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Mushroom growing is not an exact science. The true art is learning to see, interpret and correctly respond to signals. And that art can be mastered.

Mushroom Signals aims to teach composters and growers how to optimise their processes by recognising signals they come across in practical situations. Not by jumping to conclusions immediately, but instead by always asking yourself three questions: what do I see, what has happened and what should I do? For instance: what do you see? The day after watering you notice the floor in the growing room is still wet and the casing soil surface is still shiny. What has happened? Not enough moisture is being extracted. This will prevent the development of the pinheads in the second flush, and bacterial blotch can occur. What should you do? Lower the RH and CO2 concentration. This is one of the many signals in mushroom growing that you can interpret to optimise the yield and quality of your mushrooms in an easy way. Every hour, a mushroom grows four percent! Instructing pickers to harvest the same bed several times a day quickly results in a production increase of at least ten percent. Coaching your team is equally as important as taking good care of your mushrooms. The conditions in which mushrooms are grown vary widely all over the world. But the signals given by compost and mushrooms are identical everywhere. If you know what to look for, you can pick up the signals everywhere and any time. Mushroom Signals will show you how.

ISBN 978-90-8740-136-8

9 789087 401368 www.mushroomoffice.com

www.roodbont.com

Mark den Ouden

The process of successful mushroom growing starts with assessing the raw materials used to make compost. This is the foundation of an optimal composting process. The challenge in mushroom growing is to respond adequately to everchanging cultivation conditions and still end up with good, or even better, results.

C o pr py ot ri ec gh te t d

â€˜Mus hro o m g ro w i ng i s an ar t .â€™

Mushroom Signals

A practical guide to optimal mushroom growing

Mushroom Signals

Mark den Ouden

Ta b l e o f c o n t e n t s Partners

2: Phase II, pasteurising and conditioning

• Ten Cate • Dalsem Mushroom Projects • Fancom • Hooymans Compost • Lambert Spawn • MC Substradd • Mush Comb • Panbo Systems • Sterckx • Verstappen Verpakkingen • Coenegrachts Substraat • Rubcoat • TMF Jobs

Conversion tables

Introduction 6

Mushroom growing worldwide 7 Mushrooms are good for you! 8 Fungi in the plant kingdom 9 10 The mushroom production process Composting and cultivation cycle 12 Composting 13 Various cultivation systems 14 On the mushroom farm 15

1: Phase I, fresh compost

Homogeneous 16 Selective 16 Straw 17 Horse manure 18 Chicken manure 19 Gypsum 20 Water 20 Phase I: Part one: pre-wetting 21 Wetting the straw 22 Recipes for homogeneous compost 23 Compost analysis 24 The most important data 25 NIR spectroscopy 27 Phase I: Part two: caramelisation process 28 Turning compost 29 Bunker 30 Traditional stack system 31 Example on/off schedule 32 Preparation for phase II 32 The environment 33

The tunnel 34 The tunnel principle 35 Filling a tunnel 36 The process 37 Spawn 41 Spawn vitality 42 Strains 43 Clean before spawning 44 Spawning 45

3: Phase III, spawn run

Mycelium development 46 Maintaining the compost temperature 47 Phase III in the growing room 48 Loading 49 Applying water before transport 50 Supplement 51

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ChampFood International Christiaens Group DTO Substrate - Walkro GTL Europe Mushroom Business Mushroom Office Amycel CNC EuroMycel Gicom Hoving Holland Limbraco Mertens - BonarAgro Mycelia ScatoPlus Topterra Holland BVB Substrates Hollander Spawn Sylvan

4: C asing soil and filling the room Casing soil Excavating black peat Various pore sizes Higher salinity = drier mushrooms Disease free Casing soil for export Filling the growing room Exclude possible vectors of disease Clean route and dirty route Hygiene during filling The filling machine How much water can compost take? Filling weight Watering on the filling machine Processing casing soil Surface of the casing soil

5: M ycelium growth and recovery

52 53 54 55 56 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 66 67 67 68 69

Mycelium growth in the casing soil 70 Growing chart 72 Water for the casing soil 73 Compost temperature is leading 74 Fan speed 75 Ruffling 77 Recovery period 78 Clever steering of temperature and humidity 78

