Engineering today 51

June 2015 ISSUE 51

Intelligent Transport Systems: Potential for Technological Innovation and Policy Support

Electric Transportation Impacts on Vehicle Design page 20

page 14

Infrastructure for Autonomous Vehicles page 08

Our main sponsors

Automotive Sealing Challenges page 28

June 2015 ISSUE 51

Contents 03 04 From the Editor

20

From the President

28

Electric Transportation Impacts on Vehicle Design

Automotive Sealing Challenges

www.coe.org.mt

08 Infrastructure for Autonomous Vehicles

39 IEEE Region 8 Meeting 2015

14

Cover Image

Intelligent Transport Systems: Potential for Technological Innovation & Policy Support

43 The 2015 Engineering Conference Higlights

44

EU Directive 2010/40/EU (7 July 2010) defines Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS) as systems in which information and communication technologies are applied in the field of road transport, including infrastructure, vehicles and users, and in traffic management and mobility management, as well as for interfaces with other modes of transport

The 24th Annual Engineering Conference

Editor

Editorial Board

Dr. Inġġ. Brian Azzopardi Eur. Ing.

Inġ. Norman Zammit Eur. Ing. Inġġ. Pierre Ciantar Prof. Dr. Inġ. Robert Ghirlando

Chamber of Engineers, Professional Centre, Sliema Road,Gzira, GZR 1633, Malta

Email: info@coe.org.mt Web: www.coe.org.mt

© Chamber of Engineers 2014. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopy, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the Chamber of Engineers - Malta.

Opinions expressed in Engineering Today are not necessarily those of the Chamber of Engineers - Malta. All care has been taken to ensure truth and accuracy, but the Editorial Board cannot be held responsible for errors or omissions in the articles, pictographs or illustrations.

Design by:

A Member of:

Printing: Best Print Ltd. Distribution: Maltapost Plc.

June 2015 ISSUE 51

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From the Editor Transport Evolution articles cover autonomous, electric and fuel-based vehicles.

Dear Readers, As most of you know, the next issues of our Engineering Today Magazine will feature the submitted articles for the 23rd Annual Engineering Conference Energy and Transport organised last month by the Chamber of Engineers. However, we also welcome submissions related to engineering and technology we represent. These submissions are subject to an editorial board review process. This issue is quite mobility techy and features four articles covering a wide range of subjects in transport engineering.

Here is a brief introduction to the articles in the order that they are presented.

Our first article, “Infrastructure for Autonomous” presents the views as seen by invited guest Matthew Clarke Eur. Ing., a transport expert, on shaping our future road infrastructure to be ready for autonomous vehicles. These views included highway safety levels, historic achievements, current available telco technologies and timeline of all shape the future autonomous vehicles and intelligent transport systems.

“Intelligent Transport Systems: Potential for Technological Innovation and Policy Support” presents the efficient and real time delivery of personal Demand Responsive Transport (DRT) systems, making these systems a potential sustainable solution. With the right policy set-up, these systems may help bring less demand for parking, more open space, less congestion, lower pollution levels, shorter trips and an increase in accessibility and mobility.

The electric vehicle technology as possibly also the main driver for autonomous vehicles is a long established relation.

However the performance on the design side on an electric vehicle (EV) may be underestimated. “Electric Transportation Impacts on Vehicle Design” applies simulation to analyse the EV performance and potential parametric improvements at design stage. These parametric analysis technique could ultimately increase performance, and reduce costs associated to EV model validation testing.

“Automotive Sealing Challenges” highlights the effect of suitable material selection on the resistance and lifetime of elastomeric seals used throughout passenger cars in variable service conditions. Test results are reported for new generation fluoroelastomer materials that can withstand aggressive biofuels and the extreme conditions found in modern, energy-efficient fuel injection systems. Material selection for media used in selective catalytic reduction systems that reduce nitrogen oxide emissions from diesel engines is also discussed.

Be sure to look at our “Social Sections” where we report the 23rd Annual Engineering Conference Energy and Transport, and the IEEE Malta Section participation in Region 8 meeting.

I also invite you to read the President’s address in this issue that covers an overview on the conference CoE president keynote speech and our profession matters.

You will be receiving this issue in July instead of June.

This is mainly due to an issue beyond our control. We apologise for this delay and inconvenience this may have caused. I assure you that the editorial board and the magazine team have done their best to publish this issue timely and will continue to do so in future issues. We thank you for your understanding.

Dr Inġ. Brian Azzopardi Eur. Ing. The Editor, Engineering Today, Chamber of Engineers

June 2015 ISSUE 51

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From the President Dear Colleagues, Thursday 21st May 2015, the 23rd Edition of the Annual Engineering Conference was held at SmartCity Malta. The Conference of this year addressed two very contemporary and complex subjects being Transport and Energy, both offering challenges but also opportunities.

Transport and Energy

Through a Sustainable Development Policy, the Government and private sector should work together on initiatives with the aim to provide Smart Travelling that should be the theme supporting the whole transport strategy for the Island. Hence this is reflected in the need to provide efficient, modern, hi-tech travel that is also socially and environmentally aware.

The strategy should seek not only to establish good highway engineering and access designs for the Island but also to demonstrate state-of-the-art sustainable travel opportunities.

This means effective management of access and mobility that provides all roads users with a choice of access modes, infrastructure that makes access hassle-free and a resulting environment that is pleasant to live and work in.

This shall also require commitment (which there is) from the Government to ensure that adequate public transport opportunities are available and that innovative technologies are exploited to maximise the take-up of sustainable transport systems which can be identified through research with the support of our academic institutions. As stated earlier, we need to keep in mind that Transport is a complex discipline.

The national strategy should also seek to encourage alternative means of movement from point to point by an efficient public transport system, encourage the use of bicycles through the introduction of more bicycles lanes and promote walking as a health initiative.

During my speech at the conference, I also stated that it is time that we should seriously consider the introduction of a surface railway system that would cover the south/central areas of the Island where the major industrial and commercial activity takes place. Such an investment would bring in the private sector as the major role player.

With regards to the Energy Sector, one of the main contributors to the greenhouse emissions is the generation of electricity from our Power Stations. This makes the choice of fuel to be used in this process not solely an economic issue but also the achievement of sustainability.

In the last decade the national energy policy focused on the use of the highly polluting heavy fuel oil. This decision was taken notwithstanding the fact that various proposals were presented to the Government of the time that related to the shift from heavy fuel oil to the less polluting natural gas. Some of the initiatives included proposals for the installation of a gas pipeline between Malta and Sicily.

In Sicily there are a large number of gas reserves that can be exploited. However there is a physical restriction with regards to the volumes that can be transferred from Sicily to mainland Europe. This made it attractive for investors to propose the initiative of a gas pipeline that would connect Malta to Sicily and

4

allow us to shift from the use of heavy fuel oil to natural gas. I believe that we have lost enough time and opportunities and therefore the engineering community and society at large should constantly support the shift from heavy fuel oil to natural gas.

We now note with satisfaction that the gas pipeline initiative is underway again.

The shift to natural gas should however not be the only solution to our energy problems. The European Union energy policy proposes, amongst other things, a cut of at least 20 per cent in greenhouse emissions from all primary energy sources by 2020 (on 1990 figures), a cut of up to 95 per cent in carbon emissions from primary energy sources by 2050, a minimum target of 10 per cent for the use of bio fuels by 2020.

Such targets promote the use of renewables and hence sustainable energy sources.

In Malta we are focusing primarily on the use of photovoltaics as the most viable renewable energy source since the option of wind farms seems to have been totally archived due to the environmental impact of wind turbines.

On this topic I believe we need to extend our initiatives and look further into the exploitation of our surrounding seas through the use of surface wave generators and under sea water turbines that exploit the sea water currents.

In my speech I also conveyed the thoughts expressed by H.E. the President of Malta Ms. Marie Louise Coleiro Preca in a cordial meeting the Council of the Chamber had with her in December last year.

Dedicated as she is in particular to all those people whose income falls below the poverty line, she expressed and wished to convey a message to our politicians to keep in mind these people and endeavour to make transportation and energy more accessible to them through dedicated initiatives. Transport and Energy are subjects with enduring problems through the years and hence our political representatives in parliament should always aim to reach a common understanding on the best way forward now and the coming years for the common good.

Ethics and the engineering profession

One of the major concerns of the engineering community is the compliance with ethics within the profession. We cannot sustain anymore a situation where the professional behaviour of a handful of engineers reflects badly on the whole engineering community due to their gross misconduct.

Plant that requires to be certified through a physical inspection cannot be certified from home or the office over a phone call. We cannot have engineers who are responsible for the installation and/or maintenance of a system and at the same time carry out inspections and self certification of that system.

We cannot have design engineers who are entrusted by clients to design the services within their investments and these engineers oversize the requirements and hence increase the costs for their clients just because they have a habit of charging an unreasonably low percentage and expect to make up for the loss of revenue through the increased costs.

As I stated, such behaviour is seriously undermining the ethics within the profession and the reputation of the Engineer. So it is no surprise that the Ethics and Disciplinary Committee of the Chamber has requested a meeting with the Council to present firstly the findings from the ethics survey and consequently propose a plan of action in relation not solely to the conclusions of the survey but also such issues.

As a Council we solicit the attention of our members to ensure compliance with the Code of Ethics at all times and if ever in doubt on issues, to refer these issues in confidentiality to the Ethics and Disciplinary Committee or to the Council.

Approach towards relevant Authorities and hence the contribution of Engineers in Society Upon recommendations from the Ethics Committee, the Chamber needs to address issues on the ‘modus operandi’ of certain Authorities and where necessary approach Government on all levels to promote better Governance in our areas of competence.

In parallel with the issues mentioned above, the Council shall continue to work to increase the presence of Engineers in relevant Authorities and the requirements to have Engineers in key roles within Society as the guarantor of quality and integrity.

As an example, the issue of having the ‘competent person’ clearly defined as being the Engineer when it comes to mechanical, electrical and IT engineering systems is already catered for in the main Occupational Health and Safety legislation. Subsidiary legislation and regulations should follow this main definition and the OHSA should audit its operations and create systems where certificates presented are regularly subjected to audits.

Engineering Degrees issued by University of Malta, MCAST and other Institutions

The Council is continuously following up with the Engineering Board, the planned review process for the Engineering degrees issued by the various institutions. The Engineering Board has prepared an international Request for Proposals that shall be issued in the coming weeks with the intent to select a competent reviewer for this process that its outcome should be the setting up of a mechanism to ensure equivalence of degrees such that any student who graduates in an engineering degree will have the possibility to apply for the engineering warrant.

Professional development of Engineers

This year the Chamber of Engineers is planning to issue a white paper in relation to the implementation and promotion of Continual Professional Development in our profession in line with the initial guidance document issued by the Federation of Professional Associations following the introduction of the Services Directive by the EU. This white paper will set up the framework to be implemented by the Chamber as regards CPD for its members.

A subcommittee within the Council is planned to be setup to study this matter in detail and draft the white paper. We hope to achieve this target as early as possible.

Conclusions

I would like to conclude my address with a quote from the opening speech of the previous President of FEANI when he addressed the Educational Conference entitled: “Education of Engineers - Key Task for the successful European Future” in Gdansk Poland on Wednesday 8th October 2014.

‘Engineers require, apart from experience, a good academic foundation on which to build their experience.’

He went on to state further that: ‘Innovation/CPD and a quality academic background are the base that make a good Engineer’.

I would add that ethical behaviour is another fundamental pillar of our profession. Let us all endevour to follow ethics in all our interactions and activities during our professional life.

