By the Grace of God(s): Healing War-Related Trauma in Veterans through Religion and Spirituality

“There’s ways I can manage my pain. Ways I can manage my moods. I am still important to my spiritual family. I still have things to give them. I still have wisdom I can give my community. I am not useless.”1 These are the words of an American veteran discussing how they cope with suicide ideation. There are increasingly more veterans seeking psychological aid and treatment for distress as a result of social attempts at destigmatizing mental illness. These diagnoses may commonly include PTSD, suicide ideation, depression, and anxiety. In recent years, another form of trauma has become recognized amongst psychologists – moral injury. Moral injury develops from the breaching of an individual’s ethical principles. The Moral Injury Project at Syracuse University suggests that moral injury can result from experiences that include killing or harming civilians in combat, failing to help an injured civilian or comrade, failing to report misconducts, following orders that were illegal or against the Rules of Engagement, or a change in belief about the justification for the conflict during or after service.2

These statistics give an insight into the number of young American veterans who have experienced traumatic events. Several can be recognized as having potential to inflict moral injury. Charles W. Hoge, et al. Table 2. Combat Experiences Reported by Members of the U.S. Army and Marine Corps after Deployment to Iraq or Afghanistan, July 1, 2004, The New England Journal of Medicine.

The effects of war, such as mental and physical distress, have been and are continuously being explored, and so is the connection between war-related trauma and religious belief and participation. While there are, despite common assumptions, very few wars that have been waged on religious grounds, (the Encyclopedia of Wars identifies only 6.98% of wars in this category),3 individuals’ motivations and religious institutions’ justifications for war have occasionally involved religion. Taking all of this into account, it is evident that religion has played a major role in the actions, personal conviction, and recovery of war survivors, just as the introductory testimony suggests. As the medical field better understands moral injury as its own entity separate from PTSD, can the pursuit of spirituality and participation in religion help heal these moral and mental wounds? The research conducted in this area affirms overall that religion does indeed aid in the treatment of PTSD and moral injury, but that not all kinds of religious coping and beliefs are beneficial, suggesting that certain precautions may be necessary.

Leaders within religious organizations and spiritual communities are historically accustomed to witnessing the lasting effects of war-related trauma as well as aiding in the process of healing from such wounds. In medieval Europe, western Christendom required that warriors perform penances, even those who did not kill anyone in battle. While a similar purge-like process was common in ancient Judaism to prevent the spreading of possible diseases from the blood on soldier’s weapons, the later Christian practice of the Sacrament of Penance was done in part to relieve guilt. To this day, the ancient Indigenous tradition of having a spiritual leader host veterans in a sweat lodge is used across North America, and even suggested by many Veterans Affairs (VA) centers in the United States.4 This process focuses on both the symbolic cleansing of the spirit through sweating and the cleansing of the mind through conversations and confessions that take place in the sweat lodge.

For those attempting to recover from a large-scale conflict where morals are inevitably assaulted, support rooted in religious belief about the meaning of life and the right to dignity is incredibly beneficial. Whether through indoctrination prior to or during training, or a traumatic event that took place during a military engagement, many soldiers return from battle unable to reconcile with the changes in their environment or within themselves. These changes may include a different social or political climate, an increase or decrease in formality, and the reestablishment of public customs and moral codes. In military training, soldiers often hear that the civilian world and the world of combat are two different realities, and that what occurs in one will not affect the other. In the film, and journalist Gwynne Dyer discusses the training tactics of militaries, specifically that of American Marines stating:

The secret of basic training is that it’s not really about teaching people things at all. It’s about changing people so that they can do things they wouldn’t have dreamt of otherwise. If you want to change people quickly and radically, what you do is put them in a place where the only right way to think and to behave is the way you want them to.

This teaches soldiers that their “civilian existence” is separate from their “military existence,” and that their behaviour in the latter needs no moral restraint. However, once a soldier returns to a “civilian existence,” they will discover that both spheres are one in the same, and that “actions in war and in peace are judged against the same set of values and principles.”

Even scholars who emphasize the dangers of this teaching are prone to admit is it difficult to avoid. Shannon E. French’s article “Warrior Transitions: From Combat to Social Contract” is an example of this. She writes: “[w]arriors need to recognize that what they did in service of their country was outside the norms of human existence and cannot be allowed in civilized society.” message still implies that the expectations placed on soldiers when reintegrating into a civilian lifestyle perpetuates the dualism of two separate realms, and hence no carrying over of guilt from military existence to civilian existence.

This is precisely the reason that PTSD cannot be the only recognized condition from which soldiers suffer, nor can the events associated with the outdated term “shell shock” be the main reasons for mental and emotional distress. Moral injury and the confusion that can come with realizing the mental causes of one’s trauma is not only valid and important, it also affects one’s understanding of humanity and selfworth. As theologian Karen O’Donnell puts it: “[t]o reduce all the soldier’s symptoms to stress alone is to empty their experience of moral content.” acknowledge and care for the wellbeing of war-trauma survivors in their congregations.

William P. Nash, Facets of Moral Injury, July 27, 2017, Center for Deployment Psychology, deploymentpsych.org.

For those attempting to recover from a large-scale conflict where morals are inevitably assaulted, support rooted in religious belief about the meaning of life and the right to dignity is incredibly beneficial. Whether through indoctrination prior to or during training, or a traumatic event that took place during a military engagement, many soldiers return from battle unable to reconcile with the changes in their environment or within themselves. These changes may include a different social or political climate, an increase or decrease in formality, and the reestablishment of public customs and moral codes. In military e two different realities, and that what occurs in one will not affect the other. In the film, Anybody’s Son Will Do (1983), veteran and journalist Gwynne Dyer discusses the training tactics of militaries, specifically that of American Marines stating:

The secret of basic training is that it’s not really about teaching people things at all. It’s about changing people so that they can do things they wouldn’t have dreamt of otherwise. If you want to change people quickly and radically, what you do is put them in a place where the only right way to think and to behave is the way you want them to.5

This teaches soldiers that their “civilian existence” is separate from their “military existence,” and that their behaviour in the latter needs no moral restraint. However, once a soldier returns to a “civilian existence,” they will discover that both spheres are one in the same, and that “actions in war and in peace are judged against the same set of values and principles.”6

Even scholars who emphasize the dangers of this teaching are prone to admit is it difficult to avoid. Shannon E. French’s article “Warrior Transitions: From Combat to Social Contract” is an example of this. She writes: “[w]arriors need to recognize that what they did in service of their country was outside the norms of human existence and cannot be allowed in civilized society.”7 Despite her expert stance, French’s message still implies that the expectations placed on soldiers when reintegrating into a civilian lifestyle perpetuates the dualism of two separate realms, and hence no carrying over of guilt from military

This is precisely the reason that PTSD cannot be the only recognized condition from which soldiers suffer, nor can the events associated with the outdated term “shell shock” be the main reasons for mental and emotional distress. Moral injury and the confusion that can come with realizing the mental causes of one’s trauma is not only valid and important, it also affects one’s understanding of humanity and selfworth. As theologian Karen O’Donnell puts it: “[t]o reduce all the soldier’s symptoms to stress alone is to empty their experience of moral content.”8 Spiritual communities therefore have a duty to responsibly

To simply profess a Holy Scripture or preach morality is not adequate care for those in distress. A study done by Kopacz, Currier, Drescher, and Pigeonin in 2016 found that among veterans being treated for PTSD, higher levels of suicide ideation were linked to an individual’s difficulties with forgiveness and experience of spiritual struggles.9 Therefore, the acknowledgement of moral injury as separate from PTSD is critical. Furthermore, religious institutions–as primary locations for moral and existential discussions–play a pivotal role in members’ recoveries. So, what differences need to be present for religious inclusion to be helpful in healing and not inducing wounds?

In many Christian denominations, votive candles are used to symbolize a prayer for oneself or someone else. In Catholicism, the lighting is often done in completion of a vow. Anna Shvets, Person Holding Red Candle in a Dark Room, Pexels.com. The most significant factor in reducing post-war stress is whether one’s religious coping is positive or negative. While some modern beliefs insist that religion is a source of more trauma than it is of joy, an increasing number of studies are finding that the difference between a negative and positive experience is both paramount and effective. Doctors Eunice C.Wong and Thema BryantDavis define positive religious coping as tendencies that include: “praying for relief, seeking God’s comfort through a faith community, or believing that God was present at the time of the trauma and will provide divine justice.”10 Essentially, the divinity sought must be loving and forgiving, and isolating one’s self or emotionally toxic religious communities need to be avoided.

