ENGLISH SUMMARY FROM RM 2023

ENGLISH SUMMARY 2023

RM 1-2023

20 l

THEN SCIENCE FICTION ARRIVED

by Fabrizio Luperto

Cinematography has always marginalised Science fiction cinema. Only in the 60s will this genre gain a certain dignity, when finally directors and screenwriters will draw liberally from science fiction literature (also considered a minor genre), and the stories will become more complex. In particular, technological evolution in relation to man has taken on almost visionary characteristics, predicting the future or the present in many cases.

241

IDENTIFICATION NUMBER 18577

by Pierlrancesco Sampaolo

He was an artist, songwriter, multi-instrumentalist and showman. Perhaps not everyone knows that Fred Buscaglione's "reckless lite" also passed through the ranks of the Army: he was also a soldier during the Second World War. lt was 9 January 1941 when he was called up and assigned to the 60th lnfantry Regiment of the 31st "Calabria" Division stationed in Sassari , Sardinia , as a simple soldier.

281

27 AUGUST 1923 100 YEARS SINCE THE TELLINI MASSACRE

by Andrea Giannasi

The artide offers a precise and detailed reconstruction of the events leading to the killing in Greece of the ltalian Generai Enrico Tellini and his delegation (composed of Major Corti, Lieutenant Bonaccini, the driver Farnetti and the interpreter Gheziri). They were in charge of settling the border demarcation between Greeks and Albanians after the end of the First World War and the 2019 Conference of Ambassadors. This episode could have triggered a worldwide escalation, as it led Mussolini to give the arder to militarily occupy the island of Corfu.

Which, fortunately, was demobilised after the Greek government complied with the ltalian government's requests far apologies and compensation.

100

381

Rivista Militare ln. 1/2023

POSTHUMANISM ANO TRANSHUMANISM: IS THIS THE ANTHROPOLOGY FOR THE FUTURE?

by Gtovannt CUCCI

The article's author illustrates the goals of the transand posthuman movements and outlines their similarities and differences. Both aim to fight diseases and improve health by reprogramming a perfectly efficient man to achieve happiness. In particular, Posthumanism is the transhumanism movement carried to excess, and it promotes a new era free from the typical limits of human nature. In conclusion , Cucci raises serious questions concerning the more purely anthropological aspect linked to the two currents of thought, which would inevitably risk creating new social discrimination.

421

WHEN THE TARGET IS

CITIES INTERVI EW WITH PROF. FRANCESCO CHIODELLI

by Giuseppe Cacciaguerra and Marco Scafati

Whether big or small, cities have always been at the centre of human lite and activities: work, economy, politics or culture. Those who thought their centrality would decrease during the pandemic in favour of an exodus, more or less controlled, towards the countryside had to change their mind. Precisely this role of gravity and, in many ways, representation centres has always made urban conglomerates a target in the event of conflicts.

We interviewed Prof. Francesco Chiodelli, University of Turin, to investigate more about this topic.

52 l

WAR REPORTER

by Giuseppe Cacciaguerra

The main qualities distinguishing great war correspondents from simple hirelings are objectivity, timeliness, patience, summarising and explaining abilities, and courage. Even though they certainly are only some of the

ones needed. Th is article offers an overview ofthe most important masters of journalism "in the field", from John Reed to Ryszard Kapuscinski, passing through the ltalians Guelfo Civinini, Ugo Ojetti, Arnaldo Fraccaroli, Rino Alessi, Mimmo Càndito, and Luigi Barzini. The latter is the only European who witnessed the battle of Mukden (23 February - 11 March 1905). He sent a detailed account of it to the "Corriere della Sera" where it was published on 24 March 1905. lt was a masterly report stili studied today in journalism schools.

561

MULTI-DOMAIN INTEGRATION

by Gianluca Caraì

The article is an in-depth analysis of the United Kingdom's doctrine regarding so-called multi-domain operations. The Strategie Command is responsible for changing how the defence operates by imp lementing the Multi-Domain lntegration concept. This includes the ability to integrate different domains and levels of warfare, providing a vision to develop an lntegrated Force including various government entities, allies, and the private sector.

The project will provide decision-makers with an extended range of tools, selecting the most appropriate ones to create and exploit adver sary vulnerabi lities an d obtain the desired results.

