Dissertation - Urbanisation VS Mental Health

URBANISATION VS MENTAL HEALTH How urbanisation is affecting happiness in Bordon and Whitehill

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HAPPINESS

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Sam Kercher

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I would like to thank Dr Tulika Gadakari and Dr Hossein Sadri for their constant support and enthusiasm throughout this research project. I would also like to express my gra�tude to all members of the community who par�cipated in my ques�onnaire, this allowed an crucial understanding of the current standard of urban design.

Choosing a place to live can be one of the most important decisions in a person’s life, as architects and urban designers we have the privilege of shaping people’s lives and even their emo�ons. This thesis reviews the impact an urban environment has on mental health (with a focus on happiness) and techniques urban planners can use to mi�gate the nega�ve ramifica�ons of inhabi�ng an urban environment. With the United Na�ons predic�ng that over 90% of the UK popula�on will live within an urban environment by 2050 and sta�s�cs already telling us that these environments have a nega�ve impact on both depression (40%) and anxiety (20%) this research is becoming more and more important to the overall wellbeing of society (United Na�ons, 2018., & Peen, J., 2009). The focus of the project is an area currently going through the urbanisa�on process and also part of the ‘healthy new towns’ ini�a�ve; Bordon and Whitehill.

The regenera�on program has been in progress since 2015, and a ques�onnaire will be generated, based upon Safety, Ac�ve, Green and Social; the key factors in defining happiness within an urban environment. A ques�onnaire will allow for perceived happiness to be compared to the experienced; defined from sta�s�cs and knowledge linking to the same four categories.

The findings have helped to developed three key recommenda�ons needed to develop posi�ve urban environments. These recommenda�ons have arisen from an overall posi�ve community review of contemporary urban development where the experienced is more important to happiness than the perceived. The knowledge gained cannot be the end of this cri�cal body of knowledge but needs to be considered in future urban developments to benefit the happiness of society.

Discussion

Findings

Literature Review

Acknowledgements Abstract Contents Figures 1

1.0 - Introduc�on

2

2.0 - Urban Happiness

4

2.1 - Safe Space

5 6

2.2 - Active Space 2.3 - Green Space

8

2.4 - Social Space

9

3.0 - Methodology

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4.0 - Bordon and Whitehill

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4.1 - The Safe Town

18

4.2 - The Active Town

24

4.3 - The Green Town

31

4.4 - The Social Town

36

5.0 - The Happy Town

39

6.0 - Conclusion

40 45

References Appendices

Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10 Figure 11 Figure 12 Figure 13 Figure 14 Figure 15 Figure 16 Figure 17 Figure 18 Figure 19 Figure 20 Figure 21 Figure 22 Figure 23 Figure 24 Figure 25 Figure 26 Figure 27 Figure 28 Figure 29 Figure 30 Figure 31 Figure 32 Figure 33 Figure 34 Figure 35 Figure 36 Figure 37

How happiness will be analysed How happiness is defined How safety is defined How ac�ve is defined How green is defined What makes a good green zone?

How social is defined Method of research Key features of Bordon and Whitehill Experienced : Popula�on of Bordon and Whitehill Perceived : Ques�on 5 Perceived : Ques�on 3 Perceived : Ques�on 2 Perceived : Ques�on 4 Experienced : Crime in Bordon and Whitehill Perceived : Ques�on 10 Perceived : Ques�on 7 Perceived : Ques�on 6 Perceived : Ques�on 8 Experienced : Path developments in Bordon and Whitehill Perceived : Ques�on 9 Experienced : Old town centre loca�on Experienced : New town centre loca�on Perceived : Ques�on 11 Experienced : Historic Green Infrastructure Experienced : Planned Green Infrastructure Perceived : Ques�on 12 Experienced : Hogmoor Inclosure Map Perceived : Ques�on 13 Experienced : Green Loop Map Perceived : Ques�on 14 Perceived : Ques�on 16 Perceived : Ques�on 15 Experienced : New Social Third Spaces in Bordon and Whitehill Perceived : Ques�on 17 Key Findings Perceived : Ques�on 18

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 20 21 22 23 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37

1.0 As mental health deteriorates worldwide (World Health Organiza�on, 2022), the link and therefore importance of how the built environment impacts our mental well-being is becoming an ever more cri�cal topic. Our understanding of the way in which spaces influence our brain through the release of neurochemicals is increasing. Esther Sternberg, 2013, considers how place can ‘heal’ us, through pain reduc�on, mood boos�ng and improving our immune system.

Presen�ng further reasons as to why architects and urban planners need to consider the mental impact their work has on society; an issue that both the government and the Na�onal Health Service (NHS) in the UK have star�ng considering during the urbanisa�on process.

Over 90% of the UK popula�on will live within an urban environment by 2050 (United Na�ons, 2018) therefore the urgency for ‘healthy’ urban development is clear. This predic�on alongside the rise in concerns over peoples general wellbeing, presents the significance of reviewing current urban developments to discover how they are affec�ng society. This movement towards an urban age becomes even more concerning with sta�s�cs showing us that these environments are already having a nega�ve effect on our mental health. A review into the current state of urban – rural differen�a�on in mental disorders states that the two main mental health illnesses, depression and anxiety, are 40% and 20% worse in an urban environment, respec�vely (Peen, Sschoevers, Beekman & Dekker, 2009, p.90). But we cannot only design for the mentally ill, we must also design our urban zones for the general popula�on both for mi�ga�on and healing.

A feeling that encapsulates mental health is happiness. The ques�on of happiness is something that has been pondered throughout �me, with the Greeks concept of ‘Eudaimonia’ and Aristotle constantly ques�oning what makes us feel happiness; “whatever creates or increases happiness, we ought to do” (Aristotle, 350BC). This raises the ques�ons as to why we s�ll haven’t found the formula to create happiness through our design? Will we ever be able to find the perfect combina�on of ‘happy’ design and sustainable design?

Although it is clear that changes in our urban fabric will take �me, there is a gap in knowledge in how the development of a rural area to a more urban one is affec�ng mental health; which is where this research will start to fill the gap. To develop this understanding a focus will be placed on the ‘Healthy New Towns’ ini�a�ve and one of the demonstrator sites, Bordon and Whitehill, a site that encases many key features of other planned urban developments. In order to understand the effect on happiness we first need to understand the components that create the feeling; knowledge which will be important in developing urban spaces at a bigger scale.

