The Journal 2026

WINNERS WINNERS2025 2025

YUVAN YUVANRAJA RAJA ORIS ORIS

JOE JOEMILLAR MILLAR ILA ILASTEM STEM

OSCAR OSCARFORD FORD ILA ILAARTS/ ARTS/ HUMANITIES HUMANITIES

FROM THE

HEADMASTER

It is my pleasure to introduce this year’s edition of The Journal.

The Journal is testament to the intellectual curiosity, dedication, and ambition of RGS students.

It has been conceived not merely as a record of achievement, but as a platform for rigorous inquiry, thoughtful debate, and original contributions to knowledge.

The work presented here reflects the culmination of sustained research, critical analysis, and a commitment to academic integrity: qualities that lie at the very heart of our ethos. Across its pages, it is the breadth of perspectives and methodologies which impresses: each shaped by the distinctive voices and emerging expertise which the Independent Learning Assignments and Original Research in Science projects have encouraged.

More than just an academic exercise, The Journal represents the vibrant culture of learning which is embedded in our school community: one that – right from the very beginning of each student’s time at the School – encourages questioning, values evidence, and celebrates intellectual risk-taking. It is our hope that these contributions will inspire all those who read this, and will affirm the ability of even our younger students to participate meaningfully in disciplines that extend far beyond the classroom.

In bringing The Journal to publication, we recognise not only the contributors themselves, but also the hard work of our Head of Scholarship, Mrs Tarasewicz, Mrs Webb for her design expertise, and the teachers who have guided our students so diligently. Together, they exemplify the spirit of scholarship we strive to nurture at the RGS: reflective, resilient, and always reaching toward deeper understanding.

Congratulations to everyone involved.

Dr JM Cox Headmaster

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'SCHOLARSHIP FOR ALL'

With thanks to:

Mr Dunscombe, Mr Lau, Mrs Farthing and all of the ILA supervisors for their support with the ILA and ORIS programmes.

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FROM THE

HEAD OF SCHOLARSHIP

Preparing The Journal for publication is always one of the highlights of my academic year.

It offers a wonderful opportunity to pause, reflect, and celebrate the remarkable achievements of our older students as they approach the end of their time with us.

This year has been no exception. During their visit in January 2025, the ISI inspectors identified our students’ “breadth of knowledge and enthusiasm for scholarship” as a Significant Strength of the school. I hope that you will agree that the work showcased in the following pages provides rich and compelling evidence of this.

Each year our Lower Sixth Form students are invited to take part in our bespoke ILA (Independent Learning Assignment) and ORIS (Original Research in Science) programmes. The strongest projects in each category are shortlisted for presentation at the annual ILA/ORIS Celebration Evening. The calibre of both the presentations and the underlying research this year was truly exceptional. Full copies of all shortlisted projects are included here for you to enjoy.

I am also delighted to include Marcus Perkin's award winning essay, Does Free Speech Build or Break a Community? Marcus was awarded first place in the prestigious Karen Becher Essay Award, run by the National Holocaust Museum. This accolade adds to his already impressive achievements, including winning two separate Exeter University essay competitions and a runner up placing in the Peter Cane Legal Reasoning Competition.

Marcus is not the only senior student to have achieved remarkable academic success this year. Yuvan Raja, winner of the ORIS award at the ILA/ ORIS Celebration Evening, also represented the UK in the International Astrophysics and Astronomy Olympiad in Mumbai, placing third out of 288 competitors—the highest ranking ever achieved by a UK student.

To borrow another phrase from the inspectors, our “strong academic culture” is undoubtedly flourishing. I hope you enjoy exploring a snapshot of it in the pages that follow.

Mrs H Tarasewicz Head of Scholarship www.rgsg.co.uk

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ORIS

YUVAN RAJA WINNER OF THE ORIS CATEGORY FOR HIS RESEARCH ON MODELLING ACOUSTIC SCATTERING.

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CONTENTS 3 5 9 17 29 35 45 57 62 71 79 87

FROM THE HEADMASTER FROM THE HEAD OF SCHOLARSHIP

STEM

DENNIS DIMOV

WILL AI TAKE OVER THE ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF DOCTORS IN THE NEXT 50 YEARS?

MAX LERCHSTER

EXPLORING LOW-COORDINATE MANGANESE(II) COMPLEXES.

JOE MILLAR

HOW ALTRUISM AND PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOUR CAN BE EXPLAINED FROM AN EVOLUTIONARY, PSYCHOLOGICAL AND CHEMICAL PERSPECTIVE.

WILL MORROW

TEMPORAL DISCRIMINATION IN BOMBUS TERRESTRIS (BUMBLEBEES).

YUVAN RAJA

MODELLING ACOUSTIC SCATTERING VIA FRACTAL MESH DECOMPOSITION.

ARTS & HUMANITIES CAMERON BROWN

TO WHAT EXTENT DO JD VANCE'S VIEWS ON IMMIGRATION FOLLOW THE PRINCIPLES OF ST. AUGUSTINE OF HIPPO?

WILL GOSSAGE

MYTH TO MOVIE: THE REIMAGINING OF CLASSICAL THEMES IN FILM NOIR.

OSCAR FORD

BEL CANTO - TO WHAT EXTENT IS THE GERMANIC SCHOOL OF SINGING TECHNIQUE THE OPPOSITE OF THE GARCIAN SCHOOL OF SINGING?

ANGUS SCOTT

FROM MUSE TO MONSTER: DID ROMAN LOVE POETS LIBERATE OR INCARCERATE WOMEN IN THEIR POETRY?

NATIONAL ESSAY COMPETITION MARCUS PERKIN

DOES FREE SPEECH BUILD OR BREAK A COMMUNITY?

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STEM SCIENCE T E C H N O LO G Y ENGINEERING M AT H E M AT I C S

JOE MILLAR WINNER IN THE ILA STEM CATEGORY FOR HIS DISCUSSION OF ALTRUISM AND PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOUR FROM EVOLUTIONARY, PSYCHOLOGICAL AND CHEMICAL PERSPECTIVES.

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WILL AI TAKE OVER THE ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF DOCTORS IN THE NEXT

STEM

DENNIS DIMOV

50 YEARS?

This Independent Learning Assignment (ILA) was short-listed for the ILA/ORIS Celebration Evening.

INTRODUCTION In recent decades, artificial intelligence (AI) has

benefit the healthcare sector but is also limited

rapidly advanced, revolutionising many industries

in its abilities to fulfil certain roles that require

from the financial sector to transportation. But,

human decision-making and qualities. AI-powered

will it also take over the healthcare sector and,

systems are already diagnosing diseases, assisting

if so, what will be the impacts it has? If you ask

in treatment planning, analysing medical images

ChatGPT (an AI software) itself it comes to the

and aiding in the workload of many specialists

conclusion of: ‘AI is likely to transform many

of doctors (as I saw myself on my placement

aspects of healthcare over the next 50 years,

in a mental health hospital). Therefore, this

but it's very unlikely to fully replace doctors’ .

growing presence raises the critical question:

This highlights how AI acknowledges how it may

Will AI fully take over the roles of doctors in the

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next 50 years? While some envision a future

To the most recent forms of development and research

where machines can outperform humans in all

1978 First test-tube baby is born and the First

aspects of medicine, others may argue that the

vaccine developed for meningitis; 1980 Smallpox

“human touch” is irreplaceable in patient care

is eradicated; 1981 First vaccine developed for

and is essential in maintaining the consistency

hepatitis B; 1983 HIV, the virus that causes

of reliable care to those who are unwell. This

AIDS, is identified; 1984 Alec Jeffreys devises a

essay explores the potential of AI in medicine,

genetic fingerprinting method; 1985 Willem J. Kolff

its limitations and draws upon the conclusion of

invented the artificial kidney dialysis machine;

whether it will only complement or completely

1992 First vaccine developed for hepatitis A; 1996

replace human doctors in the next few decades.

Dolly the sheep becomes the first clone; 2006 First vaccine to target a cause of cancer and

AI’S POTENTIAL TO REVOLUTIONISE MEDICINE

now the consistent clinical trials for new drugs in pharmaceutical companies and gene editing.2

Medicine is continually developing and has been improving for the last decade, emphasising how

Based on what I witnessed first-hand within the

the healthcare sector is always finding innovative

hospital, AI could most likely take over four distinct

ways to ensure the safety and wellbeing of

roles. The first being diagnostics (for general,

people. But the real question is whether AI use

typical conditions). It is nice to think that in the

is the next innovative step towards this goal in

future, you could simply walk into your local GP

the timeline of medicinal practice. From the very

or hospital and undergo a simple consultation in

beginning of the exploration of medicine: 460

front of a machine without the worry of having to

BC Birth of Hippocrates, the Greek father of

disclose personal information to another human

medicine begins the scientific study of medicine

or waiting days for a 15 minute appointment- and

and prescribes a form of aspirin; 300 BC Diocles

perhaps with AI this could be possible. AI chatbots

wrote the first known anatomy book; 280 BC

and tools can guide patients through symptom

Herophilus studies the nervous system; 130 AD

checking, directing them to care more efficiently.

Birth of Galen. Greek physician to gladiators

AI already outperforms humans in some imaging

and Roman emperors; c60 AD Pedanius

tasks (detecting certain cancers in X-rays or

Dioscorides writes De Materia Medica; 910

MRIs) as well as being able to store an extremely

Persian physician Rhazes identifies smallpox.

large and accurate bank of knowledge that can

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recognise symptoms of a typical illness and give a

a consultant psychiatrist (who informed me of

full diagnosis in seconds. This makes it possible to

how his longest shift the first year out of university

get an accurate diagnosis in just minutes as well

was close to 40 hours- a considerable portion

as allowing time and energy for doctors to focus

doing administrative work) within a mental health

on more serious and complex illnesses. Therefore,

hospital where he used an AI tool (“ambient AI

we can conclude that certain diagnostics is a

scribe”) that listens in to the conversation he

role that AI can play in. The second role is data

has with his patients and writes up a transcript

analysis. AI can analyse massive datasets faster

with all the relevant information that has taken

than humans, identifying patterns in genetic,

place during the conversation (filtering all filler/

clinical and lifestyle data. It is important to note

irrelevant words). Despite this use of AI having

however that AI doesn’t “understand” illnesses

some specific problems with certain patients with

like a human does. It detects statistical likelihoods

certain conditions (which I will come back to later

based on data and final decisions still require

in this essay), the software saves the consultant an

human clinical judgement. Examples of this data

abundance of time that is focused on other tasks

analysis may be: Medical images (X-rays, CT scans,

that require more serious and precise thought

MRIs), electronic health records (EHRs), lab test

and also records the conversation to a much more

results, patient-reported symptoms, wearable

accurate extent due to not relying on the doctors

device data (heart rate, glucose levels, etc.). This

memory when hand-writing the report at the end of

again not only saves a lot of time that would be

the consultation. Similarly, AI can aid in scheduling,

spent identifying patterns and trends in data, but

note-taking, billing and managing patient records.

also does so with impressive accuracy and can

A final role AI could take over is similar to the

eliminate the chances of human error when doing

second, pattern recognition via 'Machine Learning'.

so. Thirdly, AI can be used as an administrative

AI- especially using machine learning and deep

tool. I witnessed this first hand while shadowing

learning can learn from millions of prior cases,

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recognise patterns that correlate with specific

to even the smallest detail in the patient’s health

diseases/ abnormalities and identify subtle

or condition (analysing trends is not completely

features a human might overlook (early signs

reliable). The arguments against AI sway towards

of cancer in imaging). For instance, radiology AI

the other side of medicine that consists of ethics,

can detect lung nodes or brain haemorrhages on

decision-making and dilemmas that doctors are

scans faster and sometimes more accurately than

often faced with and require human emotions to

radiologists and dermatology AI can classify skin

deal with- not everything in medicine is strictly

lesions with accuracy comparable to experienced

analytical like in finance as you are dealing with

dermatologists. As well as this, 'predictive

real people. First of all, clinical judgement is still

modelling' allows AI to predict disease risk

required by experienced, knowledgeable doctors

(diabetes, heart disease) years before symptoms

who need to piece together different symptoms

arise by using algorithms trained on longitudinal

much like a jigsaw puzzle in complex, ambiguous,

data in order to forecast disease progressions.

rare cases where data is limited or conflicting.

A distinct example is the very rare case of

Ultimately, it is evident that AI is already

auto-brewery syndrome. There are people who

improving efficiency in healthcare and allowing

experience intoxication and hangovers without

overworked doctors to focus their medical

drinking a significant amount of alcohol, or without

expertise on more pressing and important

ingesting alcohol at all. These individuals share

matters than simple, time-consuming tasks.

a rare condition called auto-brewery syndrome or gut fermentation syndrome, where ethanol

EXAMPLES OF AI TOOLS ALREADY USED IN DIAGNOSIS ● ● ● ● ●

is produced in a person’s gut after they have eaten carbohydrate-rich foods. An excess of

IBM Watson Health- suggested cancer

'Saccharomyces cerevisiae' - a type of yeast- in

treatments based on literature

the gut is the main culprit, which leads to the

DeepMind’s AlphaFold- predicted

fermentation process that produces ethanol. This

protein folding for drug discovery

condition varies greatly despite already being very

PathAI- aided pathologists in

rare, from very minor to very severe cases where

diagnosing diseases from slides

the worst symptoms present as belching, chronic

Aidoc, Zebra Medical Vision- read radiology

fatigue syndrome, dizziness, disorientation,

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images for early signs of disease

hangovers and irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) as

Limitations of AI within medicine

well as also having further impacts on a person’s mental health3. The point remaining, will AI really

Contrastingly, there are still many hindrances to

be able to diagnose cases like these that are

the uses and benefits of AI outlined previously in

so rare and can vary so much in their nature?

this essay as medicine is complex and conditions can vary immensely from person to person and

The next limitation to emphasise is the need for

diagnosis/ treatment can completely change due

human connection within medicine. Individuals

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will always want to turn to another human when

leads onto the final bulk of why doctors will

feeling most vulnerable. Human emotions

still be the core of healthcare for centuries to

such as empathy, trust and communication are

come- ethical decision making. Ethical dilemmas

core to care and are essential in medicine as

in medicine are complex where there can be

they provide a foundation of compassionate,

conflicting moral principles or values meaning

patient-centred care. Emotions allow doctors/

that careful consideration and decision making

healthcare professionals to connect with patients

is key. The most prevalent areas being on patient

in a way that is beyond clinical symptoms as

autonomy, resource allocation, confidentiality and

they can recognise them as individuals with

end of life care4. There are many academic journals

unique experiences, fears and hopes for the

that focus on this field, including the 'Journal of

future- each patient varies greatly and a broad

Medical Ethics' and 'BMC Medical Ethics' each

emotional intelligence allows doctors to adjust

exploring different moral conflicts within medicine

their language, behaviour and approach towards

and the most ethical resolution from which we

diagnosis. Eventually this fosters for trust between

will draw examples to combat why medicine still

the doctor and patient which is vital to long

requires human contact/ decision-making that

term care and effective diagnosis- something

AI cannot provide. Common ethical dilemmas in

that many people may struggle to do so with

medicine are: Informed consent (ensuring patients

AI. For instance, a patient who is embarrassed

understand the risks and benefit of treatment

or ashamed of their condition could be more

options before making decisions); Confidentiality

willing to share crucial information if they feel

(protecting patient privacy and sensitive

heard and respected, allowing for more accurate

information); Resource allocation (deciding how

diagnose and better overall treatment. Moreover,

to distribute limited resources such as ventilators

emotions are essential in ethical-decision

or beds fairly); End of life decisions (addressing

making (an instrumental factor in the practice of

issues like palliative care, withdrawal of treatment

medicine as it is not all about accurate diagnosis).

and euthanasia)- if you have an illness that cannot

Medical dilemmas are complex and require more

be cured, palliative care makes you as comfortable

than simply god knowledge but rather require

as possible by managing your pain and other

sensitivity to suffering, awareness of human

distressing symptoms5. As well as, professional

values and moral judgement in order to navigate

responsibility (balancing obligations to patients,

complexities with integrity and humanity. This

colleagues and the broader community);

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conflicts of interest (navigating situations where personal interests might influence professional judgement); Medical errors (dealing with mistakes and ensuring patient safety); Access to care (addressing disparities in healthcare due to socioeconomic status, geographic location etc.).

Journal of Medical Ethics (JME) features articles on ethical aspects of health care relevant to health care professionals, members of clinical ethics committees, medical ethics professionals, researchers and bio scientists, policy makers and patients. It also publishes an associated forum. We can draw an example from here: ‘ The medical decision-making process is currently in flux. Decisions are no longer made entirely at the physician's discretion: patients are becoming more and more involved in the process. There is a great deal of discussion about the ideal of ‘informed consent’, that is that diagnostic and therapeutic decisions should be made based on an interaction between physician and patient.

This means that patients are informed about the advantages and disadvantages of a treatment as well as alternatives to the treatment; then, based on this information they can decide whether or not they want to undergo the treatment. However, recent studies show that the realisation of the ideal of ‘shared decision-making’ faces a number of difficulties related to the fact that patients are not provided with complete and accurate information. Using the example of breast cancer screening, this article examines the question of whether, in light of these difficulties, the ideal of informed decision-making is only an illusion or whether concrete steps can be taken towards the realisation of this ideal.’6. This article/ journal then continues to draw on key examples such as breast cancer screening where moral and emotional intelligence is required from human doctors in order for people to be given the most effective care possible by allowing them to make their own decisions based on the information provided. The question remaining: will AI have the capacity to understand the human emotions experienced in difficult situations and adjust its approach towards treatment and care? Even if it were possible to 14

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program into AI, 'The four ethical principles' it is still not certain that AI has the same emotional intelligence as humans to influence different decisions in different scenarios. The four ethical principles are: Autonomy, Beneficence, Non-maleficence and Justice/ Equity (as well as the right to confidentiality - 'the fifth element'7.

These are all key in every situation for a doctor (both serious and unserious) and are integrated into medical school prep from the very beginning which begs the next concern of whether use of AI risks deskilling doctors. Overreliance on AI and incorporating AI to university courses could lead to dependence on it and doctors not being as skilled as in the past, or if AI takes

Medicine isn’t just about the diagnosis and treatment of patients/ those who are sick but has the power to influence beliefs and affect many individuals (family and friends of those sick) so human judgement, empathy and patient communication remain essential.

over diagnostics then many doctors may not be trained in this which again deskills them. A final factor closely related to everything said is an interesting example I experienced first hand of whether people trust AI as much as a doctor.

Within mental health care, diagnosis varies greatly

of an AI tool within their consultation as it caused

and some people have conditions that may make

them to be anxious especially with the concern that

them more susceptible to not trusting AI. The

it could trigger or exacerbate their delusions- hence

most striking example of this is those diagnosed

AI could most likely never take over this segment of

with schizophrenia who experience delusions

medicine. Therefore, AI still interferes in many ways

(outside of cultural context- key in its diagnosis)

and we must wonder whether people fully trust

even when on the appropriate medication such as

AI with their life- and in the worse cases whether

quetiapine. Many of the patients (all but one) with

it is the doctor or the AI at fault if there were an

this condition did not entertain the idea of the use

error in diagnosis that led to a patient death.

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CONCLUSION Ultimately, AI has the potential to transform and improve healthcare diagnostics and efficiency by being implemented carefully and appropriately into certain roles but, in my opinion, will never fully take over the roles or responsibilities of doctors due to its inability to function as a human does. Medicine isn’t just about the diagnosis and treatment of patients/ those who are sick but has the power to influence beliefs and affect many individuals (family and friends of those sick) so human judgement, empathy and patient communication remain essential. AI will likely reshape and support many aspects of medicine but rather than replacing doctors, it will act as a powerful assistant- enhancing rather than eliminating the human role in healthcare.

REFERENCES 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

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OpenAI (2025) ChatGPT [online AI language model], conversation with user, 15 June. Available at: https://chatgpt.com/c/684ecd42-29a0-8000be9f-100a68308831 [Accessed: 15 June 2025].

Hajar, R., 2015. History of medicine timeline. Heart Views, 16(1), pp. 43–45. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/ PMC4379645/ [Accessed 12 June 2025].

Eske, J., 2020. Auto-brewery syndrome: definition, symptoms and more. Medical News Today, 4 February. Available at: https://www. medicalnewstoday.com/articles/323395#Autobrewery-syndrome [Accessed 12 June 2025].

Ahuja, D., Batra, P., Bhatia, O. & Singh, A.K. (2024) ‘Ethical Dilemmas and Conventionalism in Healthcare: A Scoping Review’, Cureus, 16(9), e69693. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/ PMC11490275/ [Accessed: 15 June 2025].

NHS (2025) ‘What end of life care involves’, NHS – Tests and Treatments, 6 April. Available at: https://www.nhs. uk/tests-and-treatments/end-of-life-care/what-itinvolves-and-when-it-starts/ [Accessed: 15 June 2025].

Hope, T. (2010) ‘Virtue, objectivity and the foundations of clinical ethics’, Journal of Medical Ethics, 36(6), pp. 349–352. Available at: https://jme.bmj.com/ content/36/6/349 [Accessed: 15 June 2025].

Picard, O. and Lee, G. (2013) Medical school interviews: a practical guide to help you get that place at medical school. 2nd edn. London: ISC Medical. pp. 64–65.

Koncz, A. (2024) ‘4 exciting examples of AI diagnostics already in use’, The Medical Futurist, 30 May. Available at: https://medicalfuturist.com/4-exciting-examples-of-aidiagnostics-already-in-use/ [Accessed: 15 June 2025].

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EXPLORING

LOW-COORDINATE MANGANESE(II)

COMPLEXES

STEM

MAX LERCHSTER

This Original Research in Science (ORIS) project was short-listed for the ILA/ ORIS Celebration Evening.