74

IINVICTUS GAMES

by Aurora Como

The ltalian delegation formed by the Defense Paralympic Sports Group staff, which participated in the last edition of the lnvictus Games held in the Netherlands, retumed to their homeland with a respectable haul of medals. On closer inspection, however, the true richness of this experience lies in sharing, solidarity and empathy thanks to human relationships with the other participants and their families. A single destiny unites them ali: men and women in arms who fell ili and becanne incapacitated due to the service rendered for their country. And then sport becomes not only competition but sharing, and above ali, an indispensable tool to support physical and psychological rehabilitation after the traumas suffered.

n. 1/2023 l Rivista Militare

101

RM 2-2023

241 24

WHO'LL STOP THE RAIN? WHO’LL STOP THE RAIN?

by Aerfrancesco SampaoiO

by Pierfrancesco Sampaolo

421 46

TOXIC INFORMATION AT WAR WITH APPS

by M8S>JmO Chlii>S

by Andrea Spada

Il there es a band that in the last century had best represent- Manipulat1ng mformation and dislnformat1on are centhere is a band that in the last century had best representedIf the soundtrad< of the war in Vll!tnam and. more general- trai elements of any modern confl1ct. They have ased the soundtrack of the war in Vietnam and, more general- AirAlert, ePPO, Gis Art, Reface, Air Raid, and Rwc are ly, of the oontradiCbons and the no1s that the Post-IM:>rld \filar sumed an essentisi role 1n so-called "hybnd" confhcts, ly, of the contradictions and the riots that the Post-World War just some of the mobile phone applications Ukrainians, Il oonfllds brought to soaety. well. thls band ls Creedenoe fuehng warfare with unprecedented systems of mtoxlII conflicts brought to society, well, this band is Creedence both civilian and military, have downloaded and used Clearwater ReVJVal The ma1n eng1ne of theìr suooess has cat•on and mystificat1on of realìty New med•a and soClearwater Revival. The main engine of their success has the most since the beginning of the Russian invasion. undoubtedly been their frontman. John Fogerty. and hls rrnl- cial networks convey unedited information flows led undoubtedly been their frontman, John Fogerty, and his mil- These are applications that warn in case of an air or ltary experience s~gmfK:anUy lmpacted hiS music by v1deos. •mages. and •narratlves· The1r dlffuslon ls itary experience significantly impacted his music. missile attack, track Iranian-made drones, help find lnstantaneous and global, mfluencing pubhc percepthe nearest air-raid shelter, and update the position of tion and collective behaviour decislvely Tools such armed forces and their movements up to those asenemy Telegram WhatsApp, lnstagram, Twllter. and Tlk BRESCI'S GUN BRESCI’S GUN collecting evidence of war crimes.

Tok become channels for man1pu1aung reahty and rea! weapons of mass d•smformatlon

by Andr• Oor>CI

28 28 l

by Andrea Cionci

52 461

WAR MOVIES A relic preserved 10 the Crim1nological Museum of Rome A relic preserved in the Criminological Museum of Rome tells a paga of ltalian h1story the Massadlusetts p1stol cal AT WAR WITH APPS

by Vincenzo D’Anna a page of Italian history: the Massachusetts pistol cal.

38tells S&W w1th whiCh, oo 29 July 1900, the anarchest Gae38 S&W, with which, on 29 July 1900, the anarchist Gaetano Bresc1 kJIIed King Umberto l The eventls recalled not oy A,..,." SPiiOII tano Bresci killed King Umberto I. The event is recalled not The article analyses the recent structured use of war only from a h1storical but also lrom a balllsbC-JUdiCial pomi historical but also from a ballistic-judicial point cinema in the framework of national strategic commuofonly viewfrom Thea King had aiJ'eady sulfered two attacks with A•rAiert, ePPO. Gis Art, Reface, Air Raid , and Rwc are of view. The King had already suffered two attacks with nication. In particular, the author wants to highlight the oold steel, but then what Savoy h1mself had "prophes•ed• JUSI some of the mobile phone apphcat1ons Ukraimans, cold steel, but then what Savoy himself had “prophesied” application of standardised narrative models that act on happened alter the seoond attack "When they swrtch from both c•vllian and m•htary, have downloaded and used happened after the second attack: “When they switch from the audience’s ability to read the use of the military in dagger to pistol • lt was fatai that that day, due to the the most s1nce the beglnn1ng of the Russ1an lnvas•on dagger to pistol...”. It was fatal that that day, due to the the context of national and international security. From heat, Umberto l d1d not wear the usual protectrve steel These are applicabons that wam 1n case of an Slf or heat, Umberto I did not wear the usual protective steel the Great War and even more in the Second World War, sh1rt The art1de tncludes a oommentary by the psych~a­ mtssile attack. track lran•an-made drones. help find shirt. The article includes a commentary by the psychia- narrative cinema had already assumed an essential role tnst and wnter G1useppe Magnarapa on the psychologiCal the nearest a1r-ra1d shelter and update the pos1tton of trist and writer Giuseppe Magnarapa on the psychological in the development of conflicts using a language that has dynamiCS of th1s k1nd or attacker enemy armed forces and thelf movements up to those dynamics of this kind of attacker. changed over time, hand in hand with society. Through a collectlng ev1dence of war cnmes