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2.0 Literature Review Figure 1: How happiness will be analysed

Measuring ‘Experienced’ HAPPINESS Analysing ‘Perceived’

Note : By, Author (2022)

The effect urbanisa�on has had on happiness

Ways we could minimise any nega�ve effects

Reviewing various literature related to happiness has highlighted that the concept is one that is obvious and desirable but also something that evades a lot of people; especially in an urban environment (World Happiness Report, 2020). Many philosophers have ques�oned happiness with most arriving at a split between hedonic, based on pleasure and eudemonic, relying on meaning and self-realiza�on (Ryan & Deci, 2001). Designers, consider a more environmental approach as an influence on feelings, o�en discovering contentment, sa�sfac�on and overall liveability as terms for defining and measuring happiness (Montgomery, 2013., Moura�dis & Yiannakou, 2022). Although, there are various outcomes most scholars find that everyone’s concept of happiness is different but have strong links to sa�sfac�on and contentment; Montgomery, 2013, asks “is happiness simply contentment or the opposite of misery?”. The scien�fic approach, using neuroscience, of being happy (experienced) alongside the more holis�c approach of feeling happy (perceived) are two concepts that should be but are not o�en combined to analyse the overall happiness of a person in a specific space / environment.

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The way in which we view a space ul�mately determines how we feel within it. Different concepts of percep�on of urban space have been considered with Lynch’s five elements of urban mapping the most commonly recognized (Lynch, 1960). Paths, nodes, edges, districts and landmarks all are aspects of viewing the city from a designers point of view but happiness needs to derive from the user; not the designer (Gehl, 2010). Gehl, 2010 focuses on ci�es for walking, staying and playing as an ‘eye level’ view of the city with Roe and McCay, 2021, developing the idea that ‘restora�ve urbanism’ will have a posi�ve impact on socie�es views of the city. If we begin to view the city and new urban zones in a posi�ve manner, the issue of these developing spaces diminishing our mental health will be irradicated. The way in which we create and measure happiness, in terms of percep�on of the urban zone, needs to work in tandem with the experienced happiness within the same space. So, although perceived and experienced need to be considered together, these concepts place a higher importance on the perceived.

Aspects that cause happiness are again dependent on personal opinion, Jacobs, 1961 speaks of; safety, contact, diversity, self-destruc�on and automobiles as key factors in the ‘death’ of ci�es. If self-destruc�on is a key diminishing factor of a city are, ‘restora�ve ci�es’ the answer? Roe and McCay, 2021, split this concept into seven parts; green, blue, sensory, neighbourly, ac�ve, playable and inclusive. Although, many other aspects of happiness need to be considered, the no�ons of safety, being ac�ve, green space and being social are four key points that happiness cannot be achieved without, they embody all previous scholars outcomes of defining happiness.

These four categories can also be measured both in terms of experienced and perceived.

Figure 2: How happiness is defined

HAPPINESS

SAFETY ACTIVE GREEN SOCIAL

Note : By, Author (2022)

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2.1 Literature Review Figure 3: How safety is defined

HAPPINESS

Crime

SAFETY ACTIVE GREEN SOCIAL

Motor Vehicles Street Widths Populated Spaces

Note : By, Author (2022) Safety is defined as “the condi�on of being protected from or unlikely to cause danger, risk or injury” (Soanes, & Stevenson, 2009). Happiness without safety is impossible, feeling safe permits an overall feeling of contentment; o�en subconsciously. Baggini, 2008, discovers that people, specifically living in the United Kingdom, seek happiness through the form of comfort over discovery; comfort being something that can only be found within a safe environment. Although, the majority of research agrees that safety is crucial in all urban environments, the defini�on of safety varies. Common themes rela�ng to safety include crime rates and vehicular traffic (Pfeiffer & Clou�er, 2016; Moura�dis, 2019 & Gehl, 2010). Overall urban structure has an immense, perhaps some�mes accidental, effect on overall safety; both perceived and experienced.

Street safety is discussed, having life in the street is crucial for increasing both perceived and experienced safety. Jacobs, 1961, considers various concepts rela�ng to this, “street watchers” and “eyes on the street”, present the importance of having both life on the street but also in the buildings surrounding; we feel safer around other people. Connec�on between people and buildings will not only help reduce crime rates (crucial for safety) but also will improve overall social interac�on (Slim, 2019).

A development that has increased the gap between humans and buildings is the motor industry.

Cars ‘invading’ ci�es over 50 years ago has increased the fear of traffic accidents which in turn has had a nega�ve impact on perceived happiness (Gehl, 2010). The nega�vely impacted perceived safety is combined with a nega�vely impact actual (experienced) safety with various sources providing an increase in traffic accidents in an urban environment since 2015; the start of the ‘healthy new towns’ ini�a�ve (Cabrera-Arnau, & Bishop, 2021 & GOV.UK., 2022). More populated roads has subsequently meant the narrowing of sidewalks and therefore a decrease in walkability of the city again having a further nega�ve affect on overall happiness.

Safety is clearly an integral part in crea�ng happiness in a place, with ideas such as popula�ng spaces and buildings throughout the day and having more pedestrianised streets. These are concepts that are being embedded into many urban projects but, with safety as not the overriding reason.

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2.2 Literature Review Figure 4: How active is defined

HAPPINESS SAFETY ACTIVE GREEN SOCIAL

Aesthe�c of place Proximity of ameni�es Street Widths Aerobic Interven�ons

Note : By, Author (2022) Physical health benefits related to living an ac�ve lifestyle are constantly documented but the psychological benefits are just as important. All studies show a posi�ve correla�on between overall psychological health and being ac�ve. Some clearly sta�ng that ‘Happier people live more ac�ve lives’ (Lathia et al, 2017). Others considering how the no�on of exercising neurologically makes us happier (experienced). The release of hormones during exercise (endorphins) help us to relieve pain and stress whilst contemporary research is also presen�ng a strong link between movement and overall cogni�ve func�on (Eberhard, 2009., NHS, 2020., & Roe & McCay, 2021).