INTRODUCTION As part of this project I worked on creating and

helps solve the economic and environmental

evaluating catalysts for organic transformations

issues associated with catalysis. This project's

based on manganese with Dr Uzelac’s group

long-term objective was to contribute to more

from the University of Bath. Because it is

sustainable and environmentally friendly chemical

affordable, abundant on Earth, and significantly

processes by synthesising, characterising, and

less poisonous than more conventional precious

assessing manganese complexes' catalytic

metals like palladium or platinum, manganese.

activity. However, there is still a long way

By substituting a more sustainable metal

to go due to the air sensitive nature of this

for rare and dangerous ones, manganese

chemistry making it not yet viable for industry.

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WHY MANGANESE

scale) allows for polar metal–ligand bonds

Manganese is the twelfth most abundant element

and makes Mn–alkyl or Mn–hydrides more

in the Earth’s crust, composing approximately

nucleophilic. This makes Mn(II) organometallic

0.1% by mass. Its abundance, low cost, and

complexes highly reactive toward electrophiles,

relatively small environmental impact make it

including carbonyls, halides, and hydroxides.

a highly attractive and sustainable choice for modern inorganic and organometallic chemistry,

MANGANESE VS MAGNESIUM

particularly in the context of replacing scarce,

Magnesium is a common reagent in chemistry,

expensive, and toxic late transition metals such

often seen in the form of Grignard reagents and

as palladium, platinum, or iridium. Despite

sometimes other organomagnesium complexes,

its abundance, manganese has historically

due to its abundance, low toxicity, and ability

been underutilised in synthetic chemistry, in

to form strong σ-bonds to donor atoms. Its

part because its redox chemistry and bonding

single accessible oxidation state (+2), low

behaviour are more complex than many of the

electronegativity (1.31 pauling), and lack of d orbitals

more “traditional” late transition metals.

results in reactivity that is mostly polarisation effects and ionic bonding

The Mn(II) oxidation state is

rather than covalent or π-back

particularly of interest. With a

bonding interactions.

3d⁵ electronic configuration, Mn²⁺ possesses a half-filled

Manganese (II), while also

d-shell that has good

abundant and sustainable,

thermodynamic stability due to

occupies a unique position

exchange energy maximisation.

between magnesium-like

This half-filled configuration

main group behaviour and

gives Mn(II) a resistance to

the richer reactivity spectrum

changes in oxidation state, it

of transition metals. Like

is therefore less likely to take

Magnesium, Manganese has

part in uncontrolled redox

a pretty low electronegativity

reactions in comparison to

and a stable +2 oxidation

softer, more easily oxidised transition metals.

state, making it able to coordinate nucleophilic

Unlike alkaline earth metals such as magnesium,

alkyl, amide, and hydride ligands. However,

which lack d orbitals, Mn(II) can still preform redox

Mn(II) has a half-filled 3d5 configuration unlike

reactions and π-backbonding when coordinated

magnesium. This allows for limited yet accessible

to suitable ligands. This combination allows Mn(II)

participation of d orbitals in bonding, allowing

to show trends in reactivity similar to alkaline

weak π-backbonding and many coordination

earth metals, while still enabling transition-metal-

geometries that are unavailable to magnesium.

specific pathways such as activation of π-systems.

These d orbitals also allow Mn(II) to participate Mn²⁺ has a relatively small ionic radius (97

in redox chemistry, less readily than softer

pm in high-spin configuration), which allows

late transition metals. This means Mn(II)

for tight coordination geometries and better

complexes can potentially change oxidation

orbital overlap with donor atoms. Manganese’s

states during catalysis while still retaining

low electronegativity (1.55 on the Pauling

aspects of main-group-like polar reactivity.

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In essence, magnesium provides a predictable

and unique electronic properties. Their high

platform for polar bond formation but is

basicity, combined with their steric encumbrance,

chemically limited to one redox-inactive mode of

makes them highly effective non-nucleophilic

reactivity, whereas manganese can access both

bases: they readily deprotonate substrates

polar and redox pathways. This dual capability

while avoiding unwanted side reactions.

opens the door to catalytic transformations that are inaccessible to purely main-group

When coordinated to transition metals, amide

systems, while still benefiting from the same

ligands profoundly influence reactivity. This arises

abundance and sustainability arguments that

from their σ-donating and π-donating abilities,

make magnesium chemistry so attractive.

which can both stabilise electron-deficient centres and increase reactivity at the metal. In

LIGAND DESIGN

particular, with Lewis-acidic transition metals, the

The properties of Mn(II) impose strict

ionic contribution to the M–N bond is enhanced,

requirements on ligand design to achieve stable,

strengthening the basicity of the amide and

well-defined complexes. As a hard Lewis acid,

increasing its utility as a reactive ligand.

Mn²⁺ preferentially coordinates to hard Lewis bases, such as amide, and alkyl anion donors.

Low coordination numbers increase the metal’s

Manganese is therefore very oxophilicity, which

Lewis acidity, improving substrate activation

makes Mn(II) species highly susceptible to

and enabling reactions that centres with more

oxidation or ligand exchange in the presence of

coordinated ligands may not be able to preform.

even trace amounts of reactive oxygen species

However, such electron-deficient species require

or water. Therefore careful consideration of

stabilisation to avoid rapid decomposition or

ligand design must be taken to avoid unwanted

oxidation. This stabilisation is normally done

oxidation of the Mn(II) metal centre. Bulky

by using bulky, polydentate ligands, which both

ligands such as In addition, synthesis and

shield the reactive centre sterically and force

handling of Mn(II) complexes requires thorough

conformational rigidity. Importantly, ligand

inert-atmosphere techniques, such as the

systems must balance synthetic accessibility with

glovebox and Schlenk-lines, to prevent hydrolysis

functionality, many uncommon or unique ligands

or oxidative degradation of the target species.

can be expensive or require long syntheses.

These challenges mean that ligand frameworks

A particularly successful design solution

for Mn(II) must not only provide sufficient

is the β-diketiminate (NacNac) ligand, an

electronic donation to stabilise the metal centre

inexpensive, modular, and conformationally

but also offer steric protection against oxidative

stable scaffold. NacNac ligands readily stabilise

degradation. Strongly donating, rigid ligand

low-coordinate, electron-deficient complexes,

scaffolds, particularly those with chelating

allowing access to unusual coordination

amide functionalities, are especially valuable

geometries and oxidation states. Their tunable

for promoting both stability and well-defined

steric and electronic properties (through

reactivity in Mn(II) organometallic chemistry.

variation of the N-substituents) make them highly adaptable to different metal systems.

Bulky amides have long been central to organometallic chemistry because of their straightforward synthesis, predictable reactivity, Synthesis of DippNacNac ligand

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By combining the polar, strongly basic M–N

Lithium has a small ionic radius and high charge

bonds derived from bulky amides with the

density, leading to strongly bound, compact

electron-accepting ability of low-coordinate

coordination geometries with tight ion pairing.

centres, it is possible to design new

This can rigidify the Mn coordination sphere,

biphilic complexes that can interact with

enhance σ-donor interactions from ligands, and

both electrophiles and nucleophiles. This

often increase reactivity toward polar substrates.

dual reactivity increases the number of transformations available to the metal centre.

Sodium and potassium are larger and less polarising, which can loosen metal–metal

BIMETALLIC MANGANESE-ALKALI COMPLEXES

interactions and open up coordination sites

While monometallic Mn(II) complexes

for ligand exchange, increase substrate

already offer a blend of main-group-like and

accessibility, and stabilise more weakly

transition-metal-like reactivity, an even greater

bound donor ligands or intermediates.

on the manganese centre. This can allow

variety of chemical behaviour can be explored when manganese is paired with an alkali metal

The choice of alkali metal also influences the

centre in a well-defined bimetallic architecture. In

aggregation state of the complex in solution

such complexes, the Mn(II) centre typically carries

and the solid state. For example, small alkali

the catalytically active organometallic fragment,

metals often promote dimeric or oligomeric

often alkyl, or amide, while the alkali metal acts as

assemblies via bridging ligands, whereas

a Lewis acidic partner, a counterion, and in many

larger cations more readily form monomeric

cases an active participant in substrate activation.

species. These structural differences can drastically change reactivity profiles, product

The identity of the alkali metal profoundly

selectivity, and catalytic turnover rates.

influences the physical and chemical properties of the bimetallic complex. Alkali metals differ

From a mechanistic perspective, the alkali metal

in ionic radius, polarising power, solvation

can adjust the electron density at the Mn(II)

behaviour, and Lewis acidity, which in turn

centre through electrostatic and inductive

affects the structure, stability, and reactivity

effects, subtly tuning the redox potential and

of the manganese site. For example:

bond activation abilities. Moreover, in some cooperative systems, the alkali metal plays a direct role in substrate activation - such as polarising carbonyl groups or halides prior to Mn-mediated bond formation - thus enabling dual-site catalysis in which both metals actively participate in the reaction coordinate.

These features make Mn–alkali metal bimetallic complexes an interesting platform for research on sustainable catalysis. By rationally selecting the alkali metal, change reactivity without changing the core Mn coordination environment, allowing for research of how cation size, hardness, and solvation affect catalytic cycles.

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EXPERIMENTAL SECTION

General Considerations for Air- and Moisture-Sensitive Chemistry All chemistry with manganese complexes needs to be performed using rigorous inert-atmosphere techniques, due to the extreme oxygen- and moisture-sensitivity of Mn(II) precursors and products. Reactions were carried out under an atmosphere of dry argon using a double-manifold Schlenk line or in an glovebox (O₂ and H₂O < 0.1 ppm). Solvents including hexane, diethyl ether, tetrahydrofuran (THF), and dichloromethane were pre-dried over sodium/benzophenone ketyl or calcium hydride and distilled prior to use, then stored under nitrogen.

All glassware was left overnight in a base bath and then washed and put into an acid bath after which it was washed with acetone and isopropyl alcohol and left to dry in air before

spectroscopic techniques such as single-crystal

being put in an oven at 150°C to remove

X-ray diffraction (SCXRD) was essential.

any remaining chemicals that could destroy

However, this comes with other problems, as

the sensitive complexes that we make.

suitable crystals had to be grown under inert conditions and preserved until data collection.

Manganese(II) salts are easily oxidised, and small traces of O₂ or H₂O can create high-valent

Crystal Growth

manganese oxides or hydroxides. Similarly,

The growth of single crystals of good enough

NacNac-type ligands are strong bases and

quality for diffraction analysis required careful

are vulnerable to protonolysis by trace water.

solvent removal, often taking several days

Therefore we need a lack of any air and moisture

under inert conditions in the glovebox freezer.

throughout all handling, transfers, and storage.

Once formed, crystals of Mn(II) complexes were easily oxidised upon exposure to air. To

Challenges with Characterisation

mitigate this, crystals were mounted as quickly

Characterisation of manganese(II) complexes has

as possible onto the XRD machine under a

its challenges compared to diamagnetic transition

protective layer of perfluoropolyether (Paratone

metals. The high-spin d⁵ electron configuration

N) oil. The oil layer provided a physical barrier

of Mn(II) results in five unpaired electrons, which

against O₂ and H₂O, preventing degradation

means strong paramagnetism with an effective

during transfer to the diffractometer.

spin quantum number of S = 5/2. This significantly shortens nuclear spin relaxation times (T₁),

Even under this protection, decomposition during

leading to broadened and shifted resonances.

mounting was an issue. Some crystals rapidly

As a result, conventional ¹H and ¹³C NMR

darkened, indicating partial oxidation of the Mn(II)

spectroscopy is not informative for paramagnetic

complexes to higher oxidation states or collapse of

Mn(II) complexes, as signals are broadened

the lattice. Only carefully selected, intact crystals

beyond recognition. Instead, alternative

preserved in oil could be successfully measured.

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INSTRUMENTATION

XRD Machine

X-ray diffraction (XRD): Single-crystal XRD

which generates an intense, monochromatic

was performed on a Rigaku Oxford Diffraction

beam, directed through collimating optics

machine (Mo-Kα radiation, λ = 0.71073 Å).

toward the crystal. As the crystal is rotated,

Crystals were mounted in Paratone N oil

the ordered lattice planes diffract the incident

on. Data was collected at low temperature

radiation according to Bragg’s law, producing

(110 K) to minimise thermal motion.

a series of diffraction spots captured by a sensitive hybrid photon-counting detector.

Single-crystal X-ray diffraction (SCXRD) was

These diffraction patterns are then indexed and

performed on a Rigaku Oxford Diffraction

integrated by the instrument software to yield a

machine. Suitable crystals were selected under

three-dimensional map of the crystal’s lattice.

a polarising microscope using small loops, which mounted the crystal on a metal pin

The structural refinement process proceeds by

you must ensure secure attachment without

Fourier transformation of the diffraction data

introducing strain or fractures. The pin was then

to generate an initial electron density map.

mounted into the XRD machine, and the crystal

Peaks of high electron density correspond

was visually centred using an on-axis camera

to the positions of atoms within the unit cell,

microscope so that the crystal point of the X-ray

with heavier elements appearing as higher

beam and the instrument’s rotation axes.

numbers. The computer assigns atomic positions based on these peaks, taking into

Once mounted, the goniometer head was aligned

account expected connectivity, chemical

such that the crystal remained in the beam as

composition, and bonding distances. Then the

it rotated through several orientations. The

unit cell is looked at and adjusted if the operator

diffractometer employs a microfocus X-ray source,

thinks the computer made some mistakes.

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Schlenk Lines Air- and moisture-sensitive organometallic

pump. A Dewar is placed under the trap and then

chemistry requires the use of rigorously inert

filled with liquid nitrogen. Once the trap reaches

techniques to exclude oxygen and water, both of

cryogenic temperature, the valve is fully opened

which can rapidly degrade sensitive complexes.

to establish high vacuum throughout the line.

The Schlenk line is the standard laboratory apparatus for this purpose, providing access to

The argon line is then opened. Argon is introduced

alternating high vacuum and inert gas (commonly

from a cylinder through a regulator, and the line

argon or nitrogen) in a controlled manner. The

is flushed by opening the bubbler for a good

system consists of a dual manifold: one connected

amount of time to expel any residual oxygen or

to a high-vacuum pump and cold trap, and the

moisture. The bubbler provides a visual indication

other to an inert gas source, with a series of taps

of gas flow through bubbling of the viscous oil

allowing individual access to either vacuum or gas.

which stops air entering the system while still allowing argon to be flushed out on command

To establish the system, all glass taps are first

in addition it maintains a slight overpressure,

lubricated with a thin layer of high-vacuum

ensuring that ambient air cannot diffuse back into

grease. The taps are inserted into the manifold

the system. Before handling sensitive samples,

joints with a gentle twisting motion to avoid

all transfer tubing is purged by alternating

trapping air bubbles or creating striations

between vacuum and argon (typically ten cycles)

that could compromise the seal. Once closed,

to guarantee an oxygen- and moisture-free

the taps are secured with rubber bands to

environment. Each evacuation should be held

prevent accidental dislodging during use. A

for several seconds to allow the pump to achieve

cold trap, connected between the vacuum

a deep vacuum before reintroducing inert gas.

line and pump, is installed and sealed off to the atmosphere. The vacuum pump is then

When connecting a Schlenk flask, the flask neck

activated and opened to the cold trap segment

is closed with a greased ground-glass joint and

to remove any air from the trap before it is

sealed with a stopper. Therefore we must use

cooled as liquid oxygen is explosive then the

Suba-Seals, a pierceable rubber septum designed

trap is cooled with liquid nitrogen to condense

to exclude air but allow access via syringes or

volatile by-products (such as solvent vapours

cannulas, when transferring in solvents or liquid/

or pump oil backstreaming) and protect the

aqueous reagents. The stopper must be replaced

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by a Suba-Seal quickly to minimize exposure,

The Glovebox

and the flask should always be maintained under

The glovebox maintains an oxygen and water

a positive flow of argon to displace any traces of

free environment <1 ppm of each by continuously

air during the exchange. After using a Suba-Seal

circulating the argon through purification

and once the stopper is reequipped, the flask is

columns. Samples and reagents are transferred

flushed with repeated vacuum-argon cycles to

into the glovebox via antechambers, which

remove any oxygen or moisture in the Schlenk.

can be evacuated and refilled with argon gas to prevent air entering. Inside the glovebox,

Transfers of solvents and reagents are carried

all handling is performed through attached

out using a cannula or syringe (for very small

gloves, allowing weighing, storage of air

amounts). A stainless-steel cannula allows

sensitive chemicals and crystallisation in the

solvent to be transferred by creating a pressure

freezer to be done under inert conditions.

differential: argon gas pressure is applied to the source flask, forcing liquid through the cannula into the receiving vessel, where argon can escape through a needle. For filtration of suspensions, PTFE cannulas fitted with a small filter paper are used, allowing solids to be retained in the original vessel while the solution is transferred under inert atmosphere.

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Inside the glovebox, all handling is performed through attached gloves, allowing weighing, storage of air sensitive chemicals and crystallisation in the freezer to be done under inert conditions.

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(2.0 mmol). The mixture was stirred at room

REACTIONS

temperature, and the formation of the alkyl

Synthesis of MesNacNacH

complex was confirmed by isolation of the product after solvent removal under vacuum.

The resulting complex, DippNacNacMn– CH₂SiMe₃, was obtained as a yellow solid.

Later a larger-scale reaction was performed to test scalability: MnCl₂ (10 mmol) was combined

2,4,6-trimethylaniline (14.46 g, 15 mL, 120 mmol, 2.0 equiv.) and acetylacetone (4.5 mL, 60 mmol, 1.0 equiv.) were dissolved in ethanol (200 mL).

To this was added concentrated HCl (6 mL, 10.18 M, 60 mmol, 1.0 equiv.), and the reaction mixture was heated to reflux at 80 °C for 3 days. After cooling, the solvent was removed in a rotary evaporator. The residue was suspended in hexane (300 mL) and refluxed for 1 h. The solvent was again removed, and the residue was suspended in dichloromethane (300 mL) and washed with saturated aqueous sodium carbonate solution (200 mL). The organic layer was separated in a separating funnel and concentrated in a rotary evaporator to give the crude product, which was washed with cold methanol to yield MesNacNacH as a faintly yellow solid.

The MesNacNac ligand was made via acid-catalysed condensation of 2,4,6-trimethylaniline with acetylacetone under reflux for 3 days at 80 °C. This synthetic route worked well, providing the desired ligand in pretty pure form without many side products.

The bulky mesityl groups are expected to promote low coordination numbers at the metal centre by suppressing oligomerisation. It also gives a comparison to the DippNacNac ligand.

with LiCH₂SiMe₃ (20 mmol) and DippNacNac (10mmol) in Et₂O (50 mL). The product was obtained in comparable yield, indicating no significant loss of efficiency at higher scale.

Synthesis of Lithium Manganese Bimetallic Butyl Complex with TMEDA

Manganese(II) chloride (1.0 mmol) and TMEDA (1.0 mmol) were combined in Et₂O, n-BuLi (2.0 mmol) was added dropwise, resulting in the formation of a manganese centre bearing four butyl ligands.

Two Li–TMEDA fragments coordinated to the butyl substituents, one on either side of the manganese centre. The product was isolated after removal of volatiles under reduced pressure.

Synthesis of DippNacNacMnR Complexes (R = –CH₂SiMe₃)

This reaction is useful because it generates a tetrabutylmanganese(II) complex that serves as a versatile organometallic precursor. The use of n-BuLi introduces strongly basic, reactive butyl groups onto the manganese centre, while TMEDA stabilises the reactive species by coordinating lithium, preventing uncontrolled decomposition. The result is a

Pink Manganese(II) chloride solid (1.0 mmol, 0.126 g) was suspended in Et₂O, and DippNacNac (1.0 mmol) was added, followed by LiCH₂SiMe₃

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well-defined complex, a stable starting material is that allows more exploration of manganese’s reactivity in organometallic chemistry.

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Synthesis of DippNacNacMnR·CH₃CN

Reaction of DippNacNacMnR with 2-Chloropyridine

Manganese(II) chloride (1.0 mmol, 0.126 g) was

Dipp

suspended in Et₂O (20 mL), and

in hexane (10 mL). To this was added

NacNacLi·Et₂O

Dipp

NacNacMnR (0.5 mmol) was dissolved

(1.0 mmol, 0.499 g) was added. After stirring,

2-chloropyridine (0.5 mmol). Within two minutes,

LiCH₂SiMe₃ (0.094 g, 1.0 mmol) was introduced,

the initially clear yellow solution turned to an

followed by CH₃CN (52 μL, 1.0 mmol). The mixture

orange suspension. The product was crystallised

was stirred, affording the donor-stabilised

in the freezer, and single-crystal X-ray diffraction

complex

confirmed the formation of DippNacNacMnR

NacNacMnR·CH₃CN as a yellow

Dipp

solution which was put in the freezer to crystalise.

Sodium Manganese Complex Catalytic Methylation of 1,3-Diphenyl-2-propanone

with a 2-chloropyridine ligand coordinated to the manganese centre. After crystallisation it was X ray diffracted to find the structure the structure was found to be as below:

A manganese sodium catalyst was tested for alkylation activity. Mn complex (0.1 mmol) was combined with 1,3-diphenyl-2-propanone (0.4 mmol, 4 equiv.) and methyl iodide (0.6 mmol, 6 equiv.) in Et₂O. The reaction proceeded to give the methylated product, confirming catalytic activity of the Mn species.

This reaction showed the alkylation activity of the manganese–sodium catalyst, providing direct evidence of its catalytic ability. Using 1,3-diphenyl-2-propanone as the substrate and methyl iodide as the alkylating agent, the system successfully produced the methylated product.

This result confirms that the Mn complex can facilitate C–C bond formation, showcasing its potential as a base-metal alternative to precious-metal catalysts for alkylation chemistry.

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The reactivity of DippNacNacMn–R towards neutral donor ligands was examined by reaction with 2-chloropyridine in hexane. The initially clear yellow solution rapidly turned orange, and crystals suitable for X-ray diffraction were obtained. The structure revealed coordination of the pyridyl nitrogen atom to the Mn(II) centre, highlighting its Lewis acidic character and ability to engage in donor–acceptor interactions despite steric encumbrance.

