April 2020 Outcrop

OUTCROP Newsletter of the Rocky Mountain Association of Geologists

Volume 69 • No. 4 • April 2020

The Rocky Mountain Association of Geologists

2020 Summit Sponsors

WE LOOK FORWARD TO PARTNERING WITH OUR SPONSORS!

OUTCROP | April 2020

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Vol. 69, No. 4 | www.rmag.org

OUTCROP The Rocky Mountain Association of Geologists

1999 Broadway • Suite 730 • Denver, CO 80202 • 800-970-7624 The Rocky Mountain Association of Geologists (RMAG) is a nonprofit organization whose purposes are to promote interest in geology and allied sciences and their practical application, to foster scientific research and to encourage fellowship and cooperation among its members. The Outcrop is a monthly publication of the RMAG.

2020 OFFICERS AND BOARD OF DIRECTORS PRESIDENT

2nd VICE PRESIDENT-ELECT

Jane Estes-Jackson janeestesjackson@gmail.com

Peter Kubik pkubik@mallardexploration.com

PRESIDENT-ELECT

SECRETARY

Cat Campbell ccampbell@caminoresources.com

Jessica Davey jessica.davey@sproule.com

1st VICE PRESIDENT

TREASURER

Ben Burke bburke@hpres.com

Chris Eisinger chris.eisinger@state.co.us

1st VICE PRESIDENT-ELECT

TREASURER ELECT

Nathan Rogers nathantrogers@gmail.com

Rebecca Johnson Scrable rebecca.johnson@bpx.com

2nd VICE PRESIDENT

COUNSELOR

Dan Bassett dbassett@sm-energy.com

Donna Anderson danderso@rmi.net

RMAG STAFF DIRECTOR OF OPERATIONS

Kathy Mitchell-Garton kmitchellgarton@rmag.org DIRECTOR OF MEMBER SERVICES

Debby Watkins dwatkins@rmag.org CO-EDITORS

Courtney Beck Courtney.Beck@halliburton.com Nate LaFontaine nlafontaine@sm-energy.com Jesse Melick jesse.melick@bpx.com Wylie Walker wylie.walker@gmail.com

ADVERTISING INFORMATION

DESIGN/LAYOUT

Rates and sizes can be found on page 3. Advertising rates apply to either black and white or color ads. Submit color ads in RGB color to be compatible with web format. Borders are recommended for advertisements that comprise less than one half page. Digital files must be PC compatible submitted in png, jpg, tif, pdf or eps formats at a minimum of 300 dpi. If you have any questions, please call the RMAG office at 800-970-7624.

Nate Silva nate@nate-silva.com

Ad copy, signed contract and payment must be received before advertising insertion. Contact the RMAG office for details.

DEADLINES: Ad submissions are the 1st of every month for the following month’s publication.

The Outcrop is a monthly publication of the Rocky Mountain Association of Geologists

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WEDNESDAY NOON LUNCHEON RESERVATIONS

RMAG Office: 800-970-7624 Fax: 323-352-0046 staff@rmag.org or www.rmag.org

Outcrop | April 2020 OUTCROP

October 27, 2020

RMAG/DWLS Fall Symposium 2020

Call for Papers The Rocky Mountain Association of Geologists and the Denver Well Logging Society are teaming up again to present the 2020 Fall Symposium on October 27, 2020 at the American Mountaineering Center in Golden.

MAXIMIZING VALUE OF CORE AND FLUID ANALYSIS The technical program will be organized topically and will attempt to provide cross-disciplinary collaboration between the two societies. We welcome abstracts in the following categories: • Core facies modeling beyond cored well: capabilities and limitations • Recent improvements in core analysis techniques • Petrophysical calibration using advanced core analysis • Fluid Analysis: Advances & applications to reservoir characterization • Beyond basic core analysis: Geomechanics, wettability, etc.

• New analysis of old cores/cuttings: capabilities and limitations • Case studies, Applications in Modeling, Improvements in reservoir characterization

American Mountaineering Center

We are interested in recent multidisciplinary studies, new core and fluid analysis technology, improved interpretations of core data showing improvements in petrophysical correlation and reservoir characterization, applications of fluid analysis linked to petrophysical interpretations and reservoir characterization, and new insights into petroleum systems using core and fluid analysis in US basins.

We welcome abstracts for the technical talks with a minimum of 500 words and up to a single page in length. Send your abstracts today and join us for the RMAG/DWLS Fall Syposium 2020!

Deadline for abstract submission is May 1, 2020 Authors of accepted abstracts have the option to submit a 4-10 page technical paper with slides for course publication.

email: staff@rmag.org | phone: 800.970.7624 OUTCROP | April 2020

1999 Broadway, Suite 730, Denver CO 80202

Send abstracts to: Ginny Gent ginny.gent@comcast.net

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OUTCROP Newsletter of the Rocky Mountain Association of Geologists

CONTENTS FEATURES

DEPARTMENTS

6 RMAG 2020 Summit Sponsorship

10 RMAG March 2020 Board of Directors Meeting

16 Lead Story: The Powder River Basin: A Persistent Player in Wyoming’s Energy Landscape

14 President’s Letter

34 Mineral Of The Quarter: Amazonite

28 RMAG Luncheon programs: Dr. Brian Toelle 32 RMAG Luncheon programs: Mark W. Longman and Barbara A. Luneau

ASSOCIATION NEWS

42 In The Pipeline

COVER PHOTO

2 RMAG Summit Sponsors

43 Welcome New RMAG Members!

Boulder, Co Photo by Chloe Brashear

4 RMAG-DWLS Fall Symposium Call For Papers 10 RMAG Educational Outreach

44 Advertiser Index 44 Outcrop Advertising Rates

11 RMAG On the Rocks Field Trips 13 RMAG/Mines Practical Python Short Course 15 RMAG Golf Tournament 27 RMAG Data Science Symposium 31 Publish with The Mountain Geologist

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RMAG Summit Sponsorship

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Rocky Mountain Association of Geologists 1999 Broadway, Suite 730 Denver, CO 80202 Phone: 800.970.7624 | email: staff@rmag.org

December 15, 2019 Ladies and gentlemen, First, we’d like to thank the companies that participated as a Summit Sponsor in 2019.

And thank you for the in-kind donations of employee time and meeting space for RMAG meetings and events. Without the support of the Summit Sponsors RMAG could not exist.

In 2019 RMAG put on eight continuing educations classes and seven field trips. Your dollars also support our excellent publications including the monthly Outcrop newsletter, the quarterly Mountain Geologist and our special publications such as Subsurface Cross Sections of Southern Rocky Mountain Basins. Our monthly luncheon talks are a continued success and are often sold out.

For 2020, we have already planned several excellent events including a Data Science Symposium in April, several geologic ‘basics’ classes, and a full slate of field trips. As in the past, our social schedule will include the golf tournament, clay shoot and the Rockbuster’s Ball.

If you are already a Summit Sponsor, we look forward to your continued support in 2020, and you might consider upping your contribution. If you are not already a sponsor, look closely at the many free benefits included with sponsorship.

Please feel free to contact our staff with questions about sponsorship by email: staff@ rmag.org or by phone at 800-970-7624.

We and the staff of RMAG wish you all a successful and prosperous 2020 and look forward to seeing you at our events.

Tom Sperr

Jane Estes-Jackson

2019 RMAG President

2020 RMAG President

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2020 RMAG Summit Sponsorship Platinum, Gold, & Silver Sponsors

Sponsorship Level Contribution Level Benefits Value

Platinum

Gold

Silver

$10,000

$5,000

$2,500

over $8,200

over $4,900

over $3,100

üLarge Logo & Link

üMedium Logo

üMedium Logo

RMAG Website Benefits Company logo on 2020 Summit Sponsor page on www.rmag.org

ü4 articles & 4 large ads ü2 articlesads& 2 medium

Articles and Ads on special Advertisers’ web page

ü4 small ads

Publication Advertising The Outcrop (receive benefits for 12 issues, monthly online publication)* Company logo listed as a 2020 annual sponsor in The Outcrop

ü full page ad

ü 2/3 page ad

ü1/2 page ad

üLarge Logo

üMedium Logo

üSmall Logo

ü

ü

ü

üLarge Logo

üMedium Logo

üMedium Logo

ü

ü

ü

Event Advertising (included for all events except where noted) Company logo looping in PowerPoint presentation Company logo on 2020 Summit Sponsor signage at all events** Opportunity to offer RMAG approved promotional materials

*12 months of Outcrop advertising: In order to receive 12 full months, company logos and ad art must be received no later than the 20th of the month in which you register. If received after the 20th of the month, ad will start in the month following the month after you register, and you will receive 11 total months (e.g., ads received March 25th will appear in the May issue and run through the following March). **All logos and advertising information must be received no later than March 20, 2020, to be included in Summit Sponsor signage. Previous Summit Sponsors need to submit only advertising information.

RMAG 2020 Educational Events†

Platinum

Gold

Silver

Number of registrations for each type of educational event are suggested; however, you may use your registration points for any of RMAG’s 2020 symposia, core workshops or short courses. For example, a Gold sponsor may use 4 of their 6 points to send a group to the Fall Symposium.