Yours Sincerely,

Inġ. Norman Zammit

The issue of the Request For Proposal is being delayed due to the excessive bureaucracy in the Government tendering systems that have voided the efforts made by the Minister for Transport and the Infrastructure and the Engineering Board to issue the RFP in the shortest possible timeframe such that this review process is completed within this year.

As a Chamber we sincerely hope that the Minister can intervene and put the necessary pressures to try to convert this bureaucratic process into a more efficient one for the sake of those students and graduates whose future has been left in abeyance until this review process is complete.

Inġ. Norman Zammit B. Elec. Eng. (Hons.), M.Sc. (Brunel), Eur. Ing. President, Chamber of Engineers

June 2015 ISSUE 51

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Infrastructure for Autonomous Vehicles Matthew Clarke

Atkins Transportation IET Automotive and Road Transport Systems Technical and Professional Network (ARTS TPN)

8

Autonomous Vehicles (AVs) are expected to create a more organised surface transport market [1], with reduced infrastructure, improved safety, lower energy consumption and vehicle ownership rates.

However it will take time to achieve penetration rates (20 to 30 years) and benefits will only accrue if the engineering is correct. Highway Authorities and automotive suppliers will need to collaborate to provide support information exchange between infrastructure and vehicles. The next steps for autonomous vehicles are expected to be a combination of market-driven and test site demonstration activities. This paper discusses AV infrastructure issues.

There is considerable interest in the safe, easy, convenient and cheap transport that AVs promise. Recent industry discussion has included the IET [2] and the Victoria Transport Policy Institute [3]. The current debate is being led by automotive suppliers and regulators, but the role of infrastructure providers in accommodating AVs is unclear.

Highway operators need to know how to change their networks and what and when investment is needed. This paper examines AV issues for infrastructure providers.

AVs are expected to provide benefits in safety, sustainability and cost by reducing reliance on driver performance, providing opportunities for improvements in mobility and improving access to transport services, particularly for those with poor access to vehicles. Regulations will need to change to free travellers from driving activity, which will enable them to perform more productive tasks and it will improve safety.

Driver qualifications such as age, impairment, competence or licence restrictions will be reduced or avoided, which will reduce social exclusion.

AVs are also expected to improve transport system efficiency and effectiveness. This will be achieved by improved journey times, a reduction in unnecessary occupant movements (e.g. for parking or servicing) and by administration improvement (e.g. compliance and insurance). AVs are also expected to reduce vehicle crime because of the built in ability to track and immobilise them, which will improve detection rates.

AV’s may not need the same degree of user protection as human-controlled vehicles, which will make them smaller and lighter, thus improving energy efficiency. This may also be enhanced by AV’s reduced tendency to accelerate and brake and by the avoidance of unnecessary journeys.

Transport operators will benefit from AVs by improved utilisation of highway and parking space and reduced need for roadside equipment (e.g. signals, signs, VMS and lighting).

Intelligent roadside infrastructure and/or systems will require investment, though.

So, AV users will experience risk, cost and service improvements and highway operators will secure better network performance, reduced cost and improved safety.

Infrastructure providers need to determine what changes they

need to make to unlock the expected AV benefits and when to do it.

So far automotive and technology suppliers and academic institutions have been key players in AV development.

Regulators and national sponsoring agencies have also been involved more recently. The future of AVs depends on accommodating the needs of other stakeholders. In particular, the automotive and infrastructure sectors need to work together to deliver user needs, regulation, network management, standardisation and interoperability. The IET provides such an opportunity (through the ARTS TPN).

Apart, perhaps, from guided busways, highway operators have not provided significant input into AV development as illustrated in 1.

Year Event

1948 Cruise control invented

1984 First guided busway (Birmingham)

1992 Mitsubishi offers LIDAR based detection

2004 First DARPA Grand Challenge.

2005 BMW starts testing driverless systems.

2009 Get2There pods start operations in Masdar City.

2010 Audi sends a driverless car to the top of

Pike’s Peak at high speed.

2011 GM creates an autonomous electric vehicle

(the EN-V).

2012 Google car tested in Nevada.

2013 Nissan announces 2020 launch of AV models and

starts building AV test site.

2014 Navia shuttle is the first self-driving vehicle to be

sold commercially.

2015 UK Government launches 4 trial sites for AVs.

2015 NASA teams up with Nissan to test autonomous

driving technologies.

Unsurprisingly, automotive suppliers are focussing on vehicle sensors and detection systems for AV development. AV sensor technology is currently too expensive for mass-market deployment, but it is likely to get cheaper as automotive suppliers develop it. It includes [4];

• Cameras (stereo, 3D, visible and IR) for video tracking of road markings;

• Radar sensors and LIDAR 3D scanning;

• Laser scanners;

• Ultrasonic sensors;

• GPS and mapping;

• Inertial tracking and wheel encoding.

The Automotive Council has developed a roadmap for Intelligent Mobility, including AV technology [5]. This envisages that connected travellers and connected vehicle technologies will be available by 2020. Data acquisition and processing and Intelligent Mobility will continue to develop up to 2035 and beyond. The Automotive Council recognizes Vehicle to Infrastructure (V2I) technology as a key enabler for

June 2015 ISSUE 51

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Infrastructure for Autonomous Vehicles Continued

AV deployment, but it does identify how the infrastructure for V2I should be provided and managed.

Infrastructure providers have not been fully engaged in AV development, so it is valuable to consider how they might relate to AV development in the future. Degrees of autonomy identified by the IET [6] and the United States National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) [7];

• Users in particular will need to develop trust in the vehicles and highway control and this will need to be managed carefully, particularly during the transition period.

• Additional benefits may need to be provided to encourage users to accept AVs so that the full benefits can be achieved. For example, early adopters may be offered advantageous road user charges (in the same way that low emission vehicles are exempt from the London Congestion Charge).

• Non-AV users will need to be constrained (e.g. through compliance or usage costs).

• NHTSA Level 0; The driver always controls the vehicle.

• NHTSA Level 1; Specific vehicle controls are automated (e.g. braking).

• NHTSA Level 2; At least two automated controls can be combined (e.g. adaptive cruise control and lane keeping).

• NHTSA Level 3; Control of all safety-critical functions can be relinquished by the driver under certain conditions.

• NHTSA Level 4; All safety-critical functions are managed by the vehicle for the whole trip.

Highway infrastructure providers will also need to resolve the impact of AVs on them with regard to regulation, liability for damage, system safety standards, cyber security and privacy.

These issues will largely be addressed through back office and organisational development and appropriate system functions.

Levels 0 and 1 will probably have no impact on infrastructure providers. Level 2 AV deployment means that some highway elements need to be provided to a specific standard (e.g. signs and lines). Level 3 demands V2I communications and narrower lanes may be viable for some highways. For Level 4, highways have no signing, lining or lighting, V2I comms are essential and narrow lanes and smaller parking spaces are standard.

Infrastructure operators need to engage with the automotive suppliers (e.g. in technology trials, industry discussions, standards bodies, regulatory consultations and conferences).

This would put infrastructure organisations in a stronger position in AV technology development and ensure that they can make decisions based on knowledge.

This shows that highway investment for AVs is increases as the automation increases. However, it is not clear exactly what the responsibilities of highway operators will be (e.g. for intersection control). Highway space is a resource that needs to be managed and for AVs, that involves (at the very least) the setting of parameters in control algorithms. Automotive suppliers are concentrating on the safe interaction of AVs with each other and with the highway infrastructure, but not on managing traffic.

Even if all AVs on a highway network can interact with each other to achieve optimal decisions for travellers and for network performance, the definition of “optimal” needs to be stated in a way that can be embodied in AV systems (using configuration data for algorithms, for example). This will need to be regulated by an overseeing body with accountability for managing the factors that define “optimal” (e.g. standards of safety, capacity, utilisation, cost, mobility, payment, compliance, environmental impact and sustainability).

For example, in the absence of traffic signals at intersections, a highway traffic signal “function” will be manage priorities, leaving AVs to manage their individual safety. The traffic signal function may be provided using the collective actions of the AVs but the constraints will need to be managed by the overseeing organisation (assumed to be the infrastructure provider/operator).

This indicates that the changes that AVs will prompt include; • Additional investment may be needed by highway operators in order to accommodate the extra control and information measures demanded by AVs.

• Behavioural change will be needed to ensure that all stakeholders have confidence in the systems, technology, strategies and operations provided by others.

AV deployment is expected to change highway design to reduce the cost of tarmac, structures, lighting, barriers, signs, etc. and to increase the demand for some ITS services. The ITS Services identified below are a subset of the ISO 14813 [8] ITS services that are considered essential for AVs. Infrastructure providers and operators can expect to deploy and/or manage technology, systems, services and data in these ITS Services;

• Dynamic in-vehicle route guidance using real-time information • Dynamic personal route guidance using real-time information • Automated highway operation • Automated low-speed manoeuvring • Automated Parking • Adaptive cruise control • Cooperative adaptive cruise control • Precision docking for public transport vehicles • Longitudinal collision mitigation/avoidance • Lateral collision mitigation/avoidance • Intersection collision mitigation/avoidance • Safety readiness Vehicle internal systems monitoring • Vehicle external conditions monitoring • Pre-crash restraint deployment • Road weather information monitoring • Road weather prediction • Water level/tidal monitoring and prediction • Seismic monitoring • Pollution monitoring • Avalanche, mud slide and fallen rock monitoring

This view is reinforced by the ITS services in the FRAME architecture [9] that can be seen as essential for AVs. The FRAME architecture covers a variety of ITS services, including the following that can be considered as essential for AVs and that require integration between the AVs and infrastructure operations;

• Emergency Notification and Response; • Traffic Management; • In-vehicle systems (including some cooperative systems); • Support for Cooperative Systems; • Multi-modal interfaces.

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Infrastructure for Autonomous Vehicles Continued

These are generally aligned with the ISO 14813 ITS services, so they provide a reasonable guide for future AV infrastructure needs based on current knowledge.

All of the ITS Services for AV deployment depend on systems and communications. AVs will be dependent on communications between the AVs and between the roadside and the AVs. Vehicle-related communications can be summarised as follows (often referred to as “V2X”) [10]; • V2V Local Broadcast (interaction with other AVs within range);

• V2V Multi-Hop Dissemination (messages relayed from one AV to others);

• I2V Local Broadcast (From roadside infrastructure (e.g. for intersection control));

• V2I Bidirectional Communications.

Current Communications Technologies for V2X applications are summarised from Stanford University’s analysis in Table 2 below.

DSRC WiFi Bluetooth 3G 4GLTE Maximum Range medium medium short high high End-to-End Delay low low low medium low Call Setup Time Not high high high medium needed V2V Local broadcast Yes Yes Impractical With a With a

server server V2V Multihop Yes Yes Impractical With With

server server I2V Local broadcast Yes Yes Impractical Not Not

offered offered

by all by all

network network

providers providers Yes Yes Impractical Yes Yes V2I Bidirectional

Table 2: Summary of V2X comms options.

Table 2 indicates that DSRC, WiFi, 3G and 4G communications options may have roles to play in AV infrastructure (although 3G comms may become obsolescent in AV applications as 4G prevails). Some satellite based options may also support navigation and information services. This implies that these are the comms deployment areas that infrastructure providers need to focus on.

However, AV suppliers may establish their own communications services, which is likely to be a very attractive delivery route for highway authorities because it requires no public investment, but it may mean that standardisation will not be realised without regulation or later consolidation.

This means that the role of the infrastructure provider may be limited to the delivery and management of network operations functions, including systems, people, strategy, data and information.

The timeline below provides the implications of AVs for infrastructure planning estimated by The Victoria Institute of Transport Policy [11];

2015-25

2020-40

2040-50s

2040-60s

2050-60s

2050-70s

2060-80s

Define performance, testing and data collection requirements for automated driving on public roads.

