies of the /V. This time however, you may choose to either use condensed versions of the /V like in the lowercase, or use expanded versions to create a wide, overlapped /W. The capital /Y is an adjusted variant of the /V on a stem, making sure the thick stroke of the /Y matches in thickness to the /V. Traditionally, the /U is the same width as the /V. Making the /U is fairly simple, taking the top half of two stems and connecting them with a rounded bowl which overshoots the baseline.

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/U is the same exact witdth as the /V.

Both /V shapes that make up the /W are narrower than the original /V.

Arms of the /Y are often thinned out more than on the arms of the /V.

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Bottom half of the /S is still wider than the top.

UPPERCASE LETTERS – S The capital /S has all the same complexities as its lowercase counterpart. Once again, well-placed points and handles are going to be the backbone of the /S. The general proportions of the /S are noticeably narrower than the /H, although sometimes a wide /S is necessary depending on how big the serifs are.

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The capital /S and lowercase /s have different angles for their spines. In addition, the length of the serifs is larger on the capital /S.

With less complexities than the serif /S, the capital sans-serif /S is very similar to its lowercase counterpart.

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Just like the lowercase /x, the capital /X must have offset thin strokes to appear correct.

UPPERCASE LETTERS – X The /X is a scaled-up version of the /x, although its angles are shifted to compensate for its increase in width. All the same issues with the /x are here as well, which means the junction must be slightly higher for balance, and the thin strokes (in serif styles) should be shifted over to appear optically correct.

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The construction of the /X, down to the thinning at the join and the wider bottom half, is just like the lowercase /x.

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UPPERCASE LETTERS – Z Like the /X, the /Z is a scaled-up version of its lowercase counterpart.

Since the capital /Z is wider than the lowercase /z, the angle of it needs to be slightly altered to be a better fit for the letter. In serif styles, the /Z can have a spur on the top which overshoots the cap-height.

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Uppercase /Z has longer serifs than its lowercase counterpart.

Aside from an angle change in the diagonal stroke and large proportions, the uppercase /Z is just like the lowercase /z.

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UPPERCASE LETTERS – J The capital /J is made in the same way as the lowercase /j, by adding a tail to the /I. However, the capital /J can have its tail either descend below the baseline or stay above it.

Descending tails for the /J can reach just below the baseline or reach all the way to the descender line.

Having a tail stay above the baseline may add more harmonization with the rest of the capital letters but may also introduce the need for more kerning pairs, since the tail would have empty space above it.

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For stylisitc reasons, the capital /J does not have to extend all the way to the descender line.

This /J does not extend beyond the baseline at all, making it similar to the /U. However, the /J is narrower than the /U to minimize empty space.

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This junction of the /K is similar to its lowercase counterpart, but is modified to fit the capital’s proportions.

UPPERCASE LETTERS – K The /K is often quite different from its lowercase counterpart, both in general shape and in the junction of its two diagonal strokes. Just like the lowercase /k, the diagonals on the capital /K can either connect at the same point or can be offset with the bottom stroke connecting to the top stroke. However, the lowercase and the uppercase /K do not have to match in how their junctions are set up, and often the uppercase /K has whichever option is better for spacing in your typeface.

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Since the upper arm of the /K must reach the cap height, the letter becomes much wider.

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NUMERALS

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NUMERALS – 0 The /0 is generally a condensed version of the /O, although for practical reasons is sometimes drawn at a slightly different height as to not be confused with the /O. Another means of differentiating between the two is to change the axis of the /0 slightly.

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The /0 has a slightly more vertical axis when compared to the /O.

Horizontal areas of the /0 are thinned as much as in the capital /O. 57pt

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The flag on this serif /1 extends above the cap height.

The /1 is given extended serifs for further distinction from the /I.

NUMERALS – 1 The /1 is a simple character which can easily be confused for either an /I or an /l. To avoid this, the /1 is given longer serifs and a “flag” that extends outwards. In sans-serif styles, the /1 usually just has the top flag, but is sometimes given serifs to distinguish it from the /I. Another way the /1 can be distinguished is by designing it with a separate height that is different than that of the cap height or ascender line.

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The /1 is given a wide flag to distinguish it from a capital /I.

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Transition from the curved to horizontal stroke resembles calligraphic writing.

NUMERALS – 2 The /2 is made from a large bending curve that connects to a flat horizontal on the bottom. In typefaces with contrast, the apex of the /2 should have the most weight, thinning out towards both the terminal and the connection to the bottom. As with most other characters, the /2 should have a slightly wider base for balance, although a base that is too wide will make the /2 appear to be leaning over or off balance.

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The sans-serif /2 should have more weight on the bottom than the top.