381 42

BACK TO THE FUTURE TOXIC INFORMATION

by Massimo Chiais

careful analysis of political marketing and applying new languages, themes, and values, today’s war cinematography reaches transversal audiences, unknowingly uninWARMOVIES terested in international and security affairs.

521 58

by~

mo D

il

S1nce 24 February, Europe has been facmg a severe WE SEE THINGS AS WE ARE Manipulating information and disinformation are cencrìsìs caused by a conventional war Although this The artlcle analyses the recent structured use of war tral elements of any modern conflict. They have asconfllct apparently 1nvolves JUSt the two belhgerent cinema In the framework or national strateg1c commusumed an essential role in so-called “hybrid” conflicts,

by Andrea Castiello d’Antonio countnes. lt causes multiple effects daily, lncludmg a nlcabon In partlcular. the author wants to h1ghlight the fueling warfare with unprecedented systems of intoxirenewed focus on collect1ve defence and a sohd boost apphcaiiOn of standardlsed narrabve models that acl and mystification of reality. New media and so- Psychological warfare has ancient origins. Today, howtocation modem1se the Mll1tary Forces of NATO oountnes on the aud1ence's abìlity lo read the use of the mllicial networks convey unedited information flows fed ever, the potential of information technology, social lndeed the analysis of the Russìan-Ukra1man confllct tary m the context of national and 1nternabonat securìby videos, images, and “narratives”. Their diffusion is media and cyberwarfare has transformed it into the soand 1ts lessons have forced Western leaders to dras- ty. From the Great war and even more 1n the Second instantaneous and global, influencing public percep- called hybrid warfare. It involves using a coordinated bcally change perspecbves on the readlness and de- Wor1d War, narrative cinema had already assumed an tion and collective behaviour decisively. Tools such and integrated social media system to hit an objective – ployment of nat1onal armies The first lesson the con- essential role in the development of con01cts us1ng a as Telegram, WhatsApp, Instagram, Twitter, and Tik that is, one or more target populations – within a defined flict taught us 15 that battles are fought with weapons language that has changed over llme, hand In hand Tok become channels for manipulating reality and real space-time context. Its purpose is to send messages with society Through a careful analysts of polittcal and assets currently provided to armoured umts circularly reinforced, not only to change the points of weapons of mass disinformation.

100

RIV1sta Militare 1n. 2/2023

661

FACING THE DISASTERS OF marketlng and apply1ng new tanguages. themes. and view and beliefs of the receiving subject but to build an THE FUTURE values today's war cmematography reaches transveralternative representation of the existing reality and the sal audiences, unknowingty uninterested m intemareality which will probably emerge in the near future. tional and security affairs The war of propaganda does not consist in individual by c 11 Do • l1 lJf?' ... f~tlO T6f'll disjointed or episodic actions: when a hostile power intends to put its hand WE to the social (collective) representaSEE THINGS AS WE ARE In the article , the two scholars analyse the effects tions of the political, economic, social, and ethical reality of na tura! disasters on society and the causes of (and so on), it plans to determine the ways of thinking to the resutung consequences. 01saster management direct not only ideas, opinions, attitudes, but also emoinvolves 1mptement1ng a senes of acuons that detions and subliminal perceptions.

Psychologìcal warfare has ancient ongms Today, how- crease the vulnerabillty of communrt1es to natura!