Some veterans share positive experiences of religious coping. Consider this example from “Spirituality, Religion, and Suicidality among Veterans: A Qualitative Study”:

Another veteran cited her psychiatrist’s willingness to talk about spirituality as a key factor in her recovery—the psychiatrist “would talk about religion in our sessions. It was very helpful. Because he was like, ‘You feel ashamed because you tried to commit suicide, but, God’s not looking down on you.’ He would tell me stuff like that all the time, he’d be like, ‘God’s not looking down on you just because you’re sick’ ... it helped me a lot with the shame.”11

At the other end of the spectrum, negative religious coping not only hinders the recovery process, it can also exacerbate the pain and add to the trauma. This category can include feeling rejected by others in one’s religious circle, believing that the divine is wrathful or that they allowed the trauma to happen as a form of punishment, and blaming oneself for causing the trauma and praying God forgives them.12 Of these, the two most common experiences of negative religious coping tend to be a feeling of rejection from others within communities and the belief that God’s nature is judgmental and does not include complete forgiveness. For example, differences in belief about sexual orientation can cause grievous amounts of shame for any individual who has felt hateful messaging or a lack of belonging in faith-based spaces. When paired with the stigma or silence around sexual orientations present in many military cultures, as Sawatzky discusses in “Making the Man,” veterans may see religion as completely isolating.

One study found that hopelessness, which is often a result of unhealthy isolation, was associated with greater suicidal ideation and lower positive religious coping, creating a difficult cycle to break.13 The same 2020 study, “Hope, Religiosity, and Mental Health in U.S. Veterans and Active Duty Military with PTSD Symptoms,” found that within its subject pool, the correlation between an individual’s religiosity and PTSD symptoms were not significant, but that “religiosity remained significantly correlated with hope.”14 Therefore, religiosity in this study did not directly lower PTSD, it actually increased a person’s hope.

Harold G. Koenig, et al. Figure 1. Relationship between Religiosity (BIACdeciles) and Hope (Stan- Dard Error) (N = 590), 2020, Military Medicine.

A different study done with over one hundred Croatian war veterans found that when compared to a control group of healthy individuals without PTSD, the veterans expressed more hopelessness; they showed pronounced usage of negative religious coping compared to those without PTSD. The veterans who felt less hopeless than their counterparts showed an overall greater usage of positive religious coping strategies.15 These findings emphasize the gravity of the distinction between negative and positive religious coping as it relates to the healing of one’s trauma.

This healing is often a slow process, even when an individual or group attempts to do things as effectively as they believe is possible. Despite the hopelessness that statement may induce in a person who is seeking relief, minor efforts and changes are the most foundational in recovering from war. A study done in 2015 entitled “Religious Moral Beliefs Inversely Related to Trauma Experiences Severity and Presented Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Among Bosnia and Herzegovina War Veterans,” used the Harvard Trauma Questionnaire and the Index of Religious Moral Belief (IRMB) to calculate possible connections between a person’s religious experience and PTSD symptoms. The study found that veterans who had higher IRBMs had less severe PTSD symptoms, and that having a faith to involve one’s self in: “makes it easier for veterans to maintain a personal perception of their ability to function in everyday life in spite of being exposed to and surviving traumas.”16 This is where the common and practical application of increased hopefulness can be seen. Finding motivation to rise in the morning and having the strength to end one’s day in an emotionally peaceful state is not easily done for those experiencing mental and emotional distress. Negative emotions, such as despair, guilt, grief, loneliness, and anger, to name a few, have undeniable effects on mundane parts of life. Yet, one can see the difference that participating in religion and spirituality can make in a person’s will to live.

Counteracting the difficulty of the mundane for war veterans experiencing trauma does not have to include grand and large scale actions to be effective. It can involve praying for relief, as mentioned earlier when discussing positive religious coping, as well as reading spiritual or religious texts and meditating. Less mainstream practices can also prove beneficial, such as taking vows, spending time in nature, and serving others. A veteran being interviewed during the 2018 study led by Jamie Lusk touched on this when she “noticed that prior to her [suicide] attempt, she was not observing her spiritual/religious practices, ‘I realized that’s part of what gives my life—and my way of living—meaning, so I started seeking understanding again.’”17 This example displays the power that small-scale actions can have in reducing an individual’s unhealthy responses to trauma, even one as serious as suicide.

To further ensure that religion contributes to healing, a small number of helpful boundaries have been observed by researchers. As previously discussed, it is important that any religious coping be positive and not negative, but a balance between attending religious services and spending private time in prayer, meditation, or other spiritual practices is also important. In a study done with Liberian refugees who were internally displaced or fled during the fourteen-year-long civil war, “the results indicated that when religious commitment is great, PTG [post-traumatic growth] is low,”18 suggesting that a modest level of participation in traditional, communal religious services is the healthiest amount.19 Even though this has been surveyed, it should be noted that religious commitment and spirituality are separate components of faith practices, and many quantitative studies do not distinguish between the two.

Religious commitment is the “religiousness” of a person’s daily life: the systems, practices, and beliefs one indulges in within an institution. Spirituality is a quality of being, or an interpersonal relationship, between a person and the divine. With these definitions in mind, the previously discussed study would then imply that the emphasis of religion in a person’s life actually has to be spread out evenly across all aspects of their spiritual identity, and not confined to practicing within long-established institutions of religion or spiritual isolation. In essence, religious participation is most effective and socially healthy when kept at a moderate level.

A surface level answer to the question “can the pursuit of and participation in religion help heal moral and mental trauma from war?” would be “yes, it can help.” Even so, just as the human conscience and human spirituality are complex elements of life intertwined with all others, religiously motivated healing is multidimensional. Studies have shown that discernment between positive and negative religious coping is critical, and that moral injury is often best treated through a mix of community supported and personal, spiritual interactions with a divine moral compass. Ultimately, religious participation is a valuable tool in the recovery from war related trauma, and assists in healing wounds from moral injury.

International Studies major (international affairs and global policy track); Biblical Studies minor

A Medical Dilemma:

Psychiatric Timeline in Defining and Diagnosing Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Since 1914 1. Allan V. Horwitz, PTSD: A Short History. (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2018), 25. 2. Edgar Jones, Nicola T. Fear, and Simon Wessley, “Shell Shock and Mild Traumatic Brain Injury: A Historical Review,” American Journal of Psychiatry 164, no. 11 (2007): 1641. 3. Jones, Fear, and Wessley, “Shell Shock and Mild Traumatic Brain Injury,” 1642. 4. Jones, Fear, and Wessley, “Shell Shock and Mild Traumatic Brain Injury,” 1642. 5. Charles Samuel Myers, Contributions to the study of shell shock, being an account of certain cases treated by hypnosis. (Lancet, 1916), 65-69. 6. Marc-Antoine Crocq and Louis Crocq, “From Shell Shock and War Neurosis to Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder: A History of Psychotraumatology,” Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience 2, no. 1 (2000): 50. 7. Crocq and Crocq, “From Shell Shock and War Neurosis to Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder: A History of Psychotraumatology,” 50. 8. Crocq and Crocq, “From Shell Shock and War Neurosis to Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder: A History of Psychotraumatology,” 50. 9. Horwitz, PTSD: A Short History, 59-60. 10. Horwitz, PTSD: A Short History, 60. 11. Horwitz, PTSD: A Short History, 60. 12. Charles Samuel Myers, Shell Shock in France, 1914-1918: Based on a War Diary. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011), 86. 13. Jones, Fear, and Wessley, “Shell Shock and Mild Traumatic Brain Injury: A Historical Review,” 1643. 14. Horwitz, PTSD: A Short History, 66. 15. Tracy Loughran, “Shell Shock, Trauma, and the First World War: The Making of a Diagnosis and Its Histories,” Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences 67, no. 1 (2012): 107. 16. Jones, Fear, and Wessley, “Shell Shock and Mild Traumatic Brain Injury,” 1644. 17. Jones, Fear, and Wessley, “Shell Shock and Mild Traumatic Brain Injury,” 1643. 18. Myers, Contributions to the study of shell shock, being an account of certain cases treated by hypnosis, 65-69. 19. Horwitz, PTSD: A Short History, 100. 20. Sharon B. Shively and Daniel P. Perl, “Traumatic Brain Injury, Shell Shock, and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in the Military—Past, Present, and Future,” Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation 27, no. 3 (2012): 235. 21. Jones, Fear, and Wessley, “Shell Shock and Mild Traumatic Brain Injury: A Historical Review,” 1643. 22. Horwitz, PTSD: A Short History, 70. 23. John Hart et al., “Cognitive Dysfunctions Associated With PTSD: Evidence from World War II Prisoners of War,” The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences 20, no. 3 (2008): 315. 24. Hart et al., “Cognitive Dysfunctions Associated With PTSD: Evidence from World War II Prisoners of War,” 315. 25. Michael D. Nevarez, Hannah M. Yee, and Robert J. Waldinger, “Friendship in War:

Camaraderie and Prevention of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Prevention,” Journal of Traumatic Stress 30, no. 5 (2017): 517-18. 26. Horwitz, PTSD: A Short History, 85. 27. Casey L. May and Blair E. Wisco, “Defining Trauma: How Level of Exposure and Proximity Affect Risk for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder,” Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy 8, no. 2 (2016): 237. 28. Horwitz, PTSD: A Short History, 93. 29. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders: DSM-III. 3rd ed., (Washington, DC, 1980), 238. 30. Horwitz, PTSD: A Short History, 100. 31. May and Wisco, “Defining Trauma: How Level of Exposure and Proximity Affect Risk for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder,” 235. 32. Crocq and Crocq, “From Shell Shock and War Neurosis to Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder: A History of Psychotraumatology,” 53. 33. Horwitz, PTSD: A Short History, 151. 34. Jamie L. Gradus, “PTSD: National Center for PTSD,” Epidemiology of PTSD, (2007): 1. https://www.ptsd.va.gov/professional/treat/essentials/epidemiology.asp#three. 35. Horwitz, PTSD: A Short History, 153. 36. Russell, Mark C. “Treating Traumatic Amputation-Related Phantom Limb Pain,” Clinical Case Studies 7, no. 2 (2008): 151. 37. Russell, “Treating Traumatic Amputation-Related Phantom Limb Pain,” 151. 38. Russell, “Treating Traumatic Amputation-Related Phantom Limb Pain,” 151. 39. Edna B. Foa et al., “Effect of Prolonged Exposure Therapy Delivered Over 2 Weeks vs 8 Weeks vs Present-Centered Therapy on PTSD Symptom Severity in Military Personnel,” Jama 319, no. 4 (2018): 357. 40. American Psychiatric Association, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders: DSM-5, 5th ed., (Arlington, VA, 2013), 271-272. 41. Edgar Jones and Simon Wessely, Shell Shock to PTSD: Military Psychiatry from 1900 to the Gulf War. (Hove, East Sussex: Psychology Press, 2005), 160. 42. Russell, “Treating Traumatic Amputation-Related Phantom Limb Pain,” 151.

Making The Man: Militarized Masculinity & The Queer Glitches 1. Christopher J. Gilbert. “Standing Up to Combat Trauma,” Text & Performance Quarterly 34, no. 2 (April 2014): 148. 2. Ramon Hinojosa. “Doing Hegemony: Military, Men, and Constructing a Hegemonic Masculinity,” The Journal of Men’s Studies 18, no. 2 (2010): 180. 3. Hinojosa, “Doing Hegemony,” 180. 4. Matt Franks. “Crip/Queer Aesthetics in the Great War,” MFS: Modern Fiction Studies 65, no.1 (2019): 66. 5. Hannah C. Hale. “The Role of Practice in the Development of Military Masculinities,” Gender, Work & Organization 19, no. 6 (2011): 703. 6. John Fox and Bob Pease. “Military Deployment, Masculinity and Trauma: Reviewing the Connections,” The Journal of Men’s Studies 20, no. 1 (2012): 19. 7. Hale, “The Role of Practice,” 719.

8. Andreas Speck. “Queer and Gender Critiques of Military Recruitment and Militarisation,” War Resisters’ International, July 25, 2013, https://wri-irg.org/en/story/2013/queer-and-gender-critiques-militaryrecruitmentand-militarisation. 9. Hinojosa, “Doing Hegemony,” 184. 10. Hale, “The Role of Practice,” 713. 11. Fox and Pease, “Military Deployment, Masculinity and Trauma,” 20. 12. Hale, “The Role of Practice,” 713. 13. Fox and Pease, “Military Deployment, Masculinity and Trauma,” 19. 14. Hale, “The Role of Practice,” 713. 15. Gilbert, “Standing Up to Combat Trauma,” 148. 16. Hinojosa, “Doing Hegemony,” 184. 17. Speck, “Queer and Gender Critiques.” 18. Hinojosa, “Doing Hegemony,” 184. 19. Aaron Belkin. Bring Me Men: Military Masculinity and the Benign Facade of American Empire, 1898-2001, London: Hurst, 2012. 58. 20. Gilbert, “Standing Up to Combat Trauma,” 148. 21. David Serlin. “Crippling Masculinity: Queerness and Disability in U.S. Military Culture, 1800-1945,” GLQ: A Journal of Lesbian and Gay Studies 9, no. 1-2 (2003): 154. 22. Serlin, “Crippling Masculinity,” 154. 23. Franks, “Crip/Queer Aesthetics,” 66. 24. Serlin, “Crippling Masculinity,” 154. 25. Zoë H. Wool, “Critical Military Studies, Queer Theory, and the Possibilities of Critique: the Case of Suicide and Family Caregiving in the US Military,” Critical Military Studies 1, no. 1 (2014): 25. 26. Serlin, “Crippling Masculinity,” 158. 27. Serlin, “Crippling Masculinity,” 155. 28. Speck, “Queer and Gender Critiques.” 29. Franks, “Crip/Queer Aesthetics,” 64. 30. Franks, “Crip/Queer Aesthetics,” 64. 31. Hale, “The Role of Practice,” 713. 32. Wool, “Critical Military Studies,” 27. 33. Hale, “The Role of Practice,” 710. 34. Speck, “Queer and Gender Critiques.” 35. Hinojosa, “Doing Hegemony,” 186. 36. Hinojosa, “Doing Hegemony,” 184. 37. Katharine M. Mark, Kathleen A. McNamara, Rachael Gribble, Rebecca Rhead, Marie-Louise Sharp, Sharon A. Stevelink, Alix Schwartz, Carl Castro, and Nicola T. Fear. “The Health and Well-Being of LGBTQ Serving and Ex-Serving Personnel: a Narrative Review,” International Review of Psychiatry 31, no. 1 (2019): 88. 38. Hinojosa, “Doing Hegemony,” 186. 39. Hinojosa, “Doing Hegemony,” 190. 40. Hinojosa, “Doing Hegemony,” 191. 41. Fox and Pease, “Military Deployment, Masculinity and Trauma,” 25. 42. Hinojosa, “Doing Hegemony,” 192. 43. Wool, “Critical Military Studies,” 27. 44. Gilbert, “Standing Up to Combat Trauma,” 146.

45. Gilbert, “Standing Up to Combat Trauma,” 148. 46. Mark Humphries. “War’s Long Shadow: Masculinity, Medicine, and the Gendered Politics of Trauma, 1914-1939,” The Canadian Historical Review 91, no. 3 (2010): 514. 47. Humphries, “War’s Long Shadow,” 529. 48. Humphries, “War’s Long Shadow,” 530. 49. Humphries, “War’s Long Shadow,” 508. 50. Humphries, “War’s Long Shadow,” 508. 51. Fox and Pease, “Military Deployment, Masculinity and Trauma,” 20. 52. Fox and Pease, “Military Deployment, Masculinity and Trauma,” 21. 53. Gilbert, “Standing Up to Combat Trauma,” 159. 54. Gilbert, “Standing Up to Combat Trauma,” 148. 55. Gilbert, “Standing Up to Combat Trauma,” 148. 56. Fox and Pease, “Military Deployment, Masculinity and Trauma,” 21. 57. Humphries, “War’s Long Shadow,” 525. 58. Hale, “The Role of Practice,” 719.