Evaluate impacts.

Define requirements.

Identify lanes to be dedicated to vehicles capable of coordinated operation.

Reduced need for conventional public transit services in some areas.

Reduced parking requirements.

Reduced traffic risk. Possibly increased walking and cycling activity.

Reduced road supply.

Narrower lanes and interactive traffic controls.

Advanced traffic management.

The deployment of AVs is likely to happen because there are too many benefits for key stakeholders. The challenges that still need to be addressed for AVs include insurance, regulation, cost, ownership models and public acceptance.

Overcoming these problems will affect the timing of AV development, but probably not its inevitability. AV deployment will probably accelerate from 2020, with wide scale use achieved during the 2030s. The role of infrastructure providers will begin to focus on pavement provision and network management functions. Technology infrastructure management and delivery are expected to be provided by service providers, with public accountability.

REFERENCES

[1] “The Road to 2034” Traffic Technology International, August/September

2014. Pp 017-0 [2] “Autonomous Vehicles: A thought leadership review of how the UK can

achieve a fully autonomous future”, The IET Transport Sector.

[3] Litman, T., “Autonomous Vehicle Implementation Predictions; Implications

for Transport Planning”, Victoria Transport Policy Institute, 29 January 2015.

[4] Knight, W., “Driverless Cars are further away than you think”, 22 Oct 2012 [5] “Automotive Council Roadmaps”, The Automotive Council, 26 Sep 2013 [6] Stevens, A., “Autonomous Vehicles; A Road Transport Perspective”,

IET Sector Insights.

[7] National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. 30 May 2013, "U.S.

Department of Transportation Releases Policy on Automated Vehicle

Development". National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. 30 May 2013.

[8] ISO 14813-1 Intelligent transport systems - Reference model architecture(s)

for the ITS sector Part 1: ITS service domains, service groups and services [9] http://www.frame-online.net/node/122 [10] Delgrossi, L., “The Future of the Automobile Vehicle Safety

Communications”, Stanford University, April 2014.

[11) “Autonomous Vehicle Implementation Predictions; Implications for

Transport Planning”, Victoria Transport Policy Institute, 29 January 2015.

Mr Matthew

Clarke

Eur. Ing.

Matthew Clarke is a Chartered Electrical Engineer with 28 years’ experience in Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS) in Government and Consultancy. Matthew has many years of experience in solving technology problems. He has managed research and provided policy and technical advice and project and contract management for highway and rail systems, ticketing, road user charging, enforcement and parking guidance systems, control rooms, signs and signals and telecommunications. Most recently, he has been advising Transport for London on its strategy for Surface ITS and Connect Plus Services on a control system for the Dartford Tunnel approaches.

June 2015 ISSUE 51

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Intelligent Transport Systems: Potential for Technological Innovation and Policy Support 1

Adrian Muscat 1 and Maria Attard 2 Faculty of ICT, Institute for Climate Change and Sustainable Development, University of Malta 1 adrian.muscat@um.edu.mt, 2 maria.attard@um.edu.mtI 2

Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS) were originally thought of as the alternative to the building of more physical infrastructure when an increase in capacity in a private car centric society was required. Today, due to pressures in meeting climate change as well as health and quality of life targets, policy is shifting towards a user centric one, where the target is to provide competitive and complimentary transport alternatives. In this new light, ITS are key to enable and support policy, which in turn provides the potential for technological innovation.

In this paper, we provide a general review of ITS, followed by a detailed case study on demand responsive transport systems, which promise to alleviate parking, congestion and pollution problems. The paper concludes with a summary on the potential of a well-balanced personal transport policy.

Keywords Transport Telematics, Intelligent Transport Systems, Demand Responsive Transport

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1 INTRODUCTION Intelligent Transport Systems have changed the way we think about personal surface transport in the same way as Information and Communications Technology (ICT) transformed the way people carry out daily tasks, for example personal communications, shopping and banking. Through the more efficient use of resources, ITS are perceived as the alternative to the expansion of physical infrastructure and the key to meeting climate change and quality of life aspirations.

Furthermore ITS promise a better quality of personal transport experience.

ITS apply ICT to transport through the deployment of computers, electronics, wireless communications, satellites, sensors and computational algorithms, all of which are increasingly becoming critical infrastructures in our transport systems. ITS are instruments that facilitate and support efficient and safe movement of people and goods. As part of other infrastructures ITS help manage facilities such as road networks, to be used and managed more efficiently and vehicles to increase autonomicity and safety. Other applications of ITS have narrowed down to transport services offered at individual levels (e.g. Mobile Apps) which rely heavily on data gathered from sensors.

Today, ITS are pervasive in a number of transport sectors and are typically deployed in road, rail, inland navigation, maritime, air transport systems as well as supporting infrastructures such as in multi-modal journey planners, information systems that support users, technology that supports autonomic systems, systems that enhance safety and decision support systems for management and policy. The breadth of uses of ITS has grown considerably, even though many, including the European Commission, believe there is much more potential and innovation to create new services and support further the policies and targets for the transport sector.

One sector that has yet to see the full impact of ITS is the use of privately owned cars and car use. ITS promise to transform the current status quo in personal transport into the twenty first century necessity, that include efficient real time and customer oriented services. As a case study we will show how ITS enables the efficient and real-time delivery of personal Demand Responsive Transport (DRT) systems, rendering these systems a potential sustainable solution. One that addresses congestion and parking problems which currently contribute to major external economic costs stemming from impacts such as air pollution, accidents and noise in cities across Europe and beyond. Coupled with the right policies, DRT systems have been shown to ease the demand on parking in congested areas, while guaranteeing a competitive travel time [5].

The rest of the article is organised as follows; section two discusses and summarizes some services promised by ITS; section three provides an analysis of DRT systems as compared to other systems and discusses the technological framework that is required to enable the delivery of personal

DRT systems; the paper concludes with a summary on the potential of a well balanced personal transport policy.

2 INTELLIGENT TRANSPORT SYSTEMS ITS are essentially real-time ICT systems that gather information and take decisions in the allocation of resources that are typically shared in a transport system. Such resources include parking spaces, roads, and shared vehicles, such as trains, buses, taxis and shared car ownership. The private car is usually excluded from the latter list, unless owner is offering rides. Furthermore ITS services can be split into three types; (a) Information services, such as parking availability, public transport timetables, taxi services and congestion or traffic flow data; (b) infrastructure, such as junction control, priority traffic, road and parking charging, and (c) mobile resource control, such as taxi dispatch, route management and comprehensive journey planners and booking.

Junction control, including, priority traffic is by far the default ITS application that most would think of and is deployed to increase capacity without the addition of further physical infrastructure. Junction control aims at increasing efficiency at junctions, thus alleviating queues and reducing travel times, while priority traffic gives precedence to for example buses and taxis. The latter has an effect on junction efficiency and the two are thus related. ITS at junctions adapt the traffic–light timings to respond to varying traffic conditions.

More advanced systems would link junctions together (e.g.

SCOOT systems). The maximum theoretical throughput that can be reached at a junction is limited by the behavior of the human drivers, who are characterized by a considerable mean response time and variance, and by the physical infrastructure in place.

On the other hand road usage, congestion and parking charging policies are implemented as an attempt to balance the demand over time and to support policies such as the polluter pays principle or more specifically to encourage shift to other modes. ITS would automatically predict demand and adjust pricing of resources accordingly. The information systems within ITS would communicate prices and other decisions to users.

Car sharing is a system that is useful to decrease car ownership, and therefore parking demand. The idea is that a user joins a car sharing club for a nominal yearly fee. The user then books time slots and is charged accordingly. In this way the resource, is used more often. ITS promises to develop this system further, nationally and internationally. Comprehensive journey planners are projected around the latter concept, where a user travels to the train station or airport by car, takes the train or plane and the car is replaced by another one at the destination. This concept will also change carhire as we know it today. This requires different ICT systems to talk together and negotiate between them and most of the technological research and innovation is on interoperability aspects.

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Intelligent Transport Systems: Potential for Technological Innovation and Policy Support Continued

transport, and a better quality of life. This system invariably is ICT driven, and in the following sections we will highlight the technological innovation required to realize the system.

Figure 1: Components in a Demand Responsive Transport System.

3 DEMAND RESPONSIVE TRANSPORT The taxi service (TS), private car use (PC) and public transport systems (PTS) are the three dominant on-demand motorized personal transport systems in use. The TS offers a personalized door-to-door service at a high cost while the PC offers a personalized service but requires the financial and social cost of parking spaces at each and every destination and the financial cost of owning and maintaining a car, which is not used for most of the time. On the other hand the PTS is a low-cost non personalized service that requires the passengers to organize their life around the time table and route provided. PTS also results in the longest trip time when priority over traffic is not granted along the route. On the other hand DRT systems lie in between the extremes provided

by TS and PTS. The DRT system is a shared mode, where passengers share the vehicle with other passengers during their personalized trip. The DRT concept is not new and operators, usually in isolation, provide shared taxi and minivan services to and from specific spots, such as airports and other well frequented venues. Such systems are manually operated and are mostly found in developing countries where other organized services are lacking.

Recently DRT systems have been reconsidered in an upto-date ICT and ITS setting mainly to provide the last mile connection in low-density suburban areas and also in protected inner city areas. A number of studies have been carried out in Europe, mainly through the EC-funded SAMPO and SAMPLUS projects in the late 90s, which were followed by the implementation of trials in specific cities, for example Florence [3] and Braga [4]. Most of these systems were semiautomated, ran a small fleet and resulted in high operating costs that required subsidies [1,2]. More recently, a fully automated system that provides origin-to-destination services over a closed service area of 100km2 have been studied by the authors to determine the non-subsidised cost to the end user [5]. The results show that a well planned DRT system can support a policy that aims at sustainable and efficient

The target of the research carried out in [5] was to study whether a DRT system can compete with the private car in terms of Levels of Service in Malta’s mobility and accessibility environments. The system therefore needs not only to keep delays in performing tasks such as dispatching, payment, and demand registration to a minimum, but also to provide a safe, comfortable and non-intrusive physical environment. The system therefore calls for a high tech solution, comfortable vehicles, use of smart mobile phone and cellular communications networks, routing and scheduling computational algorithms at central office, in-vehicle navigation and communication systems, and electronic payment systems. These components are depicted in Fig.1.

The success of the system largely depends on the efficient deployment of the resources, mainly the vehicles and chauffeurs, to maximize vehicle occupancy and minimize trip and waiting times. In [5] a model, based on studies carried out in [1, 6], is developed to study the relationships between the system variables. In summary, scheduling in urban areas recognizes patterns that look like pre-determined corridors or paths. The model treats DRT scheduling and dispatch over a large urban area as a collection of time varying routes. Fig. 2 depicts an example of a single pick-up/drop-off path and a snap shot in time of a number of paths across the whole service area.

The study in [5] concludes that a last mile connection service in Malta is not feasible, since it triples the cost of a PTS trip.

However a full origin-destination DRT service is highly likely to be successful in terms of financial cost to the end-user as well as in mitigating PC ownership and related social and environmental problems. Fig.3 compares the costs in owning, maintaining and using a PC, to using a DRT service for everyday tasks. The data for the DRT service is shown as an upper and lower bound, referring to a system where the mean occupancy varies from two to four and an increase in trip time of 10-40%. The data for the PC is given for a small car with and without a daily flat charge of â‚Ź3.00 for the provision of parking. It is clear that the DRT service provides a good financial incentives for commutes that are less than 10km in length. The service is even more feasible when considering parking charges.

Figure 2: Time varying paths or routes in a demand responsive system

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Intelligent Transport Systems: Potential for Technological Innovation and Policy Support Continued

REFERENCES

Figure 3: A comparison of yearly total cost for the private car ownership and use and DRT door-to-door service.