6: Mollier diagram

9: Harvesting

Peculiar properties of air 81 Various quantities in one table 82 Evaporation uses energy 84 Air as a sponge 85 Energy in the air 86 Absolute humidity 87 How a climate unit works 88 Cooling with warm air? 89 Control based on CO2 and RH after cool-down 90 Cooling 91 Dehumidifying 92 Humidifying 92 New systems 93 Measuring system for heat, moisture and CO2 94

The picking technique Swing as you pick Picking ahead The picking platform Right first time The stump Classifying by size Many types of quality Which mushroom to pick? Harvesting the whole day Post-harvest quality Semi-automatic harvesting Mechanical harvesting Processing

7: Cool-down

10: Harvest management

8: Flushes

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When is the time to start cool-down? Cool-down: itâ€™s all in the timing! Pinheading Emergency measure during the first days after cool-down Pinhead out-grow Diseases Strains Compost temperature a vital factor

Climate during the first flush Mould infections Treating infections Watering mushrooms? Climate on the final day of the first flush How much water after the first flush? Mechanical harvest of the first flush Inbetween flush Climate during the second flush Third flush?

97 98 99

103 105 107 108 109

110 111 114 115 117 119 119 121 122 123 125

Long-term planning Altering the planning Production planning Coaching Management Optimal working conditions Working hours Changing rooms: third flush last! What is the picking performance? How many staff do you need? Not spreading but controlling Clothing Dealing with infection Re-usable containers Food safety Cook out to eliminate disease Emptying the growing room Cleaning

126 127 128 128 129 130 131 132 132 133 134 134 135 136 137

138 138 139 140 142 142 143 143 144 144 145 146 146 147 147 148 149 150 151

Answers

152

Index

153

The mushroom production process Phase I, making fresh compost Mixing of raw materials

Filling the bunker

Poultry manure

Horse manure

Straw

Process water

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Gypsum

Filling the growing room

MIXING

Mushroom development CO2

Compost temperature

Air temperature

Mycelium growth Filling the room

Start recovery

Start cool-down

Pinhead formation

Pinhead out-grow

Harvest

Mushroom S i gnal s

Phase II, pasteurization and conditioning Compost temperature during phase II Levelling Pas Warming up teurising Cooling dow n

Conditioning

Cooling for

Mixing spawn through the compost

spawning

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Filling the tunnel

Phase III, spawn run

Emptying the tunnel

16 days: Full grown compost (phase III compost)

8 days: Spawn run in progress

1st day: Spawnable compost (phase II compost)

Cook-out, emptying and cleaning

Harvesting

1st week 1st flush 50% production

I n t ro d u c t i o n

2nd week 2nd flush 35% production

(â€† 3rd week 3rd flush 15% production)

CHAPTER 1

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Phase I, fresh compost

The composing company uses waste products, such as chicken manure (litter), gypsum, waste - or goody - water from its own composting pro-

cesses, straw and/or horse manure (stable bedding). These raw materials

The art of composting lies in using heterogeneous materials to create a homogeneous, selective compost.

are assessed for their chemical and physical properties. By mixing the raw materials according to a certain recipe and turning them at fixed intervals, the compost becomes selective and homogeneous.

Homogeneous

Does the compost look consistent throughout? The pile of compost is in front of you and you can see it has a uniform colour. You walk around the pile, put your hand in and squeeze at random places and it feels equally moist everywhere. This is homogeneous compost. Homogeneous also means the quality remains the same throughout the year. This stability is reflected by consistent mushroom production. But homogeneity is quicker to identify by reading the laboratory values of the samples taken during the composting process. If these readings are identical every week, you will see stable production.

Selective Compost is the source of nutrients for the mushrooms. Mushrooms are fungi. There are other competitor moulds in the substrate such as Trichoderma. 16

By creating selective compost - i.e. compost in which only mushroom mycelia grow - the majority of these competitors will be excluded.

Trichoderma is visible as green patches in the compost. If the compost is sufficiently selective, Trichoderma will have less chance to develop, as the conditions favour mushroom mycelia.