Strong links to parts of the brain also impacted by the most common mental health disorders, depression, anxiety and stress, such as the prefrontal cortex and amygdala have also been established (SoP, 2017 & Fox et al, 2000).

Integra�ng ac�ve travel into urban designs is a key considera�on within the NHS; it is a key principle in the ‘healthy new towns’ ini�a�ve. (NHS England, 2015). Roe and McCay, 2021, introduce again, the importance of ‘place aesthe�cs’ in increase curiosity and in turn improve probability of ac�ve travel whereas others argue more simple methods such as designing wider streets or including more cycle spaces is enough to encourage it (Kennedy et al, 2009,& Jacobs, 1962).

The importance of being ac�ve on mental health is clear, but as designers we cannot expect people to be ac�ve without interven�ons to encourage the healthier lifestyle. Whether the use of wider streets, the removal of cars or even the placement of ameni�es is used it cannot be something that is forgo�en among all the other crucial aspects of crea�ng happiness in urban development.

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2.3 Literature Review Figure 5: How green is defined

HAPPINESS

Access

SAFETY Quality ACTIVE GREEN

Quan�ty

SOCIAL Note : By, Author (2022) It is widely reported that the natural environment has a posi�ve impact on both physical and mental health. Biophilia theory states that humans are “innately a�racted to nature” (Wilson, 1984) and argues that without urban interven�ons society should automa�cally be posi�vely affected by the natural environment. This theory is backed up with Implicit associa�on test undertaken where “par�cipants automa�cally associate the concept ‘nature’ with ‘approach’ and ‘city’ with ‘avoidance’” (Schiebel, Gallinat, & Kuhn, 2022). Ulrich’s stress reduc�on theory focuses on how nega�ve emo�ons can be reduced by the natural environment (Ulrich, 1984, p.420), a theory that’s effec�veness is argued due to ‘perceived oppressiveness’ par�cularly in high density urban se�ngs (Luo, & Jiang, 2022). Even with this argument the importance of green space in terms of happiness is clear.

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Figure 6: What makes a good green zone?

Note : From Restorative Cities : Urban design for mental health and wellbeing

by Roe & McCay (2021) It has been established that green space has a posi�ve effect on us, but for designers to simply add ‘green space’ to the urban fabric is not enough, we need to understand what makes a healthy green zone. Roe and McCay, 2021, split the effects of green space into two environmental parts; see figure 6. Although this diagram doesn’t only focus on environmental factors and how they affect our mental wellbeing it does state some key ideas on the aspects of a green space that actually posi�vely impact our wellbeing. Channon, 2018 considers ‘environment’ factors in more depth with ideas of, ‘providing views of nature’, ‘escape from the urban’ and ‘improving ecology and biodiversity’ as key concepts when crea�ng a green space. Allowing views to nature backs up theory of biophilia; sta�ng that having a visual connec�on with the natural environment will support overall wellbeing and can be achieved simply by increase amount of green space.

As discussed many sta�s�cs state the nega�ve impact of ‘the urban’ and therefore escaping it into a biodiverse area will no doubt have a posi�ve effect. Many authors have stated the importance of biodiversity through their defini�on of the ‘quality’ of a green space sta�ng that there is an increase in posi�ve effect when the space is more biodiverse (Van de Berg et al, 2007 & Bowler et al, 2010). Although, research shows different important aspects of green space it is obvious that: the implica�ons of having access to green space, the quality of the green space and having sufficient green space are crucial to seeing the benefits that the natural environment has.

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2.4 Literature Review Figure 7: How social is defined

HAPPINESS SAFETY ACTIVE GREEN SOCIAL

Sense of Community Populated Spaces Pro social spaces Local Infrastructure

Note : By, Author (2022) As we find ourselves in a digital age the importance of social interac�on cannot be overstated.

Although, the improvement of interac�on within the community is a social dilemma, the environment that we design can help support this. An increase in social network size has an impact on the brain; it increases the size and therefore effec�veness of the prefrontal cortex (Harré, 2012). The prefrontal cortex is a sec�on of the brain known to have an impact on happiness; Richard Davidson completed a study in the 1990s showing that damage to the prefrontal cortex, specifically the le� side, meant a decrease in sense of enjoyment and in fact, ‘happy’ videos increased ac�vity in this sec�on of the brain (Montgomery, 2013). Valida�ng that social interac�on improves happiness.

Many researchers have stated that loneliness is bad for our mental health, but also, as previously men�oned (Sec�on 2.1) safety is also crucial to causing happiness. Therefore, finding a balance between sociability and safety of place is cri�cal. The idea of altruism, “disinterested and selfless concern for the well-being of other” (Soanes, C., & Stevenson, 2009), presents the importance of community spirit in boos�ng mental health (Mental Health Founda�on, N.D.).

Socialisa�on cannot be forced but we can support and encourage it. The ideas of safe, green and ac�ve (previously men�oned) are already contribu�ng factors to encouraging a social space but other infrastructure needs to be in place to further improve overall happiness. Heatherton and Walco�, 2009, split social interac�ons into accidental, repeated, regular and regulated all important in reducing loneliness. These types of socialisa�on, have since been incorporated into concepts of designing for the social. Local infrastructure will not only improve the walkability of space but also allow for the local community to interact; suppor�ng socialisa�on. The social concept of ‘third spaces’ allows for planners to appreciate the importance of pro social infrastructure along with the two usual social spaces, home and work (Roe, & McCay, 2021).

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3.0 Figure 8: Method of research Defining Happiness in an Urban Environment Exploring happiness through four categories.

HAPPINESS SAFETY ACTIVE GREEN SOCIAL

Measuring ‘Experienced’ Analysing ‘Perceived’

The effect urbanisa�on has had on happiness

Ways we could minimise any nega�ve effects

Note : By, Author (2022)

The literature reviewed has further presented the importance of mental wellbeing but has also defined happiness in terms of four, measurable components. One case study will be considered analyse how urbanisa�on is affec�ng happiness. Montgomery indicated the importance of the urbanisa�on of small rural towns, “If you are going to talk about a modern city, you have to begin out here, at the edge of the urban blast radius.” (Montgomery, 2013). This idea is something that the NHS (UK) have considered when se�ng up the ‘Healthy New Towns’ program; where they “explore how the development of new places could create healthier and connected communi�es” (NHS, 2015). This program which originated in 2015 is currently using ten demonstrator sites to explore concepts which in the future could be used on a bigger city scale.