Synthesis of DippNacNacMn–Hydride

NacNacMnR·THF (1.0 mmol) was dissolved

Dipp

in hexane, and borane (1.0 mmol). A yellow precipitate formed immediately, identified as DippNacNacMn–H. The hydride complex is stable under inert conditions and can be stored in the glovebox without decomposition.

Mn complex can facilitate C-C bond formation, showcasing its potential as a base-metal alternative to precious-metal catalysts for alkylation chemistry.

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CONCLUSION The research shows how versatile manganese chemistry is and how important ligand design is for stabilising reactive species. It was possible to create low-coordinate Mn complexes with better Lewis acidity and reactivity by using bulky amide and diketiminate ligands like DippNacNac. Well-defined manganese complexes were effectively prepared using a variety of synthetic techniques, such as donor-stabilization. Many of these complexes quickly crystallised, enabling structural characterisation. Furthermore, reactivity analyses demonstrated these systems' capacity to go through important changes including hydride formation and alkylation, and the catalytic methylation of 1,3-diphenyl-2-propanone confirmed their utility. These results demonstrate that selecting the right ligand and precursor can provide base-metal complexes novel

These results demonstrate that selecting the right ligand and precursor can provide base-metal complexes novel reactivity, creating opportunities for additional catalysis and small-molecule activation uses.

reactivity, creating opportunities for additional catalysis and small-molecule activation uses.

Even with these developments, there are still a number of difficulties. Strict inert-atmosphere procedures were required due to the sensitivity of many manganese complexes to air and moisture, which made handling and synthesis more difficult. Additionally, certain reactions produced unstable intermediates or competing routes, which complicated separation and characterisation. Furthermore, crystallisation may be unpredictable, and little changes in the environment frequently affected the production of appropriate single crystals. Lastly, even though catalytic activity was seen, the range of reactivity was limited, requiring additional

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am grateful to Dr Marina Uzelac for allowing me to work on this project, for overseeing my work, and for her essential advice during the process. I also want to express my appreciation to Rebecca Jones and Finlay Sullivan the two PHD students both of them where very knowledgeable, helped me in the lab and patiently explained many of the fundamental concepts as well as many of the more advanced concepts, which allowed me to complete the experimental work successfully. Additionally, I am grateful to Dr Uzelac for lending me Robert H Crabtree's The Organometallic Chemistry of the Transition Metals during the project, which I read in my own time and used as a reference throughout the study. Their assistance and direction were crucial to the development of this project as well as my educational journey.

research to properly evaluate these systems' potential. These difficulties underscore the need for continuing ligand optimisation and the delicate balance between stability and reactivity in low-coordinate transition-metal chemistry.

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HOW ALTRUISM AND PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOUR CAN BE EXPLAINED FROM AN EVOLUTIONARY, PSYCHOLOGICAL AND CHEMICAL PERSPECTIVE

STEM

JOE MILLAR

This Independent Learning Assignment (ILA) won the RGS 2025 ILA award in the STEM category.

INTRODUCTION Altruism refers to the tendency of social

so, across the human and natural world we see

organisms to display prosocial behaviour

evidence of altruism occurring. Whether it be in

to other individuals at their own detriment,

insect colonies or human civilizations, altruism

or without benefitting themselves. At first,

appears to be an integral part of the global

it appears to be an evolutionary paradox. If

ecosystem. This essay will attempt to explain

anything, selfish behaviour – the opposite of

the evolutionary, psychological, and chemical

prosocial behaviour - would appear to be the

reasons why we see altruism so often in nature.

most certain path towards reproduction. Even www.rgsg.co.uk

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individual lives of those organisms making this a pertinent example of how altruism cannot be simplified into a merely evolutionary issue, there must also be other factors, perhaps nullified artefacts of evolution, driving the altruism we see. Even from a purely evolutionary perspective, Hamilton’s equation has its limitations - in general, it can only be applied to kin selection. Dawkins’ “selfish gene” theory explains this well. Even if we cannot pass on our genes directly, assisting our close relatives - children, siblings, cousins – in successfully reproducing means that portions of In some cases, altruism can be explained by

the genes present in our genome will inevitably

Hamilton’s equation. This states that if r*b>c then

be passed on (Dawkins, 1976). This means that

altruism is, evolutionarily speaking, beneficial for

alleles coding for altruistic behaviour will have

an individual (Hamilton, 1964). In this equation, r

a higher chance of being passed on, and so will

refers to the relatedness of the benefactor to the

increase in frequency (Boehnke, 1991). However,

recipient, b refers to the benefit of the altruistic

when considering all types of altruism, the selfish

action to the recipient and c refers to the cost of

gene, being selfish in nature, would surely select

the altruistic action to the benefactor. An example

away from actions such as the kindness a person

of this equation in action comes from termite

may show towards a stray cat. Therefore, it

colonies. Termites are governed by a strict caste

would be shortsighted to propose that altruism

system. The ‘King’ and ‘Queen’ termites are solely

was solely a result of genetic evolution.

responsible for reproduction, while all other members of the colony, soldiers, and workers,

The presence of factors beyond pure genetics

serve to feed and protect them (Rosin, 2000).

may also be seen by the simple fact that how we

The workers and soldiers, which are typically

feel affects our actions. We are typically more

infertile, sacrifice their own potential offspring to

inclined to help those with whom we have a close

ensure that the genetic code of the colony as a

friendship, irrespective of their genetic similarity.

whole can be passed down to the next generation.

This, however, is possibly explained by the idea

By decreasing the competition for the King and

of reciprocal altruism (Trivers, 1971). People

Queen, termites increase the likelihood of the

have a predisposal to help others if they suspect

perpetuation of the colony, and the foundational

that the favour will be repaid (Speilman et al.,

genotypic sequences that exist within it. In some

2020). Of course, there is the chance that acts

cases, Hamilton’s equation is modified to change

of prosocial behaviour will be betrayed, however,

r to be the relatedness of the kin’s offspring and c

particularly in human society, this has historically

to be the product of the cost to the benefactor’s

been discouraged by punishment systems.

offspring and the relatedness of this offspring to

More generally in nature, failure to reciprocate

the benefactor. This is often a useful modification,

altruistic actions may result in social exclusion

since as with all aspects of evolutionary science,

(Buss, 2004). The chances of a benefactor

it is the likelihood of surviving to pass on genes

committing to reciprocal altruism occurring

that should be considered. Therefore, from an

relies on a cost-benefit-analysis (Dovidio et al,

evolutionary perspective, altruism is almost

2006). If the required cost of the altruistic act is

always a beneficial path for individuals who cannot

relatively low, then the benefactor is more likely

or will not reproduce themselves. Of course,

to commit it. Conversely, if the potential reward

this manner of thinking does not consider the

is high then the benefactor will also be more

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likely to display prosocial behaviour. Arguably the

the largest group of membrane receptors in

idea of reciprocal altruism somewhat betrays the

eukaryotes. GPCRs can bind with a vast host

core definition of altruism – namely that the act

of signalling molecules, however in the case of

should be detrimental to the benefactor. Upon

OXTR, the relatively small protein oxytocin will

first examination the idea of being ‘repaid’ goes

bind, causing an interaction between the OXTR

against this principle. However, the cases in

and a nearby heterotrimeric G protein (Alberts,

which reciprocal altruism can occur are such that

2023). When activated by OXTRs, G proteins will

the return act is not guaranteed. For example,

bind to guanosine triphosphate (GTP) in favour of

giving a shopkeeper money cannot be considered

guanosine diphosphate (GDP). The association of

altruism when there is the guarantee that goods

GTP causes the G protein’s alpha subunit (which

of some form are given to the buyer in return. The

the GTP binds to) to dissociate from the beta and

initial payment is not an act of kindness, but the

gamma subunits. The subunits remain anchored in

initiation of trade. If reciprocation of prosocial

the cell membrane, but do not remain associated

behaviour is present in nature, as it is, then it

with the OXTR. This dissociation allows them to

follows that individuals

move laterally through the

who display altruism

membrane to interact with

(and are therefore more

other membrane bound

likely to benefit from

proteins. Inactive OXTRs

another’s altruism in

(which are not associated

return) have a greater

with OXT) will hydrolyse

likelihood of surviving to

the GTP group associated

reproduce, passing on

with the G protein to GDP,

the alleles that prompted

allowing the G protein to

them towards prosocial

bind with the OXTR again,

behaviour in the first

effectively deactivating

place. This results in

it. When activated, G

altruism being selected

proteins coupled with

for by evolution.

OXTR will activate the enzyme phospholipase C.

Reciprocal altruism is

This enzyme hydrolyses

not the only example of where rewards can drive

intracellular phospholipids to inositol triphosphate

prosocial behaviour. The human body, it would

and diacylglycerol (Roby, 2019). These molecules

appear, is hard-coded to reward kindness – and

will stimulate the intracellular release of calcium

punish cruelty. Oxytocin, the so-called love

ions which, in hypothalamic neurons, will stimulate

hormone, primarily plays a role in childbirth. It

the release of neurotransmitters (Südhof, 2012).

stimulates contractions of the endometrium and the cervix during childbirth (Nagwa, 2025) as well as triggering the ‘let down’ reflex in breastfeeding to release the mother’s milk (Baron-Cohen, 2025). However, oxytocin is also linked to making us more trusting, generous and friendly. Oxytocin is a nonapeptide, consisting of a ring of six amino acids with a tail of a further three amino acids. The oxytocin receptor (OXTR), found on the cell surface membrane, is a G

Individuals who display altruism (and are therefore more likely to benefit from another’s altruism in return) have a greater likelihood of surviving to reproduce.

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The ultimate effect of oxytocin, when targeting

response, causing an unpleasant arousal for the

OXTRs in the hypothalamus, is to cause feelings

observer. Cortisol is a glucocorticoid secreted

of intimacy, friendship and comfort. A study

from the adrenal gland (Burkitt, 2009). Cortisol, or

by psychologists Pederson and Prange (1979)

it’s medical equivalent hydrocortisone, is detected

found that injection of oxytocin into rats brought

by two distinct types of receptors, glucocorticoid

on full maternal affection from foster parents

receptors (GR) and mineralocorticoid receptors

towards adopted pups. Interestingly, studies

(MR). The effect of cortisol on the brain is to

also suggest that benefitting from prosocial

increase cognition (Hedayat et al, 2019). Cortisol

behaviour will also cause an increase in oxytocin

favours a more extroverted state, which can lead

levels. Parker and Nemeroff (2021) reported that

to feelings of stress and discomfort, giving cortisol

lower concentrations of oxytocin were found

its reputation as the “stress hormone”. When in a

in breastfeeding women with an experience of

stressful situation, the adrenal gland will secrete

childhood abuse. This suggests that as well as

increased amounts of cortisol. When associated

being passed on genetically, the environments

with cortisol, GRs will shuttle from the cytoplasm

we grow up in also have a long term impact

to the nucleus of their cell. At the nucleus, it

on our oxytocin levels, and possibly therefore

will up- or down-regulate the transcription rate

our inclination towards altruistic behaviour.

of glucocorticoid responsive genes (Nicolaides

Oxytocin is but one example of many hormones

et al., 2020). Glucocorticoid responsive genes

which stimulate feelings of happiness, love,

include PERIOD genes. These genes are found

or comfort. The secretion of these hormones

in the X-chromosome and play a crucial role

is one of the chemical factors with which our

in regulating the molecular circadian rhythm

bodies encourage altruistic behaviour. This

(Kwak et al, 2024). The circadian rhythm defines

encouragement will be a derivative of evolution,

our sleep cycle, body temperature, mood and

since altruism, to a certain extent, is beneficial

metabolism (Fagiani, 2022). As a result, molecular

when considering the chances of reproduction.

changes to it can have widespread impacts.

In general, cortisone will increase our drive to

While helping someone may release ‘rewarding’

be active, which, in a situation where altruism

hormones such as oxytocin, this is not the only

is an option, may drive us towards prosocial

chemical driver of prosocial behaviour. Seeing

actions. Of course, in triggering a 'stressful'

someone in pain or discomfort can release

emotional response, the release of cortisol also

hormones such as cortisol to activate a stress

discourages letting someone else remain in pain.

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While there are plenty of chemical and

would wait for someone else to act first. If all

evolutionary factors driving prosocial behaviour

thirty-eight bystanders do this, it of course

from social organisms, we still see examples of

results in no one displaying altruistic behaviour,

antisocial, selfish behaviour across nature. While

with each individual waiting for someone else

actively selfish acts, for example male bears

to act first. The case of Kitty Genovese shows

killing cubs for food, and to promote oestrus in

how, despite the presence of multiple factors

their mother (Frederick, 2010), can be explained

driving individuals towards altruistic behaviour,

by an inherent evolutionary drive of all life for

the nature of humans as social organisms

self-preservation at least as far as reproduction.

sometimes prompts antisocial behaviour over

However, in some cases a lack of prosocial

prosocial behaviour, occasionally to tragic ends.

behaviour is shown through a lack of action. One of the explanations for this lack of altruism is the

CONCLUSION

bystander affect. Following a case in which Kitty

To conclude, altruism, despite in theory being

Genovese was brutally attacked and killed in front

detrimental to the benefactor, can be beneficial

of thirty-eight innocent bystanders, who were free

to their genetic lineage in the long run. This

to help but didn’t, the idea of the bystander affect

is since, while the individual benefactor may

was born (Darley, 1968). One explanation for this

suffer, their offspring, or the offspring of their

phenomenon has been explained already. The

kin, can still benefit. Alternatively, altruism can

principles of reciprocal altruism suggest that if

be beneficial to the benefactor themselves due

the potential cost were higher than the perceived

to prosocial behaviour being reciprocated by

reward no one would help. But in this case, without

its recipients. This has led to chemical drivers

other factors, each of the 38 people would be right

such as oxytocin and cortisol being selected

to assume that the other 37 bystanders would help

for through evolution. While in some cases

to overcome the attacker, making it a relatively

the nature of social organisms may inhibit

low risk option to help, particularly considering

the expression of prosocial behaviour, social

that a life would certainly be lost if they didn’t. The

behaviour will often manifest as prosocial

main factor inhibiting prosocial behaviour in this

behaviour rather than antisocial behaviour.

scenario is pluralistic ignorance. This phenomenon is grounded on the assumption of individuals that one of the other bystanders is more qualified to firstly identify that the situation at hand requires response, and secondly to action the necessary response. A consequence of this is that, strangely, the more people present at a situation, the less likely any of them are to display prosocial behaviour, since the likelihood of someone else present being better qualified to approach the situation are increased. Another driver of pluralistic ignorance is the human tendency to try to fit in. The social nature of humans means

The nature of humans as social organisms sometimes prompts antisocial behaviour over prosocial behaviour, occasionally to tragic ends.

that, where possible, people will copy the actions of those around them. This means that, in the example of Kitty Genovese, the bystanders

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BIBLIOGRAPHY 1.

Alberts, B., Bray, D, Hopkin, K., et al. (2014), Essential cell biology (4). W.W. Norton & Company 2. Baron-Cohen, K.L. (2025), Oxytocin system of breastfeeding affected in mothers with postnatal depression. Available at: https://www.ucl.ac.uk/ news/2025/mar/oxytocin-system-breastfeedingaffected-mothers-postnatal-depression.

3. Boehnke, M. (1991), Allele frequency estimation from data on relatives (1), PMC. Available at: https:// pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC1682747/ 4. Burkitt, J. M. (2009), Small animal critical care medicine (75). Elsevier. Available at: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/ article/abs/pii/B978141602591710075X. 5. Buss, D. M. (2004), Evolutionary psychology: The new science of the mind (2nd ed.). Boston: Pearson.

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Oxford: Oxford University Press.

8. Dovidio, J. F., Piliavin, J. A., Schroeder, D. A., Penner, L. (2006). The social psychology of prosocial behavior.

Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.

9. Fagiani, F., Di Marino, D., Romagnoli, A. et al. (2022) Molecular regulations of circadian rhythm and implications for physiology and diseases (7) Available at: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41392-022-00899-y.

10. Frederick, C., Kyes, R., Hunt, K., et al. (2010), Methods of estrus detection and correlates of the reproductive cycle of the sun-bear (Helarctos malaynus) (74) Available at: https://www.sciencedirect.com/ science/article/abs/pii/S0093691X10002645.

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14. Nagwa. (2022). Recalling the Role of Oxytocin in Childbirth. Available at: https://www. nagwa.com/en/videos/579184195428/.

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17. Pedersen C.A., Prange A.J. (1979) Induction of maternal behavior in virgin rats after intracerebroventricular administration of oxytocin. Available at: https:// www.pnas.org/doi/abs/10.1073/pnas.76.12.6661.

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19. Rosin, Y. (2000), Diversity and Evolution of Caste Patterns. Available at: https://doi. org/10.1007/978-94-017-3223-9_5 20. Speilman, R. M., Jenkins, W. J., Lovett, M. D. (2020).

Psychology 2e. Rice University: OpenStax. Available at: https://assets.openstax.org/oscms-prodcms/ media/documents/Psychology2e_WEB.pdf.

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TEMPORAL DISCRIMINATION IN

BOMBUS TERRESTRIS

(BUMBLEBEES)

STEM

WILL MORROW

This Original Research in Science (ORIS) project was short-listed for the ILA/ ORIS Celebration Evening.

INTRODUCTION At the Queen Mary University of London, I worked

before leading onto experiments concerning

with one of Professor Lars Chittka’s postgraduate

‘order’ discrimination. In short, the ‘duration’

groups over a 3-week period studying bumblebees.

experiments use ‘long’ flashing lights against ‘short’ flashes and the ‘order’ experiments use

The overarching aim of the experiment is to

blue and green lights in different sequences

determine whether bumblebees are able to

(e.g. blue-green or green-blue). With post-grad

distinguish between different patterns of light, to

Alexander Davidson, I had completed an

test their ability to perceive ‘duration’ and ‘order’.

experiment on ‘duration’ discrimination from

Firstly, studies on ‘duration’ discrimination are

start to finish, to see if bumblebees could

carried out to validate the apparatus at hand,

distinguish long flashing lights from short ones.

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OVERVIEW The bumblebees will be kept in a hive box that is connected to two arenas, one for the ‘exposure’ phase and the other for ‘testing’. During the exposure phase, the bees will be presented with a choice between a sugar solution and a quinine solution. The sugar solution acts as a reward whilst the quinine solution (which bees are deterred by the taste of) acts as a punishment. After ‘exposure’, singular bees will be tested in the ‘testing’ arena to see if they prefer a certain pattern of light, after having been conditioned to associate one with a reward and the other with a punishment.

Previously, the team had done a study where

-80°C. It was then time to transfer a new colony

the short flashing lights were rewarded with

into a fresh hive box. It is important that this is

sugar sol^ and the long flashing lights punished

done in the dark with the use of red light, as this

with quinine sol^. This time I helped them carry

way the bees will not fly as they cannot see (red

out the opposite experiment where the long

light is not in the visual spectrum of bees).

flashing lights were the ‘rewarded’ ones and the short flashing lights were the ‘punished’ ones.

After prepping the hive box by bunging up the holes between compartments and adding cat

THE EXPERIMENTAL PROCESS

Preparation

litter to one side, I then began moving bees from the storage box into the hive box under red light.

The bees that were currently in the hive box were

I used closed tweezers and pointed them in front

the same ones that were used in the previous

of the bees, so they would grab onto the tweezers,

‘duration’ experiment; therefore they had already

and I could shake them off into the hive box. It is

been conditioned so it would be unfair to use

also important to try and remove the queen first,

them again in this

she is easily identifiable because of her relatively

opposing experiment.

huge size. This prevents the queen’s alarm/

First thing first we had

stress pheromones from reaching others in the

to remove the old bees

colony during the transfer. This means trapping

and replace them with

the queen in a separate cup and not placing

new ones, which had

her into the hive box at first. Once all bees have

not been previously experimented on. This meant that the old bees had to be euthanised, because releasing them back into the nature may pose threat to wild bees as the experimental bees may out compete them as they have been trained to feed. This was done by putting the hive box into a freezer of

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been moved into the ‘outside’ compartment, use a spoon and dig up the brood from their previous box and place it into the other compartment of the box. This is so they can still rear their brood and survive as a colony. Then place the queen

Testing Arena

by herself into the brood compartment and wait

Exposure Arena

to let her calm so her pheromone production dies down. Unplug the bung connecting the

Cylinders with Feeders and Lights

compartments and place a cover over the brood compartment so that it remains in the dark whilst the ‘outside’ cat litter compartment stays lighted. Move this hive from the ‘transfer’ room to the experimental room where the apparatus is. Place it so that the box aligns with the tunnels connecting to the arenas. The exposure arena Hive Box

is then cleaned out by removing the bees’ waste

Tunnels

and wiping down the surfaces with 70% ethanol to remove chemical cues left by the previous bees. Ethanol solutions rather than soaps are used to clean because they aren’t scented. When working with bees, this can be very important as they are sensitive to these scents and they may

THE APPARATUS

disturb the bees from their foraging trips. To begin,

The walls of the arenas are covered in random pink

prepare new feeders with 10% sucrose solution so

patterns to help the bees orientate themselves.

the bees can go into the arena to feed, allowing them to familiarise themselves with the new

REARING CONDITIONS

surroundings. Additionally, give the bees a cap full

The bees are kept in a dim lit room that has a

of pollen granules into the brood compartment

temperature of around 25-26°C. Due to the lack of

so they can continue to nourish their larvae. Once

light, the bees tend not to fly, so it makes it easier

everything is sealed, the bung at the front of the

to deal with them, e.g. moving them out the arena.

hive box and the white plastic doors in the tunnels can be removed so the bees have access to the

Every weekend, give the bees two full caps of

exposure arena, where the feeders are situated.

pollen granules into the brood compartment and 3 full feeders in the exposure arena. Remember, it is important that 10% sucrose is used here rather than the 20% during exposure, so there is no association to be made. This should keep them nourished whilst there is no exposure period.