Peacekeeping: The Impossible Utopian Mission 1. Pierre Elliott Trudeau and C. David Crenna, Lifting the Shadow of War (Edmonton: Hurtig Publishers, 1987), 1. 2. Ibid., 1 3. Colin McCullough, “Pearson and Canada’s Peacekeeping Legacy,” Policy Options, November 6, 2017. 4. J.L. Granatstein, “Canada and Peacekeeping | The Canadian Encyclopedia,” accessed March 7, 2021. 5. “Principles of Peacekeeping,” United Nations Peacekeeping, accessed March 7, 2021. 6. C. D. Lamerson and E. K. Kelloway, “Towards a Model of Peacekeeping Stress: Traumatic and Contextual Influences,” Canadian Psychology/Psychologie Canadienne 37, no. 4 (1996): 195–204. 7. Marrack Goulding, “The Evolution of United Nations Peacekeeping,” International Affairs 69, no. 3 (1993): 451–64. 8. J Don Richardson, James A Naifeh, and Jon D Elhai, “Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Associated Risk Factors in Canadian Peacekeeping Veterans with Health-Related Disabilities,” The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 52, no. 8 (August 1, 2007): 510–18. 9. Health-related quality of life (HRQoL) is a multi-dimensional concept that includes domains related to physical, mental, emotional, and social functioning. It goes beyond direct measures of population health, life expectancy, and causes of death, and focuses on the impact health status has on quality of life. https://www.healthypeople.gov/2020/about/foundation-health-measures/Health-RelatedQuality-of-Life-and-Well-Being 10. J Don Richardson et al., “Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Health-Related Quality of Life among a Sample of Treatment- and Pension-Seeking Deployed Canadian Forces Peacekeeping Veterans,” The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 53, no. 9 (September 1, 2008): 594–600. 11. Lamerson and Kelloway, “Towards a Model of Peacekeeping Stress,” 197. 12. Ibid., 197. 13. Ibid., 198. 14. Ibid., 198.

15. Ibid., 198. 16. Ibid., 198. 17. Veterans Affairs Canada, “No Peace to Keep - Video Gallery - Veterans Affairs Canada,” February 27, 2019. 18. Mark Gollom, “Canadian Peacekeepers Feeling ‘helpless’ to Act Could Face PTSD | CBC News,” CBC, September 5, 2016. 19. Ibid. 20. Marcia L. Sprules, “Shake Hands with the Devil: The Failure of Humanity in Rwanda (Brief Article) (Book Review),” Library Journal 130, no. 2 (February 1, 2005): 96. 21. Peter Raymont, Shake Hands with the Devil: The Journey of Roméo Dallaire, Documentary (Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, 2004). 22. Ibid. 23. Ibid. 24. Lewis MacKenzie, “The Real Story behind Srebrenica – Canadian Veritas Observatory,” Canadian Veritas Observatory, accessed March 26, 2021. 25. Ibid. 26. Ibid. 27. Brian Bethune, “The Other Hell,” MacLean’s Magazine, October 31, 2016. 28. Paul Mayne, “Healing from Invisible Wounds – Stories of Service,” 2019., 198. 29. Ibid. 30. Ibid. 31. Ibid., 198. 32. Ibid., 198. 33. “UN Peacekeeping 101,” Better World Campaign, accessed April 12, 2021, https://betterworldcampaign.org/un-peacekeeping/un-peacekeeping-101/. 34. “UN: Stop Sexual Abuse by Peacekeepers,” Human Rights Watch, March 4, 2016. 35. Elizabeth F Defeis, “U.N. Peacekeepers and Sexual Abuse and Exploitation: An End to Impunity,” Washington University Global Studies Law Review 7, no. 185 (2008): 191, 192. 36. Ibid, 192. 37. Richard Foot, “Canadian Peacekeepers in Somalia,” The Canadian Encyclopedia, August 2, 2019. 38. “Standards of Conduct,” United Nations Peacekeeping, accessed March 8, 2021.

‘What Happens in Vietnam Does Not Stay in Vietnam’: The Truth Behind PTSD in US Combat Veterans and Their Families 1. Jerold M. Starr, The Lessons of the Vietnam War 1st ed. (Pittsburgh, PA: Center for Social Studies Education, 1991), 274-75, https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED337409.pdf. 2. Stephanie, “I Want People to Know That There Is Hope,” in When the War Never Ends: The Voices of Military Members With PTSD and Their Families, ed. Leah Wizelman, (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2011), 176. https://eds-a-ebscohost-com.ezproxy.student.twu.ca/eds/ebookviewer/ebook/ZTAwMHhu YV9fMzgzODk2X19BTg2?sid=5f1ab7c2-1cc8-4bf3-a526-7681d3c953a3@sessionmgr1 02&vid=1&format=EB. 3. Starr, The Lessons, 256.

4. American Psychiatric Association, Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.), (Washington, DC: 1994), 428, quoted in Vincent W. Savarese et al., “Relationships Among Alcohol Use, Hyperarousal, and Marital Abuse and Violence in Vietnam Veterans,” Journal of traumatic stress 14, no. 4 (January 1, 2001): 720, https://eds-b-ebscohost-com.ezproxy.student.twu.ca/eds/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=2&sid =a0622584-1fd7-45a7-bfc6-f1328681bc5a%40sessionmgr103; Shehan, “Spouse Support,” 55-56; Starr, The Lessons, 275. 5. Bruce Wm. Taneski, I Came Home (CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, 2015), 11, Kindle. 6. Taneski, I Came Home, 10. 7. Taneski, I Came Home, 10. 8. M. MacPherson, Long Time Passing: Vietnam & the Haunted Generation, (Garden City NY: Doubleday and Company, Inc, 1984), 176, quoted in Constance L. Shehan, “Spouse Support and Vietnam Veterans’ Adjustment to Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder,” Family Relations 36, no. 1 (January 1987): 55- 56, https://doi.org/10.2307/584648. 9. Starr, The Lessons, 275. 10. Karl Marlantes, What it is Like (London: Corvus, 2011), 202. 11. Marlantes, What it is Like, 177. 12. Starr, The Lessons, 278. 13. Starr, The Lessons, 277-78. 14. Marlantes, What it is Like, 188; Cathy, “He Thought I was Telling Him He Was Crazy,” in When the War Never Ends: The Voices of Military Members With PTSD and Their Families, ed. Leah Wizelman, (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2011), 57. https://eds-a-ebscohost-com.ezproxy.student.twu.ca/eds/ebookviewer/ebook/ZTAwMHhu YV9fMzgzODk2X19BTg2?sid=5f1ab7c2-1cc8-4bf3-a526-7681d3c953a3@sessionmgr1 02&vid=1&format=EB. 15. Starr, The Lessons, 279. 16. Taneski, I Came Home, 10. 17. Marlantes, What it is Like, 185. 18. Cathy, “He Thought,” 57. 19. R, A, Kulka et al., Trauma and the Vietnam war generation (New York: Brunner/Mazel, 1990), quoted in Charles C. Hendrix, and Lisa M. Anelli, “Impact of Vietnam War Service on Veterans’ Perceptions of Family Life,” Family Relations 42, no. 1 (January 1993): 87. https://doi:10.2307/584927 20. Taneski, I Came Home, 14. 21. J. Ketwig, … And a Hard Rain Fell: A GIs True Story of the War in Vietnam, (New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1985), 295-96, quoted in Constance L. Shehan, “Spouse Support and Vietnam Veterans’ Adjustment to Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder,” Family Relations 36, no. 1 (January 1987): 56, https://doi.org/10.2307/584648. 22. Starr, Lessons of Vietnam, 275. 23. Vietnam Veterans of American, “Suicide Risk & Prevention: Assistance & Resources,” July 2011, https://vva.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/SuicideRiskPrevention.pdf. 24. Taneski, I Came Home, 11. 25. Cathy, “He Thought,” 55. 26. Starr, The Lessons, 278; Marlantes, What it is Like, 196, 202. 27. Marlantes, What it is Like, 202.