One of these ten sites is the case study; Bordon and Whitehill. Explora�on of this site will allow a clear understanding of how contemporary urbanisa�on is impac�ng mental health (happiness).

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The scheme will incorporate all aspects required by the ‘Healthy New Towns’ concept whilst also having more specific needs based on both historic and current demands of the area. Bordon and Whitehill was historically an army town with the Ministry of Defence (MoD) land being regenerated from 2015 with plans un�l 2036. Although, s�ll in the early stages of this development establishing its effect on mental wellbeing is something that needs to be considered from start to finish. The program aims to deliver 3,350 new homes, various different infrastructure and 80 hectares of alterna�ve green space (NHS England, 2015). The concepts considered and key features of the area (figure 9) are common with many current and planned urban developments, meaning understanding the impact in Bordon and Whitehill will allow for improvements in these other areas.

An understanding of the effect urbanisa�on is having on happiness will be generated by considering both experienced and perceived. Perceived happiness will be examined via a ques�onnaire that has been generated only rela�ng to the four components of happiness defined; using both input and output ques�on types. Fi�y occupants within the Bordon and Whitehill area responded to the ques�onnaire to allow for an analysis between the experienced and perceived. This perceived happiness will be discussed alongside the experienced; measured via collec�on and analysis of available data, plans and knowledge of the area.

The method developed will allow for further research and therefore improvements of all areas subject to urbanisa�on throughout the UK and worldwide.

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4.0 Findings Figure 9: Key features of Bordon and Whitehill

BORDON AND WHITEHILL HAMPSHIRE

17,216

POPULATION DENSITY

3,913/Km²

Population increase

0.71% Per Year

AREA

4,400 Km² Note : Adapted from, Brinkhoff (2022) & Alamy (2019)

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4.1 Findings Figure 10: Experienced : Population of Bordon and Whitehill

Popula�on 17400 17200 17000 16800 16600 16400 16200 16000 15800 15600 15400

2001

2011

2021

Note : Adapted from, Brinkhoff (2022)

Popula�on of place has an enormous impact on safety, both posi�ve and nega�ve. The slight decrease in popula�on between 2001 and 2011 did not follow the overall trend within the UK (Brinkoff, 2022, & Office for Na�onal Sta�s�cs, 2011). Although, the decrease was small, 145 people, this would have had an effect on the overall perceived impact on the increase in popula�on (1181) between 2011 and 2021.

Previous studies evalua�ng the rela�onship between popula�on and happiness have had differing outcomes. Theore�cally, the higher popula�on of Bordon and Whitehill in 2021, see figure 10, would cause busier streets and therefore crea�ng a sense of safety (Jacobs, 1961).

Although, this increase is also likely to have a nega�ve impact on crime and traffic in the area; all linked with a nega�ve effect on safety (Pfeiffer & Clou�er, 2016; Moura�dis, 2019 & Gehl, 2010), and therefore happiness.

So, from this sta�s�c alone the effect on happiness can not be understood; to gain this understanding other components (figure 3) need to be considered.

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Figure 11: Perceived : Question 5

Overall, has the regenera�on made you feel safer?

No Change You feel slightly more unsafe

You feel much safer

You feel slightly safer

You feel much more unsafe

Note : By, Author (2022)

The overall perceived safety in Whitehill and Bordon is differing, with 46% of par�cipants sta�ng no change felt. This neutral response is contradicted by some par�cipants; 34% either sta�ng a ‘slightly’ or ‘much more’ feeling of safety due to the regenera�on (urbanisa�on). The mixed response is as a result of the differing percep�on of the effect the increased popula�on has had.

Safety is a key component in happiness, o�en facilita�ng other improvements. As an overriding majority have stated, there has not been a large decrease is overall safety and in some cases people actually feel safer; even with the nega�ve impact on crime and vehicle usage that will come with an increased popula�on

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Figure 12: Perceived : Question 3

Do you feel more safe within the regenerated areas or in the older areas of the town?

No Different

Older Areas

Regenerated Areas

Unsure

Note : By, Author (2022)

To support the mostly posi�ve feeling response to ques�on 5, a posi�ve view of the regenera�on is also shown in ques�on 3. 44% of par�cipants have stated they feel safer in the regenerated areas compared to the older spaces. Many aspects, both social and environmental, could be affec�ng this response. In most cases it seems that the regenera�on is having either a posi�ve or no impact on overall percep�on of safety, which ul�mately is the goal of the urbanisa�on process; to increase popula�on in the area without having a nega�ve impact on those already living there. A key social aspect that cannot be overlooked in this analysis is the impact of the covid-19 pandemic and the desire for more open space in communal areas. With the pandemic s�ll fresh in the communi�es mind the pre pandemic designs may feel more condensed and unsafe. Whilst the new areas, most of which designed / adapted in a post pandemic era will have this issue considered. With the 16% that responded sta�ng they feel safer in the ‘older areas’ the familiarity of place is likely to be the cause of this feeling. Perhaps these people feel a closer connec�on with the ‘older spaces’ and therefore feel safer, an issue that will naturally dissolve over �me.

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Figure 13: Perceived : Question 2

Have you no�ced an increase in motor vehicles within the area in the last 5 years?

No

Unsure

Yes

Note : By, Author (2022)

An aspect with a much clearer response is the perceived amount of vehicular usage in the area.

92% of the respondents stated they have seen an increase in ‘motor vehicles within the area in the last 5 years’ (the start of the regenera�on). The increase in popula�on, figure 10, has increased vehicle usage in the area; the perceived is reinforced by experienced. Gehl, 2010, stated the nega�ve impact cars have on perceived safety, these results counter this. Although, most people have no�ced an increase in motor vehicles, the data previously analysed suggests that this does not have an impact on perceived safety.

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Figure 14: Perceived : Question 4

Do you feel there has been an increase in any of these crimes in the last 5 years (please select all)?

45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0

Hate Crime Violent Crime

Burglary

RTCs

An�-Social Behaviour

Other

Note : By, Author (2022)

The impact of vehicular movement is again not as prominent in percep�on of crime sta�s�cs, with just 28% of people feeling an increase in traffic collisions in the area, further showing the li�le impact that vehicles have on perceived safety.