Short Course registrations

ü2 ü4 ü4

ü2 ü2 ü2

ü1 ü1 ü1

Total Registration Points

10

6

3

Platinum

Gold

Silver

Symposium registrations Core Workshop registrations

RMAG 2020 Social Events†

Golf and Sporting Clay registration points may be used for RMAG educational event registrations. For example, a Platinum Sponsor may use one of their golf teams (4 points) to send 4 people to a short course.

ü 2 teams of 4 players ü 1 team of 4 players ü 2 individual players

Golf Tournament player tickets Total Golf registration points

8

4

2

ü 2 teams of 5 players ü 1 team of 5 players ü 2 individual players

Sporting Clay Tournament player tickets Total Sporting Clay Points RMAG 2020 Luncheons & Field Trips

8

4

2

Platinum

Gold

Silver

Number of tickets for field trips and luncheons are suggested; however, you may use your tickets for any of RMAG’s 2020 field trips or luncheons.

For example, a Gold sponsor may use all 3 of their points to send a group on a field trip.

Field Trip tickets (may be used for any 1-day field trip during 2020)

ü2

ü1

ü1

RMAG Luncheon tickets

ü3

ü2

ü1

†Registration points may be used for any RMAG educational event. One registration point = one admission ticket to event. Luncheon and field trip tickets are not eligible to use for educational or social events.

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2020 RMAG Summit Sponsorship All sponsor benefit event tickets must meet RMAG event registration deadlines.

All benefits end 12 months after registration.

Discount for Platinum and Gold Sponsorships offered to returning 2019 Summit Sponsors only.

RMAG 2020 Summit Sponsorship Opportunities Platinum Sponsor Gold Sponsor Silver Sponsor

Deadline for sponsorship: January 31, 2020. Specify type of payment on signed form, and send logo to staff@rmag.org by 1/31/2020. No benefits will be provided without payment.

Company: _________________________________________________________________________________________________ Company Representative: ________________________________________________________________________________

Address: ___________________________________________________________________________________________________ City/State/Zip: ____________________________________________________________________________________________

Phone: ___________________________________ Email: __________________________________________________________ Payment by Credit Card Select a card: Amex

M/C

VISA

Discover

Name as it appears on Credit Card: _____________________________________________________________________

Credit Card #: _____________________________________________________________________________________________ Exp. Date: _______________________Security #: ____________________________________________________________

Signature: _________________________________________________________________________________________________ Payment by Check Mail checks payable to RMAG: Rocky Mountain Association of Geologists (RMAG) 1999 Broadway, Suite 730 Denver, CO, 80202

RMAG events are subject to change. Cancellation or rescheduling of events does not give sponsor right to refund. Summit Sponsors will receive benefits at any new events added into the RMAG schedule for 2020.

email: staff@rmag.org

Thank you for your generous support!

phone: 800.970.7624

1999 Suite 730 Denver, CO, 80202 Vol. 69,Broadway, No. 4 | www.rmag.org

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RMAG MARCH 2020 BOARD OF DIRECTORS MEETING

By Jessica Davey, Secretary jessica.davey@sproule.com

everything is on hold. All of the remaining RMAG events for March and April have been postponed or moved online. Keep an eye on the RMAG website for updates regarding changes in schedules and information for events that will be hosted online.

The Continuing Education Committee reported that the March luncheon was great! RMAG has a full lineup of luncheon speakers to fill the 2020 calendar. The Membership Committee is working on putting together a Corporate Ambassador program; stay tuned for details on volunteer opportunities! The Publications Committee has enough content to keep the Outcrop full for the next few months. Thank you for the ongoing submissions! Keep up the good work!

Happy springtime! I hope you all are not going as stir crazy as I am. This working from home business was nice for me for the first few days, but I am looking forward to hanging out with my geo friends as soon as this is over!

The RMAG Board of Directors used the recommended measures of social distancing and met online at 4 pm on March 18th. All of the Board Members were present except for Ben Burke. Treasurer, Chris Eisinger, and Treasurer-Elect, Rebecca Johnson Scrable, reported that February was a strong month for the finances. The RMAG Summit Sponsorship is still off to a good start; please consider participating as a sponsor for 2020 to keep it running steady.

The overarching theme this month is that

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Thin Sections Wanted Do you have thin sections gathering dust in your closet or hiding in a pocket of your thesis? Are your thin sections looking for a new home? The RMAG Education Outreach Committee is creating a thin section library for middle and high school teachers and would like your thin sections. We are willing to drive to you to pick them up.

Please email your information to the RMAG office at staff@rmag.org and someone from the Edudational Outreach Committee will contact you.

Give your old thin sections a second lease on life!

Thank you from the RMAG Educational Outreach Committee

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RMAG 2020 ON THE ROCKS FIELD TRIPS Registration open for 1-day trips; details for 2-day trips coming soon to www.rmag.org Please note that trips may be rescheduled or cancelled based on government guidelines concerning the coronavirus (COVID-19)

May 2

July 25

Corral Bluffs Fossil Trip: The Rise of the Mammals Colorado Springs, CO Trip limit: 30 Sold Out! Contact RMAG to be put on wait list

Florissant Fossil Beds & Fossil Dig Florrisant, CO Trip limit: 20 (family trip) Registration Open

May 16

Cripple Creek/Victor Area Mine Tours Victor, CO Trip limit: 26 (family trip) Registration Open

August 8

Golden Rocks!

The Geology and Mining History of Golden, CO Trip limit: 20 Registration Open

June 27-28

Wyoming Impact Craters Douglas, WY Trip limit: 32 email: staff@rmag.org | phone: 800.970.7624 Vol. 69, No. 4 | www.rmag.org

1999 Broadway, Suite 730, Denver CO 80202

September 26-27

Picketwire Dinosaur Trackway La Junta, CO Trip limit: 30

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BOARD OF DIRECTORS MEETING

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The On the Rocks Committee is waiting to see how long the social distancing will be enforced. Please keep an eye on the RMAG website for information affecting the May field trips. The Educational Outreach Committee reported that the 2020 scholarship applications are now available. Please visit https://rmagfoundation.org/scholarships/ for more information.

As we are all adjusting to the temporary “normal” of working from home, there have been a host of wonderful online resources made available. I have been enjoying the “Skype a Scientist LIVE” (https:// www.skypeascientist.com/) online events this past week. They hosted a session on fossils that my daughter and I both thoroughly enjoyed! USA Today published an article on Social distancing: Six virtual tours you can take if you’re stuck at home. According to the article, there are 2,500 museums and galleries offering virtual tours of their collections; many of these tours are free of charge! The Georgia Aquarium has live webcam feed of many of their animals; the beluga whales (https://www.georgiaaquarium.org/ webcam/beluga-whale-webcam/) are adorable!

What have you been doing to pass the time as we are all urged to self-quarantine?

I look forward to seeing you all in person as soon as everything gets back to normal!

SOURCES:

Murphy, C. (2020, March 16). Social distancing: Six virtual tours you can take if you’re stuck at home.

Retrieved from USA Today: https://www.usatoday.com/story/tech/2020/03/16/social-distancing-free-virtual-tours/5060244002/

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RMAG/Mines Partnership Short Course

Practical Python for Earth Scientists Date: May 20, 2020 Location: Catalyst Health Tech Center (3513 Brighton Blvd, Denver, CO 80216) Instructors: Matthew Bauer, P.G., with breakout sessions from Zane Jobe & Thomas Martin Registration: csmspace.com/events/ practicalpython/registration.cpes Please note: Registration will be handled by Colorado School of Mines’ Continuing Education & Professional Development Department. Contact Learn@mines.edu with questions.

Who is this course for?

This course is tailored for geologists, geophysicists, petrophysicists, petroleum engineers, production engineers, landmen, and anyone else that would like to gain skills in practical python programming, data mining, and machine learning.

While this course will use examples from the petroleum industry, any earth scientist will benefit from learning about geospatial and subsurface data analysis.

Course Goals: •

Introduce the python programing language for the geoscientist.

•

Introduce python libraries that allow integration into other software programs through reading, manipulating, and writing LAS well logs and shapefiles.

•

Provide hands on examples of the application of Data Mining, Machine Learning, and Data Analytics to solve problems faced by a petroleum geologist.

•

By the end of the course students should be able to adapt the provided examples for use with their own data.

Price:

Course registration fee includes Continuing Education Credits through Colorado School of Mines.

email: staff@rmag.org | phone: 800.970.7624 Vol. 69, No. 4 | www.rmag.org

1999 Broadway, Suite 730, Denver CO 80202

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$400 thru 5/4/2020 $450 after 5/4/2020

Regist- https://csmspace.com/ events/practicalpython/ ration: Closes May 18, 2020 fax: 323.352.0046 | web: www.rmag.org OUTCROP | April 2020

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PRESIDENT’S LETTER

By Jane Estes-Jackson

Unexpected Turbulence

As I write this, we are in the throes of the COVID-19 pandemic. The situation is extremely fluid, and the news seems to get worse by the hour. There are still a lot of unknowns and apprehension, but one thing that we do know is that social distancing is the best way to minimize the spread of this virus. As such it will be the new normal for the foreseeable future.