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EXPOSURE PHASE

position of the different feeders will be constantly

This phase allows the bees to experience

changing. There are two rotating platforms, and

foraging rewarding sucrose solutions from

each will support a cylinder holding one sucrose

feeders lit with long flashing lights whilst also

feeder and one quinine feeder. Each cylinder

encountering quinine solutions (punishment)

structure contains an Arduino R4 chip that is

from feeders lit with short flashing lights.

connected to two NeoPixel Jewel 7 LED disc lights. The Arduino and battery will be hidden

To begin setting up the exposure phase, remove

inside the cylinder. On top of the cylinder there

all bees from the arena either by luring them back

is a foam wall. The wiring for the LEDs run inside

through the tunnels with a UV torch or by cupping

the wall up to the lights dangling at the top on

them and placing them back into the hive. UV

either side. One light will have long flashes and

light helps bees find food like nectar and pollen in

the other with short flashes. For the bees to

flowers, so it is not surprising that they will have

be able to clearly differentiate the long flashes

an attraction towards it. However, it amazed me

from the short, it was found that the different

how some bees almost seemed to be involuntarily

durations must have a 1:5 ratio to be best suitable.

pulled by the UV light from the torch. I would

Therefore, the long flashes will be 2.5secs

guess that such a strong source of UV light may

on/2.5secs off, and the short flashes 0.5secs

trigger some sort of reflex response within them.

on/0.5secs off. These sequences balance so they produce the same total durations of light

Clear plastic column feeders will be used as the

after every 5 second period, meaning there is no

sources for the sucrose and quinine solutions.

bias towards one sequence producing more light

It is important that the bees do not form any

than the other. Plastic films are cut out to sit on

relations between the position of the feeders

the floors of the cylinders, to make cleaning any

with the solutions, as this would be a variable

dirt or chemical cues left by the bees easier.

that will affect the bees’ decision making during the test phase. So, the feeders will be placed on

To avoid the bees making associations with

rotating platforms within the arena, meaning the

the feeding solutions outside of ‘exposure’ time with the ‘rewarding’ solutions presented during ‘exposure’ a different concentration of 20% sucrose solution will be used for exposure (unlike the 10% sucrose sol^ to feed them whilst the exposure period doesn’t take place). This helps to avoid bias as the bees will hopefully only associate the 20% sucrose

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Each bee will have a specific QR code stuck to their thorax (on their ‘back’), and as they pass by the camera, a sequence of codes will translate the QR to a specific number whilst recording the date and time of when the frame was captured.

solutions with the flashing feeders (and the 10% sucrose sol^ for only feeding, which takes place in clear/ ‘non-flashing’ glass feeders).

Turn on the two rotating platforms that sit beneath

Above the transparent tunnel connecting the

the arena floor. It is measured so that when the

hive box to the exposure arena is a camera

‘exposure’ cylinders sit on the platforms, the arena

positioned near the entrance to the arena. This

floor will sit flush with the cylinder floor. Placing

camera points downwards into the tunnel and

the cylinders onto the rotators can sometimes be

is able to capture passing bees. The purpose

quite fiddly, because they need to be positioned

is to gauge which bees are more frequently

accurately in the middle for constant smooth

entering the arena and therefore likely to have

rotation. Once the cylinders are successfully

been exposed to the stimulus more than others.

revolving and the flashing lights are switched

This data would take a rather long time to record

on, fill two column feeders with 20% sucrose

manually, so an automatic system involving

and two with 12% quinine. Try to fill the feeders

the use of QR codes was implemented. Each

with the same volume of solution to help keep

bee will have a specific QR code stuck to their

as many variables controlled as possible. Gently

thorax (on their ‘back’), and as they pass by the

place one sucrose feeder on each of the cylinders

camera, a sequence of codes will translate the

underneath the long flashing lights. Do the same

QR to a specific number whilst recording the

for the quinine feeders but this time under the

date and time of when the frame was captured.

short flashing lights. The feeders on each cylinder should face opposite directions to each other when viewed from above, because this means they will face the same way on each side of the wall during rotation. One cylinder spins anticlockwise whilst the other spins clockwise. This removes any movement bias. The cylinders are positioned near the entrance to the arena to make it easier for the bees to interact with and to help expose as many bees as possible to the stimuli. Lastly, tape the lights onto the tops of the feeders so the light gets dispersed through the plastic columns. It is harder for bees to see very directional light, similar to that produced by LEDs, so it is important the plastic columns can disperse the lights for the bees to be able to experience the stimuli.

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The camera is set to be black and white and has

the QR codes with colours to make a key that

very high contrast to aid clarity when capturing

would help keep track which day certain bees were

QR codes. The first set of code on python

marked. However, it turned out that the different

controls the camera’s settings. Instead of a video

tones of highlighter colours meant that some QR

recording, the code makes the camera take

codes couldn’t always be detected, because it

pictures every 0.1 seconds and sends the frames

was only possible to perfect the parameters of

to a certain file. The other set of code on MATLAB

the camera to a certain tone of colour. Although

retrieves the frames from the file and detects

keeping track of the dates that bees were marked

for QR codes to translate into recordable data.

would help confirm the time they have been

This produces a very large datasheet. Both of

actively recorded during exposure, the QR data

these codes must only run during the exposure

actually makes it unnecessary. This is because

phase when the lights have been set up.

with the data, we can see how many times they have been captured by the camera and this would

Tag the bees with QR codes in the same way as

give a rough idea as to how many times they enter

with numbered tags. The QR codes are printed

the exposure arena – experiencing the stimuli.

onto a shiny card and the individual codes are small enough to fit through the grid squares

Slide the acrylic lid to access the arena. Using a

on marking cages. (However, just after the

marking cage, cup a bee walking along the arena

experiment, slightly larger QR codes were printed

floor. With a plastic square, trap the bee in the

to try and improve the consistency of successful

marking cage and lift it out the arena. Quickly

QR captures – because this would be easier for the

switch the plastic square with a sponge plunger.

camera to detect). Originally, we would highlight

This can be repeated multiple times to have a batch ready for tagging. With one of the bees, try to get their back facing upwards into the grid on the marking cage and aim to align their thorax with a square in the grid. Swiftly push the plunger up and squish the bee to hold them in place, the thorax should be nicely positioned in a grid square. Using a toothpick, gently brush the thorax with a little water then apply some super glue. The toothpick can now also be used to stick

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There are some inaccuracies that may occur when using these QR codes. For example, a bee could sit under the camera and be captured for many frames without even entering the exposure arena. Using the data, we would only assume that the many frames it was captured for corresponded to the bee having lots of time in ‘exposure’, when in reality it didn’t. Additionally, the tags can sometime get dirt on them which interferes with the QR, resulting in the inability to capture any frames for that specific bee.

Of course, sometimes a perfectly normal tag may also just not get detected in passing.

Once the stimuli are set up and all the code is running, the ‘exposure’ can now be left ongoing the QR code onto the bee’s thorax. Apply some

for the rest of the day. Towards the end of the

pressure and wait for the QR to stick. The tag

day (~5pm) ‘exposure’ is stopped, the cylinders

should now remain on the thorax when releasing

and feeders can be taken out to allow batteries

the plunge and letting the bee free to move again.

to charge and for surfaces to be cleaned.

In the early stage, it is possible to see the bee try

Fresh solutions will be used in the feeders the

and remove the tag from itself using its legs and

following morning when exposure shall begin

beating its wings. Eventually they get used to it.

again. The bees don’t feed overnight so there is no need to put in feeders for them in between

To obtain data that would suggest how much

the exposure periods during the day. In total,

exposure a specific bee has had to the stimuli,

the ‘exposure’ phase will last for 2 weeks, giving

two other strings of code are used. The first is

the bees enough time to hopefully develop a

a shorter version of one of the codes that run

positive association with the long flashing lights.

constantly during ‘exposure’, translating QR codes into meaningful data. It requires the input of a frame of a specific bee with a clear QR tag. It will then show the specific number that this QR refers to. The other string of code can then use the input of this specific number and retrieve (from the large output datasheet) how many frames this number was captured for under the camera during exposure. If for example it showed that a certain bee was only captured for 3 frames over a two-week period of exposure, it wouldn’t be very reliable using the bee for ‘testing’ – as it hasn’t been recorded to have had much exposure to the stimuli at all and therefore wouldn’t be expected to provide a reliable preference for the rewarded light pattern. Whereas a bee with a QR that has been captured for 1000 times, could be expected to provide much more reliable results. www.rgsg.co.uk

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TEST PHASE Once the bees have been sufficiently exposed to the stimuli of flashing lights associated with their respective solutions, it was time to put their experience to the test. The testing arena is slightly different to the exposure arena. The dimensions and materials of the arena are all the same, the only changes are the positions of the rotating cylinders and the lights on each one. Rather than the cylinders being placed near the entrance to the arena, they are positioned towards the back. This allows the bees to take a longer approach and give time to make their decision. Additionally, instead of each cylinder having one short and one long flashing light, one

The plastic doors in the tunnels can be used to

of the cylinders has both long flashing and the

isolate a few potential test bees. This time, open

other cylinder both short flashing. This ensures

up the door into the tunnel leading to the testing

the two different flashing patterns can always

arena. Two other doors further along the tunnel

be viewed by the bee and not be hidden by the

create a compartment that can trap singular bees.

foam wall during rotation. Also, all feeders are

Over this compartment is another camera. By

filled with distilled water so the bees cannot base

recording videos from this camera, clear frames

their decision on any scents or other potential

of QR codes can be manually captured and run

cues caused by the sugar and quinine solutions.

through the code that translates it into a number.

Another string of code can use the input of this number and refer it to the number of frames it was captured (using data stored in the huge output file). This will help decide whether or not to use the current contained bee in testing.

Testing Procedure The bees have to complete 5 trials where they decide between the long and short flashing feeders. From entering the testing arena, each bee has 3 minutes to make a decision, otherwise the trial is terminated. A decision is counted when a bee approaches the feeder and samples the distilled water – this can be seen when they touch the liquid with their antennae.

If the bee fails to make a decision three times in a row (takes longer than 3 minutes each trial), then that bee is discarded from the test. A total of 20 different bees will need to complete 5 successful trials where they make a decision.

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RESULTS Some bees only needed a total of 5 trials to

The details and results for each trial during the

make their 5 decisions, but others took more.

test was recorded in an excel spreadsheet. In total,

A number of bees didn’t make any choices and

there were 40 choices for ‘slow’ (the rewarded

were removed from the test, so in total more

pattern), 60 choices for ‘fast’ (the punished

than 20 bees were tested overall. Between each

pattern) and 17 ‘no choices’. Immediately, we

trial, the surfaces of the arena and cylinders

can see that the bees didn’t seem to develop a

had to be wiped with ethanol to remove any

positive association with the slow flashing lights.

chemical cues that may affect the bee’s next

In fact, there is no significant difference between

decision. The positions of the two cylinders

the frequency of choices for slow versus fast. No

would be swapped in a pseudo random order

preference for either light pattern was shown.

between left and right, to try and remove bias.

The latency of the bees’ decisions were also

However, from the previous experiment

recorded. After a bee had been used in testing, it

when ‘fast’ was rewarded, a much higher

had to be placed in a compartment of the tunnel

proportion of bees chose ‘fast’ than this

isolated from other bees so no communication

experiment when ‘slow’ was rewarded.

was possible. Every trial was recorded by an overhead camera filming the testing arena.

This graph shows the comparison between the frequency bees chose the ‘fast’ light pattern in the first experiment when ‘fast’ was rewarded (purple) versus the second when ‘slow’ was rewarded (green). The points are the means of the fast and slow choices starting from the first choice bees made to their fifth. (y-axis has unit %).

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CONCLUSION Following from this, Alex (the postgrad working on

The pink line shows most bees chose ‘fast’

this) wishes to carry out an experiment to test if

to begin with, but as they found they weren’t

the bees have a natural preference for the ‘short’

getting rewarded the frequency drops. Once

light pattern over the ‘long’. The results from this

figuring that the ‘slow’ was also not rewarding,

might help explain why ‘slow’ has always been

the ‘fast’ choices increase again. However this

chosen more frequently in the past experiments.

is just another idea, no test has been conducted to show evidence of this within our apparatus.

Finally, another thought to bear in mind is that the bee partakes in these trials one after the

To conclude, the bumblebees did not show a

other. The bee may initially decide to sample

significant preference for the rewarded light

from the ‘rewarded’ light pattern, however this

pattern and they even sampled the ‘short’

time it only finds water. Therefore, the following

light more frequently. Further experiments

trial it may choose to sample from the other

must be carried out to understand why this is.

light pattern, in hope that this different stimulus

Importantly, because the bees did not succeed

will provide a ‘reward’. The bees may have

in the experiment doesn’t mean that they

foraging strategies that come into play in these

are unable to discriminate between different

experiments, which can complicate testing

light patterns, but it may just mean that the

their ability for temporal discrimination. This

experimental procedure and apparatus is

can be seen by the trends in the graph above.

inadequate in order to show that they can.

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MODELLING ACOUSTIC SCATTERING VIA

FRACTAL MESH DECOMPOSITION

STEM

YUVAN RAJA

This Original Research in Science (ORIS) project won the RGS 2025 ORIS award.

INTRODUCTION In this project I develop a variety of strategies

on fractal domains. The task of performing

for code that produces fractal meshes for

numerical integrals on fractal domains is an

Koch Snowflake and Heighway Dragon curves.

area of interest, as evaluating these integrals

These meshes are created so that the mesh

is a key challenge in finding the solutions of

components can represent infinitesimal elements

Integral Equations on fractal domains, such as

when approximating numerical integrals

those governing acoustic wave scattering.

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Coastline of Britain(c) (rspatial.org, n.d.)

Mandelbrot set (www.mathsisfun.com, n.d.)

Sierpinski Triangle Martinez-Cruzetal, 2024) Figure 1: Examples of fractals.

BACKGROUND Fractals To pin down a definition on what exactly a

translation, rotation and dilation with scale fator −1

fractal is, is a hard task. Many mathematicians

< s < 1. We can then consider an IFS, which is a set

have tried to define the term but the resulting

of contraction mappings

definitions all have differing degrees of

operator F, associated with this IFS is defined as

strictness on what properties a fractal should

the topological closure of the union of

have. As such the term fractal can describe a

contractions, so for A ⊂ X

whole host of phenomena, but the essence of the concept is that a fractal is an object

. The Hutchinson

which contains detail on every length-scale.

One common way to generate objects with this fractal property is to exploit self-similarity, the idea

Conceptually, we can think of the IFS

that an object can contain smaller copies of itself.

as representing multiple contractions

This motivates two methods of generating fractals,

all applied simultaneously on a set.

prefractal approximation and IFS attraction.

The fractal set S is then a non-empty compact set

IFS Attractors

which is fixed under the Hutchinson operator F.

One method of producing a fractal is via collecting

This is because we can think of this fractal S, as

together contraction map-pings to form iterated

being composed of N smaller copies of itself, each

function systems (IFSs). A contraction mapping is

given by one of the contractions fᵢ. So S satisfies

a transformation f : X → X, satisfying dX (f (x), f (y)) < dX (x, y), where X is a metric space with metric dX, (Pollicott, 2022). Common examples of contraction mappings include geometric transformations on X = ℝ2 that are composed of 46

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Prefractal Approximation

The Koch Snowflake

To produce a fractal via prefractal approximation,

The Koch Snowflake is the unique fractal

we can again consider an IFS with associated

associated with IFS given by

Hutchinson operator F. However, instead of directly seeking a solution of F(S) = S, we can instead build up a solution by repeatedly applying F , starting from an initial non-empty compact set S0. Then,

The limit is taken with respect to the Hausdorff metric, which describes how close two sets are to each other according to

Figure 4: Koch Snowflake bordered by 3 Koch curves (larryriddle.agnesscott.org, n.d.)

Figure 2: Sierpinski triangle showing 3 contraction mappings (larryrid-dle.agnesscott.org, n.d.)

(larryriddle.agnesscott.org, n.d.)

The Koch snowflake is the primary fractal which I shall be investigating throughout my ORIS Figure 3: Three sequences of prefractal approximation to the Sierpinski triangle, with different initial sets S0 (larryriddle.agnesscott.org, n.d.)

project, as an example of a self-similar fractal.

It is interesting to remark that the Koch snowflake is two dimensional, but it’s boundary is composed of three Koch curves which are

≈ 1.26−

The contraction mapping theorem

dimensional curves. The other example fractal that

guarantees equivalence between the IFS

I use to illustrate ideas during this project is the

Attractor and Prefractal Approximation

Heighway dragon, which is the attractor of a

approaches (Pollicott, 2022).

two-function IFS.

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Acoustic Equation

Crucially, in order to approximate solutions

The theory of acoustic propagation and scattering

to these acoustic equations, it will be

is well-studied, and the fundamental equations that govern the dynamics of a sound wave are no different, even when we consider scattering off of a fractal surface (Caetano et al., 2024). In the same way in which Netwon’s second law F = ma might allow someone to setup the equations governing any particular mechanical system, we can use the following general equations to construct a particular equation which can be solved to determine the scattered waveform.

These equations are the Helmholtz equation, which describes the oscillatory nature of a wave:

necessary to approximate the value of integrals defined across fractal domains.

Numerical Integration As we have seen, the challenging step in approximating solutions of acoustic equations on fractal domains is the necessity to perform numerical integration across non-standard fractal domains. To approximate typical Riemann integrals on real domains, a method such as the midpoint rule is used, where a continuous function is replaced which a function that it is constant along small intervals of length δx. This method works well, because

This idea can be reused even with a fractal domain, but now it is not possible to split the domain up into small rectangles, due to the irrational dimension of the boundary. Instead, we can split the domain into smaller copies of the fractal itself. Thus the primary aim of my project is to develop a program to create Figure 5: Heighway dragon showing two smaller copies (larryriddle.agnesscott.org, n.d.)

The Sommerfeld condition, which asserts that the direction of energy flow is from source to sink, rather than the opposite:

Finally, there are scattering conditions which describe how waves scatter off a surface.

Figure 6: First 4 Prefractal Approximations of the Koch Curve, adapted from (larryriddle.agnesscott.org, n.d.)

The exact form of the scattering condition depends on the shape of the scattering surface, but it takes the form of an equation involving the acoustic potential S defined via a certain integral across the fractal surface ⌜

meshes of Koch snowflakes to represent infinitesimal elements partitioning a larger snowflake. They should be meshed together in ways that will simplify the process of numerically solving differential and integral equations.

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SOLUTION DEVELOPMENT Storing and Drawing Snowflakes In order to work with snowflakes using code, we

There are a few overarching ideas that guide

must consider the necessary parameters that

which choices we should make. Recall that

define a snowflake. To determine the size and

the purpose of the mesh is to allow functions to

position, we can use the coordinates of the centre,

be approximated as

and the length of the diameter. There are two relevant orientations that a snowflake might be in, for a given mesh. They differ by a rotation of π/6 radians, or, equivalently reflection about y = 𝑥.

When we then come to draw the snowflakes

that comprise a mesh, it is impossible to draw out the fractals exactly, as the boundary of the fractal is 1.26... dimensional. Therefore

Subprogram

we instead choose to draw the 4 prefractal th

approximant, as seen in Figure 6.

IFS Decomposition The key idea that allows us to generate meshes, is that the Iterated Function System encodes the relevant information to partition a fractal into smaller copies of itself. For example, the IFS of a Koch Snowflake describes the partition of a Koch Snowflake into 7 smaller copies, as can be seen in Figure 7.

Then, in order to create a mesh composed of many smaller Koch snowflake tiles, we can repeatedly apply this IFS decomposition to the new smaller snowflakes, until we

Snowflake after 1 decomposition

are satisfied with the resulting mesh.

Refinement Strategies In the above process, there are many choices to be made as to which snowflakes should be decomposed. This means that it is up to us to decide upon a refinement strategy - an algorithm determining which snowflakes to decompose.

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With these aims in mind, we now turn to implementing a range of refinement strategies, and evaluating their merits.

Fixed Number Strategy The most basic strategy is to simply fix the number of subsnowflakes N, that we would like to have in our mesh, as determined by the computational limits due to the time needed to solve the acoustic equation. We can then refine snowflakes arbitrarily until we reach N. There are major issues with this approach.

Firstly, it is not necessary possible to generate a Snowflake after two decompositions

mesh with a given number of snowflakes. This is because each times we perform a decomposition,

Figure 7: IFS Decomposed snowflakes

we turn one snowflake into seven, increasing the number of snowflakes by exactly six. As we

taking a constant value across subsections

start with exactly one snowflake, only N of the

of the snowflake, rather than continuously

form 6k + 1 can every be reached. This issue can

varying across the snowflake. The smaller the

be resolved easily, by stopping once we reach

snowflakes used in the mesh are, the more

the closest number of the form 6k + 1 to N .

accurate this approximation will become, and the function can vary more smoothly. Of course,

However, the more critical issues with this

there is a trade off as the smaller the snowflakes

approach are that there is no guaranteed

are, the more constituents there will be, and

symmetry, and the refinement is not

it will be more computationally intensive to

targeted towards the boundary.

numerically solve the acoustic equation across these constituents. Therefore, we must try and

Fixed Width Strategy

prioritise certain regions of the snowflake.

A second strategy is to produce a quasi-uniform mesh, in which snowflakes are decomposed

For the approximation to remain accurate, it

until their diameter lies in a fixed interval [d,

is more important to have a higher density of

√3d]. In effect there are only two possible

snowflakes in areas in which we expect the

sizes of snowflake within this mesh.

function to be varying steeply, rather than in areas in which we expect the function to

This mesh is symmetrical, and has the property

be varying slowly. In the acoustic case, this

that every edge between two snowflakes

area of interest is the boundary of the curve.

connects snowflakes that differ in size by a factor

Additionally, the symmetry of the snowflake

of exactly √3. This is a highly desirable property

is highly relevant. Exploiting symmetry allows

because it means that there is only one way in

computations to be sped up, as certain identical

which neighbouring snowflakes border each

parts of the computation can be skipped.

other. When propagating information during

Thus, where possible we should preserve the

the solving of numerical differential equations,

inherent symmetry of the Koch snowflake -

this means that we know that each neighbour

namely the sixfold rotational symmetry.

lies in one of only six directions from a given

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Figure 8: Fixed Width Strategy

snowflake. This is much nicer than having to deal with a mesh in which a small snowflake is adjacent to a much larger snowflake, which would require considering many more cases.