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NUMERALS – 3 There are two main styles of /3 that your typeface can have. The first is a /3 constructed of two curves which connect in the middle. This construction has overshoots on the top and bottom and includes potential terminals on either both ends of the curves or on just one.

The second style has a flat top that connects to a lower curve with a diagonal line. This style of /3 can be an interesting addition to your typeface, but is sometimes avoided for looking too much like a /B. In both styles, the bottom curve should be bigger and slightly wider than the upper portion in order to have proper balance.

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Hanging serif of the /3 has the same direction as the /7.

This style of the /3 is closely connected to that of the /8.

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The /4 has three main strokes: a thick stem, a semi-thick horizontal, and a thin diagonal.

Serifs at the bottom are sometimes widened to balance the numeral.

NUMERALS – 4 The /4 is comprised of a single stem and a series of strokes that complete a triangular counter of the /4.

Stylistically, the /4 can have a variety of options, such as an open counter on the right side, a bowed thin stroke on the left, or the inclusion of a serif on the horizontal stroke. The /4 has problems similar to that of the /7, as both share a somewhat triangular build. The /4 can easily be designed in a way that appears too small and may need to be widened to appear proportional to your other numerals.

To balance out this wide figure, the left serif on the bottom of the /4 can be enlarged if necessary.

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The sans-serif /4 has simple shapes, but is carefully balanced by adjusting the weight of each of the strokes.

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Despite its complexity, the upper portion of the /5 is still narrower than the bottom half.

NUMERALS – 5 The construction of the /5 is similar in many ways to the construction of the flat topped /3. Both numerals share the flat top, although the /5 connects to its lower curve on the left side. The lower curve of the /5 is usually larger than the lower curve of the /3 both in height and in width, since the /5 usually needs more visual support to appear balanced. In serif styles, the bottom curve of the /5 often takes on a calligraphic edge, sometimes ending in a sharp point which overshoots the baseline.

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Lower bowl of the /3 is larger than the /5’s bowl.

A slight lean to the vertical bar and a noticable ink trap helps the /5 to be balanced.

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Both the /6 and /9 follow the same axis for their weight distribution.

NUMERALS – 6+9 The /6 and /9 are forms which are essentially inverted versions of one another. The bowls should be slightly larger than the x-height, and the tail can either extend straight out or curve to its end. Sometimes, in order to balance the glyphs out, the bottoms will be altered to be slightly wider. For the /6 this means the bowl is wider and the tail is shortened, and for the /9 the tail is extended and the bowl slightly condensed.

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Thinning at the join of the bowl of the /6 and /9.

Bowl of the /6 and /9 is noticably smaller than the x-height.

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Stem thickens at the base, giving the top part a secure foundation.

NUMERALS – 7 The /7 is generally easy to construct, but more difficult to balance. It may seem like a good idea to keep the /7 narrow to reduce the large space underneath it, but this will cause the /7 to not fit in with the rest of your numerals. The downward stroke of the /7 can either be a straight diagonal or a downward curve depending on the style of your typeface and the design of your other numerals.

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Hanging serif of the /7 is longer than on the /3.

Curved stem of the /7 helps with balancing out the negative space.

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NUMERALS – 8 The /8 is a complex numeral which combines many aspects from different letters to get just right.

There are two different ways of making the /8. The first is to have a diagonal stroke connected to itself by curves at the top and bottom, almost like an /S. In this style, the stokes connecting to the middle diagonal stoke are often noticeably offset for decorative purposes. The second way is to have two stacked /o shapes on top of one another. In either style, the bottom of the /8 must be slightly wider than the top to be correctly balanced.

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Spine of the /8 closely resembles that of the /S.

/8 made with two adjusted /o shapes stacked on top of each other.

Bottom loop wider than the top loop.

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SPACING AND KERNING

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SPACING The spacing of your typeface is ultimately what is going to determine its usefulness to yourself and to other designers. It is important that you get the spacing as close to perfect as you can to prevent problems down the road either in kerning the font or using it in a project. Each side of a glyph has something that is known as a sidebearing. This is a measurement of space that starts from the furthest right point and left point of each glyph. Spacing your font means that every single glyph will have both side-bearings properly set.

The biggest rule that your spacing should follow is the rule that the counterspace inside your letters should be approximately equal to the letterspace between two letters. This rule creates a clean rhythm of positive and negative space that makes long strings of characters easy to read without having to think about the letters you are seeing. There is an exception to this rule however, and that is typefaces that are explicitly made for display purposes. When creating display type meant for large sizes, it is perfectly acceptable to have the space in between letters be reduced by a moderate amount.

Spacing begins typically with the /n and /o for the lowercase, and the /H and /O for the uppercase.