The scholar passes through his lens the possible develever, the potential of rnformatìon technology, soc1al and man-made hazards. 1mprove preparation for an opments and scenarios. med1a and cyberwarfare has transformed rt 1nto the so- rmmediate response and facrlltate the post-emercalled hybrid warfare 1t lnvolves using a coordinated gency recovery process thus increasing the sysand 1ntegrated socral med1a system to hit an objechve - tem's overall res11ience The COVI0-19 pandemlc MARCH 8 ANDwithm THEa defined has been an all-encompassing test case for managthat 1s. o ne or more target populabonsspace-Ume contexl lts WOMEN purpose ls lo send messages ing these crises circularly re1nforced not only to change the pomts of

by Anna Maria Isastia vlew and behefs of the receiVmg subject but to buifd an alternatrve representauon of the eJOsbng reahty and the March 8 “was not established neither as a day of reallty which wrll probabty emerge 10 the near future. struggle and mourning nor as a celebration”. Yet afThe war of propaganda does not consist 1n mdìv1duat ter so much time, the vulgate remains the “invented” diSJOIOted or episodrc achons when a hosble power m· one. The article tells the true story of Internationtends to put rts hand to the socral (coltective) representa· al Women’s Day and its origins, starting from the t1ons of the pohtrcat. economrc, soc1at. and ethrcal reahty events of 1917 to all the changes that occurred dur(and so on), 11 plans to determ1ne the ways of thrnkrng to ing 1900, which distorted or confused its genesis. direct not onty ideas. opinions, attitudes, but atso emotions and subhmlnat percepbons The scholar passes through h1s lens the possrble devetopments and scenanos.FACING THE DISASTERS OF

581

62

66 62 l

THE FUTURE

MARCH 8 ANO THE

by Silvia De Angeli and Stefano Terzi WOMEN

In the article, the two scholars analyse the effects l>r Anna M a tsau of natural disasters on society and the causes of the resulting consequences. Disaster management March 8 was not establlshed neither as a day of involves implementing a series of actions that destruggle and mournrng nor as a celebratlon" Yet alcrease the vulnerability of communities to natural ter so much tlme, the vulgata rema1ns the "invented" and man-made hazards, improve preparation for an one. The artrcle tells the true story of lnternahonimmediate response and facilitate the post-emeral Women's Day and lts origlns. starting from the gency recovery process, thus increasing the sysevents of 1917 to ali the changes that occurred durtem’s overall resilience. The COVID-19 pandemic lng 1900. wh1ch d1storted or confused its genesls has been an all-encompassing test case for managing these crises.

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RM 5-2023

20 I

MEDITERRANEO

by Fabrizio Luperto

June 1941. On a Greek island inhabited almost ex­ clusively by women and children, where the very few men were older people who escaped deportation by the Germans, a handful of ltalian soldiers landed with the task of garrisoning the island. They would stay there far three years, forgotten by all.

The film's director, Gabriele Salvatores, makes the war (which cannot be seen) the element of fracture between a 'before' and an 'after', a bitter reflection on a generation betrayed by broken promises, just like the generation to which the director belongs.

22 I

THE CELLO IN THE TRENCHES

by Pierfrancesco Sampaolo

The article tells the incredible story of an 'improvised' musical instrument built by two French soldiers, car­ penters in civilian life, using ammunition crates, and its owner, Maurice Meréchal, a famous French cellist, during the hell of the Great War.

26

I

FOOTBALL AND MORE FOOTBALL WITH THE COPPA

by Paola Pucci

The COMACA (Air Defence Artillery HQ) won the Coppa Esercito, the Army's football championship. Stili, all 18 participating teams distinguished themselves through their dedication, passion and healthy competition far a true sports triumph. The Chief of theArmy Generai Staff, Lieutenant Generai Pietro Serino, and the Army Cadres attended the final match between COMLOG (Logistic Command) and COMACA played in Rame at the Ar­ my's Olympic Sports Centre on 5 July. lt ended with the Air Defence Artillery HQ winning 4-2.

The V Generai Affairs Division, Army Generai Staff, organised the championship, which took piace from 15 May to 5 July. lt was part of the initiatives aimed at 100

encouraging the sports activities of military personnel and strengthening the cohesion and esprit de corps of all Army units. The teams representing the Army's Top Structure and Higher Commands competed through the preliminary stages, with a total of 31 matches played.

I 48

FROM FEMALE SUPPORTING COURIERS TO FELLOW PARTISANS

by Anna Maria lsastia

Women's Resistance was a collective and largely anon­ ymous phenomenon.