However, a disadvantage of this mesh is that the number of snowflakes required to reach a certain level of refinement grows steeply at an exponential rate. This is because no attempt is made to prioritise the boundary, and instead much unnecessary refinement is made at the centre.

Radial Step Strategy A third strategy is to focus entirely on the

Figure 9: IFS Decomposed Heighway Dragons.

boundary, refining only those snowflakes which are within a fixed distance from the perimeter of the curve. This leads to a plot of density against radial distance from the perimeter resembling a step-function. Whilst this does prioritise the boundary effectively, an issue is the discontinuity in density, resulting in edges which occupy only a small fraction of the large central snowflake.

As noted with the previous strategy, it is easier to numerically solve differential equations when neighbouring snowflakes are of similar sizes.

Boundary-Heavy Strategy A fourth strategy is to only decompose snowflakes which touch the boundary. Then once the new snowflakes have been created, we again pass through and decompose all the snowflakes

Figure 10: Radial Step Strategy

which still touch the boundary. This process can keep on going for a fixed number of iterations.

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Smoothed Boundary-Heavy Strategy The final strategy I consider is a variation on the Boundary-Heavy Strategy. Instead of only decomposing snowflakes which touch the boundary, we instead only decompose snowflakes whose distance to the boundary is less than their diameter. The Boundary-Heavy Strategy is essentially the same as this strategy, but with

Subprogram

the diameter threshold replaced with a tighter radius threshold. There is a trade off being made here, in that this strategy will produce more refinement further from the boundary and an increased number of snowflakes, however the

After 3 Iterations

mesh will be much smoother. This is because with this strategy, even though the size of snowflakes spans many orders of magnitude, any adjacent snowflakes differ in size only by a factor of √3, the ideal proportion for performing calculations.

Equivalently, this mesh has the same smoothness as the quasi-uniform mesh, whilst still allowing

After 5 Iterations

for a great deal of the refinement to be focussed away from the centre onto the boundary.

Distance to Perimeter

Figure 11: Boundary-Heavy Strategy

To implement the above strategy, we must determine the distance between the centre of subsnowflakes and the boundary. This is not a simple task, as the boundary itself is a 1.26... dimensional fractal. Thus we cannot simply check each vertex of the boundary and identify the closest vertex, as there are infinitely many vertices. Therefore it was necessary to develop an algorithm to approximate this calculation.

The crux of the algorithm is that it is possible to narrow down the range of perimeter in

After 3 Iterations

After 5 Iterations

which the closest vertex lies, in a manner akin to a binary search. To start, we can identify

Figure 12: Smoothed Boundary-Heavy Strategy

which Koch curve is closest to a snowflake by using the threefold symmetry of the snowflake.

Then, taking advantage of the self-similarity

At each stage we can then halve the range

of the Koch curve, we can select the

in which the closest vertex lies by checking

appropriate half of the Koch curve, which

whether the snowflake centre is closest to the

in itself is a smaller Koch curve. This allows

leftmost or rightmost portion of a Koch curve.

the procedure to be repeated indefinitely.

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CONCLUSION AND FURTHER CONJECTURES Following my investigation, the conclusion I have arrived upon is that the Smoothed Boundary-Heavy Strategy produces meshes that are the most promising for solving the acoustic equation, for reasons layed out in the previous section. Therefore the academics I worked with will be using this mesh in their future simulations of acoustic propagation.

Following detailed inspection of the meshes that I produced, a few new claims have been conjectured by the academics with whom I worked. Firstly, it seems that the Smoothed Boundary-Heavy Strategy is guaranteed to produces meshes in which neighbouring elements differ in size by a factor of √3. If this property can be proved, it will greatly simplify later computations, and furthers confirms that this mesh is the optimal mesh for use in numerical approximation.

Finally, from inspection of the dragon mesh I produced, it has been recently conjectured that the uniform dragon mesh is composed of a finite number of disjoint lattices. This

Figure 13: Acoustic Propagation from Koch Snowflakes, (Caetano et al., 2025)

again could lead to a proof of a strong translational symmetry which would drastically speed up numerical computations.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

Martınez-Cruz, M.A´., Patin˜o-Ortiz, J., Patin˜o-Ortiz, M. and Balankin, A.S. (2024). Some Insights into the Sierpin´ski Triangle Paradox. Fractal and Fractional, [online] 8(11), p.655. doi: https:// doi.org/10.3390/fractalfract8110655.

Caetano, A.M., Chandler-Wilde, S.N., Claeys, X., Gibbs, A., Hewett, D.P. and Moiola, A. (2025). Integral equation methods for acoustic scattering by fractals.

Proceedings of the Royal Society A Mathematical Physical and Engineering Sciences, 481(2306). doi: https://doi.org/10.1098/rspa.2023.0650.

Caetano, A.M., Chandler-Wilde, S.N., Gibbs, A., Hewett, D.P. and A. Moiola (2024). A Hausdorff-measure boundary element method for acoustic scattering by fractal screens.

Numerische Mathematik, 156(2), pp.463–532. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00211-024-01399-7. larryriddle.agnesscott.org. (n.d.). Koch Snowflake. [online] Available at: https://larryriddle. agnesscott.org/ifs/ksnow/ksnow.htm. larryriddle.agnesscott.org. (n.d.). Heighway Dragon. [online] Available at: https://larryriddle. agnesscott.org/ifs/heighway/heighway.htm. www.mathsisfun.com. (n.d.). Mandelbrot Set. [online] Available at: https://www.mathsisfun.com/numb rspatial.org. (n.d.). 2. The length of a coastline — R Spatial. [online] Available at: https:// rspatial.org/cases/2-coastline.html.

Pollicott, M. (2022). Topics in Fractal Geometry.

Warwick University. [online] Available at: https://warwick.ac.uk/fac/sci/maths/people/ staff/mark pollicott/p3/main22.pdf.

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The Smoothed Boundary-Heavy Strategy produces meshes that are the most promising for solving the acoustic equation.

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ARTS & HUMANITIES

OSCAR FORD WINNER IN THE ILA ARTS/ HUMANITIES CATEGORY FOR HIS COMPARISON OF THE GERMANIC AND GARCIAN SCHOOLS OF SINGING TECHNIQUE.

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ARTS JD VANCE'S VIEWS HUMANITIES ON IMMIGRATION FOLLOW THE PRINCIPLES OF CAMERON BROWN ST AUGUSTINE TO WHAT EXTENT DO

OF HIPPO?

This Independent Learning Assignment (ILA) was short-listed for the ILA/ ORIS Celebration Evening.

INTRODUCTION JD Vance, Vice President of the United States

of Charity. It will conclude that ultimately his

of America, is noted for his controversial

attitude, while certainly drawing upon some

immigration policy, largely as a result of his place

elements of Augustinian thought, overplays

in Trump’s administration. This essay will aim to

these elements in justifying mass deportation-

assess whether these policies are sufficiently

though his aims of reducing illegal immigration

justified, as argued by Vance, by the ideas of

are more strongly justified by a sensible

his patron Saint Augustine of Hippo (354-430

interpretation of the saint’s writings hinging upon

CE), particularly the Ordo Amoris and Order

the influence of his perception of Natural Law.

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For context, in August 2019, Vance officially

above that quote, Augustine summarises the

converted to the Catholic faith- which he

concept with a verse ‘someone has said’:

described as the result of being ‘desperate for a worldview that understood our bad behaviour

"These are Thine, they are good, because Thou

as simultaneously social and individual,

art good who didst create them. There is in

structural and moral’. This view, he argued, was

them nothing of ours, unless the sin we commit

exemplified in Augustine’s City of God- it was

when we forget the order of things, and instead

‘the best criticism of modern society I [Vance]

of Thee love that which Thou hast made."

had ever read’. This was not the beginning of Vance’s appreciation of the 4th and 5th century

This is the clearest ordo amoris of Augustine; it is

Church father - he claims that he had been a

primarily the ordering of love towards God before

1

fan ‘since college’ (Ibid) . This provides some of

his creations- not, directly, as Vance suggested,

the background for the event that inspired this

the loving of those socially closest to oneself

project: Vance’s interview with Sean Hannity, in

above those far. Indeed, this is in his view, the

which he states one

primary difference between

ought to love their family

the City of God and the

first, then community,

City of Man- the latter has

then citizens of one’s

love directed first at the

own country and

self, and God secondarily,

then those of other

while the former loves

countries (Schwartz, I.

the creator before the

(2025)). Moreover, his

creation (City of God, Book

response to a criticism

XIV, Chapter 28). This

by Rory Stewart

foundational difference

(British ex-MP and

between caritas, ordered

podcaster) alleging this is in fact ‘less Christian

love, and cupiditas, runs throughout the work

and more pagan tribal’ provides the catalyst

of Augustine, and if Vance is as keen a reader of

and framework by and from which this essay

Augustine as he claims, one would expect him

will come to its above conclusions - Vance

to know this is generally what Augustine means

telling him to "just google ordo amoris".

when he discusses rightly ordered love- not what he paraphrased in the TV interview.

This is where the influence of St Augustine becomes particularly clear, and so is what

Therefore, is any link between his statement

justifies the title question. Ordo Amoris, or

and Augustine’s ancient Christianity unjustified?

the concept of the right ordering of love,

Perhaps not; a generous interpretation of

is a key theme in Augustine’s works - he

Vance’s statement appears to align quite

describes it as the ‘brief and true definition of

closely with a number of Augustine’s pieces of

virtue’ (City of God, Book XV, Chapter 22).

practical advice on charity- the ‘order of charity’ as it is later called. Indeed, one could argue

However, a cursory reading of St Augustine

that while this is not the narrowest conception

presents an apparent dislocation between

of the ordo amoris, it does constitute an

the saint’s description of ordered love, and

ordering of love: an ordering of practical love,

the point Vance is looking to make; indeed,

and so an outflow of the former concept.

Interestingly, when he considered himself an atheist (Vance, 2016, Ch. 11) 1

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For example, Augustine argues that, despite

However, it highlights something important; a

an equal sense of love towards all, Christians

key strand in the justification of this order of

ought to ‘take greater care’ of those closest to

charity is convenience. This can be seen in both

them- by circumstance or location (On Christian

passages; it is the effects of the laws of nature

Doctrine, Book I, Chapter 28). This is prima facie

and society that one’s household is closest,

is rather similar to Vance’s statement; if by his

and so it is partially on this basis of created

‘love’, he is taken to mean direct aid or charity,

convenience that they are one’s primary focus.

then certainly one’s family and neighbour are some of those most closely joined to them ‘by

Moreover, Vance’s implication earlier on in the

accident’, and so prioritising their wellbeing is in

interview that the ‘far left’ of the country ought

line with Augustine’s advice. This interpretation,

to love American citizens more than ‘illegal

I would argue, is justifiable given the last part of

aliens’ (Schwartz, I. (2025), does run against

the excerpt- the wording ‘focus and prioritize

these Augustinian statements- as ‘all men are

the rest of the world’ suggests a practical

to be loved equally’. However, he may be closer

nature to this ‘love’- it makes far more sense as

in his assumed view that their obligations to

a statement when it is taken to mean charity

Americans are greater than those to foreign

or care, rather than an unactioned goodwill,

immigrants. This is because, while the laws of

which has less sense of priority and ‘focus’.

society (especially for legal immigrants) place immigrants equally close to Americans, they are

He further states that: “Primarily, therefore, his

further by familial and community bonds; the

own household are his care, for the law of nature

‘law of nature'2 does not position them as the of

and of society gives him readier access to them

priority for Americans. This is the second clear

and greater opportunity of serving them.”

strand of justification for the order of charity, and one that Vance’s statements and policy is

This confirms the above- Augustine even directly

more clearly in line - with the nuance that this is a

names the family as the primary focus of care.

matter of obligations and action, not love itself.

The concept of Natural Law is important to Augustine, as it represents a reminder of ideal prelapsarian human societyhowever, it is only useful insofar as it allows humans to follow divine law (Anon, n.d.). Thus, its application to the order of charity in its own right might be justified by argument that the structured obligations it supports will create family units (mirroring those of Adam and Eve) are directly conducive to order society and human movement towards God.

2

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Vance has argued against mass immigration

deportation is going to a much greater effort to

on the basis that it worsens the quality of life of

carry through a much smaller-ranging love, to a

American citizens since he claims “[the price

much lesser effect than other measures could.

of housing] is through the roof”, jobs are taken,

While Augustinian ethics are not consequentialist

and social security is put under strain (Stepman,

‌in the usual sense (Helm, Paul (1981).), this

J (2024)). A key policy he supports that aims

does seem to conflict with the practicality that

to address this is mass deportation (Pereira, I,

underpins one aspect of the order of charity.

2024), and as such it will be reviewed below on

However, this aspect could still be overcome by

an Augustinian basis. Justification for it is easy

Vance’s use of the natural law justification.

to imagine based on his conception of ordo amoris - he would argue that the reduced number

Secondly, there is a problem in that this principle

of migrants will improve the lives of American

is secondary to a primary one; Augustine prefaces

citizens by reversing the above problems

it in City of God, Book XIX, chapter 14 with the

migration can cause. Thus the American state

quote ‘this is the order of this concord, that a man,

is looking after its most important subjects,

in the first place, injure no one, and in the second,

those in traditional American communities. It

do good to everyone he can reach’. Therefore, the

fits with Vance’s conception of this order of love,

order of charity seems to only apply to positive

and positive action, as the people it does active

action (not necessarily supererogatory, given

harm to, the immigrants themselves, are at the

the duties to one’s family), and is overruled by

bottom of his order of concerns. They are just

the avoidance of harm. Thus, mass deportation

‘illegal aliens’, to whom he thinks Americans

falls foul of Augustine’s principles in two ways.

need not consider on the level of one another.

It misses the practical element of the order of

Indeed, he would likely frame it as simply a matter

charity, which would support the aiding of these

of stronger obligations towards one than the

immigrants equally to American communities (from

other, as mentioned above; the American state

the perspective of the state). Moreover, it violates

might have a stronger obligation to protect the

the non-harm principle that overrules it. This is

American family units that fund it, and constitute

what overrules the principles of Natural Law that

the society it governs. This is understandable

may create greater obligations to one’s family.

on the basis of the law of nature argument earlier- in fact, if that was the only concern of Augustine, it would be a valid argument.

However, the policy does have two conflicts with the Augustinian order of charity: One obvious, and one more subtle. The former is simple- it is no easier to help these ‘American’ communities than it is to aid immigrant ones.

Therefore, the first justification of the practical order of charity does not apply between them; immigrants and Americans are equally “closely joined… by some accident, as it were, of location, or time, or circumstance, or any such thing”- and Vance could not rightly make an Augustinian defence of the policy on those grounds. In fact, an argument could be made that the massive difficulty in carrying out mass 60

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Important also is his aim to reduce illegal immigration into America. This carries a similar justification - however, instead of acting against immigrants within America, it simply reduces the number entering. Thus, it has the similar benefit of protecting (rather than actively aiding) American lives. This seems more in line with the above Augustinian principles, as these American citizens are closer both by social bonds, as they were above, but also by convenience (‘by accident or circumstance’) unlike above, where the migrants are equal. More importantly, it may not constitute harm. Where removing migrants from their communities and

In a vacuum, he might be right- however, this

uprooting the lives they had made in America

point is part of an overall picture of Augustinian

is, simply not allowing them to do so hardly

beneficence towards immigrants. It is on that

constitutes ‘injury’ in the same sense .

basis (as well as that of general Christly agape)

3

that he directly argues Christians ought to see Something worth considering is the fact that

Christ in refugees - when he quotes Matthew

Augustine directly uses the Latin term for

25:35, he changes the Latin word for foreigner

immigrant or refugee (peregrinus) to describe

(hospes) to immigrant (peregrinus) (CCP1, 2018)-

the Christian people as a whole on multiple

who Jesus says aiding is an act of worship, and

occasions in his works (e.g City of God, Book

so desirable. Thus the general attitude is quite

XIX, Chapter 17); the saint was likely very familiar

clearly different between the two, even if there

with the phenomenon of mass refugeeship/

is no direct conflict- this is further evidence

migration. In fact, City of God itself was written

for difference between the VP and Augustine’s

in 413 CE in reaction to claims Rome’s adoption

positions on immigration. Nuance could perhaps

of Christianity had caused the decline of the

be found in a difference between those who legally

Roman Empire and sack of the city in 410- and

seek asylum and have need of shelter, and those

this same sack resulted in a number of refugees

simply wishing for a more materially prosperous

entering his home (and relatively stable)

life- as Augustine is largely concerned with the

province of Africa (Ralph D, 2006). That said, it is

former, Vance has more leeway in acting against

important to note that the migration Augustine

the latter while maintaining fidelity to his alleged

describes of all Christians is a spiritual one; it

saintly influence. This is especially true where

describes the movement of Christians from the

they might strongly undermine his principles

corrupted and sinful earthly world to the Godly

of properly and naturally ordered society- such

one. Therefore, Vance could make the argument

as if, immigrants were indeed ‘eating the cats’

that drawing any conclusions from this about

in American communities. However, The fact

earthly migrants are unjustified, given they

that they are not, and many have been given

represent entirely different spheres of reality.

legal status under the Biden administration

3 While a consequentialist might argue against this, Augustinian ethics is far more act and intention based- as that is what, primarily, constitutes action guided by God as a part of the process of reunion with Him (Helm, Paul (1981).

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(Thomas, M and Wendling, 2024) renders this point less forceful in practice - especially given there were no such legal mechanisms for internal migration within the collapsing Roman Empire.

Overall, while the latter piece of Vance’s policy may be compatible with St. Augustine’s moral theory, it is unlikely to be that way due to an attempt at loyally following it. This is especially true of the ordo amoris, which is largely focused (in Augustine) upon ordering love towards God above love towards His Creations (though it could perhaps be extrapolated to include the order of charity), not quite what Vance stated in his interview. Indeed, Rory Stewart may be correct in his assessment that his statement is ‘more pagan tribal than Christian’- while the principle of greater obligations towards the family is seen in Augustinian Natural law4 (and so in influence upon what I have called his order of charity), it is secondary to the Divine Law that commands "all men are to be loved equally".

Since this prioritises the harming of none (which mass deportation does), that policy sufficiently violates this important Augustinian concept for one to consider it not supported by his works.

This is especially true given the lack of cohesion with the order of charity’s practical strand of justification, and Augustine’s overall benevolence towards migrants- even those without systematic support. However, Vance’s aims to reduce inward migration to the US, as they do not have the same problems, are reasonably supported by the fulfilment of natural law obligations underlying the order of charity in the saint’s works.

Thus, it seems likely that Vance is familiar with the work of Augustine of Hippo, and is not fully unjustified in invoking his philosophy- only in overplaying the importance of social and familial obligations in ordering one’s love, at the expense of the radical agape that still underpins Augustine’s direct views of immigrants and charity.

Natural law Augustine directly admits was available and utilised by the pagans before Christianity! (Anon (Law Explorer), n.d.)

4

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BIBLIOGRAPHY 1.

Vance, J. (2020). How I Joined the Resistance. [online] The Lamp Magazine. Available at: https://thelampmagazine.com/blog/ how-i-joined-the-resistance.

2. Schapitl, L. (2024). Where J.D. Vance stands on key issues. [online] NPR. Available at: https:// www.npr.org/2024/07/16/g-s1-11128/jd-vanceabortion-immigration-ukraine-jan-6.

3. Gedeon, J. (2025). Vance poses immigration as ‘greatest threat’ to US and Europe in CPAC speech. [online] the Guardian. Available at: https://www.theguardian. com/us-news/2025/feb/20/jd-vance-cpac-trump.

4. Vance, J.D. (2016). Hillbilly Elegy : A Memoir Of A Family And Culture In Crisis. New York: Harper.

5. Schwartz, I. (2025). Vance: The Far-Left Feel More Of A Sense Of Compassion for Illegal Aliens Than American Citizens. [online] Realclearpolitics.com.

Available at: https://www.realclearpolitics.com/ video/2025/01/30/vance_the_far-left_feel_more_ of_a_sense_of_compassion_for_illegal_aliens_than_ american_citizens.html [Accessed 10 Jun. 2025].

6. ‌ X (formerly Twitter). (2025). Available at: https://x. com/JDVance/status/1885073046400012 538?lang=en [Accessed 10 Jun. 2025].

7. Augustine, A. (2014). The City of God: Volume I, by Aurelius Augustine--A Project Gutenberg eBook. [online] Gutenberg.org. Available at: https://www. gutenberg.org/files/45304/45304-h/45304-h.htm.

8. Hedges, B.G. (n.d.). Saint Augustine on Rightly Ordered Love. [online] Available at: https:// www.brianghedges.com/2013/09/saintaugustine-on-rightly-ordered-love.html.

9. ‌ www.gutenberg.org. (n.d.). The City of God: Volume II, by Aurelius Augustine--A Project Gutenberg eBook. [online] Available at: https://www.gutenberg. org/files/45305/45305-h/45305-h.htm.

10. ‌Stepman, J. (2024). JD Vance: America’s a Homeland, Not Just an Idea. Mass Immigration Is Sullying That. [online] The Daily Signal. Available at: https://www.dailysignal.com/2024/07/11/ jd-vance-america-is-homeland-not-just-idea/.