Table 1 gives a comparison of how vehicle emissions per passenger from TS, PC and DRT services compare [7]. The emissions are based on fuel only, and emissions during manufacturing and maintenance are not included. This is done to compare perceived costs of car use by drivers, who generally identify fuel as the main cost factor in their journeys.

Considering passengers travelling on their own, the DRT service guarantees minimum emissions, whilst a PC that is occupied by 4 people for the duration of the trip results in the lowest emissions. In the latter case the requirement of parking, which needs to be taken into consideration in a quality of life metric, is ignored.

5 CONCLUSIONS Delivering intelligent transport systems that will transform transport to user oriented services, whilst meeting climate change targets and quality of life aspirations requires both the development of interoperable innovative technological systems and the political will to implement policies that help reach the targets. The importance of the right policies at the right time can and will have significant implications on the development of complementary and efficient transport services. It is clear that tighter restrictions on the use of the car (e.g. effective road and parking pricing) alongside policies that encourage not only the development of new and innovative systems, but also the diffusion and uptake of services, will be necessary.

The successful bridging of the gap in between existing transport systems will result in less demand for parking leading to more open space, less congestion leading to less pollution and shorter trips, and an increase in accessibility and mobility for those who do not drive or own a car. This is only possible by leveraging on innovative ICT solutions.

Vehicle Capacity Mean

Type Excl Driver Occupancy

P. Car (S) 4 1.00

P. Car (M) 4 4.00

Taxi 3 0.65

Taxi Pool 3 1.00

DRT 7 2.00

DRT 7 3.00

DRT 7 4.00

Gross Emiss Emiss /pass g/km 160 160 200 50 230 353 230 230 310 155 310 103 310 77

[1] Nelson, J. et al. (2010) Recent developments in Flexible Transport

Services. Research in Transportation Economics 29: 243-248.

[2] Enoch, M. et al. (2004) Exploratory assessment of innovations in

Demand Responsive Transport services – Intermode. Final Report.

DfT and Greater Manchester Passenger Transport Executive.

[3] Ambrosino et al. (2004) Demand Responsive Transport Services:

Towards the Flexible Mobility Agency, Rome: ENEA [4] Ribeiro, P. and Rocha, V. (2013) Flexible public transport in low

density urban areas. Recent Advances in Engineering Mechanics,

Structures and Urban Planning. WSEAS Press.

[5] Muscat, A., Attard, M., and Scerri, K. (2013), “The feasibility of

a Dial-a-Ride Dynamic Shared Taxi System - A case for Malta”.

Presented at the RGS-IBG Annual International Conference,

London 28-30 August.

[6] Chandra, S., and Quadrifoglio, L., (2013), "A Model for Estimating

the Optimal Cycle Length of Demand Responsive Feeder Transit

Services," Transportation Research, Part B, 51, 1-16 [7] Muscat, A., and Attard, M., Quantification and Comparison of

Pollution Generated by a Door-to-Door Demand Responsive

Transport System”, WCTRS SIG G3 – Urban Transport Planning and Policy, Valletta, Malta 13-14 April 2015

Prof. Inġ. Adrian

Muscat

Prof. Adrian Muscat is currently employed as an associate professor and head of department at the Faculty of ICT, University of Malta.

His academic research and didactic activities span the areas of computer modelling and simulation, optimisation and pattern recognition. He is currently carrying out and supervising research in transport, probabilistic grammatical models in vision and language, and intelligent tutoring systems.

Prof. Maria

Attard

A geographer by training, Maria Attard has been the Director of the Institute for Climate Change and Sustainable Development since 2009 and has published extensively in the area of sustainable mobility. She completed her PhD at UCL and then worked as a consultant to Government on transport between 2002-2009, implementing a number of national projects in Malta. She now coordinates the transport research group within the Institute and is particularly interested in research on transport modes, mobility behavior and patterns, policy, parking and road pricing, and transport and climate change. She is an Associate Professor in the Department of Geography within the Faculty of Arts and services and collaborates with various Faculties and Institutes within the University of Malta. She is also active in international fora such as the World Conference on Transport Research Society (WCTRS) and the Network on European Communications and Transport Activities Research (NECTAR).

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Electric Transportation Impacts on Vehicle Design Elaine Marie Ellul, Brian Azzopardi* Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Malta College of Arts, Science and Technology (MCAST) *Corresponding Author brian.azzopardi@mcast.edu.mt

ABSTRACT Transport electrification is promising for small states where the average daily travelling distances are less than 50km. A developed SIMULINKÂŽ electric vehicle (EV) model is presented. The potential of EVs is discussed through a sensitivity analysis where the design, type and parameters of the EV are assessed. A critical evaluation of energy recovery on the type of vehicle is also performed. Finally, the paper summarises the most influential parameters on the EV depth of discharge (DoD). Further research is suggested to investigate the trade-off between the design parameters for future EVs. Keywords Electric Vehicle (EV), Depth of Dis-charge (DoD), Transport Electrification

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1 INTRODUCTION Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles (ICEVs), are still holding the majority worldwide vehicle parc, burning fossil fuels as their main energy source. Transport Electrification is the long term solution to the growth in vehicle parc growth and its associated emissions. The main contribution to this is that electricity allows for much greater flexibility in the electricity source such as renewable and clean energy sources as well as an increase in energy delivery [1].

By 2050, Malta emissions from transport, including aviation but excluding maritime, are set to decrease down to 67% compared to 1990 emissions. Meanwhile the EU has set the 2020 average CO2 tailpipe emissions target to 95gCO2/km which is a significant challenge when the 2009 actual average CO2 tailpipe emissions stood at 145.7gCO2/km [2-4].

Research and development as well as OEM available EVs have significantly increased. However the battery technology have still limitation such as cost and range. While the range is not an issue for small states where the average travelling distances are less than 50km, the battery costs is. Malta qualifies for this small island state category. In fact, a big upfront capital and regular capital cost makes EVs relatively more expensive to buy in relation to similar ICEVs even though the running operation may be more advantageous.

The aim of the paper is to perform parametric manufacturing analysis on a developed EV model based on SIMULINK®.

Special attention is given to the size and use of the vehicle such as domestic, bus or scooter.

2.1 Initial parameters The initial parameters for this paper are as set as below.

The US Urban Drive Cycle is used forthe analytical analysis.

The rolling resistance coefficient is set at 0.005. The tyres are assumed to be specifically well designed for low resistance, and hence the coefficient is set at an ideal low value, with typical values ranging from 0.005 to 0.015.

The area of the car is set at 1.9992m2, the car having width of 1.324m and height of 1.510m. Typical ranges vary from 0.5m2 for scooters to 6m2 for buses.

In fact, the shape of REVA EV is not considered to be one of its strengths. For this reason, the drag coefficient is set at 0.6, with typical values ranging from 0.18 for very well designed electric vehicles to 0.7 for buses.

The mass, as per specifications, with the lead acid batteries included, is set at 700kg. In the later iteration which includes lithium-ion batteries, the mass is 565kg. Lithium-ion technology contains much more power per kilogram as shown in Table 1. Hence less mass of lithium-ion cells is needed for an adequate range than what is required by lead acid batteries. The mass of the passengers is set to 227kg, simulating a family of 2 adults and 2 children. Hence, the total mass is equal to the mass of the car added to the mass of the passengers. Therefore, the total mass is set at 927kg for the lead acid battery pack version and 792kg for the lithiumion battery pack iteration.

The gear ratio is set to 38 with transmission efficiency of 0.95.

The paper is structured as follows. In Section 2, the parametric analysis of the developed model to obtain a close to a reallife understanding on EVs and their manufacturing features that effect performance. A sensitivity analysis was performed on a typical domestic, scooter and bus and the results are discussed. Finally, in Section 4, the main conclusions are presented.

2 PARAMETRIC ANALYSIS The EV model is based on a full battery EV such as the REVA electric vehicle that was the first in Malta with a fleet of about 20 EVs [5, 6, 7]. In fact, in this paper we are considering two types of battery packs (i) the lead acid type as a low cost, short range alternative and first version of REVA, and (ii) lithium-ion varieties representing a higher cost but significantly higher range option. Table 1 shows the average performance and estimated costs of these battery packs technologies.

Battery Specific Specific Number of Approximate Large scale Type Energy Power Cycles down cell cost production

to 80% DOD cost

Wh/kg W/kg €/kWh €/kWh Lead acid 35 150 1000 100 57 Lithium-ion 120 250 1000+ 429 186

Table 1: Average performance and estimated costs of lead acid and lithium-ion battery technologies [8 - 10].

The accessories power will be set at 250W. This is the constant power drawn from the battery for items like lights and fans.

Regenerative braking is active in this car with the ratio set at 0.3, which means that 30% of braking is done by the kinetic energy recovery system using the motor, in turn creating addition energy to be stored in the batteries, helping to extend the range of the vehicle.

As for the lead acid battery, every 3 cells contain a voltage of 6V and the full battery consists of 24 cells with a capacity of 200Ah. The Internal resistance is 0.022Ω per cell for 1Ah cell and a little allowance of 0.01 is added to make allowances for connecting leads. The peukert coefficient is set at 1.12 which is typical for a good lead acid battery.

The efficiency of the motor and its controller are usually considered together, as it is more convenient to measure the efficiency of the whole system. The motor efficiency varies considerably with the rotational speed, Torque and also motor size. A typical motor efficiency graph is shown in Figure 1 considering 0.3 copper losses coefficient, 0.1 iron losses coefficient, 0.00005 windage and friction losses coefficient and 600 constant electronic losses. Maximum efficiency is achieved at the maximum speed. The lower the speed, the lower the

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Electric Transportation Impacts on Vehicle Design Continued

efficiency is of the motor. At very low speeds, efficiency rises directly proportional with a steep gradient.

Using the above initial parameters, the Depth of Discharge (DoD) for one US Urban Drive Cycle is calculated at 5.365%.

The DoD is the fraction of the battery capacity used. The US Urban Drive Cycle is 3,098m long. To calculate the travelling range for full one charge cycle the following formulae is applied: Range = 0.9

DODn

*

Distancen. (1)

where DoDn is the depth of discharge, Distancen is distance travelled in one cycle, and 0.9 is the 90% DoD for one charge cycle. Discharging batteries to 100% damages the battery cells and also creates range anxiety.

Therefore, using (1), the range of the vehicle under initial parameters is 51.97km which is a typical leadacid REVA EV with no economic drive function.

Figures 2 shows respectively the velocity, torque and power along the drive cycle, a systematic study of all the vehicle system. Torque is highest when acceleration is highest.

When regenerative braking is active, during deceleration and braking, torque and power are negative. During this time, power is generated to the battery pack. The power input to the motor is slightly higher than the power required since the motor is not 100% efficient. In turn, the battery power used is again a slightly higher than the power input to the motor since some losses are incurred in the transfer from the battery to the motor. However during regenerative braking, the power inputted into the battery is less than that generated by the motor.

2.2 Parameters variation The parameters variation study provides a deeper understanding on (i) the effect of different drive cycles and/or driving habits, (ii) the effect of accessories load, (iii) the effect of rolling resistance, (iv) the effect of aerodynamic drag, (v) hill climbing effect, (vi) effect of mass and (vii) the effect of regenerative braking.

The effect of different drive cycles which may represent the effect of driving habit was conducted by comparison between the US and the EU Urban Drive Cycle. The range resulted with an increase to 66.77km with EU Urban Drive Cycle from 51.97km. The EU Urban Drive Cycle has smoother accelerations and decelerations than its US counterpart, as shown in Figure 2. This means that a change in driving habit may increase the range and have a significant effect. In fact, EVs are mostly equipped with Economic Drive Mode that allows limited acceleration and Drive performance indicator for drivers’ ability to drive most efficiently and ‘green’.