28. Marlantes, What it is Like, 203-05. 29. Shehan, “Spouse Support,” 55. 30. Cathy, “He Thought,” 54. 31. Cathy, “He Thought,” 57. 32. Starr, The Lessons, 275. 33. Marlantes, What it is Like, 192. 34. Vietnam Veterans of America, “PTSD: What Every Veteran – And Every Veteran’s Family – Should Know,” November 2007, https://vva.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/PTSD2008.pdf; B. K. Jordan et al., “Problems in Families of Male Vietnam Veterans with Posttraumatic Stress Disorder,” Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 60, no. 6 (December 1992): 925. https://doi.org/http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.student.twu.ca/10.1037/0022-006X.60.6.916. 35. MacPherson, Long Time Passing. 36. M. Baker, Nam: The Vietnam War in the Words of the Men and Women who Fought There (New York: William Morrow and Company, Inc., 1981), 308, quoted in Constance L. Shehan, “Spouse Support and Vietnam Veterans’ Adjustment to Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder,” Family Relations 36, no. 1 (January 1987): 54, https://doi.org/10.2307/584648. 37. “How PTSD Affects the People You Love,” Youtube video, 3:18, “AboutFaceVeterans,” October 11, 2017, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ifmI2w7kJVA. 38. Stephanie, “I Want People to Know,” 180. 39. Stephanie, “I Want People to Know,” 180. 40. Rachel Dekel and Hadass Goldblatt, “Is There Intergenerational Transmission of Trauma? The Case of Combat Veterans’ Children,” American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 78, no. 3 (2008): 285, https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013955. 41. John Parsons, Thomas J. Kehle, and Steve V. Owen, “Incidence of Behavior Problems Among Children of Vietnam War Veterans,” School Psychology International 11, no. 4 (November 1990): 257, https://doi.org/10.1177/0143034390114002. 42. Jordan et al., “Problems in Families,” 923-24. 43. Stephanie, “I Want People to Know,” 175. 44. Allison, “I am Learning Not to Take it Personally When He Pushes Me Away,” in When the War Never Ends: The Voices of Military Members With PTSD and Their Families, ed. Leah Wizelman, (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2011), 118. https://eds-a-ebscohost-com.ezproxy.student.twu.ca/eds/ebookviewer/ebook/ZTAwMHhu YV9fMzgzODk2X19BTg2?sid=5f1ab7c2-1cc8-4bf3-a526-7681d3c953a3@sessionmgr1 02&vid=1&format=EB. 45. Dekel and Goldblatt, “Intergeneration Transmissional,” 287. 46. “How PTSD Affects” 47. E. D. A. Hermes, R. Hoff, & R. A. Rosenheck, “Sources of the increasing number of Vietnam era Veterans with a diagnosis of PTSD using VHA services,” Psychiatric Services 65 (2014), doi:10.1176/appi.ps.201300232, quoted in Nida H. Corry et al., “Forty Years After the War: How Are Vietnam Veterans Doing Today?” PTSD Research Quarterly: Advancing Science and Promoting Understanding of Traumatic Stress 27, no. 1 (2016): 2. https://www.ptsd.va.gov/publications/rq_docs/V27N1.pdf. 48. Marlantes, What it is Like, 192. 49. Cathy, “He Thought,” 55.

50. Stephanie, “I Want People to Know,” 176; U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs, “VA Caregiver Support.” last modified February 23, 2021, https://www.caregiver.va.gov/. 51. Starr, The Lessons, 279. 52. Starr, The Lessons, 278 53. Nicholas Watkins, Frances Cole, and Sue Weidemann, “The War Memorial as Healing Environment: The Psychological Effect of the Vietnam Veterans Memorial on Vietnam War Combat Veterans’ Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Symptoms,” Environment and Behavior 42, no. 3 (2010): 364, https://doi.org/10.1177/0013916510361873. 54. Watkins, Cole, and Weidemann, “The War Memorial,” 368. 55. Edna B. Foa, Seth J. Gillihan, and Richard A. Bryant, “Challenges and Successes in Dissemination of Evidence-Based Treatments for Posttraumatic Stress,” Psychological Science in the Public Interest 14, no. 2 (2013): 73, https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100612468841. 56. Foa, Gillihan, and Bryant, “Challenges and Successes,” 73. 57. U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs, “PTSD: National Center for PTSD,” last modified July 20, 2020, https://www.ptsd.va.gov/understand_tx/tx_basics.asp. 58. Foa, Gillihan, and Bryant, “Challenges and Successes,” 74. 59. Foa, Gillihan, and Bryant, “Challenges and Successes,” 79, 85. 60. “Vietnam Veterans of America, “PTSD Does Not Mean You’re Crazy,” July 2011, https://vva.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/PTSDBrochure.pdf. 61. Keith D. Renshaw, Thomas L. Rodebaugh, and Camila S. Rodrigues, “Psychological and Marital Distress in Spouses of Vietnam Veterans: Importance of Spouses’ Perceptions,” Journal of Anxiety Disorders 24, no. 7 (2010): 748. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2010.05.007. 62. Starr, The Lessons, 278. 63. Marlantes, What it is Like, 206. 64. Jordan et al., “Problems in Families, 925. 65. Cathy, “He Thought,” 57. 66. Dekel and Goldblatt, “Intergeneration Transmission,” 284. 67. Dekel and Goldblatt, “Intergeneration Transmission,” 285. 68. Starr, The Lessotns, 279.

Still Paying: CIVCAS and Human Development 1. Izzeldin Abuelaish, I Shall Not Hate: A Gaza Doctor’s Journey on the Road to Peace and Human Dignity (Toronto, ON: Random House, 2010), 156-160. 2. Alex Crawford, “A ‘War Crime’ in Yemen: Final Moments before 9 Civilians, All Women and Children, Were Massacred.” Sky News. Online. Last Modified January 29, 2021. Accessed March 18, 2021. https://news.sky.com/story/a-war-crime-in-yemen-how-an-airstrike-devastated-a-family-i ncluding-seven-children-12199374. 3. UN Assistance Mission in Afghanistan and UN Human Rights Office of the High Commissioner. Protection of Civilians in Armed Conflict Annual Report 2020 (Kabul, Afghanistan: UNAMA, February 2021), 32. 4. United Nations. “Afghanistan Human Development Indicators.” Human Development Reports, UNDP. Online. Accessed March 18, 2021. http://hdr.undp.org/en/countries/profiles/AFG. 5. United Nations, Annual Report, 14.

6. United Nations, Annual Report, 82. 7. United Nations, Annual Report, 81. 8. United Nations, Annual Report, 86. 9. United Nations, Annual Report, 81. 10. United Nations, Annual Report, 86. 11. United Nations, Annual Report, 80. 12. United Nations, Annual Report, 82. 13. Larry Lewis, “Reducing and Mitigating Civilian Casualties: Enduring Lessons:” Fort Belvoir, VA: Defense Technical Information Center, April 12, 2013. https://doi.org/10.21236/ADA579024.

Compelled by Poverty: Child Soldiers in Somalia 1. Michelle Plett, ”Plight of the Child Soldier: Facts, Foundations and How to Help,” World Vision Canada, last modified October 02, 2020, https://www.worldvision.ca/stories/child-soldiers-facts-and-how-to-help. 2. Claire Felter, Johnathan Masters, and Mohammed Aly Sergie, “Al-Shabab”, Council on Foreign Relations. Last modified January 10, 2020. https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/al-shabab. 3. Radhika Coomaraswamy, “Protecting Children in Armed Conflict,” The Fletcher Forum of World Affairs 36, no. 1 (2012): 7. doi:10.2307/45289543. 4. “Somalia: Al-Shabab Demanding Children,” Human Rights Watch, last modified October 28, 2020. https://www.hrw.org/news/2018/01/15/somalia-al-shabab-demanding-children. 5. Human Rights Watch, “Somalia: Al-Shabab Demanding Children”. 6. “Healing Child Soldiers,” World Health Organization, Last modified March 04, 2011, https://www.who.int/bulletin/volumes/87/5/09-020509/en/. 7. Plett, ”Plight of the Child Soldier: Facts, Foundations and How to Help.” 8. Hassan Ghedi Santur, “Reporter’s Diary: Heal Somalia’s Former Child Soldiers, Heal a Nation,” The New Humanitarian, last modified July 15, 2019, https://www.thenewhumanitarian.org/opinion/2018/10/22/heal-somalia-former-child9. V. Vijayakumar, “CHILDREN IN HUMANITARIAN EMERGENCIES AND THE QUEST FOR HUMANITARIAN RESPONSE: A STUDY.” Journal of the Indian Law Institute 54, no. 2 (2012): 169. http://www.jstor.org/stable/43953536. 10. “Former Child Soldier Describes Forced Recruitment during Security Council Debate, Urges International Community to Aid Other Children Released by Armed Groups | Meetings Coverage and Press Releases,” United Nations, last modified March 25, 2015, https://www.un.org/press/en/2015/sc11832.doc.htm. 11. UNICEF Somalia, “Vocational Training Brings Hope of a Better Future to Former Child Soldiers.” Last modified October 17, 2019. https://www.unicef.org/somalia/stories/vocational-training-brings-hope-better-future-form er-child-soldiers. 12. Michael Wessells, “Child Soldiers, Peace Education, and Postconflict Reconstruction for Peace.” Theory Into Practice 44, no. 4 (2005): 364. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3496980. 13. Coomaraswamy, “Protecting Children in Armed Conflict,” 7. 14. Plett, “Plight of the Child Soldier: Facts, Foundations and How to Help.” 15. United Nations, “Former Child Soldier Describes Forced Recruitment during Security Council Debate, Urges International Community to Aid Other Children Released by Armed Groups.”