We all must do what we can to keep our communities safe, and that necessarily includes cancelling or postponing many of RMAG’s upcoming events. If you have already registered for a scheduled event you will receive an email from the office regarding your refund options.

We will also be hosting all upcoming committee meetings remotely until further notice. The health and safety of our members and our staff is our highest priority, so please reach out to me if you have additional concerns that you feel need to be addressed.

The RMAG Board and the office staff will continue to closely monitor the situation and make adjustments as necessary. We will continue to post updates to our webpage as changes happen. We appreciate your patience during this unsettled period.

KC Oren

Well Log Digitizing • Petrophysics Petra® Projects • Mud Log Evaluation

President

Denver Office: Brooks Tower 1020 15th Street Denver CO 80202 Postal Address: Frisco CO 80443-0063 Email: KC@GeoStarSolu�ons.com

Bill Donovan

Geologist • Petroleum Engineer • PE

(720) 351-7470 donovan@petroleum-eng.com OUTCROP | April 2020

We are also facing an accompanying economic crisis as a direct result of the pandemic, so this seems like an especially good time to thank our very generous Summit Sponsors. Their funding provides a substantial part of our budget and is critical to the long-term viability of the RMAG. It is even more important during challenging times such as we are currently experiencing. We simply could not offer all of things that we do without their continued support, and I am extremely grateful for it.

This pandemic is unprecedented in my lifetime. We don’t know how long it will last or what the ultimate outcome will be, and right now it is hard to focus on anything else. However, I am hopeful that the measures currently being employed will successfully mitigate the impact, and that we will be able to get back to normal activities in a matter of months, maybe even weeks. My personal motto is plan for the worst and hope for the best. We are resilient and we will get through this, and I look forward to seeing you at future RMAG events. In the meantime, take care of yourselves and your families, and stay safe.

Phone: 303.249.9965 Web: GeoStar.Partners

Lateral Thinking. Experience our Edge!

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Reserve your spot today!

1 :30pm Shotgun At Arrowhead Golf Club Registration includes entry, 18-holes of golf, cart, dinner, and chances to win contest and door prizes.

Register Today!!

Teams of 4 and Individuals are welcome to register.

Be an RMAG Sponsor!

Member Team: $600 Non-Member Team: $700 email: staff@rmag.org

Member Individual: $150 Non-Member Individual: $175 fax: 323.352.0046

phone: 800.970.7624

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LEAD STORY

THE POWDER RIVER BASIN A Persistent Player in Wyoming’s Energy Landscape

A BNSF Railway loaded coal train climbs out of the Powder River Basin in Wyoming as storm clouds build on the horizon.

Photo by Drew Halverson

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FIGURE 1: Wyoming structural map. Source: Dolton et al., 1990

BY COURTNEY BECK (Halliburton), J.C. PINKETT (Halliburton), & MORGAN HORBATKO (Halliburton)

INTRODUCTION The Powder River Basin (PRB) is a north-south trending geologic structural basin located in northeast Wyoming and southeast Montana. Structurally, the basin is bounded to the north by the Miles City Arch, to the south by the Casper Arch, Laramie Mountains, and Hartville Uplift, to the east by the Black Hills, and to the west by the Bighorn Mountains (Figure 1). The basin is named after the Powder River, the primary river draining it. Looking like the set of a John Wayne western, until recently the PRB was better known for its coal production. Like a birthday candle that refuses to be extinguished, the PRB is seeing yet another resurgence in the form of oil and gas exploration brought about through the application of new drilling and completion techniques and technologies (Energy Information Administration, 2014). This article focuses on the PRB’s diverse Cretaceous-Tertiary geologic sequence that provides Wyoming with so much of its energy, from coal to oil to natural gas.

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LEAD STORY

FIGURE 2: Cross section of the Powder River Basin. Source: Anna, 2009.

modern (2000 and later) horizontal wells targeting the Cretaceous formations. Until recently, much of the oil and gas development in the PRB was limited to vertical wells in the higher permeability zones of the Minnelusa/Tensleep, Muddy, Frontier/Turner, Shannon, Sussex, Parkman, and Teapot Formations. While the focus has shifted to include horizontal development of these formations’ source rocks, the Mowry and Niobrara, the original conventional formations still play an important role in the PRB’s energy resources. The following section describes these Cretaceous strata, with emphasis on the conventional vertical plays (Figures 3 and 4).

Although the Pennsylvanian-Permian Minnelusa/Tensleep sandstones are prolific producers, they are part of the Phosophoria petroleum system and not discussed in detail this paper. The majority of production comes from small fields in northern Campbell County, outside the Powder River Basin proper.

» CONTINUED FROM PAGE 17 GENERAL GEOLOGIC SETTING Rapid rates of seafloor spreading and greenhouse conditions during the Cretaceous caused global sea level rise, contributing to the development of the famed Cretaceous Interior Seaway that stretched from the Arctic all the way across the North American interior into the Gulf of Mexico (Weichman, 1965; Hays and Pitman, 1973; Kominz, 1984). Cretaceous-Tertiary formations of the present-day PRB represent marine to nonmarine deposition associated with the rise and fall of the seaway. Sediments were deposited in the east-central part of the greater Western Cretaceous Interior Basin, an asymmetric foreland basin marked by maximum subsidence in the west and relatively lower rates of subsidence in the east (Figure 2) (Dickinson, 2004). During the Late Cretaceous to Tertiary Laramide Orogeny, compressive forces broke apart the Western Cretaceous Interior Basin, forming the intermontane structural basins and adjacent mountain blocks present today (Weimer, 1960). Although some of the Paleozoic PRB formations have been oil and gas exploration targets, the focus of this paper is the Cretaceous hydrocarbon and coal-bearing formations.

CONVENTIONAL VERTICAL PLAYS

The Lower Cretaceous Muddy Sandstone is a prolific oil producer, sourced by the Mowry Shale, with PRB production dating back to the late 1800s. The Muddy comprises marine and nonmarine sandstones, siltstones, and mudstones deposited in fluvial, marine, and estuarine environments (Anna, 2009). The primary producing zones of the Muddy are fluvial and estuarine incised valley fill in the eastern PRB, and transgressive nearshore sandstones in the central-western

OIL AND GAS RESOURCES

Excluding the 23,000 vertical wells drilled during the coalbed methane (CBM) boom, there are approximately 11,000 vertical and horizontal wells in the greater PRB. Of these wells, there are over 1,500 OUTCROP | April 2020

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PRB (Anna, 2009). The majority of the Muddy Sandstone vertical wells were drilled in the late 1970s and throughout the 1980s, with a handful of wells drilled in the 2000s and 2010s.

The overlying Mowry Shale received little attention as a conventional target: fewer than 100 Mowry vertical wells exist in the PRB and most were drilled during the 1970s. However, the Mowry Shale is a popular unconventional target today and will be discussed further in the following section.

A geologic history of the PRB published by the Wyoming Geological Association in 1965 states that only the southwestern part received sediment during Frontier depositional time, with thin sandstone lenses, locally known as the Turner Sandstones, extending across the entire southern half (Weichman, 1965).

This is reflected in the way that operators refer to the formation: well headers reporting the target formation as “Turner” are largely constrained to the south and east regions of the PRB, whereas “Frontier” wells are mainly in the north and west part of the PRB. However, modern studies suggest that the Frontier (specifically the Wall Creek member) and the Turner are time-equivalent and were deposited in the same environment (e.g., Cobban et al., 2006).

The Frontier Formation was deposited during the Upper Cretaceous as an eastward-prograding clastic wedge, overlying the Mowry Shale and interfingering with the Belle Fourche Shale to the east. The Frontier Formation is divided into three unconformity-bounded members: the Belle Fourche, the Emigrant Gap, and the Wall Creek/Turner Sandstone. The base of the Frontier is marked by the Clay Spur Bentonite Bed (Obradovich, 1993). Because the majority of publicly reported well data categorizes these formations as either “Frontier” or “Turner”, this paper will use the term Frontier/Turner. For a more detailed discussion of the depositional environments of these formations, see Winn et al. (1983) and Bhattacharya and Willis (2001).

The reservoir facies of the Frontier/Turner are fine to medium-grained with varying amounts of detrital clay, with higher porosity and permeability in the cleaner zones (Anna, 2009). Conventional Frontier/Turner development began in the late 1970s and

FIGURE 3:

Stratigraphic column of the Powder River Basin formations.

Source: modified from Wyoming State Geological Survey, 2019

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LEAD STORY

FIGURE 4: Map showing existing vertical wells in the PRB, colored by formation.

continued throughout the 1980s, with a minor resurgence in the late 2000s. More than 3,500 vertical wells were drilled across the central part of the PRB, and in the Finn-Shurley field to the east of the core basin in southern Weston County. Horizontal development of the Frontier/Turner continues today in the same areas, and is discussed in the following section.

Similar to the Mowry, the carbonate mudrock Niobrara Formation is a source rock for PRB sandstone reservoirs but has never been a common vertical target. In the late 1970s and early 1980s, some 500 vertical Niobrara wells were drilled in northeast Natrona County, but conventional Niobrara development was

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not pursued in other areas of the PRB. Today, it is one of the main horizontal targets and is discussed further in the following section.