11. ‌ Pereira, I. (2024). JD Vance says mass deportations should ‘start with 1 million,’ defends ‘thought experiment’ giving parents extra votes. [online] ABC News. Available at: https://abcnews. go.com/Politics/jd-vance-mass-deportationsstart-1-million-defends/story?id=112739447.

12. CCP1 (2018). Augustine of Hippo: we are pilgrims on Earth and we must show our common fate and closeness with immigrants, the pilgrims in our society OAR • PSNT. [online] OAR • PSNT. Available at: https:// agustinosrecoletos.org/2018/08/augustine-of-hippowe-are-pilgrims-on-earth-and-we-must-show-our-common-fate-and-closeness-with-immigrants-the-pilgrimsin-our-society/?lang=en [Accessed 15 Jun. 2025].

13. O’Donnell, J. (2019c). The City of God|work

by Saint Augustine. In: Encyclopædia Britannica. [online] Available at: https://www. britannica.com/topic/The-City-of-God. 14. Ralph, D. (2006). A history of medieval Europe from Constantine to Saint Louis [electronic resource]. Routledge Uuuu-Uuuu.

15. Anon, (n.d.). The Philosophy of Law in The Writings of Augustine |. [online] Available at: https://lawexplores. com/the-philosophy-of-law-in-the-writings-ofaugustine/#Fn23 [Accessed 6 Sep. 2023].

16. ‌Helm, Paul (1981). Divine Commands and Morality. Oxford University Press.

17. Thomas, M. and Wendling, M. (2024). Donald Trump repeats baseless claim about Haitian immigrants eating cats and dogs in Springfield, Ohio. [online] BBC News. Available at: https:// www.bbc.co.uk/news/articles/c77l28myezko. www.rgsg.co.uk

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ARTS THE REIMAGINING OF HUMANITIES

MYTH TO MOVIE: CLASSICAL THEMES IN FILM NOIR

WILL GOSSAGE

This Independent Learning Assignment (ILA) was short-listed for the ILA/ ORIS Celebration Evening.

INTRODUCTION From the ancient tales of heroes to post-war

I noticed striking parallels between the genres,

psychological thrillers, the exploration of

such as the similarities with characters such

human characteristics and fate have remained

as the femme fatale or the tragic hero, and the

consistent over time. Film noir was a genre of

inevitable concept of fate. This made me reflect

film in the 1940s and 50s that is characterised

on the extent at which classical themes have

by its dark, psychological themes, and the

influenced and shaped the narrative in film

morally complicated characters. While watching

noir. Ultimately, this essay will argue that the

certain noir films (specifically Billy Wilder's

dark psychological themes in film noir are just

Double Indemnity and Sunset Boulevard),

modernised iterations of motifs in classic myth.

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'Sunset Boulevard' (1950)- SlashFilm: https://www.slashfilm.com/802393/why-sunset-blvd-had-to-scrap-its-original-opening-scene/

An underlying theme throughout both classical

Walter Neff's eventual dark turn, leading him

myth and film noir is fate, highlighting the

down a downward spiral. This descent ties in with

inescapable outcomes of the protagonist, based

the concept of katabasis (κατάβασις) in Greek

on their moral decisions. Fate is the idea that

mythology, meaning the descent of a hero into the

a person’s outcome is predetermined and beyond

underworld. In film noir, this descent is symbolic,

human control. The impact of fate on both

and refers to the psychological descent of the

genres is to build up the tragic falls of the hero,

characters, often symbolised by dark scenery,

constantly alluding to their eventual demise.

like the broken Los Angeles shot at the start of

With classical literature, fate shows that great

the film. Katabasis ‘shifts onto the narrative, the

heroes suffer because of the consequence of

power of a death tale’ (Holtsmark, Erling B, 2001),

their flaws, whereas in film noir, fate adds to that

thus illustrating that a death will happen in the

idea, showing that the ordinary man can also

film. What befell Joe Gillis in Sunset Boulevard

suffer from this. Right from the start of the films,

is explicitly shown at the beginning, where the

there are signs, guiding the audience towards the

camera pans across, following reporters, revealing

eventual outcomes of the key characters. A key

Gillis’ lifeless body in the pool. From the outset,

comparison can be made with Sophocles’ Oedipus

we know that Gillis is doomed, and because of

Rex, a play centred around the inescapability of

the press surrounding the body, the audience

fate, where Oedipus is predestined to marry his

understands that his death will be a spectacle.

mother and kill his father. The opening scenes of

§In the first half of the film, there are many

both noir films and of Oedipus Rex foreshadow

macabre allusions, suggesting a tragic fate awaits

the doomed fates of their protagonists: Walter

him. As written by Joan F Dean (1984) “As Joe's tale

Neff, Joe Gillis, and Oedipus. In Double Indemnity,

unfolds, it is fraught with images of death : his own

the establishing shot is of an out-of-control car

corpse floating in the pool; the remains of Norma's

that narrowly misses colliding with roadworks.

pet chimp laid out and later buried; his own voice

The opening scene in noir is usually from the end

which reminds us that his narration comes from

of the film, and so the audience will know that

beyond the grave”. Therefore, there is a sense

this tense and chaotic moment reflects how the

of inevitable death, mirroring the role of fate in

end of the film will be. The frantic motion of the

classical myth. Just like in Sunset Boulevard,

car reflects Walter Neff’s desperate attempts to

the allusions to death in Oedipus Rex show the

avoid consequences from the murder. In classic

inevitability of Oedipus fulfilling the prophecy of

noir style, the shot is in darkness, creating a

killing his father. For example, at the beginning,

dark atmosphere. This then sets the tone for

the priest tells Oedipus that “Thebes is tossed

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on a murdering sea and can not lift her head

these early signs of the protagonists’ fate

from the death surge”. This refers to the plague

reinforce that nobody, whether heroic or ordinary,

that is tormenting Thebes, resulting in countless

can escape the consequences of their actions.

deaths. Oedipus is also fixated on avenging Laius, after his murder, stating that this was the “only

Additionally, fate is presented via Gillis' and Neff's

way of help in this great need: To find and smite

narration, commenting on their lives as if they are

with death or banishing, him who smote Laïus”.

beyond the grave. Essentially, both characters

The tragic irony is that it was Oedipus who killed

are becoming the traditional Greek chorus,

Laius, and in seeking to punish the murderer, he

acting as “an audience within the fictional world”

is inadvertently denouncing what he himself has

(Hawthorne, Kevin 2009). Both men are looking

done. The impact of this is

back at the lead up

to make Oedipus seem so

to their downfalls; a

tragic, with the audience

famous line of Neff

knowing that his death

reflecting on his crime

is inescapable. Finally, in

is, “I guess I didn’t

Double Indemnity, there

fight it hard enough”,

is a constant reminder for

commenting on

Neff that fate is closing in.

the allure of Phyllis

The lighting is carefully

Dietrichson. It also

manipulated so that the

shows how fate is

blinds reflect on the face of

unable to be fought,

Neff on multiple occasions,

no matter how hard

conveying bars in a prison

one tries. Gillis has a

cell. This serves to show

more cynical approach

that Walter Neff’s fate will

to his narration,

be tied to his eventual

where he would insult

capture. In a cut ending, Billy Wilder has Walter Neff executed in a gas chamber.

'Double Indemnity' (1944) - FLIXCHATTER FILM BLOG: https://flixchatter.net/2014/09/30/september-blindspot-double-indemnity-1944/

Therefore, the lighting could

Norma Desmond at any given opportunity (“I wondered what a handwriting expert

have been foreshadowing Neff’s imprisonment

would think of her childish scrawl”), which is apt

and execution. The subtle hints via the lighting

because she was the one who shot him dead.

cannot be achieved through Sophocles’ Oedipus

In Greek plays, rather than commenting on the

Rex, but there are references throughout to

past, the chorus would react as events happen,

blindness, playfully leading up to Oedipus gouging

often providing a moral message. Right at the

his eyes out in the final part of the play. Firstly,

end of Oedipus Rex, the chorus says that “life

Oedipus, showing himself to be a compassionate

in death, should be a memory without pain”,

ruler, said that if he disregarded the sufferings due

fundamentally telling the audience to indulge

to the plague, he would be “blind to misery.” Later,

in a joyous life, whereupon you can reflect back

Oedipus taunts the prophet, Tiresias’ blindness,

happily in death. In the two films, the protagonists’

mocking him that he would get “lost in the night”

narration acts as a modernised Greek chorus,

due to his blindness. Ironically, Oedipus is both

highlighting how film noir uses classical traditions

blind to the truth of his own mother and father, but

to explore themes such as fate and morality.

also what he is mocking becomes his own fate,

Unlike the collective Greek chorus, Neff and

just like how the visual signs in Double Indemnity

Gillis’ solitary voices accentuate their isolation,

foreshadowed Neff’s ultimate fate. Altogether,

adding to the emotion of their tragic downfalls.

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The femme fatale’s ability to control the

Medea’s bold statement was purposefully said

protagonist, via the weaponisation of sexuality

at the start of the play to disassociate herself

and intelligence, proves her to be an immensely

from familial norms, and as a warning to the

powerful figure. With traits that opposed the

audience of the transgressive violence that will

stereotypical characteristics of a woman of both

happen later on. Dietrichson is also presented

Ancient Greece, and early 20 century, the femme

as a remarkably dangerous femme fatale,

fatale is presented as the dangerous seductress.

whose psychopathic and narcissistic behaviour

Her character in noir often manipulates the male

is shown in various visual motifs. Firstly, when

protagonist, luring him to his downfall, as well as

Walter Neff is killing Mr Dietrichson in the car,

in classical myth, the femme fatale’s beauty and

the death is only heard due to the close-up shot

cunning is exaggerated, allowing her to seduce

of Mrs Dietrichson’s face throughout the scene.

and kill even the greatest of heroes (shown with

Phyllis stares blankly at the camera, letting the

Clytemnestra). Firstly, the influence and control

audience see her psychopathic nature by showing

held by Phyllis Dietrichson in Double Indemnity

zero emotions during her husband’s murder.

exemplifies her status as a femme fatale. The

The addition of the non-diegetic orchestral

first time we see Mrs Dietrichson, she is on the

crescendo juxtaposes with Dietrichson’s

landing, looking down upon Walter Neff. This

emotionless expression, drawing attention to

establishes the power dynamics between them,

her cold demeanour. Before being made into

where Dietrichson holds the control, subverting

a film, Double Indemnity was a novel written

the stereotypical order of the man having the

by James M Cain (1935). Cain took inspiration

influence. Phyllis Dietrichson’s authority is

from the real life murderer, Ruth Snyder, in 1927,

presented via her metaphorically being ‘in the

for the character of Mrs Dietrichson. Snyder

driver’s seat’ . Whenever Neff and Dietrichson are

joined forces with her lover to kill her husband,

in a car together, it is always Dietrichson driving,

extremely similar to the plot of Double Indemnity.

conveying how she is driving both the literal and

Thus, the dangerous nature of Mrs Dietrichson

metaphorical direction of their affair and the

is emphasised because she is inspired from an

murder plot. Dietrichson, being the archetypal

actual murderer. In Aeschylus’ Agamemnon,

noir temptress, embodies the post-war views

Clytemnestra is the femme fatale who, like Mrs

of women’s self-assertion and liberty within

Dietrichson, killed her husband (Agamemnon)

marriage and the workplace (Boozer, Jack 1999).

whilst he is bathing. She is described by the

From this we can draw parallels from Euripides’

character of Cassandra as; "the most heinous

Medea, where Medea states that she “would

of heinous snakes, being able to slither back

rather stand in the front line of battle three times

and forth against all her prey" (translated by

than bear one child”. As Barlow (1989) argues,

G. Theodoridis ©2005). The symbolism of the

th

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'Sunset Boulevard' (1950) - The Hollywood Reporter Everett: https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/movies/ movie-news/sunset-boulevard-review-movie-1950-1235172387/

snake suggests Clytemnestra’s deceptive and

prospect of furthering his scriptwriting by joining

evil character, two traits associated with the

forces with the former actress, Norma Desmond.

femme fatale. Ultimately, the femme fatale is a

Her entrapment of Gillis eventually became

character written by men, an embodiment of fears

abusive, leading to the outrage of Desmond,

of what women are capable of with ‘male’ power.

and climactically, Gillis’ death. Conclusively, the

Thus in the cases of Clytemnestra and Phyllis

influence of the Sirens on noir femme fatales is

Dietrichson, both show how female independence

shown in the way both use temptation to lead men

was often portrayed as a dangerous power, with

to their deaths. Although, while the Sirens rely on

Dietrichson in particular resembling the idea

their beauty and enchanting singing, Desmond’s

that women post-war will have become more

power is in her emotional manipulation rather

assertive, no longer confined to traditional roles,

than her physical attractiveness. This contrast

and capable of undermining male authority.

henceforth shows the evolution of the femme fatale; from the figure who seduces with their

In contrast to Dietrichson’s femme fatale, one of

hypnotic beauty, to the psychologically complex

beauty and danger, Billy Wilder presents Norma

noir femme fatale. Norma Desmond’s desire to

Desmond in Sunset Boulevard as an aging

be loved stems from the cruelty of Hollywood,

and obsolete character, who capitalises on Joe

where one minute you are the star, the next (like

Gillis’ troubled state to keep him captive in her

in Norma Desmond’s case) you are put aside

mansion. Compared to Dietrichson, Desmond

and forgotten about completely. Essentially,

lacks the beauty to lure Joe Gillis to his downfall,

Norma Desmond sacrificed her whole youth

but instead keeps him using psychological

to Hollywood, and her need to look young and

manipulation, as well as abuse (when she slaps

beautiful is a way for her to feel like she did as

him during the ballroom dance and shouts at him,

an actor, hence why she rewatches her younger

“I’ll do it again!”). Desmond initially draws Gillis

films. Wilder uses the motif throughout of the

in by promising safety at her mansion from the

mirror to highlight this, displaying the vanity of

taxmen, as well as a room to stay in, and a luxury

the femme fatale. Like how Desmond sacrificed

lifestyle that he would not be able to resist, due to

her youth for Hollywood, Medea sacrificed her

his lack of funds at the time. These temptations

younger brother and her royal life back in Colchis,

lure Gillis in, reminiscent of the lure of the sirens

to travel with Jason on his journey to the Golden

in Homer’s Odyssey; whose entrancing songs

Fleece. Their violent outbreaks, therefore, stem

drew sailors to their deaths. Just like Odysseus’

from the betrayal of those who both Medea and

crew, Gillis is unable to resist the comfort and the

Desmond sacrificed something for. For example,

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Medea sacrificed all for her love for Jason, only for

to a contemporary audience, unlike in myth,

him to abandon her for another woman, Glaucis.

where the tragic figure is meant to be symbolic

This then resulted in Medea viciously murdering

and endure an epic fall. Throughout Greek and

not only Glaucis, but Medea and Jason’s children,

Roman Epic, there have been illustrious heroes

committing the heinous sin of filicide. As for

such as Heracles and Jason, who embody this

Norma Desmond, the hopes of achieving fame

title, as well as those who endure moral and

again rose when an aspiring scriptwriter showed

psychological suffering akin to the characters

up at her house, only for him to walk out on her,

of Walter Neff (Double Indemnity) and Joe Gillis

resulting in her shooting him. Medea’s own quote

(Sunset Boulevard). Walter Neff’s flawed character

from Medea encapsulates this, when she says,

in Double Indemnity may at first appear to be

“Wrong a woman in love and nothing on earth

entirely down to the seductive manipulation of

has a heart more murderous”. Ultimately, both

Phyllis Dietrichson, but his own overconfidence

Medea and Norma Desmond embody femme

in believing he could commit the perfect murder

fatales whose actions stem from betrayal and

ultimately was his hamartia. When Neff is

loss, rather than being naturally cruel. Desmond's

reassuring Dietrichson that he is “the guy that

violence stems from her delusion of still being a

knows how”, the direction for his acting (in script)

successful actress and her belief that Gillis loves

is as follows; “There is fierce determination in his

her, reflecting Hollywood’s disregard for aging

voice. His fingers dig into her arm”. His aggressive

actresses. Therefore, Wilder is modernising the

and physically intrusive behaviour here both

violence that becomes the vengeful character

shows his misogynistic belief that Mrs Dietrichson

of Medea, illustrating how betrayal affects

will be safe, solely because she is in his presence,

the contemporary actress in Hollywood.

but also his arrogance that he holds the perfect plan. The duality of his nature (respected

The noir concept of a tragic hero is modernised,

insurance salesperson and cold-blooded

with the ‘heroes’ being ordinary men rather than

murderer) can be seen in the lighting, where his

great kings or legendary warriors. The impact of

shadow often appears behind him, connoting his

this is to make their downfall emotionally resonant

two personalities: one in the light, one in the dark.

The looming shadow could also resemble his growing guilt throughout the film, leading to his downfall. Furthermore, his underestimation of Mrs Dietrichson results in him being outmanoeuvred by her, as shown when she attempted to shoot him near the end of the film. Similarly, in Medea (Euripides), Jason’s pride leads him to betray his lover, Medea, by marrying Glauce (daughter of King of Corinth) for status and power. Medea then outmanoeuvres Jason’s strategic move for power by killing his children, his only successors. Thus, both Neff’s and Jason’s tragic suffering was down to their own choices, blind to the repercussions of the femme fatale’s behaviour. Similarly, film noir often portrays characters who destroyed by their fatal flaws (hamartia), despite their intelligence. In both classical literature and film noir, the tragic hero’s downfall is often because of the influence of a woman. Both Walter Neff

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and Joe Gillis use the metaphor of a hook (“the

femme fatales to both film noir and classical

hook was too strong” and “I dropped the hook,

literature work to emasculate the tragic hero. Gillis’

she grabbed it”) to convey the magnetic allure of

showering in gifts of new clothes, and his financial

both Mrs Dietrichson and Norma Desmond. Their

dependency upon Desmond, act to flip the gender

allure draws parallels from the sirens in Homer’s

roles of a 1940s American household, where

Odyssey, who would lure sailors to their deaths,

Gillis is now essentially Desmond’s ‘kept man’.

like how both women led Gillis and Neff to their

This portrays the hero’s tragic fall, from a man

downfalls. Gillis was an opportunist and a cynic

of autonomy to Norma Desmond’s unglamorous

and lived with Norma Desmond believing he could

gigolo. Pentheus, King of Thebes, in Euripides’

gain screenwriting success from it, only to become

Bacchae, is a classic example of the emasculation

emotionally imprisoned within her house. This

of a hero. In the play, Pentheus loses his authority

theme of being entrapped by a powerful woman

and dignity as a king, due to him disguising himself

can be seen with Odysseus in Homer’s Odyssey

as a woman to spy on the Bacchic celebrations,

book six. This is when he is kept by the nymph,

resulting in him being torn apart by the Maenads

Calypso, who falls deeply in love with him. These

whom he wanted to control. In both cases, the

periods of entrapment for Odysseus and Joe Gillis

feminisation of the male protagonists are key

highlight their loss of agency, gradually reinforcing

elements to their arcs as a tragic hero. Overall,

their downfall. The previously mighty Odysseus,

film noir modernises classical literature with

who was victorious in the legendary Trojan War,

darker scenery and more relatable characters,

was found by Hermes “racking his soul with tears

but the blueprint of the tragic hero remains. The

and groans and griefs”. The tricolon of laments

black and white lighting in noir help portray the

exaggerates Odysseus’ tragic state. Gillis rarely

tragic hero’s moral conflicts, casting them in

showed outward emotion on his feelings within

darker lights and exaggerating their shadows. So,

the house, but in his narration, he acknowledged

although the ways Neff and Gillis are presented

Desmond’s manipulation of him with “An older

is different to those of Jason and Odysseus,

woman who is well-to-do. A younger man who is

the downfall of the hero is still rooted in classic

not doing too well”. One may argue that his lack

tradition. The modern retelling of the character

of outwardly showing emotions adds to the stoic

serves to show how any man can undergo such

nature of a tragic hero. The addition of these

a fall, rather than solely the mighty hero.

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'Double Indemnity' (1944) - Hollywood Reporter - Courtesy Everett Collection: https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/wp-content/ uploads/2021/12/Double-Indemnity-Stanwyck-Everett-MBDDOIN_EC007-H-2021.jpg?w=1296&h=730&crop=1

CONCLUSION

BIBLIOGRAPHY

In conclusion, the effect of these classical themes in film noir serve to convey that heroic tragedy affects those who are not supernatural,

1.

2.

or ancient warriors. Each of fate, the femme fatale, and the tragic hero, all are used in film noir

3.

to tackle contemporary ideas; such as the rise of post-war female autonomy, the treatment of aging actresses in Hollywood, and the complex

4.

psychology of the modern man. With the addition of visual motifs, directors such as Billy Wilder use lighting, sound, and levels, to modernise these Classical themes. The persistent presence of fate is established by constant reminders

5.

Barlow, Shirley A. “Stereotype and Reversal in Euripides’ ‘Medea.’” Greece & Rome, vol. 36, no. 2, 1989, pp.

158–71. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/643169.

BOOZER, JACK. “THE LETHAL <italic>FEMME FATALE</Italic> IN THE NOIR TRADITION.” Journal of Film and Video, vol. 51, no. 3/4, 1999, pp. 20–35.

JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/20688218.

DEAN, Joan F. “‘Sunset Boulevard’: Illusion and Dementia.” Revue Française d’études Américaines, no. 19, 1984, pp. 89–98. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/20873130.

Hawthorne, Kevin. “The Chorus as Rhetorical Audience: A Sophoklean Agōn Pattern.” The American Journal of Philology, vol. 130, no. 1, 2009, pp. 25–46.

JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/20616166.

Holtsmark, Erling B, 'The Katabasis Theme in Modern Cinema', in Martin M Winkler (ed.), Classical Myth & Culture in the Cinema (New York, NY, 2001; online edn, Oxford Academic, 31 Oct. 2023), https://doi. org/10.1093/oso/9780195130034.003.0002.

of death throughout both the literature and the films. The femme fatale evolves from the dangerous seductress in classical literature, to the post-war autonomous and powerful woman.