16. Volker Druba, “The Problem of Child Soldiers.” International Review of Education / Internationale Zeitschrift Für Erziehungswissenschaft / Revue Internationale De L’Education 48, no. 3/4 (2002): 273. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3445368. 17. UNICEF Somalia, “Vocational Training Brings Hope of a Better Future to Former Child Soldiers.” 18. Plett, ““Plight of the Child Soldier: Facts, Foundations and How to Help.” 19. Wessells, “Child Soldiers, Peace Education, and Postconflict Reconstruction for Peace,” 366.

The Struggle Continues: Syrian Refugees Pre- and Post-Migration 1. Dima Saber, and Paul Long, “I Will Not Leave, My Freedom Is More Precious than My Blood’. From Affect to Precarity: Crowd-Sourced Citizen Archives as Memories of the Syrian War,” Archives & Records 38, no. 1 (Spring 2017): 81. 2. USA for UNHCR: The UN Refugee Agency, “Refugee Statistics.” Refugee Statistics from 2021. UNHCR - The UN Refugee Agency. 3. Rawan Atari-Khan, Anna Hope Covington, Lawrence H. Gerstein, Huda al Herz, Betsy R. Varner, Casey Brasfield, Bryan Shurigar, et al. “Concepts of Resilience among Trauma-Exposed Syrian Refugees,” The Counseling Psychologist 49, no. 2 (February 2021): 246-68. doi:10.1177/0011000020970522. 4. Atari-Khan et. al, “Concepts of Resilience,” 246. 5. Atari-Khan et. al, “Concepts of Resilience,” 246. 6. Atari-Khan et. al, “Concepts of Resilience,” 246. 7. Atari-Khan et. al, “Concepts of Resilience,” 234. 8. Atari-Khan et. al, “Concepts of Resilience,” 235. 9. Melike Ünal Gezer, “Looking through the Multicultural Glass: Re-Examination of Syrian Refugee Children Education in Turkey.” Eurasian Journal of Applied Linguistics 5, no. 2 (January 1, 2019): 305. https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=eric&AN=EJ1257016&site=eds -live&scope=site. 10. Man Cheung Chung, Nowf AlQarni, Mariam Al Mazrouei, Shamsa Al Muhairi, Mudar Shakra, Britt Mitchell, Sara Al Mazrouei, and Shurooq Al Hashimi, “Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Psychiatric Co-Morbidity among Syrian Refugees of Different Ages : The Role of Trauma Centrality,” Psychiatr Q, no. 89 (December 1, 2018): 909. 11. Chung et. al, “Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Psychiatric Co-Morbidity,” 909. 12. Chung et. al, “Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Psychiatric Co-Morbidity,” 909. 13. Chung et. al, “Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Psychiatric Co-Morbidity,” 909. 14. Chung et. al, “Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Psychiatric Co-Morbidity,” 909. 15. Chung et. al, “Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Psychiatric Co-Morbidity,” 909. 16. Chung et. al, “Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Psychiatric Co-Morbidity,” 909. 17. Chung et. al, “Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Psychiatric Co-Morbidity,” 909. 18. Atari-Khan et. al, “Concepts of Resilience,” 246. 19. Atari-Khan et. al, “Concepts of Resilience,” 246. 20. Atari-Khan et. al, “Concepts of Resilience,” 246. 21. Atari-Khan et. al, “Concepts of Resilience,” 246. 22. OCASI, “I Came to Canada as a Refugee. What Mental Health Services Can I Get?,” last modified November 18, 2020. https://settlement.org/ontario/health/refugee-health/refugee-health-services/i-came-to-can

ada-as-a-refugee-what-mental-health-services-can-i-get/. 23. OCASI, “What Mental Health Services Can I Get?” 24. OCASI, “What Mental Health Services Can I Get?” 25. OCASI, “What Mental Health Services Can I Get?” 26. Mental Health Commissions of Canada, “Supporting the Mental Health of Refugees to Canada,” Last modified January 2016, 2016-01-25_refugee_mental_health_backgrounder_0.pdf (mentalhealthcommission.ca). 27. Mental Health Commissions of Canada, “Supporting Mental Health.” 28. Mental Health Commissions of Canada, “Supporting Mental Health.” 29. Asma Ahmed, Angela Bowen, and Cindy Xin Feng, “Maternal Depression in Syrian Refugee Women Recently Moved to Canada: A Preliminary Study,” BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth 17, no. 1 (July 1, 2017): 1. 30. Ahmed, Bowen, Feng, “Maternal Depression in Syrian Refugee Women,” 1. 31. Ahmed, Bowen, Feng, “Maternal Depression in Syrian Refugee Women,” 1. 32. UN WOMEN, “Crisis update: Women of Syria, Eight Years into the Crisis,” last modified August 13, 2018, https://www.unwomen.org/en/news/stories/2018/8/feature-syria-humanitarian-update. 33. UN WOMEN, “Crisis update: Women of Syria, Eight Years into the Crisis.” 34. UN WOMEN, “Crisis update: Women of Syria, Eight Years into the Crisis.” 35. Issa Jehan Sayed, “A Syrian Woman’s Story: Her Journey from Damascus to the United States,” Journal of International Women’s Studies 18, no. 4 (August 1, 2017): 1-6. 36. Sayed. “A Syrian Woman’s Story,” 1-6. 37. Michelle White, (2020, March 11). “The mental health of Syrian refugees,” last modified March 13, 2020, from https://borgenproject.org/mental-health-of-syrian-refugees/ 38. July Lies, Sean P. A. Drummond, and Laura Jobson, “Longitudinal Investigation of the Relationships between Trauma Exposure, Post-Migration Stress, Sleep Disturbance, and Mental Health in Syrian Refugees,” European Journal of Psychotraumatology 11, no. 1 (December 1, 2020). doi:10.1080/20008198.2020.1825166. 39. Lies, Drummond, and Jobson, “Longitudinal Investigation,” 3. 40. Lies et. al, “Longitudinal Investigation,” 6. 41. Jan Michael Bauer, Tilman Brand, and Hajo Zeeb, “Pre-Migration Socioeconomic Status and Post-Migration Health Satisfaction among Syrian Refugees in Germany: A Cross-Sectional Analysis,” 13. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1003093 42. Bauer, et. al, “Pre-Migration Socioeconomic Status and Post-Migration Health,” 13. 43. Bauer et. al, “Pre-Migration Socioeconomic Status and Post-Migration Health,” 13. 44. Bauer et. al, “Pre-Migration Socioeconomic Status and Post-Migration Health,” 13.

Unexploded Mines, Sabotaged Wells, and Dead Livestock: The Ecological Trauma of War in the Middle East 1. “Near East and North Africa Regional Overview of Food Insecurity 2016,” Published 2016 on Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). Accessed 3/37/2021 at http://www.fao.org/documents/card/en/c/589179de-abc0-4f30-81b2-a8bbb08bebf2/ 2. “Dead Land: Islamic State’s Deliberate Destruction of Iraq’s Farmland.” Published 2018 on Amnesty International. Accessed on 2/5/2021 at https://www.amnesty.org/download/Documents/MDE1495102018ENGLISH.PDF 3. “Yemen’s agriculture in distress.” Published October 2020 on Conflict and Environment Observatory. Accessed on 2/5/2021 at https://ceobs.org/yemens-agriculture-in-distress/.