Crime rates are o�en considered in regards to both happiness and safety in combina�on. 92% of respondents saw an increase in at least one type of crime. With an increase in An�-social behaviour the most prominent (84%). Presen�ng that these incidents do not have a large impact on overall percep�on of safety for the majority. This increase will most likely be closely linked to the increase in overall popula�on but again other societal factors and an increase in social media usage will allow for crime issues to be more prominent within the community. Bordon and Whitehill was previously a safe space to live (UK Crime Stats, 2022), which presents why a slight increase in crime has not affected perceived safety, but is an issue that cannot con�nue to grow, if we are to create a happy society.

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Figure 15: Experienced : Crime in Bordon and Whitehill

Total Crime 1400 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 0

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

2019

2020

2021

Note : Adapted from, UK Crime Stats (2015) Contradic�ng the percep�on, the actual crime within the area has not seen a dras�c change over recent years. With the regenera�on not star�ng un�l 2015, the increase presented in 2016 will not have been in direct correla�on with the start of the urbanisa�on process. Even with the increased popula�on men�oned (Brinkoff, 2022), the overall trend for increase in crime is less dras�c. A�er the peak in 2016 there was a gradual decrease un�l 2019; where it reached a lower level than that in 2015 (UK Crime Stats, 2022). It is expected that the covid-19 pandemic and subsequen�al lockdowns have increased crime rates in the two years that follow the low in 2019, as with much of the UK. This data presents that in terms of crime rates, it is clear that the overall percep�on has less of an impact on perceived safety than experienced crime does. With a posi�ve response to overall safety shown previously the minimal change in actual reported crime follows a similar trend.

Showing that even with the percep�on of crimes increasing overall safety is not impacted.

The different aspect that make up the concept of safety all affect each other and the responses to one ques�on have impacted others. 22 of the 23 of par�cipants that felt ‘no change’ in overall safety also felt there was an increase in at least one type of crime. These two outcomes contradict each other, but in terms of importance the overall perceived safety is more cri�cal to this study than the percep�on of crime increase. Another contradic�ng result is that all par�cipants that felt ‘much safer’ also saw an increase in some crime levels and also vehicular use in the area. Interes�ngly, these same people also feel safer in regenerated areas; indica�ng that the safety in these new spaces is more important to overall perceived safety. The importance of the concepts raised by Jacobs, 1961, are also clear; an increase in popula�on is irradica�ng the nega�ve impact of more vehicles and the percep�on of more crime. When considering the affect that safety has on happiness, overall safety must be the biggest factor contemplated, whilst considering the different factors that contribute to this feeling.

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4.2 Findings Figure 16: Perceived : Question 10

Overall, have you felt more ac�ve since the start of the regenera�on?

No

Unsure

Yes

Note : By, Author (2022)

Reviewed literature states the importance of being ac�ve both for physical and mental health.

The response to overall ac�veness in the area suggests a failure in a key purpose of the ‘Healthy New Towns’ ini�a�ve (NHS England, 2015). With 62% of respondents sta�ng they do not feel more ac�ve, it is important to understand the different characteris�cs that encourage ac�vity. To then establish and therefore understand why the community do not feel more ac�ve.

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Figure 17: Perceived : Question 7

Do the new developments make you feel more inclined to walk / cycle / run within the area?

No

Yes

Note : By, Author (2022)

With over 50% of par�cipants feeling that the new developments will increase the walkability, the nega�ve response to ques�on 10 (previously men�oned) may be a reflec�on of the incomple�on of the urbanisa�on process. Therefore, this overall inclina�on to be ac�ve should in turn improve ac�vity over �me; this lifestyle change will not be instant. This inclina�on to be ac�ve could be due to the aesthe�c of place (figure 4). The concept of aesthe�c is something that cannot be measured but is influenced by other measurable factors. An increase in quality green space and infrastructure will have an impact on overall percep�on of aesthe�c and therefore inclina�on to be ac�ve, something that has been achieved in the area. These results indicate that some people feel the benefits of increased ac�vity now whilst other will feel it in the future.

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Figure 18: Perceived : Question 6

Have you no�ced any interven�ons to increase walking / cycling?

Note : By, Author (2022)

No

Unsure

Yes

Although, it is difficult to measure overall ac�veness within a place, aspects that cause this ac�ve lifestyle can be measured, in terms of both actual and perceived. Interven�ons that help to encourage walking and cycling are o�en regarded as the most effec�ve way of improving ac�veness. In contradic�on to this, the majority of respondents (60%) stated they have no�ced these interven�ons, but many do not feel more ac�ve, which will not posi�vely impact happiness.

Figure 19: Perceived : Question 8

Have you no�ced an increase in path width in the area?

Note : By, Author (2022)

No

Unsure Yes

As common in many towns and ci�es in the UK the narrow paths are not suitable for large amounts of people / cyclists. A star�ng point for increasing ac�vity is by allowing safer ac�ve travel in the area; one way this is achieved is through increasing path widths. As with ques�on 6 (figure 18) the community is no�cing the a�empt to allow for a more ac�ve lifestyle, 62% no�cing increased path widths. But are not feeling the benefits, figure 16. This in turn means neither a posi�ve nor nega�ve impact on happiness will be experienced, ac�ve travel has not yet changed.

20

Figure 20: Experienced : Path developments in Bordon and Whitehill

Note : By, Hampshire Country Council (2022)

To support the perceived; the development maps presents the actual developments of paths in the area. As would be expected the majority of the community have no�ced the increase in path width in the area, perhaps because of disrup�on caused in the construc�on phase. Widening paths will allow for distance to be placed between the user and the road, increasing perceived safety (Montgomery, 2013), giving a further understanding as to why the increase in vehicular movement has not had a large impact on safety (part 4.1).

21

Figure 21: Perceived : Question 9

Will the new loca�on of the main town centre (Budds Lane) make you more or less likely to visit on foot?

I would not walk / cycle to either

I would walk / cycle to both old and new

Less likely

More likely

Note : By, Author (2022)

One incomplete aspect of the regenera�on is the town centre. It is clear once complete the new loca�on will have a posi�ve effect on the ac�vity in the area, with 72% of respondents saying they will visit the new town centre on foot. Out of these 36 people, 32 of them stated they are ‘more likely’ to use ac�ve travel than they currently are to the previous town centre. Being incomplete this development will not have an increase in perceived or experienced ac�veness yet, although can s�ll be considered in terms of overall happiness, as the development being in progress will s�ll impact percep�on.