The Shannon and Sussex are both sandstone members of the Upper Cretaceous Cody Shale.

The Shannon consists of clean, well-sorted, medium-grained sandstones with argillaceous bioturbated silt and sandy layers. Total porosities are higher in the clean zones (20% or greater) and nearly zero in the argillaceous zones, with an average permeability of 20 mD (Anna, 2009). Vertical Shannon production in the PRB is concentrated in a northwest-southeast trend along the basin axis in Johnson and Campbell

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LEAD STORY

counties, and along the western and southwestern margins. The majority of these wells were drilled in the late 1970s, 1980s, and early 1990s. Horizontal Shannon development is minor in comparison to the other Cretaceous PRB formations. Approximately 100 horizontal Shannon wells have been drilled, mainly in a small northwest-southeast trend in Johnson and Campbell counties.

The overlying Sussex Sandstone member is separated from the Shannon by a layer of marine shale and is informally divided into two reservoir units, A (upper) and B (lower), which are separated by a marine shale (Anderman, 1976). Vertical Sussex production follows a northeast-southwest trend similar to the Shannon, and peaked in the late 1970s. The conventional Sussex fields in Converse County are now home to the majority of the around 100 horizontal Sussex wells in the PRB. Significant changes in depositional environment are seen in the overlying Parkman and Teapot Sandstones. These units, members of the Late Cretaceous Mesaverde Formation, represent the eastward step of regressive-transgressive cycles of predominantly marine deposition. Parkman production primarily comes from hydrocarbon accumulations trapped within marine bar sandstones (Anna, 2009). Conventional Parkman development follows northwest-southeast trends, typically adjacent to conventional Shannon and/or Sussex fields. The majority of the vertical wells were drilled throughout the late 1970s and early 1980s. The Parkman is a secondary unconventional target in the PRB, with the majority of the approximately 400 horizontal wells following conventional Parkman trends.

Similar to the Parkman, the Teapot Sandstone comprises regressive deltaic strata, including marine and nonmarine sandstones, coals, and shales (Anna, 2009). Production is primarily from deltaic sandstones, and is limited to the southeastern edge of the basin. The majority of the Teapot wells were drilled in the late 1970s and very few were drilled after. However, the Teapot has not been left out of the unconventional resurgence: approximately 80 Teapot horizontal wells have been drilled in the high porosity area along the eastern edge of the Teapot’s conventional extent.

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TRANSITION TO UNCONVENTIONAL: HORIZONTAL PLAYS With the advent and application of horizontal well drilling and multi-stage hydraulic fracturing, the unconventional “source rock” formations like the Niobrara and Mowry are now the key horizontal targets, in addition to the conventional Turner/Frontier and Parkman Formations (Figure 5). Horizontal drilling in the PRB took off in the mid-2000s, steadily increased until 2014, then picked up again with the uptick in oil price in 2017. Initially, horizontal drilling was primarily in the conventional Parkman and Frontier/Turner Formations, but it expanded in the 2010s to include the unconventional Mowry and Niobrara plays. EOG, Devon, and Chesapeake are the top three horizontal operators in the PRB, followed by smaller companies such as Samson Resources, Peak Powder River Resources, Ballard Petroleum, and Anschutz.

The Mowry Shale is a dark brownish-gray siliceous shale which was deposited during a maximum marine transgression at the end of the Lower Cretaceous (Anna, 2009). The Mowry is organic-rich, as a result of anoxic conditions and lack of detrital input, with total organic carbon values of two to up to four weight percent (Anna, 2009, and references therein).

Volcanic activity in the western part of North America during this time resulted in deposition of several bentonite ash layers within the Mowry (Weichman, 1965). These bentonite layers can cause drilling issues, but are identifiable on well logs and regionally correlative.

There is lots of interest in the Mowry (Figure 5), but it is still an exploratory play. Of the approximately 55 Mowry horizontal wells, the majority were drilled within the last 10 years. Mowry exploration is focused in the basin center, in southern Campbell County and northern Converse County. These wells are among existing vertical and horizontal Frontier/ Turner and Parkman wells, providing a good opportunity for operators to test the Mowry as they develop the less risky sandstone formations.

Frontier/Turner horizontal development has been prolific: almost 800 horizontal wells have been drilled in these targets, mainly in the last 10 years.

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LEAD STORY

FIGURE 5: Existing vertical and horizontal wells in the Powder River Basin. Horizontal wells are colored by formation.

The existing conventional fields in the central PRB, and the Finn-Shurley field to the east of the basin, are now the focus of the horizontal drilling (Sonnenberg, 2019). This development expands beyond the proven Frontier/Turner production as well, following conventional Parkman and Sussex trends to the north, and near existing Shannon production along the central-western basin edge.

Both a source rock and a reservoir, the Niobrara Formation is a carbonate mudrock that is informally subdivided into three different marly chalk benches (the A, B, and C) separated by marls. The Niobrara Formation was deposited in a shallow interior seaway during the latest Turonian to early Campanian (Anna, 2009). Matrix permeability of the Niobrara is very low (less than 0.01 mD) and effective porosity ranges from 5-7%. Organic matter is concentrated in the thin dark and shaley layers and ranges from

OUTCROP | April 2020

two to four weight percent (Sonnenberg, 2018). In the PRB, the primary horizontal target within the Niobrara is the B chalk/marl, and hydrocarbon production is enhanced by natural fractures (Sonnenberg, 2018).

The success of the Niobrara in the DJ Basin and advancements in horizontal drilling techniques have spurred the interest in Niobrara horizontal development in the PRB. Horizontal Niobrara drilling steadily increased from 2011-2014, with a minor resurgence from 2017-2019. There are approximately 330 horizontal Niobrara wells in the PRB, mainly clustered at the southern edge of the basin and extending north along the existing Parkman, Shannon, and Sussex trends through Converse County. Horizontal Niobrara development is emerging as an opportunity to develop previously undrilled areas (particularly the southern and southwestern basin edges) and add

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LEAD STORY

FIGURE 6: U.S. annual coal production by basin (2000-2018). Source: EIA, 2019.

fluvial channel sandstones of the Upper Fort Union act as a conventional reservoir, accumulating gas that has migrated from the coalbeds into the sandstone (Flores, 2004). The coalbeds and associated sandstone reservoirs were deposited in an intermontane fluvial system. The fluvial channels were deposited mainly by meandering and anastomosed streams, which flowed to the northeast and drained into the Paleocene coastal plain and paleoseas of the Williston Basin in eastern Montana and western North Dakota (Flores, 1981, 1986). The coalbeds were deposited in domed mires between the fluvial channels, in a tropical, rain-fed environment (Flores, 1981, 1986). Regional uplift and erosion about 10 Ma is thought to have established an aquifer system in the coalbeds and caused degassing from low rank coal (Rice, 1993). Groundwater flow led to renewed bacterial activity and the generation of latestage biogenic gas (Rice, 1993; Gorody, 1999). This gas is contained in structural and stratigraphic traps within the Tertiary-Upper Cretaceous formations described above.

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another target to existing unconventional development programs.

COAL RESOURCES

PRB Coal Geology In addition to conventional and unconventional hydrocarbon reservoirs, coal formations have played a major role in Wyoming’s energy history. Traditional coal mining has been ongoing since 1865, and coalbed methane was first extracted in 1978 (WSGS, 2019; Bleizeffer, 2015). In the PRB, the coal-bearing formations are typically the Tertiary-Upper Cretaceous continental deposits overlying the hydrocarbon reservoirs discussed above. These include the Lance Formation, the Fort Union Formation, and the Wasatch Formation (Flores, 2004). Traditional coal mining in the PRB is primarily from two coal seams within the Tongue River Member of the Fort Union Formation, the Anderson and the Canyon (WSGS, 2019). These subbituminous coal seams are 60-80 feet thick and are mined at surface mines, the majority of which are in Campbell County (WSGS, 2019).

The Powder River coalbeds are low rank, ranging from lignite to subbituminous, and act as both source and reservoir for coalbed methane (natural gas) (Flores, 2004). In the eastern PRB margin, the

Vol. 69, No. 4 | www.rmag.org

Energy Production from Coal From an energy production standpoint, the PRB has traditionally been a major player in the US energy production landscape in the form of coal (Figure 6). As of 2018, 16 mines in the PRB

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LEAD STORY are EOG, Wold Energy Partners, and Anschutz. The Mowry/Muddy and Niobrara are the most popular formations, with around 12,000 permit applications for each. The Frontier/Turner follows with approximately 7,000 permit applications, and the Parkman, Shannon, Sussex, and Teapot Formations each have fewer than 2,000 permit applications. These rocks may be millions of years old, but it seems that intrepid geologists and engineers will continue to find new ways to extract their resources.