4. Ibid. 5. Ibid. 6. Amnesty International, “Dead Land,” 9. 7. Wim Zwijnenburg, “Scorched earth and charred lives” Found in Pax for Peace online publications, 2016: 38. 8. Ibid. 9. Ibid. 10. Ibid., 39 11. Ibid. 12. J. Isaac & M. Ghanyem, “Environmental Degradation and the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict.” Applied Research Institute – Jerusalem (2003): 13. 13. Ibid. 14. Ibid. 15. Shatha Hammad, “’Paradise lost’: How Israel turned the West Bank into a sewage dump for its settlements,” Middle East Eye, 21 October 2020, https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/israel-west-bank-settlements-sewage-dump 16. Kuwait News Agency, “Qassam Martys Brigades claim Ramallah attack,” 20 June 2003, https://www.kuna.net.kw/ArticlePrintPage.aspx?id=1355361&language=en# 17. Megan Stack, “In Gaza, Orange Growers Are Bitter Casualties of War,” Los Angeles Times, 10 March 2003 https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2003-mar-10-fg-orange10-story.html 18. Nadine Sinno, “Five Troops for Every Tree: Lamenting Green Carnage in Contemporary Arab Women’s War Diaries. Arab Studies Quarterly, Vol. 36, No. 2 (Spring 2014): 107. 19. Ibid. 20. Isaac & Ghanyem, “Environmental Degradation and the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict.” 16. 21. Ibid. 22. FAO Newsroom, “Lebanon: damage to agriculture, fisheries and forestry estimated at around $280 million” Food and Agriculture Organization of the UN, 27 November 2006, fao.org/newsroom/en/news/2006/1000445/index.html 23. Ibid. 24. Ian Christoplos, “Agricultural Rehabilitation in Afghanistan: Linking Relief, Development and Support to Rural Livelihoods.” Overseas Development Institute (September 2004): 2. 25. Mohammad Sediq Rashid, Mullah Jan and Mohammad Wakil, “Landmines and Land Rights in Afghanistan,” Published 2010 by Geneva International Centre for Humanitarian Demining. Accessed 3/25/2021 at https://www.globalprotectioncluster.org/_assets/files/field_protection_clusters/Afghanista n/files/HLP%20AoR/Landmines_Land_Rights_Afghanistan_2010_EN.pdf 26. Conflict and Environment Observatory, “Yemen’s agriculture in distress.” 27. Ibid. 28. FAO, “Near East and North Africa Regional Overview of Food Insecurity” (2016): 1. 29. Ibid., 3. 30. Jan and Wakil Rashid, “Landmines and Land Rights in Afghanistan,” p. 9. 31. Izabela Leao, Anuja Kar & Mansur Ahmed, “For rural Afghan women, agriculture holds the potential for better jobs,” World Bank Blogs, 12 January 2017, https://blogs.worldbank.org/endpovertyinsouthasia/rural-afghan-women-agriculture-holds -potential-better-jobs.

32. FAO Newsroom, “Lebanon: damage to agriculture, fisheries and forestry estimated at around $280 million.” 33. Ibid. 34. Ibid. 35. Le Commerce du Levant, “Lebanon’s Agriculture Collapses,” 24 March 2020. https://www.lecommercedulevant.com/article/29698-lebanons-agriculture-collapses 36. FAO, “Near East and North Africa Regional Overview,” 7. 37. Ibid. 38. Amnesty International, “Dead Land”. 2018. 39. Sinno, “Five Troops for Every Tree: Lamenting Green Carnage in Contemporary Arab Women’s War Diaries,” 108. 40. Ibid., 105. 41. Ibid. 42. Ibid. 43. United Nations, “International Day for Preventing the Exploitation of the Environment in War and Armed Conflict,” https://www.un.org/en/observances/environment-in-war-protection-day

Witnessing the Past in a Post-traumatic Age: Cultural Memory and Monuments to Trauma after WWII 1. Aleida Assmann, Der lange Schatten der Vergangenheit: Erinnerungskultur und Geschichtspolitik. [The Long Shadow of the Past: Memory Culture and Politics of History] (München: C.H. Beck, 2011), 15. From the original German text: “posttraumatischen Zeitalter.” 2. Jan Assmann, “Communicative and Cultural Memory,” in Cultural Memories: The Geographical Point of View, ed. Peter Meusberger, Michael Heffnan, and Edgar Wunder, (Heidelberg: Springer, 2011), 10. 3. A. Assmann, Der Lange Schatten, 159. From the original German text: “Wir leben im Schatten einer Vergangenheit, die in vielfältiger Form in die Gegenwart weiter hineinwirkt und die Nachgeborenen.” 4. Richard Lebow, Wulf Kansteiner, and Claudio Fogu, eds, The Politics of Memory in Postwar Europe, (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2006), 8. 5. Aleida Assmann, Cultural Memory and Western Civilization: Functions, Media, Archives (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011), 310. 6. Jörg Echternkamp and Stephen Jaeger, eds, Views of Violence: Representing the Second World War in German and European Museums and Memorials, (New York: Berghahn, 2019), 4. 7. A. Assmann, Der Lange Schatten, 13. From the original German: “Dieses Denkmal verkündet und verkörpert nicht nur Geschichte, es ist immer wieder zum Schauplatz von Geschichte geworden, wiederum in traumatischen und in triumphalistischen Momenten.” 8. Rainer Eckert, “Remembering for Whom? Concepts for Memorials in Western Europe,” in Cultural Memories: The Geographical Point of View, eds Peter Meusberger, Michael Heffnan and Edgar Wunder, (Heidelberg: Springer, 2011), 165. 9. Ibid,164 10. Peter Pirker, Johannes Kramer, and Mathias Lichtenwagner, “Transnational Memory

Spaces in the Making: World War II and Holocaust Remembrance in Vienna,” in International Journal of Politics, Culture, and Society 32, no. 4 (2019): 440. 11. Echternkamp and Jaeger,“Representing the Second World War,” 4. 12. Ibid, 4. 13. Pirker, Kramer, Lichtenwagner, “Transnational Memory Spaces,” 451. 14. . Birgit Johler, Katharina Kober, Barbara Sauer, Ulrike Tauss, and Joanna White, “A Local History of the 1938 ‘Anschluss’ and Its Memory: Vienna Servitengasse,” in 1914: Austria-Hungary, the Origins, and the First Year of World War I, eds. Günter Bischof, Ferdinand Karlhofer, Samuel R. Williamson, (New Orleans: University of New Orleans Press, 2014), 303. 15. Lebow, Kansteiner, Fogu, Politics of Memory, 442. 16. Echternkamp and Jaeger,“Representing the Second World War,” 1. 17. Lebow, Kansteiner, Fogu, Politics of Memory, 444. 18. Ibid, 445. 19. Ibid, 450. 20. Gilad Margalit, Guilt, Suffering, and Memory: Germany Remembers Its Dead of World War II, (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 2010), 54. 21. Lebow, Kansteiner, Fogu, Politics of Memory, 129. 22. Jürgen Habermas, “On the Public Use of History: The Official Self-Understanding of the Federal Republic is Breaking Up”, in Forever in the Shadow of Hitler? Original Documents of the Historikerstreit Controversy Concerning the Singularity of the Holocaust, trans. James Knowlton and Truett Cates, (Atlantic Heights, NJ: Prometheus Books, 1993), 165. 23. Rafael Seligmann, “Versiegelter Stein” [Sealed Stone], Welt am Sonntag, December 19, 2004. 24. Martin Walser, “Experiences while Composing a Sunday Speech (1998),” in The Burden of the Past: Martin Walser on Modern German Identity: Texts, Contexts, Commentary, (Rochester, NY: Camden House, 2008), 104. 25. Echternkamp and Jaeger,“Representing the Second World War,” 253. 26. Habermas, “On the Public Use of History,” 89. 27. Pirker, Kramer, Lichtenwagner, “Transnational Memory Spaces,” 455. 28. Echternkamp and Jaeger,“Representing the Second World War,” 5. 29. Ibid, 5. 30. Echternkamp and Jaeger,“Representing the Second World War,” 255. 31. J. Assmann, “Communicative and Cultural Memory,” 19.