These characters are your baseline when it comes to how rounded and straight characters behave and should be spaced in the typeface.

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Getting a consistent rhythm of positive and negative space in your /n’s and /o’s as well as /H’s and /O’s is the most important step for your spacing, since all the more irregular characters are going to use this regular spacing as a guide.

Fortunately, spacing is not a guessing game, and similar characters can either use the same or similar side-bearing measurements, drastically reducing the time it would take spacing every single letter individually. For example, the lowercase /n and /m can are similar enough that they can share the exact same side-bearing measurements for both the right and left sides. Characters that are less like each other can use each other’s side-bearings as reference, such as the sides of the /o and the /e or /c. For irregular characters, such as the /s, /g, or /k, surrounding them on either side with regular characters like the /o and /n can help you narrow down what their spacing should be.

To test for spacing, type designers often place a letter they want to space in between /n’s and /o’s (lowercase), or /H’s and /O’s (uppercase), and adjust the sidebearings from there.

A well-spaced font should have a mostly consistent rhythm of posetive and negative space. Here, the stems of the letters set up a regular pattern which is onlt broken by certain letters, such as the /r.

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KERNING Kerning is another essential aspect of a properly spaced font, although it should only be attempted after your font is properly spaced. Kerning is applied on top of your existing metrics, which means that if you need to go back and adjust the base spacing of any of your glyphs, your kerning will also be adjusted and may need to be fixed. In general, your rule to follow should be to kern as little as possible, which will keep the entire process from spiraling out of control and having to waste time fixing things.

The most obvious glyphs that will need to be kerned are ones with large gaps of space, such as the /A, /V, /T, /L, /f, etc. If you feel the need to kern every single pair of letters when testing strings of text, it is likely that your spacing has gone wrong, and it would be better to go back and fix it.

Most font creation software should have an option to create kerning classes. Kerning classes are groups of letters which share the same kerning values as other letters in that group. For example, if you are kerning the letters /W and /o, you could create a class for the right side of the /W, /Y, and /V, since they are all similarly shaped. After you do this, kerning the /o closer to the /W would also apply that same amount of kerning to the /o and the /Y or /V. Kerning classes can both expedite the kerning process while making any fixes you might need to implement easier, so using them is highly recommended whenever possible.

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The goal of kerning is to eliminate the gaps in between letters that were not possible to do with spacing alone.

A properly spaced font will have kerning pairs between uppercase letters, lowercase letters, and mixtures of the two cases put together.

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION

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Bolder styles typically pack on weight on the insides of the glyphs before they begin extending the width of the glyphs.

ADDITIONAL WEIGHTS Upon completing a font of a single weight, and perhaps even adding italics to said font, the next big consideration for any type designer is adding weights to their typeface and creating an entire family of styles. However, adding weights to a typeface is not a simple task just because you have something to work off. Keep in mind that every new weight of a typeface is a separate font that must be drawn with the same amount of care as the original.

A simple application of the stroke tool to create a fake “bold” is not going to cut it. Combine this with the potential need for italic styles and you now have two extra fonts per weight you are adding to the typeface.

There is something that can expedite this process however, and that is interpolation. For example, if a designer creates a medium weight and a bold weight, they may interpolate between them to create a “semi-bold” weight. The use of

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interpolation to fill in these “middle ground” weights is used all the time by professional foundries and is essential if you really want your typeface to evolve into a family with a range of styles.

Following our previously established rule of thumb that the counterspace of a letter should be approximately equal to the letterspace, we can understand that bolder weights should have less space inside and outside of each letter, while the inverse is true for lighter weights. If you are considering the construction of multiple weights, it makes the most sense to start with a “regular” medium weight and use it as reference material from which your letters can then be designed.

ITALICS Drawing an italic style for a font is a difficult yet rewarding task, as italics are a useful and welcome addition to any typeface. Just like additional weights, italic styles are entirely separate fonts, and need just as much attention and effort in order to make them work by themselves as well as in conjunction with the upright style. It may be tempting to apply a shear transformation to your letters and call it an italic, however this creates what are known as “fake italics� which have disformed shapes and uneven weight. In general, slanting letters purely as a starting point is very useful, but make sure to either adjust or redraw characters that have been distorted.

While sans-serif italics are essentially carefully made slanted versions of the original letters, serif italics often take on a completely new look that take more cues from calligraphy than the upright style does. Italics are a great way to show off a typeface’s character, but keep in mind that they should not stray from the previously established weight, axis, or calligraphic references that your upright style is built upon.

Italic styles are often completely different than their roman counterparts and typically feature calligraphic-inspired designs.

Fake italics can heavily distort your letters, taking away from the hard work put into making them correctly in the first place. Fake italics can be used as a starting point, but nothing more.

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