22

Figure 22: Experienced : Old town centre location

Figure 23: Experienced : New town centre location

20 Minut es

20 Minut es

10 Min ute s

tes inu M

es ut

10

20 M inu tes

20 Minute s

10 M in

es ut

tes inu M

10 M in

20 Minute s

10 Min ute s

10 20 M inu tes

Note : By, Author (2022)

Note : By, Author (2022)

The overall increased likelihood is as a result of the interven�ons previously men�oned and the centralized posi�oning of the new infrastructure. Aesthe�cs of the area, increased path widths and overall quicker access to the town centre will increase overall ac�veness and therefore happiness in the area. As shown in figures 22 and 23 , the new town centre will allow quicker access to more households; especially with the majority of future developments occurring in the North and North West areas of the town. The new loca�on will also encourage movement into / through green zones; further benefits considered in part 4.3.

The results established in this sec�on present an overall posi�ve view on the full urbanisa�on process in the area, in terms of ac�veness. As shown in ques�ons 6 and 8 (figures 18 and 19), the community are no�cing the different interven�ons in place to support ac�ve movement although, considering the results from ques�ons 10 and 7 (figures 16 and 17) the impact is not yet being achieved. This acknowledgement along with the improved loca�on of the town centre will create a more ac�ve society. As established previously this improved ac�ve travel will have posi�ve impacts on brain func�on (SoP, 2017 & Fox et al., 2000) and therefore happiness.

Although as of now the posi�ve impact has not been felt, it is clear the urban process has not nega�vely impacted ac�vity, so will not reduce happiness.

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4.3 Findings Figure 24: Perceived : Question 11

Do you feel there has been an increase or decrease of 'green' space because of the regenera�on?

Decrease

Increase

Neither

Unsure

Note : By, Author (2022)

The need for access to green space is an innate requirement (Wilson, 1984). One key component that influences the posi�ve effect of green space on our wellbeing is the amount of it. Being a previous rural area one of Bordon and Whitehill’s main features is the presence of natural spaces and vast wildlife. One key factor o�en linked to the nega�ve impact of an urban environment is the removal of human from nature (Luo & Jiang, 2022). The response to ques�on 11 (figure 14) presents the perceived view that the regenera�on has removed green space in the area; 68% of respondents sta�ng a decrease. This result indicates worrying figures with the importance of green space clear in many theories. Although, the importance is clear it is also suggested that a lot of the benefits arise from a sub-conscious mind; we do not realise the benefits that are occurring. This sub-conscious theory indicates the importance of experienced green space rather than perceived; making this outcomes less cri�cal to overall happiness.

24

Figure 25: Experienced : Historic Green Infrastructure

Note : By, East Hampshire District Council (2012)

This map (figure 25) showing the green infrastructure before the start of the regenera�on shows the vast natural area in Bordon and Whitehill. Although, the large amount of green space is clear the majority of it is on the outskirts of the town, with parts expanding between infrastructure.

This historic map in combina�on with the planned green infrastructure map (figure 26) will give an understanding if the percep�on of removal of green space is accurate with the actual development.

Figure 26 shows the area of focus for the urbanisa�on process. It is clear that large areas of green space have not been impacted (the main areas affected highlighted). There is a clear percep�on that green space has decreased but this idea is less obvious from a planners scale; presen�ng the importance of designing at both a birds eye and ground level. The main zone, where green space was present, that has since transformed into a more built development is an area spli�ng the northern side of the town to the southern; previously allowing access to green space from both sides. Having this centralised area would have given the percep�on of more green space; with easy constant access. This idea also allows for the other responses to ques�on 11 (figure 24), with people living further from this central point perhaps not no�cing this transforma�on as prominently. As expected with all urbanisa�on processes green space will be removed to allow for an increasing popula�on, other aspects (access and quality) will help counteract the nega�ve impacts felt.

25

Figure 26: Experienced : Planned Green Infrastructure

Note : By, Avison Young and Urban Place Lab (2019)

26

Figure 27: Perceived : Question 12

Do you feel the QUALITY of green spaces in the area has increased?

No

Unsure

Yes

Note : By, Author (2022) One way the reduc�on in green space can be counteracted is with an increase in quality. Previous researchers explain biodiversity as playing the main role in achieving high quality green space.

Although, the urbanisa�on has reduced the quality of the available green space; in terms of percep�on (ques�on 12). When considering the actual infrastructure in place it is clear the improvement of biodiversity has been considered (figure 28). Hogmoor inclosure is the largest useable green space in the area and has been the focus for large amounts of green development.

The “54 hectares of strategic woodland and heathland” (Prince Philip Park, 2017), integrates human life into an otherwise completely natural space. With the focus being on community engagement the integra�on of wildlife is clear. Infrastructure to encourage biodiversity is present throughout the design; bug hotel, bat bunker and bird hide highlighted. A completely natural space with no human interven�ons will always be be�er for a biodiverse area but then we will not feel the benefits that these areas create. The removal of the centralised natural space, and the interference with previously completely natural areas are the main components that have created this nega�ve percep�on of quality. Although, with other aspects such as addi�onal walkable paths (part 4.2) and a higher car usage (part 4.1) all likely to have had a nega�ve impact on wildlife they will have also increased the accessibility of the s�ll available natural areas.

27

Figure 28: Experienced : Hogmoor Inclosure Map

Note : By, Prince Philip Park (2017)

28

Figure 29: Perceived : Question 13

Do you feel you have be�er ACCESS to green space?

Note : By, Author (2022)

No

Unsure

Yes

As men�oned, to counteract the slight reduc�on in green space their needs to be be�er access.