Mushroom S i gnal s

Straw

Straw quality

Poor quality on top, can still be used

Too bad to Good straw be used

Various qualities of straw: good (green circle), reasonable (orange circle) and poor (red circle). If the straw is well graded at delivery - per region or supplier - it is easier to locate straw of a certain quality later on in the year. If the bales of straw are not separated at storage, it will be impossible to adapt the composting process to suit the straw quality.

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The main component of compost is wheat straw. The quality of the straw is reflected in the structure of the compost. Structure is one of the properties that straw contributes to the compost. Straw also creates a water buffer. During composting the waxy layer surrounding each straw is removed, so the straw is able to absorb water. Another reason is that straw is mainly composed of carbon, an important nutrient for mushrooms. The quality of straw depends on its origin. If wheat grows in a dry climate (irrigated), the straw will be very hard and dry. Straw from wheat grown in a maritime climate is much softer and moister. This is shown in the colour and shape. The weather has a greater influence on crops grown in a maritime climate. A rainy growing season with a dry harvesting season will produce good straw, while a dry growing season with a wet harvesting season will produce poor quality straw.

You can assess straw immediately by looking at it and feeling it. Pay attention to things like shape and colour.

Round, bright yellow blades of straw, with stalks of 20-25 cm long, are ideal. This hard straw will retain its structure for a long time and needs to be fermented for a long period.

The bale also contains flattened straw. If you remove straw from the bale it quickly breaks into small pieces. Take the flat blades into both hands and twist them: they will break at once. This straw will not retain its structure for long.

This straw is paler in colour and feels softer. The higher the moisture content during the harvesting season, the quicker this discolouration occurs. The straw is already starting to open. The greater the degree of decomposition, the less fermentation is required.

Mouldy straw will give the compost a poor structure. Straw in this state can only be mixed with the rest of the straw in a very small percentage (10%).

There is a lot of chaff in this straw that causes a denser structure. This means it will be more difficult to aerate the compost properly, which will complicate the composting process.

The weed content of organically grown straw is higher, as no herbicides are used. This creates a less open structure, so in phase I it will be more difficult to aerate the compost properly, which will complicate the composting process.

C h a p t e r 1 : P h a se I, f res h co m po s t

Horse manure: pay attention to homogeneity Horse manure or stable bedding is used as a straw substitute (straw + horse droppings and urine). The droppings and urine start the decomposition process in the straw. Straw that is less decomposed is better for the compost quality. So straw that has not been left lying in the stables too long with the horses will be much better quality. This can be checked by comparing the weight of the manure to its volume. If the material is piled high in the truck or trailer but the load is lightweight, it is a sign of good quality manure. Good quality manure weighs around 300-350 kg/m3.

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The downside of horse manure is its lack of consistency. However, by using large amounts and applying strict quality standards it is possible to use it as a raw material. In countries where horses are kept for recreation, sport and as working animals, collecting large amounts of horse manure weekly is possible. Sourcing manure from a wide number of stables means large amounts can be mixed together, so that ultimately a relatively homogeneous compost can be produced.

Wood chips are sometimes added to the straw in the stables. This material must not be used in mushroom growing. It is a fine, hard material. This fineness creates a compost structure that is too dense, which causes problems when air is forced through the compost. It is also a hard material that mushroom mycelia are unable to grow through and therefore it has no nutrient value for the mushrooms.

Other products Here you see the coarse structure of maize. The denser the structure, the more difficulty air has penetrating the compost. This complicates controlling the process so as to avoid anaerobic conditions.

In mushroom growing, the best compost is made using wheat straw. Other types of straw, such as rye, barley or oats have a different structure. Water causes these types of straw to quickly lose structure thereby creating a very dense compost which prevents the passage of air. This applies equally to other raw materials such as elephant grass, hay, corn stalks/stover, soybean meal or rice straw. If wheat straw is expensive, 10% of other materials can be used. Anything above this figure will compromise production. Look at the structure: the more compact and denser it is, the finer the structure will be.