No longer supernatural, the noir femme fatale becomes the traditional woman of the 1940s.

Similarly, the tragic hero is reimagined as the normal American working man. This allows him to show that the ordinary man suffers from the same flaws as classical greats like Heracles and Jason. Overall, these reinterpretations are not only drawing inspiration from these classical motifs, but are bringing these old themes into a new cultural context, ultimately showing the way such classic characters and constructs can be made modern to speak to a contemporary audience, and highlight modern issues.

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BEL CANTO: TO WHAT

EXTENT IS THE GERMANIC SCHOOL OF SINGING TECHNIQUE THE OPPOSITE OF THE GARCIAN SCHOOL OF SINGING?

ARTS HUMANITIES OSCAR FORD

This Independent Learning Assignment (ILA) won the RGS 2025 ILA award in the Arts/ Humanities category.

INTRODUCTION Bel canto is a term widely used, and one

into a more familiar idiom of singing that is well

surrounded by misunderstanding and controversy.

studied (despite easily being approximated

While it saw its culmination in the 19 century with

(Potter, 31) and that we take for granted today as

pivotal teachers such as the Spaniard Manuel

the healthiest method of classical singing. While

Garcia II (Stark, 1) and Giovanni Battista Lampert,

the bel canto operas of Bellini and Donizetti

its roots can be traced back to the North of Italy

were still flourishing, a radical, new, seemingly

in the late 16 century to small and specialised

irreconcilable school of singing came about in

groups of singers. It was in these groups “whose

Germany, arguably as a nationalist separation

vocal prowess eclipsed amateur choristers” (Stark,

(Whitener, 155) from the Italian tradition that had

190) that singers began to display their virtuosic

“no other ambition than to satisfy this shallow

skills through their ease in coloratura, diction and

audience” (Wagner, 44). While derived from

emotional expression. This gradually developed,

similar fundamental principles as bel canto, this

over lifetimes of dedicated study and experience,

new Germanic school took the muscularity and

th

th

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physicality of the style to new heights and new

and the creating of space in the back of the throat

pedagogy emerged. In order to compare these

is instinctive and easy to do, as it is very similar

sometimes seemingly incompatible styles, it is

to the ‘every-day’ method of breathing (teachers

logical to try to break the technique down into

often advocate for a ‘yawning’ position) and is

individual, manageable parts within a phrase;

seen even in newborns as they cry for hours on

preparation, onset and phonation. Through

end without vocal fatigue (Cathcart, 26). While

this method, one can locate both similarities

in the German school, the importance of the

and differences in small scale vocal physiology

pharyngeal space and low larynx prior to onset

while maintaining a somewhat comprehensive

is still present, the action of inhalation is often

image of how each aspect integrates with

more muscular and prepares the mechanism

one another to form a complete technique.

for extreme sub-glottic pressure. Despite this, the mechanics of the inhalation are largely very

PREPARATION

similar, although there are a wide range of theories

In the first part of Manuel Garcia II’s Traité

of breathing. While one might assume that by

complet de l’art du chant, he only spends half a

default a singer would opt for the relaxed and

page talking about respiration, predominantly

grounded method in the Garcian school, Friedrich

the process of inhalation and preparing the voice

Schmitt (1812-1884) advocated the importance of

for phonation. In this succinct passage, Garcia

the intercostal breathing, in which a singer would

describes the silent breath combining a raised

feel as if the lungs were fully dilated (Whitener,

chest with a lowered diaphragm (Stark, 97) as this

38) and would take a quick and energised breath.

“allows the lungs to complete all their expansion

The importance of the sensation of the lungs

and to receive all the air which they can contain”.

being fully dilated would suggest to modern

In practice a singer cannot control the diaphragm

pedagogues that a singer is over breathing, as

but instead controls the muscles around the

teachers today (Marek, 76) would argue that the

abdomen, for example the abdominal wall must

breath mechanism must remain relaxed and

relax during inhalation (in other words the belly

flexible, rather than rigid and muscular as Schmitt

must expand). The silent nature of this breath

suggests. Over breathing can cause problems

also indicates sufficient pharyngeal space and

during phonation due to muscular tension created

therefore a low larynx in preparation for onset. By

in the neck and shoulders which will indirectly

nature, the relaxing of these abdominal muscles

affect the vocal mechanism, and it also makes it more difficult for a singer to finely control the amount of air being output for a phrase, the balance of which being known as appoggio in Italian. Therefore, while both methods rely on similar muscular movements, the Germanic style of singing is somewhat different and arguably less healthy or efficient by today’s vocal standards.

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ONSET After the singer has set their posture of the proud chest and relaxed upper body, inhaled and prepared the resonators (mainly the pharynx) for phonation, comes the onset. As Garcia II was a pioneer of the more scientific based vocal teaching style, having invented the laryngoscope, he was able to imagine a biologically accurate structure of the larynx and each cartilage or muscle therein.

As a product of the hypotheses he had tested using laryngoscopy, several of his ideas were new and controversial. Perhaps most famously, the coup de la glotte (meaning hit/stroke of the glottis) was a cornerstone of Garcia’s technique (Stark, 14) and one that sparked controversy and misunderstanding. Fundamentally, the exercise is the practise of the building up of a tiny amount of pressure below the glottis just moments before phonation and onset. As the combined adductive

of some words, it is natural that this is carried over

force of all the muscles around the larynx

in singing. The glottal stops are further intensified

(importantly the interarytenoids) contract and

in Wagnerian singing, as the dramatic nature of the

close the glottis space, it sets up the phonation

characters often calls for harsh plosives with the

process to be aerodynamically efficient with a

vocal cords, often signifying tragic helplessness,

brilliant, focussed sound (Stark, 12). The wave of

anger or other powerful emotions. Bel canto is not

contemporary misunderstandings and criticism

exempt from this almost melodramatic tradition,

was perhaps understandable as the connotations

as in Verdi especially (which is often sung by bel

of the word hit suggests the violent and pushed

canto singers), similar glottal stops are used to

action, as subglottic pressure is built up and

emphasize the drama on stage. Despite this, the

suddenly released. In fact, Garcia maintained

German pedagogy somewhat agrees, follows and

that the coup de la glotte “must be the delicate,

sometimes even cites this traditional Italian school

precise action of the glottis” (Lunn, 21). Modern

(Whitener, 48) as the balanced onset was deemed

views on the topic continue to be controversial

effective in focussing the sound and activating

and polarised (Stark, 20), as many believe it can

thin edge function of the vocal cords. This allows

lead to the so called hyperfunction (Froeschels,

the production of the singers formant which is

63) of the muscles in the larynx, leading quickly

one of the most importance mechanisms in either

to problems such as “paratetic hoarseness”

style, as a singer is required to easily project over

(Froeschels, 63) caused by the overuse and over

(in Wagner’s case) a 90 piece orchestra. Thus,

tensioning of these fragile but relatively powerful

despite the coup de la glotte being a traditionally

muscles. Others however, agree that, if used

Italian concept, the German school (to some

carefully and correctly, it is a tool that is helpful for

extent) adopted and developed this exercise in

developing cord closure and avoiding breathiness.

onset while making adjustments pertaining to

As the German language contains harder glottal

the dramatic nature of the music being written

stops (which Garcia II warned against) at the start

and the demands of the German language.

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control and often creates the impression of a ‘big’ voice (Stark, 108). While both the Italianate and Germanic techniques can rely on the pinching or damming of the glottis, the Germanic school encouraged this muscular pressing of breath against the larynx which, while effective in volume, not only reduced flexibility in the voice for phrasing and musical delicacy, but also leaves the possibility of vocal damage due to the high demand placed on the somewhat delicate muscles in the vocal folds (Husler and Rodd-Marling, 44-6).

A vital and longstanding concept in the Italian tradition is the chiaroscuro description of tone colour that has been held up as the ‘ideal’ sound for soloistic singing. Meaning bright/clear-dark

PHONATION

in Italian, the term refers to the bright, almost

After phonation has begun, the fundamental

piercing edge to an operatic sound, interacting

aim of the Italian teachers was to reach the

with the sonorous and pharyngeal resonance,

most efficient method of vocal production while

arguably the body of the tone. In practise, a

maintaining the smooth tone and seamless

listener refers to the upper partials (between

transition between registers (Cathcart, 36).

~2.2 kHz for basses, up to ~3.2kHz for tenors

As a product of the ideals behind his coup

(Sundberg, 15)) created in resonance (largely

de la glotte exercise, Garcia advocated for a

created in the head spaces such as the sinuses

similar idea of pinching the vocal cords during

or nasal cavity) when describing the bright

phonation (Stark, 38) which produced effects of

element of the voice. As previously discussed,

vibrancy and ease of projection. However, many

the most common method to achieve this high

teachers (to this day) dislike the encouragement

resonance was through the firm glottal closure,

of pinching or squeezing in teaching as it may

and the use of the thin edge function of the vocal

normalize tension around the larynx and contact

cords. The timbre of the voice (‘light’ or ‘dark’)

stress. Contemporary vocal scientist Ingo Titze

largely depends on the position of the resonating

warns against the tight adduction for fear of

column or vocal tract. This can be varied in

hyperadduction, very similar to the worries of

several ways; the lateral width of the pharynx,

hyperfunction in reaction to the coup de glotte.

the vertical positioning of the larynx, the length of the pharynx - controlled by the positioning of

Perhaps more apparently dangerous for the

the soft palate along with the mechanisms with

vocal cords, German voice teacher George Armin

which vowels are created, such as the tongue or

(1871-1963) created an equally controversial

lips (Stark, 38). It is important to note that each of

method; a form of breath damming that he named

these mechanisms are influenced by one another

Stauprinzip (Parr, 67). Stauprinzip relies on the

and in many cases, it is difficult to isolate one

opposition of the air flow towards the larynx and

without affecting the other. Being one of the only

the stopping power of the glottis. The extreme

adjustments which is easily visible to a viewer,

subglottic pressure (and therefore stopping

the position of the larynx or ‘Adam’s apple’ is a

or damming power of the glottis) does create

common topic in vocal studios, to this day (Stark,

very large amplitude, tends to improve breath

41). In order to achieve the dark resonant element

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of chiaroscuro, the larynx must be low enough

an inch apart and the mouth and lips should be

so that the singer feels there is sufficient space,

elliptical, with the upper lips not covering the

without losing cord closure. In bel canto singing,

teeth. The movement of the mouth is perhaps

the larynx should also be free to move, and

less emphasised in other schools, but it aims to

should not be locked in place with musculature.

release or control any tension in the system that may affect the operation of the larynx, an ideal

The German pedagogy also talks of a similar

shared with many other techniques, including the

balance of timbre within the voice. Heinrich

Italian tradition. Some contemporary teachers

Mannstein (1806-1872) suggested that there

of Mannstein suggested the teeth (especially the

were only three types of tone; the throaty tone

top row) were an important part of the finding

(‘Kehlton’), the nasal tone (‘Nasenton’) and

of resonance, as the popular but non-science

the balanced tone (Whitener, 26). There are

based method of ‘resonance imagery’ emerged.

clear parallels with the Italian tradition here,

This involved ‘placing’ the sound at different

Kehlton being close to the ‘scuro’ aspect of the

points in largely the upper body, relating to

chiaroscuro, the Nasenton being related to the

different vowels or points in the register (Stark,

‘chiaro’ aspect, and the balanced tone refers

51), something especially relevant in the practical

to the ideal mix of these two poles. However,

teaching of voices, due to the ease of description

Mannstein aims to reach this goal in a different

and tactility. The instructions on jaw position

perspective. A large part of his teachings was his

are perhaps less clear in their intent. Arguably

criteria for ‘correct’ mouth position (Whitener,

it is designed to help focus the sound, and

27). In summary, the mouth should not move

avoid ‘spreading’ the sound, and losing upper

between consecutive vowel sounds or a change of

resonance, however this advice somewhat breaks

note, the upper and lower teeth should be roughly

down when different registers are considered.

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In 1831 French tenor Gilbert Duprez became (in)famous for the first known high C (ut de poitrine - literally meaning ‘C of chest’).

Being one of the most studied aspects of singing

Gilbert Duprez became (in)famous for the first

teaching, the Garcian theory in registers is

known high C (ut de poitrine - literally meaning ‘C

complex and too convoluted to fully explore in this

of chest’). performed on stage in (what appeared

essay as his thoughts changed and developed with

to be) the chest register. Prior to this, tenors had

further research and time (Cathcart, 50). However,

resorted to voce di testa for high notes - a far

Garcia was able to practically demonstrate (Stark,

cry from that which modern audiences expect

69) his theory of two registers; the chest register

(Stark, 58). As this concept was so alien to the

and the falsetto-head register (Stark, 68) in 1841.

pedagogues of the time, Garcia’s theories on

He used his students to show that the chest

this technique were somewhat indecisive and

and the falsetto register overlapped (in an area

cautious. He insists that the idea of mixing

known as the passaggio), however the previously

registers is biologically impossible as each are

separate falsetto and head registers would not

distinct positions of the vocal structures. Instead,

overlap and could be joined up and sung smoothly

he suggests two ways to move above the passagio

through the range. Members of the Académie

(Stark, 74). The first creates a mellow and subtle

des Sciences were persuaded, and his theory is

timbre, using a relaxed pharynx, low larynx, small

now largely regarded as definitive (Cathcart, 49).

stream of air and loose glottal closure. One of the

As the voice moves up through the registers, the

few times Garcia advocated weak glottal closure,

general trend is in the decrease in cord mass,

the sound allows “the piano and mezza voce use

and in the highest notes of falsetto, only the

of this register in the high tones and thus the

edge of the cords vibrate (Stark, 69). A seemingly

dispensation of the excessive use of the falsetto

universal goal to most (singers and teachers alike),

tones” (Garcia, 161-2). This distinctive timbre

is to unite these registers in order to have free

is incredibly useful for delicate and vulnerable

reign over the compass of the voice (Stark, 58).

scenes in several genres. For example, Jerry

Arguably the most drastic change in technique to

Hadley’s 1990 Dalla Sua Pace at the Metropolitan,

accommodate for these registers is in the tenor

or the cadenza at the end of Una Furtiva Lagrima.

voice, above the passagio. In 1831 French tenor

His second suggestion is more familiar to tenors

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modern singers, and is presumably what Gilbert

(and therefore tension) of the vocal cords, and it

Duprez is said to have pioneered - known to

is allowed further range than it would normally

modern pedagogues as covered singing. Garcia

be in this tilted position, the voice is allowed

was wary about this new and somewhat radical

to continue in ‘normal’ (full) vocal function

technique as “exhaustion and paralysis of the

above the passagio (Sonninen, 80-6). Despite

organ are the inevitable and unfortunately too

Garcia’s concerns, this concept is constantly

frequent result of this procedure” (Garcia, 162-3), a

used by (largely male voices) to ascend to

concern shared by some modern teachers (Stark,

the highest pitches and is accepted by most

75). This is because it suggests a rather dramatic

contemporary vocal teachers and scientists.

and vigorous change in the handling of the vocal muscles, when in practise singers should be able

By the time of the Wagnerian German teachers,

to finely adjust their singing with ease. As a singer

the concept of carrying the full voice beyond

passes over and above the passagio, they should

the passagio seemed less alien and radical,

feel the slight darkening of the vowel, with an

beginning to be more widely welcomed and

increase of pharyngeal space, akin to a yawning

developed on. However, a small amount of

sensation. Some teachers choose to focus on

teachers (namely aforementioned George Armin)

the space between the back two molars in the

took this concept further, to what they called

mouth, increasing the resonating space at the

‘deckung’ singing (Whitener, 137). Whilst the

back of the throat, but preventing a spread sound

intention of a darker vowel and a lower larynx

at the lips. Biologically, these sensations correlate

remained, some singers interpreted this as

to the movement of the larynx to below or at its

artificially pressing the tongue down and back.

resting position by the sternothyroid muscle. As

Not only does this reduce supraglottic and

a result, the thyroid cartilage which is attached to

pharyngeal space, but it also causes the locking

the cricothyroid muscle tilts up and backwards.

of the laryngeal musculature which prevents the

As the cricothyroid muscle controls the elongation

tilt and therefore Italian ‘covering’ concept. It must be noted however, that this concept was radical and only accepted by a small number of teachers and quickly rejected by others; similar ideas were posited in Italy by the infamous Arturo Melocchi who taught Mario del Monaco and influenced Franco Corelli in the 1930s.

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Through examination of both contemporary and present-day texts and observations, one can argue that the Italian school (namely Garcia’s teaching) is fundamentally more natural, efficient and healthy for most voices than the Germanic school.

a positive direction. Without recording technology available of either era, this debate remains ambiguous to some extent as even canonical texts have moments of vagueness and contradiction.

However, through examination of both contemporary and present-day texts and observations, one can argue that the Italian school (namely Garcia’s teaching) is fundamentally more natural, efficient and healthy for most voices than the Germanic school.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION Through this research, it is clear that Manuel Garcia II was innovative and vital (however

BIBLIOGRAPHY

somewhat controversial) to the development

1.

of the traditional Italian bel canto technique,

2.

through his scienced based techniques - most

3.

importantly the coup de glotte. Radicals of the German style around the turn of the 20th century, as a reaction to the demanding and progressive writing of Richard Wagner’s ‘Musikdrama’ genre,

4.

resorted to more muscular, extreme techniques.

To some extent these were a development of the Italian fundamental principles (as shown,

5.

there is much overlap to be found) that had been taken to extreme lengths in order to produce

6.

seemingly unnatural volumes and capacity for

7.

expression - attempting to fulfil the godly heights of Wagner’s works. It is unclear on Wagner’s view would have been had he known these radicals. It is clear he admired the fundamental technique of the Italians, but advocated for his new German

8.

9.

10.

school of singing which was supposedly better suited to his work (Fischer, 53-58). It is important

11.

to note that these two seemingly opposites of techniques were not taught in isolation from one

12.

another. Several Italian singers had successful careers in Wagner roles (Giuseppe Borgatti in 1904 was the first Italian tenor to appear at Bayreuth) and vice versa. Similarly, much of post-Wagner teaching draws from and collaborates with the Italian tradition in order to take vocal pedagogy in

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13.

14.

Stark, James. Bel Canto. University of Toronto Press, 28 Mar. 2003.

Potter, John. Tenor. Yale University Press, 2 June 2009, p. 31.

Whitener, Joshua J. The German School of Singing: A Compendium of German Treatises 1848-1965.

Journal of Singing, vol. 75, no. 5, 14 Apr. 2016, p. 155, https://scholarworks.iu.edu/iuswrrest/ api/core/bitstreams/26cf5dd9-1b7d-4fbd-8d179f9f9a5c307e/content. Accessed 8 June 2025.

Wagner, Richard. The Art-Work of the Future and Other Works. 1894. Translated by William Ashton Ellis, Lincoln; London, University of Nebraska Press, 1 Dec. 1993, p. 44.

Cathcart, Robyn. The Singing School of Manuel Garcia II. 3 Dec. 2003, dspace.library.uvic.ca/server/ api/core/bitstreams/9dcbf969-696f-4616-924f13784bba5195/content. Accessed 10 June 2025.

Marek, Dan H. Singing. Lanham, MD, Scarecrow Press, 28 Dec. 2006, p. 76.

Lunn, Charles. The Philosophy of Voice: Showing the Right and Wrong Action of Voice in Speech or Song.

1878. Fourth ed., London, Baillière, Tindall & Cox. Froeschels, Emil. Hygiene of the Voice. Archives of Otalaryngology, vol. 38, 1943, pp. 122–130.

Parr, S. Wagnerian Singing and the Limits of Vocal Pedagogy. Current Musicology, no. 105, Mar. 2020, doi:10.7916/cm.v0i105.5403 Husler, Frederick, and Yvonne Rodd-Marling.

Singing: The Physical Nature of the Vocal Organ. London, Faber & Faber, 1965.

Sundberg, Johan. Vocal Tract Resonance in Singing.

Journal of Singing , vol. 44, no. 4, Mar. 1988, Accessed 19 June 2025 JOS-044-4-1988-011.pdf Garcia, Manuel. A Complete Treatise on the Art of Singing. 2. [English Translation of Garcia 1847, Part 2] . Collated, edited, translated by Donald V. Paschke, Da Capo Press, 1975.

Sonninen, Aatto. The External Frame Function in the Control of Pitch in the Human Voice. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 155: 1968 Fischer, Jens M. The Opera Quarterly, Volume 11, Issue 4, 1995, https://doi.org/10.1093/oq/11.4.53 accessed 30/08/2025 Wagner and Bel Canto | The Opera Quarterly | Oxford Academic.

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FROM MUSE TO MONSTER:

DID ROMAN LOVE POETS LIBERATE OR INCARCERATE WOMEN IN THEIR POETRY?

ARTS HUMANITIES ANGUS SCOTT

This Independent Learning Assignment (ILA) was short-listed for the ILA/ ORIS Celebration Evening.

INTRODUCTION Roman love poetry flourished during the 1st Century

were transforming during this period. This

BCE. Through its combination of emotional

was particularly noticeable at the end of the

complexity and honest reflections the poets

Republic, a time of fundamental change in the

showcased their underlying feelings about socio

position of women in society. This essay, by

political issues during the late Republic and early

focussing on the presentation of the beloved in

Principate. Unsurprisingly, the predominantly

Roman love poetry, argues that the poets were

male authorship meant that the main focus was

using their works as a means of calling for the

on the experiences of men, however using the

liberation of women and also to campaign for

presentation of their beloveds the poets also

women to be able to enjoy the same privileges

managed to explore how the lives of women

as their male counterparts in relationships.