The effect of the accessories load from 250W to 0W resulted in the range being extended by 2.96km. No accessories load is unrealistic, however it is still notable that a 250W load change may result in 5% range increase.

The effect of rolling resistance from 0.005 to 0.015, have an impact of approximately 20% in range decrease. Therefore, having top range well inflated tyres is fundamental for optimum range in an EV car. The default value was chosen low as most EV have specifically designed tyres as was the case with the REVA EV. The default drag coefficient equal to 0.60 as the original REVA EV aerodynamics are quite lacking. Changing the drag coefficient to 0.32, the range would increase by 10.952km,

Figure 1: EV Developed Model: Motor Efficiency Curve, US Drive Cycle, Torque Required, Power Required.

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Electric Transportation Impacts on Vehicle Design Continued

Figure 2:

Figure 3:

EU Drive Cycle (m/s).

Domestic EV Energy Sensitivity Analysis.

which is equal to approximately 25.8%. Similar to the rolling resistance, the aerodynamics drag is pivotal for manufacturers.

The standard drive cycles do not include any hill climbing and assume that all driving is done on a flat road. Changing the slope from 0 to 2 degrees continuous, which is a very modest slope, results in about 32.6% decrease in range.

However, considering that an uphill slope will be a downhill slope on the return, the effect will be much smaller. Doing two simulation runs, first one a 3 degree uphill slope, second one a 3 degree downhill slope, have 1% minimal impact in range decrease.

The total mass of the car includes several masses, including the battery pack, the payload that is driver and passengers, the vehicle and other items. Changing the total mass by reducing the payload from 927Kg to 770Kg results in the range increase by over 25%. In itself, this also reflects the importance of the battery pack. Increasing the battery pack with same technology would require more energy. Using suitable lightweight materials may result in a considerable reduction in a vehicle’s weight.

(a)

(b)

In fact the second REVA iteration with lithiumion batteries perform much better due to technology advances as well as weight reduction. The range increases from 53.332km to 81.574km, an increase of 28.242km or 52.96%. This overwhelms all other changes in parameters and underlines why so much attention is being put on battery technologies to improve EVs’ range. Lithium-ion batteries are nowadays the main battery technology used in EVs and while they are still expensive, they will now be increasingly attractive as demands increases in many other sectors including automotive. In fact, Tesla is building the Gigafactory and estimates that the cost of lithium-ion batteries to decrease by 30% in the coming years and eventually about 50% by 2020 [11].

The effect of regenerative braking has a positive impact in EV performance. In this case a 50% regenerative breaking resulted in 3% range increase. A 100% regenerative breaking is unfortunately impossible to have for a smooth drive, while a 0% regenerative braking would meet a waste in kinetic energy which may be recovered through the same installed system.

The impact would be larger on slopes which is a natural phenomenon to our roads.

3. SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS Since future EV manufacturing developments in technology and scaleup of manufacture are likely to effect the variable controlling the energy consumption, that is kWh/km, the sensitivity of the energy consumption to these variables, was analysed. Three EV categories namely domestic EV, scooter and bus were analysed. The sensitivity analysis was performed by adjusting the variables from -50% to 50% from the default values as in Table 2.

Parameter Accessories Rolling Resistance Aerodynamic Drag Total Mass Frontal Area Regenerative braking Battery Pack

Domestic EV 250W 0.005 0.6 927 kg 1.9992 m2 30% 200Ah

Scooter EV 250W 0.007 0.75 185 kg 0.6 m2 30% 40Ah

Figure 4:

Table 2:

(a) Scooter EV and (b) Bus EV Energy Sensitivity Analysis.

EV Model default for three vehicle categories.

24

Bus EV 250W 0.01 0.7 2,000 kg 6 m2 30% 500Ah

As seen in Figure 3 a domestic EV have significant impact on aerodynamic drag and frontal area. On the other hand, regenerative braking had the lowest impact.

in today’s vehicles including ICEVs OEM manufacturers are integrating a driver feedback on performance.

REFERENCES

An electric scooter is both smaller and carries less passengers than a car, and hence its mass and frontal area are both smaller than that of a car. Its aerodynamic drag is fairly high due to the situp riding style that is typically used for small scooters. The default scooter model uses a lithium-ion battery pack consisting of 6 cells having a voltage of 12V together and a capacity of 40Ah. As seen in Figure 4(a) an electric scooter have similar impacts on all variables as in a domestic vehicle. However, it has much less contribution from its regenerative braking due to its small momentum.

The default bus model uses a lithium-ion battery pack.

However, in this case, there are 40 cells having a combined voltage of 80V, with a total capacity of 500Ah. An electric bus is the biggest and carries the most passengers.

Hence its momentum while moving is also much higher.

This is reflected in the impact on the regenerative braking which is the most influential in all the three EVs categories as seen in Figure 4(b). The mass and hence the bus payload have also significant factor. Hence route buses may provide an insight towards this variable to optimise a bus network.

On the other hand there may be little way for improvement on the aerodynamic drag and frontal area which are common significant impact variables in EVs. 4. Conclusion In this paper, an EV model was developed and analysed. EVs come with simplified systems of less moving parts, lower maintenance and running costs, in contrary to ICEVs. However, every component of an EV has its own importance and as seen from the results, all different parts make a difference in vehicle energy consumption and hence its full charge cycle range. Accessories, tyres, aerodynamics, vehicle and payload mass, regenerative braking and batteries all have an impact in one way or another. Therefore all separate parameters should be looked at and worked upon. However, it is critical that limited time is used for the parameters that make the smaller differences and more importance and time is dedicated to the parameters that make the bigger differences.

It is widely appreciated that battery packs are the area of concern where very vast improvements and investment is being made. This is due to the fact that battery packs provide the energy and power and represent a substantial share of an EV mass. In addition battery packs are also one of the main capital costs concerns in an EV. Eventually the driving habits may also provide an impact in energy consumption and range. While manufacturers may improve all vehicle parameters, the driver is the ultimate final user and influential in the vehicle performance. In fact,

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[9] Westbrook, M.H., 2007. The electric car. London: The Institute of

Engineering and Technology.

[10] ThermoAnalytics, 2010. Battery types and characteristics [online].

Available from: http://www.thermoanalytics.com/

support/publications/batterytypesdoc.html [Accessed 17 August 2010].

[11] Tesla Motors Inc, “Gigafactory,” Tesla Motors. [Online]. Available: http://

www.teslamotors.com/sites/default/files/blog_attachments/ gigafactory.pdf.

Ms Elaine

Marie Ellul

Ms Elaine Marie Ellul is an MCAST-BTEC Higher National Diploma student at the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Malta College of Arts, Science and Technology. Her research interests are energy consumption and automotive engineering.

Dr Inġ. Brian

Azzopardi

Eur. Ing.

Dr Inġ. Brian Azzopardi Eur. Ing. is Senior Lecturer II at the Malta College of Arts, Science and Technology (MCAST). He has over 15 years’ industry-led academic experience. Worked for Enemalta Corporation high voltage network development and as Consultant on award-winning energy projects. His multidisciplinary works were acclaimed internationally. Since 2011, he was appointed as senior faculty member and retained visiting status in the United Kingdom and Lithuania.

June 2015 ISSUE 51

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BOV 4 SME

taking your business to the next level BOV 4 SME has been specially created to give your business improved access to financing requirements. With a fixed interest rate of 4% for the initial 4 years coupled with our knowledge, experience and nationwide branch network we are ready to talk about building on your business today.

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Loans are subject to normal bank lending criteria and final approval from your BOV branch. Terms and conditions apply. * Fixed interest rate of 4% for the initial 4 years.

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Issued by Bank of Valletta p.l.c. 58, Zachary Street, Valletta VLT 1130 - Malta

31/10/2014 10:19

FINANCING ENERGY EFFICIENCY INVESTMENTS The introduction of the EU’s Energy Efficiency Directive in 2012 and the subsequent implementation of National Energy Efficiency Action Plans in every Member State places increased pressure on Member States to increase their investment in energy saving solutions. Whilst grants can incentivise companies and individuals to invest further in energy saving solutions, the volume of investment that is required to achieve the established targets outweighs the planned budgets allocated to such initiatives both at the national and the European level.

In this context the European Commission has been working with European Member States to develop financial instruments that attract private investment to complement public funds, thereby increasing the pot of funds available to finance energy efficiency investments.

These financial instruments may tap into the European Regional Development Funds (ERDF) which are allocated to the Member States as part of the EU’s regional policy to entice banks to place their own funds to increase investments in energy efficiency.

The Bank of Valletta (BOV) Joint European Resources for Micro to medium Enterprises (JEREMIE) initiative was a European best practice example of such a financial instrument for SMEs. In the case of JEREMIE the Maltese Government placed Euros 10 million of ERDF funds in the form of a guarantee against which Bank of Valletta provided over Euros 60 million of its own funds, thereby assisting over 650 SMEs to finance their investment projects at favourable lending conditions.

A similar model to JEREMIE can be developed for financing the energy efficiency sector. Public funds can be used to develop a financial instrument to incentivise investment in energy efficiency. One such financial instrument which has been developed by the European Commission is called a renovation loan. It uses ERDF funds as a guarantee for banks to provide lending at preferential interest rates together with technical assistance to assist private individuals invest in energy saving solutions in residential buildings. Malta may have the disadvantage of not having the size to develop a financial instrument exclusively on energy efficiency in residential buildings. However if renewable energy solutions are included as part of the eligible activities and the grants provided to this sector are blended with preferential loans, the option to create a financial instrument to increase investment in this sector may be feasible. The feasibility of implementing such a financial instrument for the 2014 2020 programming period in Malta would need to be part of an ex-ante assessment undertaken by the Maltese government.

In the meantime as Bank of Valletta we have developed our own Eco Loan product. It provides preferential lending terms to finance environmental-friendly equipment such as solar water heaters, solar lamps, solar collectors, photovoltaic systems and electric/hybrid cars or motorcycles. For more information on this financial solution, you may access the Bank’s website at https:// www.bov.com/content/eco-loan, or contact BOV Customer Service Centre on 2131 2020.

At a European Union level, the European Commission is taking other initiatives to address the financing gap in the energy efficiency sector. The European Commission and the United Nations Environment Programme Finance Initiative set up the Energy Efficiency Financial Institutions Group (EEFIG). The EEFIG was established in 2013 to address the need to increase the scale of energy efficiency investments across the EU. It is composed of over 120 expert participants coming from public and international institutions together with private financial institutions, where Bank of Valletta is represented.

The working group explored why more investment is not flowing to energy efficiency, despite its evident benefits.

The EEFIG has looked into the drivers of demand and supply of energy efficiency investments in buildings, industry and SMEs. In addition, it assessed different financing streams that can be developed at a European level. Here Bank of Valletta contributed its expertise in this area.

The report by the EEFIG, which was published on 26 February 2015, contains recommendations on a range of actions that could help overcome the current challenges in obtaining long-term financing for energy efficiency.

On the 18th June 2015 the findings of the report were presented during the European Union Sustainable Energy Week in Brussels together with high level speakers sharing their experiences in investing in energy efficiency. The EEFIG report and related information can be found on www.eefig.com Mr. Mark Scicluna Bartoli is the Head of EU & Institutional Affairs at Bank of Valletta and is also responsible for Bank of Valletta’s Brussels EU Representative Office.