These results (figure 29) do indicate this has been achieved in some cases. 54% stated either an increase in green space or ‘unsure’ presen�ng that a decrease has certainly not been felt by these par�cipants. Access to green space is a component that needs to increase, to improve overall wellbeing, with an urban development. Although, a mixed response here has been given it is likely that some community members not feeling an increase in access to good quality green space will have an overall nega�ve effect on happiness. Percep�on of access is ul�mately determined by experienced access; the current main interven�on to improve access is the ‘green loop’ (figure 30). This passage creates a constant link to the main green spaces by looping around the edge of the urban zone, and in turn should improve the posi�ve impact of this green area by helping to ‘escape the urban’ (Roe and McCay, 2021 & Channon, 2018). But, as men�oned in part 4.2, it is clear that all the community are not yet interac�ng with these interven�ons in the required way.

With these results in mind the green interven�ons have been designed at a planners level when in order to create a posi�ve and healthy zone the eye level needs to be considered more. Other societal factors may be playing a role in these results but for an overall improvement in happiness the access and quality of green space needs to be felt by the majority. The plan for a “4.5 hectare linear park” that “will form the spine” of the area (Prince Philip Park, 2017) is likely to improve these aspects but the importance of mental health throughout the whole process should not be understated.

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Figure 30: Experienced : Green Loop Map

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M

OSS

GREEN LOOP MAP

Sports Pavilion UE

EN

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UR

UISB

BOSC

LO

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BOLL

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OAKHANGER ROAD

School

BU

DD

S LA

NE

School

HOGMOOR ROAD

Park

TE

Leisure Centre

ARS

MPL WAY

P

H

NA

AN HAV

i

Caf é

WAY

Woolmer Trading Estate

Hogmoor Inclosure

Woodlark Pub

i Whitehill Village Hall

WHITEHILL

PET

ERS

FIELD

ROAD

Blackmoor Golf Club

FIRGROVE

FT

ROAD

AD RO

DRI

School

BLACKMOOR

St. Matthew’s Church

HIDE AND SEEK

INFORMATION

Whitehill & Bordon is the only place in the country where you can find all 12 native breeding reptiles and amphibians, meaning that our local green spaces are really important and special.

The 12 species are: Common frog, Common toad, Natterjack toad, Great crested newt, Palmate newt, Smooth newt, Common lizard, Sand lizard, Slow worm, Adder, Grass snake and Smooth snake.

The Green Loop is a circular route around and through the town to connect and give easy access to the wonderful natural spaces that exist in Whitehill & Bordon.

Most of the Loop has been completed, but there are short stretches of the route that still need implementing. Please see the notes on this map and follow alternative routes, where the Loop is not fully complete.

Can you find them on the map?

Frog

Toad

Newt

Lizard

Slow Worm

Snake

Note : By, Whitehill and Bordon (2021)

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4.4 Findings Figure 31: Perceived : Question 14

Do you feel the sense of community has been lost during the regenera�on programme?

18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0

No

Note : By, Author (2022)

Somewhat

The regenera�on has increased the sense of community

Yes

Crea�ng a social space cannot be a standalone feature of an urban development; it o�en arises from crea�ng the posi�ve infrastructure previously men�oned. Finding the balance between a safe and social area can be created through the use of ac�ve and green zones. In many rural areas the sense of community is strong and is the founda�on for many day to day social interac�ons, but this is a feeling o�en lost with the densifica�on of areas. There is currently a mixed view in Bordon and Whitehill over the sense of community with 45% of the respondents feeling the sense of community has been at least ‘somewhat’ lost. This loss will in turn have a nega�ve impact on overall social ac�vity and therefore reduce happiness. Although, over�me with the correct spaces in place the sense of community can be rebuilt.

31

Figure 32: Perceived : Question 16

In general does the area as a whole feel more busy?

No

Unsure

Yes

Note : By, Author (2022)

One key way that the community spirit can be rebuilt is through ensuring the spaces created are populated. Although, with an increase in popula�on it is expected that spaces will be busier this is only the case if there is sufficient infrastructure for the occupants to use. 86% of respondents sta�ng a busier feeling indicates that the new people moving into the area are using the local infrastructure; an aspect which will help to improve community engagement and therefore sociability.

32

Figure 33: Perceived : Question 15 Have you no�ced an increase in accidental interac�on (for example 'bumping' into friends around town)?

No

Unsure

Yes

Note : By, Author (2022)

The previous findings, that the idea that the new residents in the area are using the local ameni�es, is backed up by the response to ques�on 15 (figure 33). 62% stated that they either do not ‘bump’ into friends more or are unsure; even with the majority also sta�ng they have no�ced the areas are busier. This presents that the spaces are being occupied by both exis�ng and ‘new residents. If the community con�nue to occupy the new prosocial spaces introduced (figure 34) the ‘new’ residents will integrate into the community well. This will help to improve social interac�on between all residents; increasing the chance of altruism (Mental health founda�on, N.D.). The development of third spaces in the area have increased the social interac�on through the use of encouragement to populate spaces, this current non-direct contact between residents will eventually turn into more direct engagement, boos�ng happiness (Roe & McCay, 2021).

33

Figure 34: Experienced : New Social Third Spaces in Bordon and Whitehill

Note : By, Prince Philip Park (2022)

34

Figure 35: Perceived : Question 17

In your opinion has the local infrastructure improved (schools, library etc.)?

No

Unsure

Yes

Note : By, Author (2022)

In order to allow for both new and exis�ng residents to socialise they need to be using the same spaces; the infrastructure needs to be available. Contradic�ng the previous examina�ons that all residents are indirectly socialising 62% of par�cipants do not see an improvement in infrastructure. This although, was an expected response with many of the future developments planned to include infrastructural improvement (Avison Young & Urban Place Lab, 2019). This improvement in infrastructure will not only be important for the happiness of the area but also the stability of the economy, an aspect cri�cal in any urban development, but the lack of current improvement has not yet nega�vely impacted the sociability.

Although, as with any percep�on there is an overall mixed view surrounding sociability many posi�ves have arisen regarding the subject. The community spirit, although may have been slightly lost currently, seems to have the required developments in place to be rebuilt with a higher popula�on. With some people using the new developments more frequently it is important to understand why. There is a close link between where people feel safe and their socialisa�on. The respondents who felt safer in the new areas also have felt the benefits of an improved socialisa�on, in most cases. So, it is clear that in order to help the whole community come together as one overall percep�on of safety also needs to improve.

35

5.0 Discussion Figure 36: Key Findings PERCEIVED

HAPPINESS

EXPERIENCED

SAFETY An increase in percep�on of crime rates.