There were so many women and so many girls who were not simply additional forces but actual pivots of the Resistance, such as the liberal Maria Giulia Cardini, who grew up in a family of anti-fascist sentiments, or Lu­ cia Boetto, who specialised 'in escorting people safely: no one was ever caught', or Baroness Cristina Casana of Seyssel d'Aix, who worked in the Resistance, up to Paola Del Din, the best known, who began working as a supporting courier alongside her brother Renato. lt has been written that the partisan women were the heirs of the First World War Carnic women. Stili, the Carnic women porters were auxiliaries in a war waged by men. In contrast, the partisan women consciously experienced participation in the war, taking responsibili­ ty and asserting in practice women's emancipation.

56 I

THE WOMEN'S WAR

by Paola Pucci

When the Germans raided the Warsaw ghetto on 18 January 1943 , they were confronted by warri­ or women, skilled and determined, almost myth­ ological creatures. They were the Jewish parti­ san women who led their own resi stance during the difficult years of German occupation. Their little-known faces and names have recently been restored to collective memory on the 80th anni­ versary of the ghetto upri sing. These 'daughters of the Resistance' wrote a page of history that reveals how women very often played anything but marginai roles in the wars of every era.

Rivista Militare In. 5/2023

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59 I

ALBANIA, 1943-1945

by Niccolò Lucarelli

Eighty years after the Armistice, a sad and challenging page in history, this article intends to pay tribute to the ltalian soldiers stationed in Albania after 8 September.

They chose to fight Nazi-Fascism and flanked the Alba­ nian resistance by creating a national battalion named after Antonio Gramsci. The article retraces its exploits, battle after battle, citing its most important characters, and pays homage to those fighters who, even outside the borders of ltaly, knew how to fight bravely far free­ dom in the name of the Fatherland.

62 I

"LITTLE FELLERS"

by Carlo De Risio

When, in May '41, the Military lntell igence Ser­ v ice (SIM) managed to sneak two of its agents as us hers into Palazzo Margherita in Via Ve neto, the seat of the Un ited States Embassy in Rame, a case of espionage was opened, which went down in h istory as the 'little Fellers', named after the Amer ican Colonel Frank Banner Fe llers, who was intercepted. The case is linked to another espionage episode but at the German Embassy.

The reconstruction of eve nts is taken from Mr Ciano's Diary, Muss olini's Foreign Min ister and son-in-law, having married his daughter, Edda.

70 I

WATER GUARDIANS

by Mauro Arcamone

Finding usable and drinkable water is one of the main sanitary and hygiene challenges the Armed Forces face in 'out-of-area' operations. This water must comply with the requirements of current legis­ lation. Overcoming this challenge makes it possible to guarantee the required 'Force Health Protection' standards in the first piace and, secondly, to have a very precious resource in terms of Civil and Military Cooperation.

Far aver 20 years, the Scientific Department of the 'Celio' Military Hospital in Rame has been committed to tackling criticai issues and identifying solutions in cooperation with the Army Logistic Command.

73 I

LIFELONG LEARNING

by Ottavio Ernesto lacangelo

Lifelong learning is considered one of the pillars in the pursuit of innovation, increased productivity and sustaina­ bility, according to studies published by authoritative insti­ tutes in the wake of the worsening economie crisis. Cur­ rently, the gap between the skills required and the skills available among the employable resources, i.e., the skills mismatch, is one factor contributing to a shortfall in GDP that could reach USO 18 trillion on a global scale by 2025.

Even before this concepì was extruded into the civilian sphere, the Army had already realised the need not to limit the education of personnel, especially managers, to attain an academic qualification by structuring the educa­ tion and training in parallel with the Commander's career evolution. Thus, far years, the Army Training and Doc­ trine Command and the School of Applied Military Stud­ ies have organised their basic and advanced courses to guide personnel throughout their working lives.

The Training and Doctrine Command and the Turin School of Applied Military Studies, the University of Tu­ rin and the Turin Polytechnic University form a synergic entity that has developed aver the years according to this philosophy, becoming the reference pale far the develop­ ment of advanced education and training according to the principle of lifelong learning.

The article analyses the state of the art in the education and training of Army cadres through the developing con­ cepì of the continuum of training moments, in line with what the Minister of Defence expressed during the hear­ ing on the Ministry's programme lines last 25 January.

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RM 6-2023

during a conference attended by university pro­ fessors and history experts. This was followed by the inauguration of the commemorative exhi­ bition, which will remain open until 20 June 2024.

80 years after the Arm istice of Cassibile, the Cal­ endEsercito 2024, wants to remember the feats of arms of World War Il, to pay tribute to the men who took part in it, conscious of serving their Country, both before and after 8 September 1943, honouring the Oath they took.