With the increased interest in the Powder River Basin, this basin will continue to be a major player in the US energy landscape. Oil and gas operators will be able to continue to take advantage of new technology developments and economies of scale in developing and producing the multiple stacked intervals of oil and gas producing rock. As regulatory changes to oil and gas development take place across Colorado, the basin to the north may become a more popular option for operators. However, in response to the huge number of permit applications Wyoming has received since 2017, the state’s Oil and Gas Conservation Commission recently voted to revamp its permitting rules. Under the new rule, which aims to curb “permit hoarding”, permits will expire after two years of inactivity, allowing working interest owners to apply for a permit (Erickson, 2019b). Only time will tell if this recent wave of renewed interest will come to fruition, or result in another boom and bust cycle.

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produced 43% of the coal mined in the United States (WSGS, 2019). The PRB’s dominance in US coal production extends back to 2003, when the PRB overtook the coal basins of Appalachia (WSGS, 2019).

Wyoming exports over 90% of its coal, with the majority going to power plants in Texas, Missouri, and Illinois (WSGS, 2019).

Interest in the coal deposits of the PRB started in the 1970s, when amendments to the 1974 Clean Air Act ratcheted up demand for the low sulfur subbituminous coal mined in the basin (WSGS, 2019). Coal production in the PRB peaked in 2008, with production that year of 496 million short tons of coal, and has been on the decline since (WSGS, 2019). In 2019, several coal mining companies filed for bankruptcy, and Wyoming’s largest utility provider announced its plan to retire its coal fleet within the next five years (Erickson, 2019a). However, the state of Wyoming and the US Department of Energy have combined forces to find a new use for coal-related infrastructure: carbon capture. This project is investigating methods of capturing carbon emissions from coal-fired power plants and storing the CO2 in underground reservoirs (University of Wyoming, 2019).

In addition to its large-scale coal production, the PRB had a boom in coalbed methane (CBM) exploration in the early 2000s, resulting in the drilling of over 23,000 CBM wells. In the CBM heyday, the PRB was the largest gas producing basin in the state, producing over 1 billion cubic feet per day. Like any good oil and gas boom though, the PRB’s coal bed methane boom was followed by a bust in 2006. As new technologies like directional drilling and hydraulic fracturing emerged in the mid-2000s, the price of natural gas dropped and other fields in Wyoming quickly became more profitable than the marginally-economic CBM. Today, the lion’s share of the CBM boom’s 23,000 wells sit idle or abandoned.

REFERENCES

Anderman, G.G., 1976, Sussex Sandstone production, Triangle U Field, Campbell County, Wyoming, in Geology and energy resources of the Powder River Basin: Wyoming Geological Association 28th Annual Field Conference Guidebook, p.

107-113.

Anna, Lawrence O., 2009, Geologic assessment of undiscovered oil and gas in the Powder River Basin Province: U.S. Geological Survey Digital Data Series DDS-69-U, 93 p.

Bleizeffer, D., 2015, Coalbed Methane: boom, bust and hard lessons. https:// www.wyohistory.org/encyclopedia/

FUTURE

Currently, more than 1,600 horizontal wells have been permitted and are in various stages prior to being put on production, and more than 36,000 horizontal well permits are pending approval (Figure 7).

The top operators submitting permit applications OUTCROP | April 2020

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LEAD STORY

FIGURE 7: Map showing horizontal well permits awaiting approval colored by formation.

Dolton, G.L., Fox, J.E., and Clayton, J.L., 1990, Petroleum geology of the Powder River basin, Wyoming and Montana, U.S. Geological Survey OpenFile Report 88-450 P. Energy Information Administration, 2014, New petroleum technology revitalizes Powder River Basin oil production. https://www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.php?id=17971 Energy Information Administration, 2019, Sixteen coal mines in the Powder River Basin produce 43% of U.S. coal. https://www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.php?id=41053 Erickson, C., 2019a, University of Wyoming to launch carbon capture collaboration with Department of Energy, Casper Star Tribune. https://trib.com/business/energy/university-of-wyoming-to-launch-carbon-capture-collab-

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coalbed-methane-boom-bust-and-hard-lessons Bhattacharya, J.P., and Willis, J.B., 2001, Lowstand deltas in the Frontier Formation, Powder River Basin, Wyoming – Implications for sequence stratigraphic models: AAPG Bulletin, v.

85, p. 261-294.

Cobban, W.A., Obradovich, J.D., Walaszcyk, I., and McKinney, K.C., 2006, A USGS zonal table for the Upper Cretaceous Middle Cenomanian-Maastrichtian of the western interior of the United States based on ammonites, inoceramids and radiometric ages, USGS Open-File Report 2006-1250.

Dickinson, W.R., 2004, Evolution of the North America Cordillera: Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci., 32: 13-45.

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LEAD STORY 108–127.0 Obradovich, J.D., 1993, A Cretaceous timescale in Caldwell, W.G.E., and Kauffman, E., eds., Evolution of the Western Interior basin: Geological Association of Canada Special Publication 39, p.

379-396.

Rice, D.D., 1993, Composition and origins of coalbed gas, in Law, B.E., and Rice, D.D., eds., Hydrocarbons from coal: American Association of Petroleum Geologists Studies in Geology no. 38, p.

159-184.

Sonnenberg, S.A., 2018, The Niobrara Formation in the Southern Powder River Basin, Wyoming: an emerging giant continuous petroleum accumulation: Unconventional Resources Technology Conference #2901558.

Sonnenberg, S., Heger, A., and Bone, C., 2019, Geology of the Turner Sandstone, Finn-Shurley Field, Powder River Basin Wyoming: AAPG Annual Convention & Exhibition, San Antonio, TX, May 19-22. Search and Discovery article #20462 (2019).

University of Wyoming, 2019, UW energy resources council seeks proposals for carbon capture coal-based generation pilot project. https:// www.uwyo.edu/uw/news/2019/12/uw-energy-resources-council-seeks-proposals-for-carbon-capture-coal-based-generation-pilot-project.html Weimer, R.J., 1960, Upper Cretaceous stratigraphy, Rocky Mountain area, AAPG Bulletin, v. 44, p. 1-20.

Weichman, B.E., 1965, Geologic history of the Powder River Basin: Bulletin of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists, vol. 49, no. 11, p.

1893-1907.

Winn, R.D., Stonecipher, S.A., and Bishop, M.G., 1983, Depositional environment and diagenesis of offshore sand ridges, Frontier Formation, Spearhead Ranch field, Wyoming, The Mountain Geologist, v.20, p 41-58.

Wyoming State Geological Survey, 2019, Coal production and mining. https://www.wsgs.wyo.gov/energy/coal-production-mining

» CONTINUED FROM PAGE 25

oration-with-department/article_ff9b6529-abf5510b-8e3c-fc9ffd833dcf.html Erickson, C., 2019b, Wyoming faces a glut of drilling permits. But a solution might be coming. https://trib.com/business/energy/wyoming-faces-a-glut-of-drilling-permits-but-a-solution/article_b14ab5fe-86d8-5258-9198-fc8810e7bcb7. html Flores, R.M., 2004, Coalbed methane in the Powder River Basin, Wyoming and Montana-An assessment of the Tertiarty-Upper Cretaceous coalbed methane Total Petroleum System, in Total Petroleum System and Assessment of Coalbed Gas in the Powder River Basin Province, Wyoming and Montana: U.S. Geological Survey Digital Data Series DDS-69-C, version 1.0, chap. 2.

Flores, R.M., 1981, Coal deposition in fluvial paleoenvironments of the Paleocene Tongue River Member of the Fort Union Formation, Powder River area, Powder River Basin, Wyoming and Montana, in Etheridge, F.G., and Flores, R.M., eds., Nonmarine depositional environments-Models for exploration: Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists Special Publication 31, p.

169-190.

Flores, R.M., 1986, Styles of coal deposition in Tertiary alluvial deposits, Powder River Basin, Montana and Wyoming, in Lyons, P.C., and Rice, C.L., eds., Paleoenvironmental and tectonic controls in coal-forming basins of the United States: Geological Society of America, Special Paper 210, p.

79-104.

Gorody, A.W., 1999, The origin of natural gas in the Tertiary coal seams on the eastern margin of the Powder River Basin in Miller, W.R., ed., Coalbed methane and the Tertiary geology of the Powder River Basin, Wyoming and Montana: Fiftieth Annual Field Conference Guidebook, Wyoming Geological Association, Casper, Wyoming, p. 89-101.

Hays, J.D., and Pitman, W.C. III., 1973, Lithospheric plate motion, sea level changes, and climatic and ecological consequences, Nature, 246, 18–22.

Kominz, M.A., 1984, Oceanic ridge volumes and sea-level change – An error analysis in Schlee, J.S. (ed.), Interregional Unconformities and Hydrocarbon Accumulation, AAPG Memoir 36, pp.

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R ocky M ountain a ssociation of G eoloGists

POSTPONED

Data Science

New Date Pending

Keynote Speaker:

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RMAG LUNCHEON PROGRAMS LUNCHEONS POSTPONED UNTIL FURTHER NOTICE

3D Petroleum Systems Modeling Reveals Basin Scale Sweet Spot for Shale Oil Plays within the Bighorn Basin

By Brian Toelle and Marcin Pankau

DR. BRIAN TOELLE is a Professor of Practice in Petroleum Engineering in the College of Engineering and Applied Sciences at the University of Wyoming.