Bank of Valletta p.l.c. is a public limited company licensed to carry out the business of banking and investment services in terms of the Banking Act (Cap. 371 of the Laws of Malta) and the Investment Services Act (Cap. 370 of the Laws of Malta).Registered Office:58, Triq San Zakkarija, IlBelt Valletta VLT 1130-Malta Registration Number: C 2833 Bank of Valletta p.l.c BOV Centre, Triq il-Kanun, Santa Venera SVR 9030 - Malta.

T: (356) 2275 7570

Automotive Sealing Challenges Claire Grima Trelleborg Sealing Solutions Malta claire.grima@trelleborg.com

ABSTRACT Rapid development in the global automotive industry is being driven by increasing demands for improved fuel economy and energy efficiency.

Trelleborg seeks to turn these challenges into opportunities; and material engineering excellence for sealing solutions is key to the solution.

This article highlights the effect of suitable material selection on the resistance and lifetime of elastomeric seals used throughout passenger cars in variable service conditions. Reported are test results for new generation fluoroelastomer materials that can withstand aggressive biofuels and the extreme conditions found in modern, energy-efficient fuel injection systems. Material selection for media used in selective catalytic reduction systems that reduce nitrogen oxide emissions from diesel engines is also discussed.

Keywords: elastomers, resistance, energy efficiency, biofuels, emissions.

28

1. INTRODUCTION The global automotive industry is rapidly evolving as environmental consciousness continues to grow and legislation demands become even more stringent [1]. Most effort is done in producing smaller engines which burn leaner mixtures and/or make use of alternative fuels while increasing specific output. This often implies hotter combustion temperatures, higher fuel pressures and more demanding conditions on elastomeric seals.

1.1 Environment Regulations on Exhaust Emissions The main vehicle pollutants emitted into the atmosphere are as a result of an incomplete exothermic reaction between the fuel and the provided air during combustion. The type and level of pollutants is dependent on the fuel source and this is reflected in the vehicle emission regulations in Table 1 which vary for diesel and gasoline engines.

The European emission legislations are a set of defined EU directives [2] which define the permissible limits for exhaust emissions of new vehicles sold in EU member states. The four main pollutants covered by these emission legislations are nitrogen oxides (NOx), particulate matter (PM), carbon monoxide (CO), and hydrocarbons (HC). Table 1 summarises the limits for the latest Euro 5 and Euro 6 standards.

Components running with alternative fuels. Such materials must be able to withstand more chemically aggressive environments due to presence of alcohols or methyl esters in the blended fuel.

Gasoline direct injection (GDI) technology. This technology is being adopted to optimise the burn process in internal combustion engines. Such materials must be able to have good chemical resistance and seal effectively even at very low temperatures, under very high injection pressures.

Selective catalytic reduction (SCR) systems that treat exhaust gas to reduce NOx emissions from diesel engines.

1.2 Sealing Challenges in the use of alternative fuels In a bid to address environmental sustainability, diminishing reserves of fossil fuel resources and legislation demands, a variety of alternative energy sources in the form of sustainable biofuels are being explored. Biofuels are liquid fuels derived from organic matter such as fruits, seeds, biomass and organic residues. Several types of biofuels can be produced this way including alcohols, biodiesel, biokerosene and hydrogen [3].

Such fuels are considered much cleaner than conventional alternatives as they are deemed to be carbon neutral. Biofuels can be blended in small quantities with existing fossil fuels, thus allowing their use in unmodified internal combustion engines. Alcohols, in the form of methanol and ethanol, are added to gasoline, while fatty acid methyl esters are added to diesel.

Three main sealing solutions are explored to meet these vehicle emission and fuel economy challenges. The right materials must be selected for use in:

Tier

Date

Euro 5a Euro 5b Euro 6

Sep-09 Sep-11 Sep-14

Euro 5 Euro 6

Sep-09 Sep-14

Limits g/km CO NOx HC+NOx Diesel Engines 0.5 0.18 0.23 0.5 0.18 0.23 0.5 0.08 0.17 Petrol (Gasoline) Engines 1 0.06 - 1 0.06 -

PM 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.005

Table 1: European emission standards for passenger cars (Category M*), g/km [2] In Otto cycle engines, use of ethanol blended with gasoline has been shown to produce fewer pollutants than gasoline alone [4] due to the presence of molecular oxygenates that result in a more complete burn with lower emissions of CO and PM. In diesel cycle engines, biodiesels made from vegetable oil esters also encourage a more complete combustion than a conventional diesel combustion engine [4].

The level and quality of emissions from biodiesel varies with the source of its constituents. In general, CO and HC emissions are reduced, but a higher presence of NOx emissions is observed, attributed to the higher temperatures generated in the combustion chamber.

The compatibility of sealing materials, particularly fluorocarbon elastomers, commonly used in automotive fuel storage and delivery component hardware, with conventional hydrocarbon fuels is well established [5] [6]. With biofuels becoming an attractive blending constituent for existing fuels, a challenge was set to ensure material compatibility with global flex fuels.

1.3 Sealing challenge in Gasoline Direct Injection systems Vehicle manufacturers have also turned to engine redesign and re-engineering in an effort to increase energy efficiency.

In gasoline engines, focus has been on closing the efficiency gap with diesel engines, in order to deliver comparable power with lower fuel consumption, or increased power with equivalent fuel consumption.

One such main technology is in the fuel injection system.

Gasoline Direct Injection, GDI, injects highly pressurised gasoline directly into the combustion chamber through a common fuel rail line while clean air flows through the intake manifold, without premixing of air and fuel. The result is an optimum swirl effect and improved cooling of the combustion chamber, which in turn enables a higher compression ratio. In this way, less fuel is required to produce the equivalent power output of a conventional port injection combustion system [7]. This makes GDI ideal for downsizing and turbo charging and allows for greater control over operation modes including leaner airfuel ratios.

June 2015 ISSUE 51

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A fresh supply Investing in a reverse osmosis helps you save money while being kinder to the environment, says Karl Vassallo from A&A Mizzi Limited.

Do you have problems storing bulky water containers or plastic bottles in your home or office? Are you throwing away plastic bottles regularly?

Plastic bottles are not sustainable.

When you stop using disposable bottled water, you save money, live healthier, and join a movement for global sustainability. A reverse osmosis system is one clever way of overcoming these problems. A reverse osmosis system provides unlimited amounts of water straight from your tap.

The Canford under sink reverse osmosis is a five-stage water purifying system and comes with a 15-litre plastic kemflo storage tank that fills in just over one hour. The heavy duty pump carries a five-year warranty.

Besides a compact under sink unit, A&A Mizzi Limited also offers other models and capacities even for semicommercial use and locations where larger amounts of purified water are required.

Canford reverse osmosis helps provide unlimited quantities of water - this means making plastic bottles a thing of the past and doing our bit for the environment. Last but certainly not least the installation of a reverse osmosis system in your home or office will help provide you with more water at a small price.

Automotive Sealing Challenges Continued

High pressure fuel pumps and injectors for GDI systems are fitted with several o-rings to prevent leakage of fuel into hot engine compartments. The operating conditions are tough on sealing materials. Besides operating under pressures exceeding 200 bar and up to 350 bar in newer designs [8], orings must also be resistant to the highly aggressive automotive fuels; and be capable of sealing at temperatures ranging from as low as -40°C to as high as 150°C. In such high pressure gasoline applications there is a risk of rapid gas decompression (RGD) or explosive decompression (ED), a failure of elastomeric seals due to the rapid decompression of gaseous media. Elastomers tend to swell when exposed to gases such as carbon dioxide, methane and low molecular weight hydrocarbons at high pressures and elevated temperatures for a sustained period of time. When external pressure is reduced, any gas dissolved within the material comes out of solution, expands and permeates out of the material. If the rate of decompression and gas expansion is high, the trapped gas within the seal expands rapidly and beyond the material’s capability, causing the o-ring to split or crack internally, dramatically reducing seal integrity in nonoptimised elastomers materials.

Failure of elastomers due to rapid decompression cycles increases with the use of particular fluids, increased operating temperature, incorrect seal groove fill, high pressure gradients and the use of non-optimised sealing materials.

Based on these challenges, Trelleborg Sealing Solutions offers a number of sealing materials optimized for biofuel sealing applications including diesel and gasoline fuel connectors, low and high pressure fuel injectors, as well as diesel pumps.

1.4 Sealing challenges in the use of Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) systems The increasingly stringent limits in PM and NOx emissions [2], mean that engine redesign and use of alternate fuels is not sufficient. This is particularly true for diesel and lean burn engines which tend to produce increased NOx emissions due to the higher burn temperatures.

Selective catalytic reduction (SCR) systems are exhaust gas after treatment solutions that are designed to utilise a 32.5% aqueous urea and demineralized water solution, commonly known as AdBlue in Europe. AdBlue, a registered trademark of the German Association of the Automobile Industry (VDA) [9], works as an ammonia source to neutralize the NOx in exhaust emissions of diesel engines.

This ureabased solution is dosed though a separate tank linked to the exhaust system. The optimum temperature and humidity conditions allow for ammonia to form from the urea solution. A hydrolytic reaction then occurs within the SCRcatalyst which converts the ammonia and the NOx in exhaust emissions to harmless nitrogen and water species.

Figure 1: Schematic diagram showing the urea dosing unit in and SCR catalytic converter [9] . urea solution dosing module including in the filter element, pressure and temperature sensors, connectors and control valves. To guarantee the safe transport of these chemicals from their storage tank to the exhaust system, materials must offer chemical resistance to aggressive urea solution and must also be able to withstand the potential swell effect of water.

An additional requirement is cold flexibility of the elastomers down to at least -11oC, at which temperature the urea solution freezes and expands [9].

During the injection of the AdBlue solution into the exhaust gas stream, temperatures in the injectors rise to more than 100°C. The sealing materials must be able to offer media resistance at temperatures up to 120oC, with intermittent spikes of up to 150oC. Due to the high water content of the urea solution, good resistance to steam up to 100oC is also a requirement. This makes non polar polymeric elastomers a good choice for a sealing material.

2. EXPERIMENTAL The testing presented in the following section represents the methodology typically employed to study the effect of fluids on elastomers. All testing fluids are as per specification and testing is carried out under standard and controlled conditions. All compounds are typically used in automotive systems.

2.1 Materials for Fuel Compatibility The performance of several types of fluorocarbon (FKM) elastomer materials in different fuels is presented.

2.1.1 Materials evaluated The compounds evaluated are listed in Table 2 together with their TR10 value. The TR10 value (according to ASTM 1329), describes the temperature at which a sample stretched by 25% or 50% of its original length reaches a 10% recovery after freezing. It also represents a conservative low temperature limit of the material.

A large number of o-ring seals are used throughout the

June 2015 ISSUE 51

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Leading in drainage

Backwater

PROTECTION and LIFTING STATION Lifting stations for installation in concrete slab/floor, underground and free-standing set-ups.

The use of basements to provide further space for accommodation is becoming increasingly important. Frequently, toilets, showers or washing facilities are located in the basement.

For such applications, KESSEL supplies lifting stations for installation in concrete floors. These lifting stations simply disappear in the ground and offer another special advantage. The drain integrated in the cover absorbs all surface water. Even in the event of a pipe burst or leak, the pump discharges water continually over the backwater level.

Aqualift F Compact

Sewage lifting station for the complete basement drainage. Powerful, compact and reliable.

Chamber ready for installation in a concrete floor, with integrated drain function to discharge surface water.

Aqualift F XL

Twin lifting stations for industrial / high volume wastewater disposal. Lifting rainwater which occurs below the backwater level, or for use with a separator. Available with 200, 300 and 450 liter tank volume.

Ecolift

Backwater lifting station for pipes with natural gradient to the sewer. World innovation – the alternative to a standard lifting station with gravity sloped drainage.