Trauma begets Trauma: The Holocaust and the Jewish State 1. “Zionism,” Merriam-Webster (Merriam-Webster), accessed March 6, 2021, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Zionism. 2. Daniel Philpott, “Sovereignty,” Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Stanford University, June 22, 2020), https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/sovereignty/. 3. Philpott, “Sovereignty.” 4. R. Dekel, and S E Hobfoll, “The Impact of Resource Loss on Holocaust Survivors Facing War and Terrorism in Israel,” Aging & Mental Health 11, no. 2 (2007): 159–67. doi:10.1080/13607860600736141. 5. Dekel and Hobfoll, “The Impact of Resource Loss on Holocaust Survivors.” 6. Irit Felsen, “Parental Trauma and Adult Sibling Relationships in Holocaust-Survivor

Families,” Psychoanalytic Psychology 35, no. (2018): 433–45. doi:10.1037/pap0000196. 7. Pumla Gobodo-Madikizela, “What Does It Mean to Be Human in the Aftermath of Mass Trauma and Violence?: Toward the Horizon of an Ethics of Care,” Journal of the Society of Christian Ethics 36, no. 2 (2016): 43–61. 8. “Empathy,” accessed April 3, 2021, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/empathy. 9. D. Aub and N. C AUERHAHN, “Failed Empathy ― A Central Theme in the Survivor’s Holocaust Experience,” Psychoanalytic Psychology 6, no. 4 (January 1, 1989): 377–400. 10. Philip Marshall Brown, “The Recognition of Israel.” The American Journal of International Law 42, no. 3 (1948): 620-27. Accessed April 7, 2021. doi:10.2307/2193961. 11. Donna Robinson Divine. “Zionism and the Politics of Authenticity.” Israel Studies 19, no. 2 (2014): 94-110. Accessed April 7, 2021. doi:10.2979/israelstudies.19.2.94. 12. Turan Kayaoglu. “Westphalian Eurocentrism in International Relations Theory,” International Studies Review 12, no. 2 (2010): 193-217. Accessed April 7, 2021. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40730727. 13. Elhanan Yakira, Post-Zionism, Post-Holocaust : Three Essays on Denial, Forgetting, and the Delegitimation of Israel Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 87-88. 14. “1948-1967: Major Terror Attacks,” GxMSDev, accessed April 8, 2021, https://mfa.gov.il/mfa/aboutisrael/maps/pages/1948-1967-20major%20terror%20attac ks.aspx. 15. “Vital Statistics,” Total Casualties, Arab-Israeli Conflict, accessed April 8, 2021, https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/total-casualties-arab-israeli-conflict. 16. Yakira, Post-Zionism, Post-Holocaust, 88.

Spoils of War, Debts of the Future: Medical Advancements in War 1. Margaret MacMillan, War: How Conflict Shaped Us (Toronto: Penguin Public House, 2020),63 2. MacMillan, War, 64-65. 3. MacMillan, War, 64-65. 4. MacMillan, War,64-65. 5. MacMillan, War, 65. 6. Jack Edward McCallum, Military Medicine: From Ancient Times to the 21st Century, (Santa Barbara: ABC-Clio, 2008), 227. 7. McCallum, Military Medicine, 271. 8. McCallum, Military Medicine, 271. 9. McCallum, Military Medicine, 17. 10. McCallum, Military Medicine, 272. 11. McCallum, Military Medicine, 271. 12. McCallum, Military Medicine, 17. 13. Charles Van Way, “War and Trauma: A History of Military Medicine” Missouri Medicine 113 (2016): 2.

14. Van Way, “War and Trauma,” 2. 15. Van Way, “War and Trauma,” 3. 16. Van Way, “War and Trauma,” 3. 17. Richard A. Gabriel, Between Flesh and Steel: A History of Military Medicine from the Middle Ages, (Washington, DC: Potomac Books, 2013), 92. 18. Erik D. Wiess “The Second Sacrifice: Costly Advances in Medicine and Surgery During the Civil War” Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine 74. (2001): 170 19. Gabriel, Flesh and Steel, 94. 20. Gabriel, Flesh and Steel, 94. 21. Gabriel, Flesh and Steel, 95. 22. Gabriel, Flesh and Steel, 95. 23. Gabriel, Flesh and Steel, 95. 24. Gabriel, Flesh and Steel, 95. 25. McCallum, Military Medicine, 10. 26. McCallum, Military Medicine, 10. 27. McCallum, Military Medicine, 10. 28. Wiess, “The Second Sacrifice,” 176. 29. Wiess, “The Second Sacrifice,” 173. 30. Wiess, “The Second Sacrifice,” 173. 31. Wiess, “The Second Sacrifice,” 174. 32. Wiess, “The Second Sacrifice,” 174. 33. Wiess, “The Second Sacrifice,” 172. 34. Wiess, “The Second Sacrifice,” 172. 35. Wiess, “The Second Sacrifice,” 172. 36. Wiess, “The Second Sacrifice,” 175. 37. Wiess, “The Second Sacrifice,” 175. 38. Wiess, “The Second Sacrifice,” 175. 39. Hai-Lei Liu, Feng Zhang, William Lineaweaver, “History and Advancement of Burn Treatments” Annals of Plastic Surgery 78, no. 2 (2017), 2. 40. Liu, Zhang, Lineaweaver, “Burn Treatments,” 1. 41. McCallum, Military Medicine, 11. 42. McCallum, Military Medicine, 11. 43. McCallum, Military Medicine, 11. 44. Katherine Feo. “Invisibility: Memory, Masks and Masculinities in the Great War.” Journal of Design History 20, no. 1 (2007): 19 45. Feo, “Invisibility,” 18. 46. Feo, “Invisibility,” 21. 47. Feo, “Invisibility,” 22. 48. Wiess, “The Second Sacrifice,” 176.

By the Grace of God(s): Healing War-Related Trauma in Veterans through Religion and Spirituality 1. Jaimie Lusk et al., “Spirituality, Religion, and Suicidality among Veterans: A Qualitative Study,” Archives of Suicide Research 22, no. 2 (April 2018): 318, https://doi.org/10.1080/13811118.2017.1340856. 2. Syracuse University, “What Is Moral Injury,” The Moral Injury Project (Syracuse University, n.d.), https://moralinjuryproject.syr.edu/about-moral-injury/. 3. Charles Phillips and Alan Axelrod, Encyclopedia of Wars (New York: Facts On File, Cop, 2005), 1484–85. 4. Taki Telonidis, “In Sweat Lodge, Vets Find Healing ‘down to the Core,’” Npr.org (Northwest Public Broadcasting, May 28, 2012), https://www.npr.org/2012/05/28/153875444/in-sweat-lodge-vets-find-healing-d own-to-the-core. 5. Anybody’s Son Will Do (Canada: National Film Board of Canada, 1983): 02:24. 6. Karen O’Donnell, “Help for Heroes: PTSD, Warrior Recovery, and the Liturgy,” Journal of Religion & Health 54, no. 6 (December 2015): 2393, doi:10.1007/s10943-015-0034-5. 7. Shannon French, “Warrior Transitions: From Combat to Social Contract.” JSCOPE, January 2005, 2. 8. O’Donnell, “Help for Heroes,” 2393. 9. M.S. Kopacz et al., “Suicidal Behavior and Spiritual Functioning in a Sample of Veterans Diagnosed With PTSD,” Journal of Injury and Violence Research 8, no. 1 (January 2016): 6-14. https://doi.org/10.5249/jivr.v8i1.728. 10. Thema Bryant-Davis and Eunice C. Wong, “Faith to Move Mountains: Religious Coping, Spirituality, and Interpersonal Trauma Recovery.,” American Psychologist 68, no. 8 (November 1, 2013): 677, https://doi.org/10.1037/a0034380. 11. Lusk et al., “Spirituality, Religion, and Suicidality among Veterans,” 320-321. 12. Bryant-Davis and Wong, “Faith to Move Mountains,” 677. 13. Harold G Koenig et al., “Hope, Religiosity, and Mental Health in U.S. Veterans and Active Duty Military with PTSD Symptoms,” Military Medicine 185, no. 1/2:97 (January 2020): 97–104, https://doi.org/10.1093/milmed/usz146. 14. Harold G Koenig et al., “Hope, Religiosity, and Mental Health in U.S. Veterans,” 102 & 101, respectively. 15. Sanea Mihaljevic et al., “Hopelessness, Suicidality and Religious Coping in Croatian War Veterans with PTSD,” Psychiatr Danub 24, (2012): 292-297. 16. Mevludin Hasanović and Izet Pajević, “Religious Moral Beliefs Inversely Related to Trauma Experiences Severity and Presented Posttraumatic Stress Disorder among Bosnia and Herzegovina War Veterans,” Journal of Religion and Health 54, no. 4 (September 27, 2014): 1414, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10943-014-9954-8. 17. Lusk et al., “Spirituality, Religion, and Suicidality among Veterans,” 321. 18. Hannah E. Acquaye, Stephen A. Sivo, and Dayle K. Jones, “Religious Commitment’s Moderating Effect on Refugee Trauma and Growth,” Counseling & Values 63, no. 1 (April 2018): 68, doi:10.1002/cvj.12073. 19. It should be noted that 70.9% of the participants were male and 93.2% self-identified as Christian. This is less diverse than studies previously mentioned. It is also important to acknowledge that the experience of participating in combat and attempting to escape it produce similar but different kinds of trauma.