Crime

Li�le change in crime rates.

Increase percep�on of use of vehicle usage in area.

Motor Vehicles

Increase use of vehicle usage in area.

Some street widths are no�ceably wider.

Street Widths

Some streets have had an increase in width.

Increase in popula�on has not had an impact on safety.

Populated Spaces

Increase popula�on has increased use of new spaces.

ACTIVE

Aesthe�c improvement has increased probability of being ac�ve.

Aesthe�c of place

New green and infrastructural improvements improve overall aesthe�c.

New loca�on of town centre will improve ac�ve transport.

Proximity of ameni�es

New ameni�es are situated closer to more of the community - they are centralised.

Increase in street width no�ced, although not used more yet.

Street Widths

Some streets have had an increase in width.

Interven�ons have been no�ced but have not increased ac�vity of all.

Aerobic Interven�ons

Various different interven�ons developed in the area.

Mixed views - some feel an increase in access, others feel no change.

GREEN Access

Aerobic interven�ons have increased the accessibility of green spaces.

Percep�on that the quality of green space has not increased is clear, in most responses.

Quality

A boost in biodiversity a�empted, although difficult to replicate completely natural areas.

Very clear view that amount of green space has decreased in the area.

Quan�ty

A slight decrease in green space in the area.

SOCIAL Mixed views, some feel no change, some feel a loss and some feel an increase.

Sense of Community

Large amounts of ‘new’ people in the area may interrupt the community spirit.

The spaces around the town have a percep�on of being busier.

Populated Spaces

Increase popula�on has meant the spaces are more populated o�en.

Spaces are currently causing indirect social interac�on between unknown people.

Pro social spaces

Amount of ‘third spaces’ has increased in and around new infrastructure.

The community feel the local infrastructure has not been improved.

Local Infrastructure

Steps have been taken to improve infrastructure but plans are in progress for further development.

Note : By, Author (2022)

36

Figure 37: Perceived : Question 18

Overall has the development of Bordon and Whitehill made you more or less happy (5 = much happier 1 = Much less happy)?

20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0

1

2

3

4

5

Note : By, Author (2022)

“Most people who tell researchers they are happy are not only telling the truth but are right” (Montgomery, 2013). This allows the response to ques�on 18 to be considered in regards to the effect of previous outcomes men�oned. Happiness within Bordon and Whitehill has been posi�vely impacted by the urbanisa�on process; an unlikely outcome based on the reviewed, mostly nega�ve, literature. At a base level it is promising to gain an understanding that the ‘Healthy New Towns’ development is having a posi�ve impact on happiness during the urbanisa�on process. But, in order to understand why this is the case it was important to consider the factors that help create happiness so that they can be replicated in future developments. As perceived and experienced have not previously been considered simultaneously placing an importance on one or the other is crucial to this research.

37

In terms of safety, the experienced is more influen�al on the overall increased happiness.

Although, an increase in crime had been felt the experienced minimal change has meant there has not been a decrease in overall happiness. It has also become apparent that vehicular usage in the area has less of an impact than Gehl, 2010, suggested. Although this is as a result of the counterac�on caused by the simultaneous increase in path width, and more populated areas (Jacobs, 1961).

The ac�vity in the area is a component which influences happiness dras�cally. The results discovered that the considera�on of being ac�ve has been a key focus on the urbanisa�on process that the community have realised and appreciate but are not yet using. Again this indicates the importance of the experienced over perceived. With the improvement in aesthe�c, closeness of ameni�es and interven�ons to encourage ac�vity the community will subconsciously become more ac�ve (Roe and McCay, 2021) and therefore feel the neurological benefits (Lathia, et al, 2017).

The benefits of green space are well established but o�en less obvious to the community (Wilson, 1984). Therefore, again the posi�ve experienced aspects considered are the reasoning for the overall improvement in happiness. Although, a slight reduc�on in green space has been recorded the overall increase in quality (biodiversity) and access, even if not no�ced, have overall increased the posi�ve impacts felt by green space (Channon, 2018).

The percep�on of socialisa�on was mixed. Although, the posi�ve impacts of the experienced aspects of the other three components can be seen. An actual improvement in aerobic interven�on, green space (quality and access) and more populated spaces all help to improve socialisa�on. Similarly to being ac�ve in the area the community have no�ced the interven�ons designed in order to increase socialisa�on but do not perceive them as being successful. Based on the overall happiness results it is clear that the majority of the community are again subconsciously feeling the benefits of an a more social urban design (Harré, 2012), placing the importance on the experienced over percep�on.

In regards to the conclusions made from each sec�on the focus has been placed on the majority.

As with all percep�ons different views have been presented throughout. Although, an importance has been placed on the experienced, it is required to consider this in combina�on with the perceived; the 11 respondents having felt a nega�ve impact on their happiness is as a result of their percep�on of different components; percep�on of place cannot be ignored.

38

6.0

This research was undertaken in order to establish how urbanisa�on of a rural area is affec�ng happiness and the components that make up this feeling. The topic is cri�cal in a contemporary urban design as the link between mental health and the built environment is becoming more clear. The study has developed a defini�on of happiness in terms of the built environment spli�ng the feeling into four more measurable components; Safe, Ac�ve, Green and Social.

Although, these embed most aspects considered within the feeling of happiness, it is a complex feeling that has evaded society throughout �me so they could change / develop over �me; this cannot be the end of this research.

The results from the study are contradic�ng what was expected based on the nega�ve impact of moving from rural urban zones previously presented. A more common feeling of being happier was found in the Bordon and Whitehill area; a promising outlook on contemporary urban design.

It has also developed some recommenda�ons based on aspects both done well and others that could have helped the project be even more successful. Recommenda�ons that need to be considered in all future urban developments.

1 - Design at both a Birds eye and street view level -

Will allow for an positive impact on both perceived and experienced happiness

2 - Improve ac�ve travel from the outset (preferably through nature) -

-

Will increase safety, boost brain function and reduce stress

3 - Increase amount of pro-social third spaces (preferably in nature) -

Will bring the community together reducing chances of common mental health issues

These recommenda�ons in turn will help develop all aspects rela�ng to the four components of happiness. Although, it is always cri�cal to consider the needs of individual communi�es.

39

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