• Backwater Valves • Lifting Stations

Grease and Fuel SEPARATION

Water has to stay clean so we are providing clarity.

Oil/fuel separators are used to protect water and sewage systems from soiling through mineral oils. Thanks to the principle of gravity, the almost insoluble mineral components rise to the top of the wastewater on account of their low specific gravity and collect on the surface.

solutions

Operations from small restaurants to large scale food processing plants disposing grease, oils and fats into public wastewater drainage systems are becoming an increasing concern to industry, government and environmental agencies.

Current regulations require the installation of a separation system to separate any type of damaging substance (such as grease, oil, fuel, detergents, heavy metals etc.) from the wastewater effluent.

The KESSEL Company has been in the separation business since 1988 and offers a multitude of sysems design to handle a customer’s specific needs. From the beginning KESSEL has relied on the invaluable advantages of Polyethylene as the material for construction of its separation systems. It’s KESSEL’s extensive background in the plastics and wastewater field that allow us to offer you separation systems to solve your problems.

MADE IN GERMANY

Tower Street, Msida Tel: 2011 7932 info@banjuboutique.com www.banjuboutique.com

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Automotive Sealing Challenges Continued

Ref. 1

2

3

4

5

2.3 Testing Methods

FKM Compound Description TR10 (oC) 66%F, bisphenol cure (B) For diesel and gasoline fuel injectors -15 68.6%F, bisphenol cure (B) -13 For diesel pumps 70% F, bisphenol cure (B) For diesel and gasoline fuel connectors -7 64%F, peroxide cure (P) For diesel and gasoline, -30 low P fuel injectors 65%F, peroxide cure (P) -40 For diesel and gasoline, high P, low temperature fuel injectors

2.3.1 Standard laboratory testing All compounds were mixed using standard laboratory mixing equipment. 2mm test sheets were prepared by vulcanizing the compound blank in the mould for 5 minutes at 177oC. The test sheets were then post-cured in a laboratory oven according to the material type requirements.

The compatibility of the compounds selected with the media was assessed by conducting:

Table 2: Table showing compound information for evaluated FKM materials %F = fluorine content by weight 2.1.2 Fuels evaluated The fuels selected for testing are listed in Table 3 and represent typical automotive fuels for both gasoline and diesel engines.

Test Fuel

FAM B M15 E22 F E85 Fuel C

Diesel B30

Description Gasoline based biofuels 84.5% FAM A, 15% methanol, 0.5% water Fuel C with 15% methanol uel C with 22% ethanol Fuel C with 85% ethanol 50% toluene, 50% isooctane Biodiesel EN590 Diesel with 30% RME biodiesel

Hardness measurements (ASTM D2240) Stress strain measurements (ASTM D412) Fluid Immersion tests (ASTM D471)

2.3.2 Further testing For evaluation of material suitability for biofuels and for high pressure direct injection systems, further testing to simulate the high pressure in gasoline systems was carried out.

Tests were conducted on o-rings assembled onto test equipment replicating a high pressure fuel injector operating at a pressure of 150 bar. The o-ring was in contact with pressurized fuel from one side and aged for 22 hours at 60oC. The pressure was then reduced to atmospheric pressure within one second and the orings inspected visually.

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Table 3: Media evaluated RME = Rapeseed oil, methyl ester 2.2 Materials for SCR applications For materials suitable for AdBlue applications, a number of compounds with different polymer types were evaluated.

2.2.1 Materials evaluated Table 4 lists the selected materials together with their typical working temperature range and their reported TR10 value.

Ref. Type Compound

Description

6 EPDM Ethylene propylene

diene terpolymer 7 AEM Ethylene acrylic

copolymer 8 HNBR Hydrogenated

acrylonitrile butadiene polymer 9 FKM Fluorocarbon

elastomer 10 FFKM Perfluoro elastomer

3.1 Testing in gasoline fuels Figure 2 shows the effects of biofuels typically used in gasoline engines, tested for 168 hours at 60oC. FAM B is a test fuel commonly used in Europe and is considered to be quite aggressive. It is also closest comparable to M15, Fuel C blended with 15% methanol. Fuel C represents regular gasoline.

For low pressure systems, the key issue is swelling of the sealing material and its subsequent loss of properties.

Typical TR10 (oC) temperature range (oC) -45 to +120 -42 -40 to +175

-38

-40 to +150

-36

-15 to +200

-12

-20 to +170

-18

Table 4: Table showing compound information and temperature range for evaluated materials for SCR

Figure 2: 2.2.2 Fluids evaluated The materials were all tested in 32.5% aqueous urea and demineralized water solution.

Change in volume swell properties after immersion in gasoline fuels

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Automotive Sealing Challenges Continued

decompression (referred to as Optimised FKM) no failures were detected. M15 is confirmed to have a more aggressive effect on the elastomer materials compared to E22, as evident from failure of the improved FKM in M15 but not in E22 biofuel.

Table 5: Rapid decompression testing on standard FKM material, BF-1 type

From the results, it is apparent that methanol based blends (M15 and FAM B) are much more aggressive compared to ethanol based blends (E22 and E85) with values reaching up to 20-40 % volume swell in Compounds 1-5. An ethanol blend ratio of 22% (E22) is also more aggressive than 85% (E85).

For bisphenol cured compounds (Compounds 1 to 3), fluorine content is seen to have the highest effect on fuel resistance.

This improved resistance due to higher F content, contrasts with decreased low temperature performance as indicated by the respective TR10 values in Table 2.

For peroxide cured compounds (Compounds 4 and 5), apart from higher F content, the substitution of hydrogen by oxygen in the polymer backbone also has the effect of reducing volume swell [5] without affecting the low temperature performance. Low temperature performance is an important performance requirement in fuel injection systems.

3.1.1 Further testing in gasoline fuels Table 5 shows the results of internal rapid decompression testing at 150 bar at 60oC for 22 hours. A standard FKM material was assembled onto test equipment replicating a high pressure fuel injector and tested in conventional gasoline (Fuel C) and in biofuels (M15, and M100).

Table 6 confirms that for use in high pressure fuel systems, an optimised compound formulation must be used. The results further reconfirm the importance of service testing in addition to laboratory testing when evaluating material suitability.

3.2 Testing in diesel fuels Diesel fuels present different challenges than gasoline based fuels. Figure 3 illustrates the test results for the selected compounds aged in diesel and in B30 biodiesel (diesel with 30% RME) for 336 hours at 150oC. Figure 3 shows that the volume swells in both conventional diesel and B30 biodiesel are well under 10%, significantly less than noted for gasoline and gasoline blends in Figure 2.

Additionally, mechanical properties and hardness changes after aging were reported in studies to remain at typical performing level [5].

The challenge lies in the fact that biodiesel fuels are more hygroscopic than conventional diesel with water being a common contamination in biodiesel particularly [10].

Figure 3: Change in volume swell properties after immersion in diesel fuels Figure 4 compares the effect of water contaminated biodiesel to non contaminated biodiesel. This water contamination causes hydrolysis of the esters present in biodiesel, forming carboxylic acids which attack the polymer via dehydrofluorination leading to a change in physical properties and subsequent swelling [10]. This is evident for Compounds 1 to 5 in water contaminated B30 (Figure 4).

Under these conditions, the non-optimised material shows rapid decompression failure in the more aggressive biofuels when compared to conventional gasoline in Figure 5. The failure is observed as internal cracks through the elastomeric seal [10]. This is due to the higher polarity and smaller size of the alcohol molecules in the biofuels which more readily diffuse into the elastomers [5]. This causes an increased swell and a large enough reduction in mechanical properties to result in oring damage during rapid decompression.

Two further compounds based on the same FKM polymer with improved fuel resistance were also assembled onto test equipment replicating a high-pressure fuel injector and tested in M15 and E22 biofuels. One of the compounds was further optimised and specially formulated for a rapid decompression environment. The results are shown in shown in Table 6.

In the compound specifically formulated to withstand rapid

34

Table 6: High pressure decompression testing showing improved performance of optimised formulations

Figure 3:

Figure 5:

Table showing compound information and temperature range for evaluated materials for SCR

Change in material properties after immersion in 32.5% urea-water solution

Results show a significant volume swell for bisphenol cured FKMs (Compounds 1, 2 and 3) while peroxide cured FKMs (Compounds 4 and 5) performed best. Bisphenol cured FKMs exhibit worse performance than peroxide cured FKMs due to the presence of metal oxides in the compound formulation.

The carboxylic acids formed from the esters in biodiesel in the presence of water can coordinate to the metal oxide surface in the bisphenol cured FKM forming carboxylate salts. These act as phase transfer agents aiding dehydrofluorination of the polymer [10], causing the characteristic swelling in the degraded material.

3.3 Testing in SCR media Figure 5 shows the performance of different Trelleborg compounds after ageing in a 32.5% urea solution at 120oC for 1000 hours.

At temperatures of around 120oC, ammonia forms from the disintegration of the urea solution and this attack polymers initiating de-polymerisation.

Compound 9, a base-resistant fluorocarbon material is immediately destroyed by the chemical attack and exhibits significant swelling and reduction of mechanical properties.

Compounds 7 (AEM) and 8 (HNBR) exhibit excellent media resistance with low volume swell and little loss in mechanical properties, making them also good choices for urea solution applications.

Compound 6 (EPDM) exhibits excellent resistance to urea water solution up to 120oC with minimal swelling and changes in mechanical properties. EPDM is a polymer with a non-polar polymer backbone making it ideal for the polar urea water solution. This makes the EPDM material a primary choice for Adblue applications. However, a limitation of this compound is its use at even higher temperatures. In such cases, especially when temperatures reach beyond 120oC, AEM (Compound 7) and HNBR materials (Compound 8) are preferred.

Compound 10, a specially formulated FFKM material offers outstanding chemical resistance to ureabased solutions, even at temperature of 150oC. However, the high price of the raw polymer and the poor cold flexibility (TR10 = -18oC) limits its suitability in this application which ideally requires a low temperature performance of up to -20oC. 4. CONCLUSIONS This article highlights how design and development to meet environmental sustainability demands can provide several material challenges for sealing requirements.

For biofuels, a need for sealing materials with excellent fuel resistance is required due to the more aggressive nature of blended fuels than conventional fuel. Standard laboratory tests indicate that typical FKM compounds are compatible with biofuels.

Figure 4: Change in volume swell properties after immersion in water-contaminated biodiesel

Results further indicate that when engineering fuel systems, it is critical that the sealing material of choice is correctly formulated. Also, performing tests that simulate service conditions is critical to ensure maximum service life and

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Be Smart, Meet Here Dine I Relax I Celebrate

call:

2164 6666

www.SmartCity.ae/Malta

Automotive Sealing Challenges Continued

sealing performance. In this case, optimised materials from Trelleborg provide an effective choice.

Furthermore, Trelleborg Sealing Solutions is also active in developing materials which exhibit sufficient media resistance to urea-based water injection application in the treatment of diesel vehicle emissions.

[10] G. Micallef, “Elastomer selection for bio-fuel requires a systems approach,”

Sealing Technology, vol. 2009, no. 1, pp. 7-10, 2009.

[11] E. Thomas, Fluoroelastomer Compatibility with Biodiesel Fuels, SAE Paper

2007-01-4061, SAE International, 2007.

5. REFERENCES

[1] R. J. Pearson and J. Turner, “5.16 - Renewable Fuels: An Automotive

Perspective,” Comprehensive Renewable Energy, vol. 5, p. 305–342, 2012.

[2] “Regulation (EC) No 715/2007,” European Parliament and Council, Feb 2011.

[Online]. Available: www.eur-lex.europa.eu. [Accessed 05 05 2015].