Far ltaly always! This is the dedication of the Cal­ endEsercito to honour the memory of a number of Officers, Non-Commissioned Officers and Soldiers who were awarded the Gold Medal far Military Valour far heroic acts performed after the armistice and who also distinguished themselves in the period before.

At the Centrai Military Library in Rame, on 1O Octo­ ber, the new edition of the CalendEsercito was pre­ sented at a conference attended by the highest civil and military authorities and university professors.

With photos, texts and accurate reconstructions, the CalendEsercito, produced by the Army Generai Staff, in­ creasingly represents a work of historical popularisation.

26 1

YEARS WITH HEAD HELD HIGH 80

by Paola Pucci

With the armistice of Cassibile, signed with the Allies and entered into farce on 8 September 1943, one of the most complicated historical phases far our country began.

On the 80th anniversary of the War of Liberation, the Army Generai Staff - V Historical Office Depart­ ment, organised a double event, on 13 September, in Rame, at the Polo Museale in S. Croce in Geru­ salemme square, in the presence of the Undersec­ retary at the Ministry of Defence, Senator Isabella Rauti and the Chief of the Army Generai Staff, Lt. Gen. Pietro Serino.

'A Testa Alta... da Porta San Paolo a Mignano Monte Lungo, i 98 giorni che portarono alla riscossa' (Head Up... from Porta San Paolo to Mignano Monte Lungo, the 98 days that led to the redemption), is the title of a series of three paperback volumes, presented 100

3 o I :�:.:::::: :::::

Chinese music streaming giant Tencent Music has produced a song 'synthetically' using ar­ tificial intelligence, grossing an astronomical $350,000 in just a few days. In Seoul, South Ko­ rea, EveR6, a humanoid robot, conducted the orchestra of the Opera House far three songs to the applause and some consternation of the au­ dience. The new frontiers of artificial intelligence are also pushing into the realm of emotions, into artistic production, putting the work and creativi­ ty of artists at risk towards colder market logics.

The artistic aspect of this affair is part of a global debate on Al that is rapidly affecting all fields of our existence, from defence to culture.

48

I

FEMALE BEAUTYOVER THE CENTURIES

by Anna Maria lsastia

The author develops a rapid and incisive path on the evolution and changes in the canons of ternale beauty throughout history.

Between curiosities and historical events, pass­ ing through art, culture, oppression and new trends of each time, the ternale figure seems to have always been modelled according to what the male figure required at the time The article fits in perfectly with the in-depth study of the modem system of computing al­ gorithms, which guide society's tastes and cus­ toms through social channels and marketing mechanisms.

The repercussions are global and, at times, may even seem borderline dystopian.

Rivista Militare In. 6/2023

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Today's wars are not only fought on the battlefields, in the skies and on the sea: in Ukraine we are witness­ ing the first computer-virtual conflict in history, fought by civilians using a keyboard and through social net­ works, while soldiers train through virtual reality and leaders are 'teleported' into 3 dimensions. Between past and future, today's wars are changing so fast that it is hard to imagine them in their complexity.

A multifaceted and complex personality, an acute and enterprising spirit, Ernst Junger was one of the greatest German writers and military analysts of the 20th century, but also a naturalist and entomologist.

T he experience of the First World War was decisive in his education.

In his works, novels and war diaries, his military doc­ trine is increasingly defined, but also the spiritual and ultimately politica! context in which his story is set.

In this short essay, we would like to examine the originai definition of Junger's military doctrine, the result of a particularly intense persona! experience during the interminable months of the battles of Ver­ dun, on the border between Germany and France.

8o I

CONFLICTS ::::::a::

In this short article, we wanted to investigate the in­ fluence that weather conditions had on the first set­ back of Napoleon's career, which occurred in 1807.

In fact, this year represents a kind of cross-section in Napoleon's wars because between 7 and 8 February the Battie of Eylau took piace within the dynamics of the French campaign in Poland. lt is one of the bloodiest battles Napoleon took part in, and is the battle most affected by weather conditions in all the campaigns. Of course, the weather often played a crucial raie in some of the Emperor's most famous battles, such as the world-famous Battle of Austerlitz where fog allowed the French to conceal their forces that would later break the enemy's ranks in two. In the case of Eylau, however, the clash was influenced by the weather in its entirety and represented the first setback in Napoleon's career.

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