Mushroom S i gnal s

Chicken manure: nutrition for compost and mushrooms though a large pile of compost is difficult. The best way is to add a small amount of urea to each bale of straw just before mixing. This can also be done on the transport belt, but make sure there is an even flow of compost. If the flow of compost on the belt stops briefly, stop adding the urea! Ammonium sulphate from air scrubbers has a low pH, which reduces the pH in the compost. The nitrogen content must be analysed before it is used as the amount of ammonium sulphate present in the solution taken from ammonia scrubber is not always constant.

Organic compost

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The nitrogen in chicken manure or poultry litter is a building block for the mushrooms and acts as a motor that drives compost activity. Nitrogen also provides nutrients for the micro-organisms in the compost. The activity of these micro-organisms causes the compost temperature to rise. Producing a homogeneous compost depends on the quality of the raw materials. Sourcing manure from the same regular supplier as much as possible, who uses the same method of manure collection and disposal, will give the composter a uniform product. However, a regular supplier is no guarantee, so it is always important to take samples to measure the nitrogen and moisture contents. A maximum of 800 kg of chicken manure can be added per 1000 kg of straw. Chicken manure is fine material. If you add more, the compost structure will be too dense.

Heat and nutrition When chicken manure has been added to straw you will notice an immediate compost temperature increase to 65-70°C caused by the extra nutrients for the micro-organisms. This would be too high to break down the waxy layer around the straw, so chicken manure is only added after the straw has started to decompose and opens up. Exception: in very cold conditions (< 0°C) adding part of the nitrogen earlier can introduce heat into the straw. Another exception is when mixing can only take place outdoors before composting indoors. Then everything has to be added at once. You will notice a rapid rise in the compost temperature. You can keep the compost temperature under control by blowing air through the compost, provided of course you have sufficient ventilation capacity.

Organically grown mushrooms are produced on organic compost. The difference between the conventional and organic compost is that the raw materials used in the latter are also of organic origin. Organically grown straw and chicken manure from organically raised chickens are used in this type of compost. Raw materials of organic origin are of a lesser quality for composting, so this process is more difficult. Mushroom production on organic compost is also lower. The legislation on what you are allowed to call ‘organic’ may differ per country.

Nitrogen and moisture

Nitrogen is invisible, its presence can only be measured in a laboratory. Moisture, on the other hand, is visible: fine material and the absence of large lumps are signs of a low moisture content. Dry chicken manure is easy to distribute through the compost. Optimal chicken manure has a nitrogen content of 4-5% (as high as possible) and a moisture content of 30-50% (as dry as possible). Knowing what the nitrogen and moisture contents are, will enable you to calculate the amount of nitrogen per kilo of manure.

Other sources of nitrogen The maximum amount of 800 kg chicken manure per tonne of straw sometimes falls short of providing the required amount of nitrogen, which necessitates other nitrogen sources such as urea or ammonium sulphate. Urea has a high nitrogen content of 46%, so you only need a small amount. The aim is to create homogeneous compost. Distributing a small amount

C h a p t e r 1 : P h a se I, f res h co m po s t

Gypsum Gypsum (CaSO4•2H2O) is a calcium-rich material. It makes the compost less greasy, so it doesn’t cling together. Gypsum also improves the compost structure so air can permeate better. Gypsum is mixed with the chicken manure. Gypsum is available as a by-product of various industries or as a naturally occurring, mined mineral. It is important to check if the gypsum contains any traces of heavy metals as mushrooms can easily absorb these substances.

Water

Chicken manure is greasy and lumpy (right in the photo). Mixing gypsum through the manure will make it crumblier and easier to distribute through the straw (left in the photo).

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Plenty of water is used during composting and cleaning activities at a tunnel and bunker. All this waste, or ‘goody’ water is re-used in phase I. If there is not enough water, it is supplemented with rain water or ground water. The water must comply with certain standards. The water must not give off an unpleasant odour. Water that smells indicates the absence of oxygen. No oxygen means no micro-organisms, and this will have a negative impact on the composing process. Oxygen can be kept in the water by exposing the water to air. Air can be either blown into the water or water can be circulated by a pump like a fountain. How is oxygen removed from the water? If the water contains traces of compost, these remains still hold some micro-organisms. These micro-organisms use the oxygen in the water to survive. You can retain more oxygen in the water by preventing compost residues from entering the water reservoir. During cleaning, shovel the compost residues away instead of simply rinsing them into the drain along with the waste water. Create a double reservoir: the waste water flows into the first tank (a small reservoir) and then passes through a sieve filter or a filtration pond to remove the compost residues so the water used for phase I is taken from the second tank containing cleaner water.