[3] L. Guarieiro and A. Guarieiro, “Vehicle Emissions: What will change with the

use of Biofuel?,” Biofuels - Economy, Environment and Sustainability,

May 2013.

[4] A. Agarwal, “Biofuels (alcohols and biodiesel) applications as fuels for

internal combustion engines,” Progress in Energy and Combustion Science,

vol. 33, no. 3, pp. 233 - 271, 2007.

[5] G. Micallef and A. Weimann, “Biofuel Systems - New Challenges for Sealing

Technology,” in 15th International Sealing Conference, VDMA, Stuttgart,

2008.

[6] R. Stevens, “Fuel and permeation resistance of fluoroestomers to ethanol

blends,” Rubber World, vol. 236, no. 5, pp. 22-26, Aug 1997.

[7] M. Millikin, “Automakers Introduce New Gasoline Direct Injection Engines

at Detroit,” Green Car Congress, 21 Jan 2007. [Online]. Available: http://www.

greencarcongress.com/2007/01/automakers_intr.html. [Accessed 23

Apr 2015].

[8] J. Hammer and R. Busch, “Aspects on injection pressure for diesel and

gasoline DI engines,” in Internationaler Motorenkongress 2014, Wiesbaden,

Springer Fachmedien, 2014, pp. 447-466.

[9] Parker Hannifin GmbH, “Clean Diesel - Sealing materials for AdBlue

applications,” Apr 2009. [Online]. Available: http://www.parker-praedifa.com/

literature/pdf/GB/AdBlue_ODE5004-GB.pdf. [Accessed 9 Feb 2015].

Ms Claire

Grima

Ms Claire Grima received her B. Sc. (Hons.) in Chemistry and Biology in 2009 from the University of Malta and completed specialization in polymer engineering through a M.Sc. degree in Chemistry from the University of Sheffield in UK in 2011. Since then she has been following through her specialization within the Research and Development department at Trelleborg Malta as an industrial chemist; focusing on development and engineering of novel elastomeric materials for sealing solutions in the global automotive and industrial sector.

Professional Waterproofing Solutions, Resin Floors Antoine Bonello from The Resin and Membrane Centre suggests an effective waterproofing solution.

A good waterproofing system costs less than one per cent of the property value, yet damages from water leaks are responsible for 80 per cent of building repairs. There are various types of waterproofing on the market, but which is the right one for our climate?

Nowadays, resin membranes are growing in popularity, offering advantages over previously traditional systems.

In Malta the traditional bitumen carpet membrane is still considered a solution to waterproof our roofs. These products are mainly dark in colour, made from bitumen and covered with gravel. Soon after its application this material starts to harden, loose cohesion and harm the environment due to the evaporation of oils caused by direct sunlight. They also tend to break from the sealed seams when subjected to concrete movements.

Another important effect is the transmission of heat inside buildings due to their colour and properties, elevating considerably the room temperature and creating a hot and humid environment. This occurrence will inevitably result in making more use of air conditioners and an increase in electricity consumption. In our hot country these products

are mostly recommended for use in foundations and in places where there is no direct sunlight.

In today’s world technology moves at a very rapid pace with materials being continuously developed and modified to meet today’s exigencies.

Resins and polyurethane membranes are proving to be the future: they are designed to meet our harsh hot summer and sudden climate change. Their application is simply by roller, brush or sprayed and can be applied easily in corners and obstructed areas. The final result is completely seamless, elastic, resistant to heavy traffic, can withstand direct bonding of tiles if desired and guaranteed to last for years due to their resistance to UV rays.

They are light in weight compared to other materials and can become stronger when they are reinforced with fibreglass type matt 225.

Resin and polyurethane membranes also help to reduce heat intake due to their ability to reflect natural radiation and low heat absorption properties.

A new thermal resin liquid membrane has now been launched on the market with elevated thermal and reflective properties and able to increase solar panels efficiency and intake. A leading producer of these products is NAICI, where they are made with pride in Italy.

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IEEE Region 8 Meeting 2015 Owen Casha

1 INTRODUCTION The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) is the world’s largest technical professional society, and comprises more than 360,000 members who conduct and participate in its activities in 150 countries. Founded in 1884, the IEEE is a non-profit organisation, and through its members is a catalyst for technological innovation. It is a leading authority in a broad range of areas such as computer engineering, electric power, aerospace, consumer electronics, and telecommunications. IEEE publishes 30 percent of the world’s literature in electrical engineering, computers and control technology, and holds more than 300 major conferences and 6,000 local meetings annually. Recognised as essential guides for every industry, more than 800 active IEEE standards are in use today with 700 currently in development.

Map showing the 10 different IEEE regions around the globe. The Malta Section forms part of Region 8.

The IEEE Malta Section was approved on the 8th November 2006, and the first council was elected in January 2007. The IEEE Malta Section has currently around 150 members and forms part of Region 8 which covers Europe, Middle East and Africa, as shown in the map above. One of the roles of the IEEE Malta Section is to participate in the IEEE Region 8 committee meetings held twice a year. For more information about the section and upcoming events being organised, I strongly encourage you to visit our recently launched website: http://ieeemalta.org/.

2 IEEE REGION 8 COMMITTEE MEETING The 104th IEEE Region 8 committee meeting held in Limassol, Cyprus from 28th to 29th March was attended by me as the Malta Section Chair and Prof. Ing. Carl James Debono, who is currently a member of the IEEE R8 Strategic Planning Subcommittee. The meeting actually kicked off on the eve of Friday 27th March with a presentation by the Cyprus Section followed by the signing of a memorandum of understanding between the IEEE Cyprus Section and the Cyprus Technical Chamber. An interesting presentation on digital gaming and their evolution throughout the years was then given. The evening was concluded with a networking reception and dinner, during which a number of awards were presented to various volunteers and Region 8 sections.

In particular, the IEEE Malta Section is proud to announce that Prof. Carl Debono received an award for exemplary service as R8 vice-chair of the technical activities committee (2013-14). The R8 meeting resumed the next day with a number of addresses from the newly elected R8 Director, Costas Stasopoulos, the IEEE President and the IEEE Executive Director. In addition, the Member Activities report and Technical Activities report were presented and discussed.

Marios Antoniou delivering a presentation on the Cyprus Section at the R8 meeting being held in Limassol, Cyprus.

After lunch break a number of interactive workshop sessions were held, during which arising challenges and new opportunities were discussed. In particular, these were all linked to how IEEE may get closer to industry, how to engage engineering students and young professionals and maintain the sections’ vitality.

The evening program consisted of a cultural visit to the ancient city of Courion and a dinner at the Shiambelos Restaurant, which is a Cyprus restaurant with traditional music and dancing. On Sunday 28th March a set of reporting presentations from the different members of the OpCom (operations committee) such as the director, treasurer and secretary were given. In addition, other interesting

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malta engineering excellence

2015

awards

14th Edi�on

The Chamber of Engineers will shortly open the call for nomina�ons in the following categories:

The Maurice Debono Life me Achievement Award The Chamber of Engineers, in memory of one of its founders, Ing. Maurice Debono, offers, on an annual basis, the Maurice Debono Life�me Achievement Award. This is awarded to individuals who have been commi�ed throughout his/her career to the advancement of Engineering and the profession in Malta.

Industrial Excellence Award

Start-up Entrepreneur Award

This award is directed towards organiza�ons or companies who have demonstrated excellence in their engineering work. This can be done through the accomplishment of challenging projects, introduc�on or use of recognized standards, research and development and engineering of new products.

This award is targeted towards engineering professionals who have taken up entrepreneurship in the past 5 years. The reasons behind such an award are the following: a. To promote start-up companies owned by engineers b. To promote the idea of entrepreneurship amongst engineers

Awards ceremony will be held on Friday 4th December 2015.

Further informa�on on the procedure of submi�ng nomina�ons and the event will be announced at a later date.

Reg. No. VO/0167

IEEE Regional 8 Committee Meeting 2015 Continued

Group photograph of all the attendees at the IEEE Region 8 committee meeting held at the Four Seasons Hotel in Limassol.

presentations on upcoming R8 conferences (Histelcon, Africon, Eurocon, Energycon, Melecon) and building technical communities were delivered.

During this R8 meeting, a number of new IEEE ventures were introduced and presented. Amongst these one may mention IEEE Collabratec™ and IEEE Academic. IEEE Collabratec™ is an integrated online community where technology professionals can network, collaborate, and create all in one central hub.

The IEEE Collabratec™ online community offers a suite of productivity tools and is available to technology professionals around the world with exclusive features for IEEE members.

Sign up is free to everyone. IEEE Collabratec™ can help you to:

The IEEE Region 8 attendees at one of the round table sessions.

Connect with global technology professionals by location, technical interests, or career pursuits; Access research and collaborative authoring tools; Establish a professional identity to showcase key accomplishments.

The IEEE Malta Section would like to encourage you to sign up at: https://ieee-collabratec.ieee.org/

Dr Owen

Casha

Dr Owen Casha is an engineer by profession and is currently employed as a lecturer with the Department of Microelectronics and Nanoelectronics, at the University of Malta. His research interests are the design of high speed integrated circuits and RF MEMS. He has been involved in the IEEE Malta Section since 2009, where he occupied the posts of vice-chairman and secretary on the IEEE Section Committee. He is currently the advisor for the IEEE Malta student branch.

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The name TORO 25, chosen for the liquid and gas supply system conceived by A.T.P. s.r.l, visually sums up the qualities of the animal by the same, namely resistance, strength, elegance. TORO 25 belongs to the PN 25 category. The Random Polypropylene, used to produce it, is of the Type 3, characterized by a high molecular weight that

guarantees the system life for over 50 years. It is combined with additives which allow to produce faultless pipes and pipe fittings, ideal for conveying potable liquids under pressure at both high and low temperatures, and such as to successfully pass the tests required by DIN standards and, above all, by DVGW regulations.

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The 2015 Engineering Conference Highlights

This May, the Chamber of Engineers held its 23rd Annual Engineering Conference at SmartCity Malta.

This year's topic of this conference was Energy and Transport: Challenges and Opportunities. Hon. Joe Mizzi, Minister for Transport and Infrastructure gave an opening address to the conference. The conference programme had two invited foreign speakers and ten local speakers from both industry and academic institutions, including two posters exhibition.

The invited foreign speakers were Eur. Ing. Matthew Clarke who presented the required planning for autonomous vehicles, and Dr. InÄĄ. Fulcieri Maltini who presented the evaluation of innovative technologies for energy production.

The submitted articles for this conference are featured in this issue and the coming issues. The conference social programme included the SmartCity Laguna Fountain Show during the lunch break.

The conference was sponsored by Bank of Valletta, Citadel Insurance plc, Methode Electronics Malta Ltd, Electrofix, SmartCity Malta and the Malta College of Arts, Science and Technology. It was also supported by IEEE Malta Section, The Malta Group of Professional Engineering Institutions, Toyota, Enemalta plc and ESI.

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The 2015 Engineering Conference Highlights Continued

The 24th Annual Engineering Conference

The Chambers of Engineers will hold the 24th Annual Engineering Conference in April 2016.

The conference entitled “Intelligent Buildings� will focus on a variety of aspects related to intelligent buildings. Various topics are related to the subject such as innovative building services and building management systems, including but not limited to security, intrusion, fire, telephony and data, light, audio and entertainment systems, remote/automated systems, sustainability related to energy and water consumption, heating, cooling and ventilation, installation of various systems and data centres.

Abstracts for technical and scientific papers are to be submitted by the 18th January 2016. Further details will follow in the coming months. In case of queries please send an email to info@coe.org.mt

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The sun is one of the main sources of energy and most of us love lounging in the sun. It brightens us up, it makes us live life to the full. But too much direct sunlight is not good for us.

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