Prior to joining the university Brian had spent more than 33 years in the oil and gas industry, specializing in exploration geology and geophysics. In the past he worked for Texaco, (9 years, exploration in the Permian Basin, the Rocky Mountains OUTCROP | April 2020

methods and techniques. One method being employed in recent years is the study of the entire basin using 3-D Petroleum Systems Modeling. During this study we investigated Wyoming’s Bighorn Basin for the specific purpose of identifying potential shale oil plays that may be economically viable.

The main economic factor used to determine economic viability for potential plays was drill depth. Successful shale reservoirs within the US have included shales at vertical drill depths of 10,000’ to 11,000’ (Haynesville) before the boreholes have been turned horizontal. Improvements in drilling techniques during the past decade have dramatically increased drilling speeds. This in turn has decreased the number of days a drill rig

Exploration has traditionally been viewed as a spectrum with rank, pathfinding, basin-wide exploration efforts on one end of the spectrum and more localized, prospect creation on the other. Most operating companies are quite often focused on specific areas within the basins where their mineral rights are concentrated and so tend to focus their exploration efforts on the prospect generation side of this exploration spectrum. This has been a traditional methodology for conventional reservoirs.

However, when dealing with a new basin or a new type of reservoir, such as shale reservoirs, a pathfinding effort must take place in order to identify where in the basin the new type of hydrocarbon play may be located. Identification of these “basin-scale sweet spots” have often utilized certain

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and offshore California), Saudi Aramco (5 years, exploration in the Eastern Province) and Schlumberger (17 years). His last position with Schlumberger was as an Advisor for Schlumberger PTS (PetroTechnical Services) in the fields of Exploration and Geophysics. In this role he assisted Schlumberger’s clients by providing geoscience-focused, consulting services for various projects, including exploration 28

and field development, underground gas storage, CO2 sequestration and shale reservoir exploration and development projects. Currently Brian teaches courses on various types of unconventional reservoirs for his department and conducts research. His Wyoming Petroleum Systems Research Group is focused on investigating Wyoming’s prolific hydrocarbon producing basins and he also has projects on-going in the areas of Seismic-Based Reservoir Characterization and Mitigation of Natural Gas Flaring.

Vol. 69, No. 4 | www.rmag.org

SIX FIELD TRIPS! PRE-MEETING • Mancos - Niobrara Stratigraphy of Southwestern Colorado, September 11-13th. Walter Nelson & Nate Rogers.

• Book Cliffs Iles Formation of the Mesaverde Goup Near Grand Junction with Implications for Hydrocarbon Development, September 12th. Steve Cumella, Rex Cole & Mark Kirschbaum.

• A Reassessment of Structural Controls on Unaweep Canyon, Uncompahgre Uplift, September 12th. Eric Eckbert, Richard Livaccari, Gregory S. Baker, Verner C. Johnson, Timothy Bower & Michael Feil.

CALL FOR PAPERS EXTENDED TO APRIL 24 th MEETING WEBSITE: rmsaapg2020.com • Hindsight to Foresight: Lessons from the History of Exploration and Production • The Mancos Shale / Western Niobrara Equivalent: Sedimentology, Geochemistry and Physical Properties • The Powder River Basin Shale Play, A Rockies Powerhouse • The San Juan Basin: from Conventional Reservoirs to Resource Plays • Clastic Reservoirs of the Rockies: Sequence Stratigraphy, Reservoir Quality and Producibility • Geochemistry and Basin Modeling of Rocky Mountain Petroleum Systems • Lacustrine Basins: Sedimentology, Stratigraphy, Geochemistry and Petroleum Systems

POST-MEETING • Geological Walking Tour of the Cache Valley Half Graben, Arches National Park: A Structural Geology Classroom, September 17th. Brann Johnson & Jay Scheevel.

• Marginal Marine Reservoir Architecture & Sequence Stratigraphy - An Overview of a Portion of the Book Cliffs, Eastern Utah, September 16-20th, Keith Shanley & Mike Boyles.

• The Green River Formation of the Uinta Basin: Lacustrine Sedimentation and Hydrocarbon Potential, September 16-17th. Riley Brinkerhoff & Michael Vanden Berg.

• The Pennsylvanian System of the Rockies

FOUR SHORT COURSES!

• Structure, Tectonics, and Geomechanics of the Rocky Mountain Region

•

• Advances in Seismic Imaging in the Rocky Mountain Region

•

• The Occurrence and Production of Non-flammable Gasses in Rocky Mountain Area Fields

•

• Energy Minerals of the Rockies - A Special Session in Honor of Bill Chenoweth

•

• Applications of Machine Learning and Data Mining to Petroleum Geology and Energy Minerals

EXHIBITOR & SPONSOR OPPORTUNITIES AVAILABLE

• Sustainable Development 1: New Technology and Models for Reservoir Revitalization • Sustainable Development 2: Carbon Capture Use OR Storage - Turning CO2 from a Liability to an Asset Vol. 69, No. 4 | www.rmag.org

PRE-MEETING Practical Python for Earth Scientists, September 12th.

Matt Bauer.

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Wireline Logs, September 12th, Hugh Daigle.

Sequence Stratigraphy of Unconventional Resource Plays, September 12-13th, Ali Jaffrey Introduction to Drones (sUAS) in the Geosciences, September 13th, Greg Baker

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CONTACT US: aapgrms2020@gmail.com

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RMAG LUNCHEON PROGRAMS highly accurate results. The project was performed in five phases: 1) Structural Framework Construction, 2) Geochemical Data Integration, 3) Preliminary 1-D Simulations, 4) 3-D Predictive Model Simulation and 5) 3-D Model Calibration. The resulting model is believed to be highly accurate due to the amount of data integrated during the structural framework construction and the degree of calibration performed.

Previous studies have indicated that the Permian aged petroleum systems within the Bighorn Basin have a high degree of thermal maturity. This conclusion was also supported by this study’s results.

However, due to the drill depth needed to reach these formations they were judged to be non-economic at the present time. This study also determined that the lower Cretaceous formations have a high degree of thermal maturity. However, these formations are also believed to be below a viable economic window given the current level of drilling technology that exists today.

Results of the 3-D petroleum systems modeling conducted during this study determined that formations near the base of the upper Cretaceous, notably the Cody Shale, Frontier Formation and Mowry Shale, are within economically viable drill depths and are currently within the oil generation window. These formations have had oil shows reported on this side of the basin by various operators and should be considered the primary prospective formations at this time.

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has been needed and significantly decreased overall project costs. The ultimate result has been that deeper formations, initially considered too expensive or borderline to develop during the early days of the shale revolution, are now being viewed again as having potential.

Previous studies conducted on the petroleum systems within the Bighorn Basin have been limited to 1D petroleum systems models. In these studies models of single wellbores in various locations within the basin have been performed in order to determine the characteristics of the petroleum systems at those single well locations. For some studies the results of multiple 1D models were assembled into a 3-D framework through surface gridding. However, the input data utilized was fairly limited.

In this particular study, data from hundreds of wells within the basin was downloaded from the Wyoming Oil and Gas Conservation Commission database as well as the Wyoming State Geologic Survey and the USGS databases. These data sets were quality controlled and utilized to develop the basin’s structural framework within a Petrel project and resulted in a structural framework of greater detail than used by previous models. This structural framework was then used as a starting point for the full 3-D petroleum systems modeling effort within PetroMod. This study integrates multiple data types into a single large-scale model which is calibrated to yield

OUTCROP | April 2020

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Providing geoscience expertise and technology to the field and office since 1981

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Email: mgeditor@rmag.org https://www.rmag.org/publications/the-mountain-geologist/

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RMAG LUNCHEON PROGRAMS LUNCHEONS POSTPONED UNTIL FURTHER NOTICE

Revisiting the Upper Cretaceous Niobrara Petroleum System in the Rocky Mountain Region

By Mark W. Longman and Barbara A. Luneau, Denver, Colorado

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arctic waters flowed predominantly southward in the seaway, carbonate productivity was limited and marlier, more organic-rich facies were deposited.

Changes in water depth had little to do with the resulting Niobrara rock types, but the associated eddies, swirls, and current vortices did significantly impact chalk vs. marl deposition on a fine scale.

New evidence supporting the importance of currents in the Seaway is five-fold: 1) Well-documented high-resolution interfingering of the chalk and marl facies on a scale of centimeters or less, which is far too thin to be controlled by sea-level fluctuations; 2) A lack of evidence for chalk-related highstands along the seawayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s margins (e.g., in Utah and Kansas); 3) Abrupt lateral changes in the thickness of chalkier deposits over distances of a mile or less; 4) Thin (<2 cm) organic-rich marls within the clean chalk benches that cannot be the product of sea-level changes; and 5) Study of modern ocean current flow patterns on deep-water hemipelagic deposits off New Zealandâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s South Island and in the Mediterranean that have produced bedforms similar to some in the Niobrara seen on high-resolution cross sections (e.g., in the Denver Basin).