Re-using waste water at a tunnel facility is fine, but if the water gives off a foul odour this indicates a shortage of oxygen.

Danger! During activities in or near the water tank, gasses can be produced which are odourless and invisible but that can be potentially deadly. ALWAYS ensure there is sufficient ventilation when working on a tank and wear protective clothing. The gasses are heavier than the outside air so even if the top of a tank is open, gas may accumulate at the base of the tank or pit.

Building block and transport Mushrooms consist of 92-93% of water, which makes water a vital building block for mushrooms. Water also transports nutrients from the compost to the mushrooms. As a rule of thumb you need two litres of water for one kilo of mushrooms: one litre as a nutrient building block, one litre as a means of transport.

Mushroom S i gnal s

Phase I: Part one: pre-wetting

Micro-organisms and temperature The width of the figure indicates the total amount of micro-organisms in the straw. But different species of micro-organisms prefer different temperatures. If you take a cross section of the figure at a certain compost temperature you can read out the ratio between the various types of micro-organisms horizontally.

70°C

60°C

thermophilic bacteria thermophilic 50°C

actinomycetes

thermophilic 40°C

moulds

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Opening the door Straw is surrounded by a waxy layer. The yellower, harder and rounder the straw blade is, the more wax. In the first few days of composting, this waxy layer must be removed. If straw is wetted the temperature will automatically rise from 40 to 60°C and the fermentation process starts. After one day the colour of the straw will change from bright, pale yellow to a dull, darker yellow. The thermophilic micro-organisms decompose the waxy layer so the straw is able to absorb water. Micro-organisms will grow when the following conditions are met: -- enough nutrients -- enough water -- enough oxygen -- correct pH -- optimal temperature The nutrient medium is the straw. Wetting the straw triggers the process. Each blade of straw must be wet: a dry blade will be unaffected by the microorganisms and will stay yellow throughout the entire composting process. But straw mustn’t be submerged in water for long as this will prevent the temperature from rising and will inhibit the fermentation process. The time it takes to open up the straw for decomposition varies. The aim: creating soft straw, with the least possible structural loss! With straw from irrigated land (bright yellow, round and hard) the process takes up to three days. With freshly harvested straw the process takes longer than for six-month old straw, which has already started to decompose (as the colour shows). The fermentation process of horse manure/stable bedding has already started in the stables. Rye straw and rice straw lose their structure faster, so the straw is opened in a shorter time.

80°C

Lack of oxygen at the centre of the pile Oxygen is not a problem on the first day, but afterwards the oxygen level at the centre of the pile becomes too low. You will also notice a temperature drop. This can be measured using a thermometer probe of 1 metre to 1.5 metres in length. You will also see this when the pile is turned. The outer metre of straw has softened and turned a nice colour, but at the centre of the pile the straw is wet but still bright yellow and hard to the touch. Here the micro-organism activity has stopped due to a lack of oxygen. Turning the pile every day will solve the oxygen problem and make the compost more homogeneous.

C h a p t e r 1 : P h a se I, f res h co m po s t

30°C

20°C

QUESTION

Look up the temperature range at which the thermophilic bacteria and actinomycetes, which are important for opening up the straw, thrive best in the graph. Scan the QR code for the answer, or look it up on page 152.

30°C

65°C

5-30°C (Depending on the outside air)

â€˜Mus hro o m g ro w i ng i s an ar t .â€™ Mushroom growing is not an exact science. The true art is learning to see, interpret and correctly respond to signals. And that art can be mastered.

C o pr py ot ri ec gh te t d

ISBN 978-90-8740-136-8

9 789087 401368 www.mushroomoffice.com

www.roodbont.com

Mark den Ouden

Mushroom Signals

A practical guide to optimal mushroom growing

Mushroom Signals

Mark den Ouden