Our 1998 publication in The Mountain Geologist was based on a regional study of the Niobrara Formation across the Rocky Mountain region. That paper slightly preceded a burst of successful horizontal drilling and much new research into Niobrara stratigraphy and depositional processes. Isopach and facies maps we published as well as our depositional models for the Niobrara have proved useful, and we may have been ahead of the learning curve in attributing the chalk and marl benches primarily to current flow patterns in the Western Interior Seaway rather than eustatic sea level changes. Some lessons learned about the Niobrara in the 22 years since that paper was published will be the focus of this presentation.

Our depositional model claimed that current flow patterns in the long, narrow Western Interior Seaway, specifically the flow direction of tropical Gulfian versus colder arctic currents, was the primary control on chalk vs. marl deposition. In the Denver Basin, for example, when warmer Gulfian waters flowed northward, they brought into the seaway the abundant coccoliths, copepods, and planktonic foraminifers that form the chalkier intervals. When

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MINERAL OF THE QUARTER

By Ronald L. Parker Senior Geologist, Senior Geologist, Borehole Image Specialists, 5650 Greenwood Plaza Boulevard, Suite 103, Greenwood Village, CO 80111 | ron@bhigeo.com

AMAZONITE The Blue Flash of the Rockies

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BELOW: Large group of intense, robin’s egg blue amazonite euhedra with elongate, slightly tapered, jet-black smoky quartz crystals. Smoky Hawk claim, Crystal Peak area, Teller Co., Colorado, USA. Used with permission from Collector’s Edge Minerals, Inc. collectorsedge.com

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MINERAL OF THE QUARTER: AMAZONITE

Grid pattern “tartan-plaid” twinning that makes it easy to identify microcline in thin section.

Photo by Ronald L. Parker

Amazonite, the blue-green variety of the potassium feldspar, microcline, is among the most treasured of mineral specimens for the collector. Microcline has the same chemical formula – KAlSi3O8 - as the other K-spar polymorphs (orthoclase and sanidine), but it has a slightly different structure, recording a lower crystallization temperature. The deep green and blue color of the amazonite variety of microcline is directly related to the presence of lead (Pb) acted upon by natural radioactivity in the presence of structural water. Splendid amazonite crystals are found in association with the Pike’s Peak batholith west of Colorado Springs, CO. Of particular note are occurrences in pegmatitic cavities near Crystal Peak, Teller County, CO. The fascination shown by collectors continues more than 10,000 years of human desire for amazonite, as demonstrated by amazonite presence in human burials.

Amazonite is also called amazonstone or amazon jade (Farndon and Parker, 2011). It was named in 1847 by Johann Fredrich August Breithaupt for the

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Amazon River although amazonite has never been found in the Amazon River drainage (Mindat, 2020).

Amazonite, as a microcline, has a hardness of 6 to 6.5 and a specific gravity of 2.56 to 2.58. Like microcline, amazonite displays perfect cleavage on {001}, good cleavage on {010} and a hackly fracture on {100}. Most microcline occurs as anhedral crystals in phaneritic plutonic rocks. When good crystal faces are evident, microcline (and amazonite) typically occur as blocky, equant or tabular shapes.

Tabular crystals are flattened parallel to (100) and elongate parallel to the c or a crystallographic axis.

Amazonite, as microcline, is triclinic, having no symmetry elements (Johnsen, 2002). Microcline is among the world’s largest crystals, growing up to 50 m and 13,500 tons (Mineral Data Publishing, 2001).

No amazonite crystals of gigantic size have been discovered (yet)!

Amazonite is a tectosilicate comprised of an infinite network of silica (SiO4) and alumina (AlO4) tetrahedra. When one of the 4 tetrahedra in a

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MINERAL OF THE QUARTER: AMAZONITE

Robin’s egg blue amazonite crystals set among several jet-black tapered smoky quartz crystals. From the Vertical Cleft Pocket, Smoky Hawk Mine, Teller County, Colorado, USA. Photo by Annette Slade. Used with permission by Collector’s Edge Minerals, Inc. https://collectorsedge.com/

feldspar formula unit has a substituted Al3+ the negative charge imbalance (Si is +4) is neutralized by incorporating one Na+ or K+ ion. When 2 of the 4 tetrahedra have Al3+ substitution a divalent cation (such as Ca2+) can mitigate the charge imbalance.

For the potassium feldspars, there are 3 polymorphs that differ in structure and P-T stability. Sanidine is the high temperature polymorph and it is characterized by complete disorder in the distribution of Al and Si ions. With slow cooling, sanidine can transform into microcline by undergoing progressively higher degrees of Al-Si ordering. In microcline, the lowest temperature polymorph of k-spar, the Al and Si ions are completely ordered – the Al3+ is always located in the same structural position. Orthoclase is intermediate between the random Al-Si of sanidine and the complete Al-Si order of microcline and is the intermediate temperature polymorph. If sanidine

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is removed quickly from magma chamber equilibrium, say by being erupted, it will not undergo further ordering and will remain sanidine. Likewise, if the cooling path of an orthoclase bearing magma is too rapid, the orthoclase will not become microcline. The high structural order of microcline comes at a price – it loses the monoclinic symmetry of sanidine and orthoclase and becomes triclinic (Klein, 2002).

Amazonite (and microcline) is commonly observed to display discontinuous, thin, whitish streaks and ribbons. These features are albite exsolution lamellae, rendering the mineral a perthite. The alkali feldspars albite (NaAlSi3O8) and sanidine/orthoclase (KAlSi3O8) exhibit complete solid solution at the elevated temperature of a typical felsic magma chamber. As the magma cools below about 650°C, these two end-members become immiscible and the less abundant cation (usually Na+) will exsolve as

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MINERAL OF THE QUARTER: AMAZONITE

This is a superb large example of striking, deep blue-green amazonite crystals with white stripes and several large, sharp smoky quartz crystals. Ex. Proctor Family Trust Collection. From the White Cap Pocket, Smoky Hawk claim, Crystal Peak area, Teller Co., Colorado, USA. Used with permission from Collector’s Edge Minerals, Inc. https://collectorsedge.com/

albite within the more voluminous host (microcline).

Often, the albitic exsolution lamellae will possess small-scale polysynthetic twinning perpendicular to the long axis of the whitish streaks (Klein, 2002).

While this twinning is sometimes visible with a hand lens, it is almost always revealed in a thin-section.

Perthitic texture is not always present in microcline or amazonite (Nesse, 2004).

The color of amazonite is usually blue or green and these colors can appear as light, washed-out hues or as deep and intense colors. Color intensity can vary considerably across a single specimen and some microclines display crystallographically-controlled white stripes of albite. The origin of the bluegreen color in amazonite is a consequence of natural radiation (likely from 40K) acting upon of trace

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quantities (<1%) of lead (Pb2+) operating over geologic time spans. Natural radiation produces unusual charge states in the lead, to either Pb+ or Pb3+ and these changes in valence are only possible with the catalytic assistance of structurally bound water near lead ions. Pb2+ cannot be the chromophore, because all electronic transitions for Pb2+ occur in the ultraviolet range of the electromagnetic spectrum (Hofmeister and Rossman, 1985). Green color is ascribed to Pb+ and blue arises from the ion Pb3+. It has been suggested that small quantities of water, structurally bound to the lattice, are implicated in the coloration as well, likely by redox interactions that modify an initial Pb2+ ion (Julg, 1998). The intensity of coloration – for a given Pb concentration – is a linear function of the amount of structurally-bound water

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MINERAL OF THE QUARTER: AMAZONITE

Mass of well-formed amazonite euhedra surrounded by the plagioclase feldspar albite. On display at the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C. From the Keyhole Vug, Crystal Peak, Florissant, Colorado. Photo by Ronald L. Parker.

(Hofmeister and Rossman, 1985).

In thin-section, microcline is seen as low relief crystals that display 1st order (white or gray) interference colors due to low birefringence (~0.007, Nesse, 2004). Microcline is biaxial negative with a 2V angle that is usually greater than 65°. The typically high degree of twinning often makes it difficult to obtain an optic axis figure. One distinguishing characteristic is a grid pattern texture resulting from twinning according to the albite and the periclase twin laws. This “tartan plaid” cross-hatch pattern makes thin-section ID a cinch. Authigenic or low-temperature (<300°C) microcline crystallizes without twinning and doesn’t, therefore, have the grid pattern in thin-section (Nesse, 2004).

Microcline is the most common feldspar crystallized from deep-seated granitic (felsic) magmas.

Thus, it is abundant in granites, granodiorites and syenites (Bonewitz, 2008). Additionally, microcline is found in granitic pegmatites and in metamorphic

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schists and gneisses. Microcline is not usually found in volcanic rocks. Microcline is comparatively stable under weathering conditions and is thus found in immature clastic detrital sediments. When buried, such microcline may nucleate epitaxial overgrowths of authigenic K-spar or may decompose to create secondary porosity (Nesse, 2004).

Amazonite is a semi-precious mineral due to rare occurrence and it has been treasured by humanity for tens of thousands of years. In an interesting evaluation, Bar-Yosef Mayer and Porat (2008), note that human ornamentation with beads has been a unique expression of Homo sapiens. The earliest beads, made from mollusk shells are known from Skhul Cave, Israel, dating to 110 ka in the Middle Paleolithic. Diversity in bead-making raw materials emerges during the Upper Paleolithic by incorporation of the biological materials bone, teeth, antler, ivory and ostrich shells, all of which are colored white, yellow, brown, red, or black. These authors make an

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MINERAL OF THE QUARTER: AMAZONITE

Mass of well-formed amazonite crystals on display at the Coors Gems and Minerals Hall, Denver Museum of Nature and Science, Denver, Colorado. Location unknown. Photo by Ronald L. Parker.

interesting observation that the dawn of the Neolithic (~13,500 to 11,500 BCE) witnesses the earliest known appearance of stone beads and pendants, and that these materials are remarkable because they are green. None of the green minerals, including apatite, malachite, chrysocolla, turquoise, serpentine and, yes, amazonite, were local to the archaeological sites where they were discovered, invoking significant trade routes. Notably, the appearance of green ornamentation is coeval with the change in subsistence strategy to agricultural cultivation. The authors suggest that seeking out distant sources of green minerals for ornamentation reflects the great

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symbolic power assigned to fostering plant fertility.

Green beads have been encountered in all archaeological ages following the Neolithic (Bar Yosef Mayer and Porat, 2008). Several pre-pottery, Neolithic B (8,200-7,500 BCE) workshops were discovered in Southern Jordan that were established for the purpose of manufacturing amazonite beads. At each of the sites, thousands of borers and awls were discovered along with hundreds of drilled and undrilled amazonite fragments. These workshops produced far more than was needed for local use, suggesting export and trade. The closest source of amazonite was established to be outcrop at Wadi Tbeik in Saudi

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MINERAL OF THE QUARTER: AMAZONITE Fabiano, Marzia, Francesco Berna and Edoar-

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Arabia,150 km away (Fabiano et. al, 2004). From more recent times, the golden mask of Egyptian Pharaoh Tutankhamun contains amazonite (Uda et. al., 2014). Interest in green stones, especially amazonite, persists today, as is evidenced by the riches in this mineral on display at every Gem and Mineral Show.

Amazonite is not a common mineral variety but it is found worldwide. It is known from large deposits in the Ural and the Ilmensky Mountains, Russia; Xinjiang, China, Tibesti Mountains of Libya; Myanmar, India, Ethiopia, Madagascar; Minas Gerais, Brazil and the Avdar Massif, Mongolia. In the United States, Virginia and Pennsylvania host important amazonite occurrences. The most important amazonite occurrences, however, are derived from the 1,080 Mya Pike’s Peak anorogenic granitic batholith. These localities include Arapahoe, Douglas, El Paso, Park and Teller Counties in Colorado. A vigorous mineral collecting frenzy developed in the mid-1870s around Florissant, CO. (Jacobson, 2019). Collecting in and around the Crystal Peak Mining District continues to occur in what is considered to be “the best amazonite hunting ground in the world”.

do Barzatti Von Lowenstern, 2004, Pre-Pottery Neolithic Amazonite Bead Workshops in Southern Jordan, in Acts of the XIVth World Congress of the Union of Prehistoric and Protohistoric Sciences (UISPP) Liege, Belgium 9/2-8/2001, vol 1303, pp. 265-273.

Hofmeister, Anne M. and George R. Rossman, 1985, A Spectroscopic Study of Irradiation Coloring of Amazonite: Structurally Hydrous, Pb-bearing Feldspar, American Mineralogist 70:794–804.

Jacobson, Mark Ivan, 2019 Albert Edward Foote (1846-1895) and his Crystal Peak, Colorado Lithograph Pictures, Mineral News: the Mineral Collectors Newsletter, 35(1): 1-9.

Johnsen, Ole, 2002, Minerals of the World: Princeton University Press, Princeton, N.J. 439 pp.

Julg, A., 1998, A Theoretical Study of the Absorption Spectra of Pb+ and Pb3+ in site K+ of Microcline: Application to the Color of Amazonite.

Physics and Chemistry of Minerals, 25:229-233.

WEBLINKS:

Klein, Cornelis, 2002, The 22nd Edition of the

• https://www.minerals.net/gemstone/amazonite_ gemstone.aspx • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amazonite • https://www.mindat.org/min-184.html • http://www.webmineral.com/data/Microcline. shtml#.XnF4xahKiHs • http://www.handbookofmineralogy.org/pdfs/microcline.pdf

Manual of Mineral Science: New York, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 641 pp.

Mindat, 2020, Amazonite, https://www.mindat. org/min-184.html Accessed March 3rd, 2020.

Mineral Data Publishing, 2001, Microcline, http://www.handbookofmineralogy.org/pdfs/ microcline.pdf accessed March 3rd, 2020.

REFERENCES:

Nesse, William D., 2004, Introduction to Optical

Bar-Yosef Mayer, Daniella E. & Naomi Porat, 2008, Green Stone Beads at the Dawn of Agriculture, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 105:8548–8551. Available on-line https:// www.pnas.org/content/pnas/105/25/8548.full. pdf Bonewitz, Ronald Louis, 2008, Rock and Gem: The Definitive Guide to Rocks, Minerals, Gems and Fossils, New York, New York: Dorling-Kindersley Limited, 360 pp.

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Mineralogy, 3rd Edition: New York: Oxford University Press, 348 pp.

Uda, M., A. Ishizaki and M. Baba, 2014, Tutankhamun’s Golden Mask and Throne, in Quest for the Dream of the Pharaohs, Studies in Honour of Sakuji Yoshimura, Supplement aux Annales du Service des Antiquities de L’Egypte, Cahier No 43, pp. 149-177.

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IN THE PIPELINE APRIL 1, 2020

APRIL 7, 2020

RMAG Luncheon.

Speaker Brian Toelle.

“3D Petroleum Systems Modeling Reveals Basin Scale Sweet Spot for Shale Oil Plays within the Bighorn Basin.” Maggiano’s Downtown Denver.

CANCELED

RMAG Data Science Symposium.

“Digital Workflows in Oil and Gas.” Denver Athletic Club.

POSTPONED

APRIL 6, 2020 RMAG Neo Geo Trivia Night.

Blake Street Tavern, Denver, CO. POSTPONED

APRIL 10, 2020 DIPS Luncheon.

Speaker: Dr. Lesli Wood.

“The Cretaceous Valley Systems of the Guyana Margin - Feeding Giant Deepwater Fans.” Members $25 and Non-members $30.

For more information or to RSVP, visit www.dipsdenver. org. CANCELED-please

see DIPS website for more information.

APRIL 14, 2020 RMS-SEPM Student Poster Symposium.

Wynkoop Brewery, Denver, CO. POSTPONED APRIL 21, 2020 DWLS Luncheon.

Speaker Chelsea Newgord.

“A New Workflow for Joint Interpretation of Electrical Resistivity and NMR Measurements to Simultaneously Estimate Wettability and Water Saturation.” Wynkoop Brewing Company, 1634 18th Street at Wynkoop, Denver. CANCELED APRIL 26-29, 2020 SEPM International Conference.

Flagstaff, AZ. CANCELED APRIL 29, 2020 DWLS Spring Workshop.

“Horizontal Petrophysics: Applications and Interpretation Techniques in Reservoir Characterization.”

American Mountaineering Center, Golden, CO. CANCELED-PENDING RESCHEDULE MAY 2, 2020 RMAG On the Rocks Field Trip.

Corral Bluffs. Colorado Springs, CO.

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WELCOME NEW RMAG MEMBERS!

Claire Atlas

is a student in Salt Lake City, Utah.

Jenny Blake

is a student in The Woodlands, Texas.

Ralph Corken

is a retired petroleum geologist in Durango, Colorado.

Lauren Cross

is a PhD Candidate at the Colorado School of Mines in Golden, Colorado.

Eli DenBesten

is a Senior Operations Geologist at Tap Rock Resources in Golden, Colorado.

Pengfei Hou

is a student at Colorado School of Mines and lives in Fort Collins, Colorado.

Lee Robinson

is a Manager at Flint LLC in Denver, Colorado.

Cahill Kelleghan

is a Geologist in Boulder, Colorado.

is a Geologist at SM Energy in Midland, Texas.

is a Geologist at RSEG in Calgary, Alberta.

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works for Ryan Beuc Consulting in Waltham, Minnesota.

is a Student in Fort Collins, Colorado.

is a Geologist at Earth Science Agency in Denver, Colorado.

David Law Cory Lee

Michael Lewan

work for Lewan GeoConsulting Corp in Golden, Colorado.

Juan Escobar Gomez

is an independent geologist in Evergreen, Colorado.

is a Petrophysicist at BPX Energy in Denver, Colorado.

is a student at Centralia College in Onalaska, Washington.

Hannah Hubert

Mary Ann Dyka

is a Consultant/Volunteer in Denver, Colorado.

Isaac Pope

David Majewski

Robert Schoen

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Noah Francis Vento Tyler Wiseman

is a Petroleum Geoscientist at Utah Trust Lands Administration / Consultant in Riverton, Utah.

CALENDAR â&#x20AC;&#x201C; APRIL 2020

All events for the month of April are either postponed or cancelled due to restrictions and/or precautions relating to the COVID 19 pandemic.

Please see Pipeline on page 42 for more details.

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ADVERTISER INDEX

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