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THE CASE FOR SOCIAL CHANGE

Beauty

The first way in which the poets argued for the

was not only a sign of your wealth but also your

liberation of women was through their vivid

status. Women were pressured to parade the most

descriptions of them in their poetry. At the time

elaborate hair possible to show themselves as

there were strict expectations when it came to

being of exalted status3. Therefore, the fact that

appearance. Women were forced to conform to

Ovid goes against this, demonstrates his belief

traditional methods of hair styling and various

that women should not only have more freedom

poets used the medium of their literature to

in their style of hair but also should not be forced

condemn this and to argue that women should

to conform to traditional ideals. Later, Ovid goes

have the freedom to choose how they look. If we

further in his praise of her hair saying "Often,

focus on Ovid’s Amores (a series of elegies written

with your hair still uncombed you lay reclining on

about his love for Corinna), there is much attention

a bed of purple. But even neglected like that, it

given to the style of hair worn by Corinna. In fact,

was lovely, like a weary Thracian Maenad’s, lying

in Poem 1.14 Ovid complains that Corinna has

heedless on the emerald grass." In this description

1

been using too many dyes in

it is fascinating that Ovid

her hair which have weakened

chooses to compare her

it and led to it falling out.

natural hair to that of

Upon first reading one cannot

a Maenad and that he

help but be critical of Ovid

emphasises the fact that

for he not only condemns

it is free flowing. Both

how she looks but goes even

characteristics have strong

further by telling Corinna

underlying connotations

that what has happened was

of sexual activity as a

all her fault. However, this is

women would never

not the point that Ovid was

have let down her hair in

making. What he is trying to

public out of traditional

get across is that Corinna

modesty. Therefore, the

and all women should not

fact that Ovid celebrates

have to conform to traditional

this type of controversial

styles of beauty but should

hairstyle serves to

be free to choose their own

condemn the traditionalist

style. This is made clear when Ovid goes on to

views about how hair had to look in public.

describe the colour of her natural undyed hair as being "like a tall cedar, stripped of its bark, in a

Interestingly, Catullus like Ovid also emphasises

dewy valley of mountainous Ida" . This detailed

that just following traditional methods of making

description of the colour of her hair makes it

yourself look attractive does not make you

obvious to the reader that it is completely unique

beautiful. In fact in Poem 86 Catullus commends

to her and cannot be replicated through style.

the aesthetic beauty of Quintia (she is used as

2

a comparison to his Lesbia) saying "Quintia is For us as a 21 century audience, this idea of

thought beautiful by many" but then goes on to

wearing your hair how you like seems trivial but in

say that "I demur to {calling her} ‘beautiful’ for

the Late Republic and Early Principate your hair

she has no grace". Clearly here we see that in the

st

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RELATIONSHIPS eyes of Catullus what makes Lesbia special is not

A call to liberation can also be seen in the

her physical attraction alone but her personality

presentation of the relationship between the lover

and the characteristics she displays . This

and his beloved. At a time when male superiority

4

was interwoven into all areas of society it

makes the case that the beauty

was typical to see a male dominated

of a women does not simply

relationship however some poets

come from following traditional ideas of physical beauty but

drew emphasis on a balanced

from the combination of a

relationship to demonstrate

woman’s own unique beauty

the necessity for women

combined with her character.

to be liberated from the control of men. Evidence

Although the way in which

of this can be seen in

the writers have brought out

Catullus’ Poem 72, when

the points seems a particularly

he tells his puella, Lesbia,

subtle way of commenting

that "I loved you then, not only

on the freedom of women, it is

as common men their girlfriend

important to remember that these

but as a father loves his sons".

poets were writing at a time when there

For a 21st century audience the

were masculine ideals that they were

prospect of a wife being compared to her partner’s son is without a doubt

expected to follow and thus challenging

belittling however in the late Republican period

them too overtly would have been dangerous.

1 Although mentioned here in conjunction with Roman love poetry, earlier lyric poetry also explores the same themes of beauty such as Sappho (Fragment 16) which compares the beauty of her lover Anactoria to that of Helen of Troy.

2 The significance of the reference to Ida here is that Mount Ida was sacred to the goddess Cybele and thus had connotations of sanctity.

3 This was especially the case in the early Principate when Augustus came to power as he brought with him a household of women who became symbols of the ideal Roman woman and thus many women tried to replicate their style (like Livia’s notorious nodus style) to show themselves as being integrated with the regime.

4 This idea of appreciating beauty as not only being physical beauty but also being your personality can be traced back to the Greek lyric poet Sappho who focussed on the idea of ‘χάρις’ or {charm} which was the idea that the beauty of one’s lover did not solely lie in their beauty but also in their personality. As a result of this it is likely that Catullus is drawing inspiration from Sappho in these lines.

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the father-son bond was one of the strongest

even when Catullus is describing his lover in this

bonds as eventually the father’s legacy, estates

way he still acknowledges her independent power.

and even his position at the head of the family

For when he talks about her adulterers, he uses

would be passed down to his son. As a result of

an encircling word order of ‘suis ... moechis’ to

this, by comparing his love to the father-son bond,

demonstrate how they all gravitate around her

Catullus demonstrates that he believes that his

control. Not only that but he then goes on to use

beloved is more important than just an object of

a simile comparing his Lesbia to a plough which

passion and is someone worthy to carry on his

is associated with strength and power. Although

legacy. The fact that he promotes women in such

Catullus is certainly not endorsing the behaviour

a way displays his desire that women should be

of Lesbia in this passage, the fact that he pays

liberated from the control of a man and should

tribute to her control demonstrates his opinion

be able to enjoy equality in a relationship.

that women should be viewed in a stronger light.

Catullus’ own life experiences may well have inspired him to act in this way. Born in approximately 84 BCE, Catullus grew up during years of Civil War1 which characterised the collapse of the Roman Republic. Men were away from their families for extended periods of time and thus women became more influential and significant2. It is therefore possible that Catullus saw the fundamental importance of women in this period and thus used his poetry to not only acknowledge them but also to advocate that they should receive even more freedom. Further evidence of this can be seen in Poem 87 where he describes how "No faith so great was ever found in any contract as on my part in love of you". It is interesting that in

Overall, Catullus through his portrayal of

this context Catullus chooses to use the Latin

equality in a relationship promotes the

word ‘foedus’ which has connotations of being

importance of the liberation of women from

an equal agreement between two separate

their inferior position in their relationships.

individuals or states. The fact that he does this illustrates that in his eyes, for true love a man and woman must be on an equal standing.

Catullus’ portrayal of his Lesbia is not wholly positive. In Poem 11 for example, he uses his friends Furius and Aurelius to send a message to her saying "Let her live and be happy with her adulterers" (cum suis vivat valeatque moechis) before going on to describe how his love has been destroyed "like a flower on the meadow’s edge when it has been touched by the plough passing by"3. Clearly here we see Catullus being significantly more critical about Lesbia however 82

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Just two years after Catullus’ supposed birth Sulla introduced Proscriptions and the result was mass confiscation of land.

Then just a few years later in 77 BCE Lepidus raised an army and marched on Rome. All these events resulted in men either being forced to join the army or in losing all their power and influence. This meant that the responsibilities which had never previously been conferred on women were now being given to them.

2 One of the most fascinating examples of this during the years of Civil chaos can be seen in Marcus Tullius Cicero’s letters to Terentia (his wife) when he uses her as an essential proxy master of the house carrying out the daily administration on behalf of him while he is away in Thessalonica and Dyrrachium. At one moment he says ‘About our slaves, we will do what you say is the opinion of our friends’ which strongly suggests that Terentia is the one organising the domestic administration while Cicero is away.

3 This poem is in Sapphic Meter which makes the fact that he is condemning his love for Lesbia even more profound and poignant as he is not only denouncing Lesbia but is using the meter of one of the most influential love poets to do this.

1

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FREEDOM So far, the focus has been on the male poets’ views of the freedom that women should have in society. However, during the late republic and early empire women were gaining more freedom in all aspects of life1 resulting in activities, including writing poetry, being enjoyed by women as well.

Sulpicia was one such person. Unlike her male counterparts, Sulpicia did not have the pressure of upkeeping masculine values and thus she was much more liberal in her campaigning for women’s freedom. Of Sulpicia's works a series of short poems remain for us to read, situated in the corpus of Tibullus. Her female perspective serves to give her a vastly different viewpoint from the male authors and she uses this to call for women to gain more freedom in all areas of domestic life not only in relationships but also in

Sulpicia then goes even further in her poetry to

making decisions. In one particularly poignant

call for more freedom for women when, upon

moment, Sulpicia writes "cum digno digna fuisse

being summoned to attend a birthday celebration

ferar" (let all hear that we have met, each worthy

away from her lover Cerinthus, she writes that

of the other). The fact that Sulpicia emphasises

"force forbids my living mistress of myself"

the equal worthiness of the two lovers through

(arbitrio quam vis non sinit esse meo). Here,

the polyptoton of ‘digno... digna’, implies that

Sulpicia’s words serve to emphasise the anguish

she is critical of the unbalanced relationships

she feels at never having the freedom to make

prevalent in the Roman Republic and that she

her own decisions (notice how the polarisation

believes women should be liberated from being

of ‘arbitrio .... meo’ further draws attention to

controlled by a man so that they can enjoy

this discontent). It is likely that this was a feeling

equality in all aspects of society. From a modern

shared with many women during the period

perspective this is not surprising however in the

and thus Sulpicia is using her poetry to call for

ancient world this was incredibly significant .

freedom for all women suffering as she has.

2

Evidence of this can be seen as early as 42 BCE when Hortensia addressed the triumvirs on the tribunal platform in the forum after a motion had been passed with the result that women were forced to give away their property to the state even after they had lost their father/brother in the Civil Wars. Clearly Hortensia's speech marked a pivotal moment in the Republic as it demonstrated that women could not only have their opinions heard but also could engage in activities usually reserved for men such as oratory. This inspired other women to also indulge in activities traditionally reserved for men and one of these women was the poet Sulpicia.

2 Evidence of this imbalance can be seen in 18 BCE (slightly after the time of writing of Sulpicia) when Augustus passed the 'lex Iulia de adulteriis coercendis'. This set of laws despite being on adultery was primarily directed against the woman who was involved in the adultery and thus created a visible imbalance in the relationship between a man and his wife.

1

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SUPPORTING THE STATUS QUO?

The two most notable examples of these were

Conversely, the idea of liberation is not reflected

Clodia and Sempronia4. In the case of Clodia,

by some poets. In the period of the late Republic

Cicero in his Pro Caelio accuses her of plotting

some women were able to prophet lucratively

with her slaves to frame Caelius, giving money to

from the turmoil created by Civil War and

Caelius for him to use in a crime and of committing

established for themselves enormous amounts

incest with her brother Clodius Pulcher. In the

of wealth and power. They became a symbol (in

case of Sempronia Sallust goes into vibrant detail

the eyes of the male citizens) of depravity and

about her overly luxurious life (and tendency to

excess and thus inspired some poets to call for

artistic flare) which eventually led her to become

them to have their freedom limited. The poet

entangled in the Catiline Conspiracy of 63 BCE

Propertius for example uses his puella Cynthia

when she plotted along with other disgruntled

to try and show his audience that giving women

Republican citizens to march against Rome.

freedom not only threatens their own safety

In both cases we see Propertius condemning

but also the stability of society. Throughout his

women who had exploited the opportunities

poems Propertius compares Cynthia to various

provided by the Civil War. The fact that he

mythological women who consistently defied

compares her to specific mythological women

their traditional gender roles and values.

suggests that he does not want the reader to treat his observations generically but rather view

In Poem 1.3, Propertius compares Cynthia to

them as applying to those select individuals who

Ariadne, Andromeda, and an Edonian Bacchante .

1

exploited the opportunities given by the Civil War.

Although each of these women individually had a completely different story, they all shared

Overall, whilst Propertius in his poetry does

a common characteristic; they all suffered

allude to the necessity of limiting women’s

terribly because a single woman gained more

freedom, he is specific in condemning

freedom than her gender traditionally allowed .

women whose unique position in society

Not only that but Propertius further attributes

gives them exceptional freedom.

2

descriptions to these women which amplifies their vulnerability, for example Ariadne is described as ‘languida’ (weak), Andromeda as ‘accubuit’ (collapsed) and the Bacchante as ‘fessa’ (tired).

When reading this it seems incredibly surprising that Propertius, would choose such negative women and on top of that a semantic field of vulnerability to compare his lover with3 the fact that he does this therefore showcases that Propertius is using his lover Cynthia as a warning of the consequences of allowing individual women to gain too much independence for themselves. Given the time of writing coupled with the fact that Propertius is using mythological women who were far from ordinary in their socio-political situation, it is evident that he is targeting those individual women who gained unparalleled power and influence during the early part of the 1st Century BCE.

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1 This is not the only time where this happens. Other examples include Medea (2.21) and Clytemnestra (3.19). It is important to note that many of these mythological women feature prominently in Euripides’ Tragedies with many acting as tragic heroes and thus their use in Propertius undoubtably serves to compare Cynthia to the traditional female tragic hero of the classical period.

2 Ariadne betrayed her father the King Minos to help Jason against the Minotaur but then was abandoned by Jason at Naxos. In the case of Andromeda her mother was overly boastful of her beauty which led to Poseidon growing angry and chaining her up to a rock by the sea. Finally the Bacchants were notorious women who defied their position and ran away from their families to the mountains to worship Bacchus (the most famous case of this was recorded in Euripides' Bacchae which eventually resulted in one of the Bacchants, Agave, ripping apart her own son in a mad frenzy).

3 Especially given that there are countless examples during Propertius’ Poems where much more favourable women are mentioned but Cynthia is never directly compared to them. Some examples include Calypso (1.15), Hypsipyle (1.15), Briseis (2.9 A) and Penelope (2.9A).

4 Other influential women mentioned by Helen E Wieand in her article ‘The position of women in the Late Republic’ include Fulvia and Mucia (third wife of Pompey).

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CONCLUSION This essay began by focussing on the presentation of beauty in love poetry. Ovid’s portrayal of Corinna’s natural beauty combined with Catullus’ depiction of what true beauty really entailed served to subtly call for the liberation of women from previous traditions. This was further built upon by Catullus’ efforts to compare his relationship with his lover to the father-son bond and through his acknowledgement of his lover’s influence amongst men. Unsurprisingly, the female poet Sulpicia, brought an even more pronounced cry for liberation as she overtly celebrated equal relationships between men and women. Although Propertius was much more critical in his depiction of the freedom of women, this was particular to specific cases rather than applying in general. Overall, despite Propertius’ scepticism of the increasing power of certain women in the late Republic, the majority of poets not only acknowledged the increasing freedom of women but went even further by calling for their liberation from the control of men and the traditions which surrounded them.

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The majority of poets not only acknowledged the increasing freedom of women but went even further by calling for their liberation from the control of men and the traditions which surrounded them.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

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Cicero, M. et al. (1982) ‘155. Cicero on Clodia.

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Cicero, M. (2000) M. Tullius Cicero, letters to his friends Evelyn S Shuckburgh, Perseus Digital Library.

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Ovid (2001) Ovid: The Amores Book 1 A S Kline, Poetry in Translation. Translated by A.S. Kline.

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Propertius, S. (2004) The Complete Elegies of Sextus Propertius Vincent Katz. Translated by V. Katz. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Sulpicia, POSTGATE, J.P. and Goold, G.P. (2017) ‘Sulpicia’, in Catullus. Tibullus. Pervigilium Veneris. 2nd edn. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press (LCL), pp. 333–337.

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8. Culham, P. (2014) ‘Women in the Roman Republic’, The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic, pp. 127–148. doi: https:// doi.org/10.1017/CCO9781139424783.

9. Drinkwater, M.O. (2013) THE WOMAN’S PART: THE SPEAKING BELOVED IN ROMAN ELEGY, JSTOR. Available at: https://www.jstor.org/ stable/23470088 (Accessed: 2025).

10. Flaschenriem, B.L. (1999) ‘Sulpicia and the Rhetoric of Disclosure’, Classical Philology, 94(1), pp. 36–54. doi:10.1086/449415.

11. Goddard, E.H. (1923) ‘Propertius, Cynthia, and Augustus’, The Classical Review, 37(7–8), pp.

153–156. doi:10.1017/s0009840x00085152.

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12. Hallett, J.P. (1973) ‘The Role of Women in Roman Elegy: Counter Cultural Feminism’, Arethusa, 6, pp. 103–124.

13. James, S.L. (2010) ‘IPSA dixerat’: Women’s words in Roman love elegy, JSTOR. Available at: https:// www.jstor.org/stable/23074749 (Accessed: 2025).

14. Luard, P. (2022) Miser catulle? making a powerless Catullus & a powerful lesbia , SENTENTIAE ANTIQUAE. Available at: https://sententiaeantiquae. com/2022/01/28/miser-catulle-making-a-powerlesscatullus-a-powerful-lesbia/ (Accessed: 2025).

15. Lyne, R.O. (1979) ‘Servitium Amoris’, The Classical Quarterly, 29(1), pp. 117–130. doi: https://doi. org/10.1017/S0009838800035229.

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17. Manolian, C. (2021) ‘Elite women as tools of power in first-century C.E. Rome’, Binghamton University Undergraduate Journal, 7(1). doi:10.22191/buuj/7/1/8.

18. Miller, P.A. (2013) ‘The puella: Accept no substitutions!’, in T.S. Thorsen (ed.) The Cambridge Companion to Latin Love Elegy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press (Cambridge Companions to Literature), pp. 166–179.

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20. Miller, P.A. (2021) Unspeakable enjoyment in Catullus (80, 16, 11, 63), Dictynna. Revue de poétique latine. Available at: https://doi. org/10.4000/dictynna.2564 (Accessed : 2025).

21. Wieand, H.E. (1917) ‘The position of women in the late Roman Republic. part I’, The Classical Journal, 12, pp. 378–392. Available at: http:// www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/3288382?re freqid=fastly-default (Accessed: 2025).

22. Wieand, H.E. (1917b) ‘The position of women in the late Roman Republic. part II’, The Classical Journal, 12(1), pp. 423–437. Available at: http:// www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/3287948?ref reqid=fastly-default (Accessed: 2025).

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DOES FREE SPEECH BUILD OR BREAK A COMMUNITY?

N AT I O N A L

ESSAY

COMPETITION

MARCUS PERKIN

This essay won the Karen Becher national essay competition, run by the National Holocaust Museum.

INTRODUCTION Communities are fragile concepts (Bauman,

Press, 2024) defines ‘community’ in several

2000). Most people struggle to identify

ways, including groups based on geography,

a physical community they belong to, yet

identity, and common interests. This essay will

historically, they have been essential for trust

consider all three when exploring whether free

and societal efficacy (Anderson, 2010). The

speech helps build and sustain communities or

Oxford English Dictionary (Oxford University

undermines them to the point of dissolution.

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Free speech is often correlated with diversity,

European communities thrived, remaining

allowing the discussion of a broad range of

cohesive through faith. These settlements still

ideas that may otherwise be suppressed. This

form the roots of settlements in Europe today.

diversity of thought is beneficial as a variety in

This demonstrates that censorship can provide

ways of thinking means that a range of views

stability to communities, helping them to

are put forward, and that these are evaluated

survive. On the other hand, as later discussed,

and judged fairly by those that see certain

this was not without heavy religious conflict.

concepts differently: substantiated discourse

Repression bred resentment and a desire for

occurs, strengthening decision-making (Page,

retribution. A mix of underground movements,

2007). When people with diverse perspectives

violent resistance, and rulers converting

can critique ideas, the consensus becomes

meant that Protestantism eventually became

more robust and well-developed. This is why a

commonplace, especially in Britain and the

diversity of opinions, resulting from the freedom

Low Countries, despite the opposition it faced.

of speech, forms part

Whilst censorship initially

of the core of modern

maintained order, this

Western democracy.

division challenges the idea

This is emphasised

that restrictions on speech

by a societal and

increase the long-term

governmental emphasis

survival of communities

on diversity (Ely and

and their strength.

Thomas, 2020; Gedling Borough Council,

However, in certain

2021). Diverse ideas are

cases, censorship may

instrumental to Western

still aid communities. In

communities as way to

a theoretical sense, the

decide on courses of

harm free speech presents

action together. In many

is clear: by allowing the

communities, elected councils, commissions, and

expression of dissent, it is allowed to spread.

boards ensure free speech. Their representative

As unity often depends on shared beliefs and

members reflect the community’s diversity,

leadership, this can lead to fragmentation,

leading to better decision-making. Since beneficial

damaging the community. This is linked to the

decisions promote community development, this

idea of social change cascading. For example,

suggests free speech helps build communities.

in the United Kingdom, homosexuality was decriminalised in 1967, the age of consent was

However, restrictions on speech are not entirely

equalised in 2001, and same-sex marriage was

negative for communities. In medieval Europe,

legalised in 2013. It is unlikely the latter two would

the Roman Catholic Church denounced heresies,

have occurred without the first. Repressing

what were perceived as sinful, blasphemous

non-mainstream concepts, such as homosexuality,

differences in theology and religious practices,

can delay social change. This division prevents

leading to severe persecution. The Waldensian

integration between minority and majority groups.

movement, for example, was zealously hunted -

However, by making these unorthodox ideas

their brutal mistreatment started with the burning

less visible, they inevitably spread much slower.

of eighty of their members in Strasbourg in 1211

This limits the amount of dissent and otherness,

(Ellwood and Alles, 2007). Despite restrictions

providing common ground for the community.

on religious speech, many medieval Catholic

This highlights how the restriction of speech can

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aid community-building. By regulating speech,

unorthodox ideas continue to spread—albeit

governments can enforce unity within their

slowly. The British government’s efforts to

community, strengthening them against external

suppress homosexuality only intensified the

pressures and promoting internal stability.

gay rights movement, which reached a peak

Another example of this is Joseph Stalin’s Great

in the late 20th century due to the AIDS crisis

Purge, which, through censorship and propaganda

and with the repressive Section 28 of the

with harsh punishments for alleged dissent,

Local Government Act 1988. Similarly, what

created a unified front that allowed for military and

were perceived as heresies survived in Europe

economic success, such as the Five-Year Plans

despite several inter-denominational wars—the

and rapid Soviet industrialisation, contributing to

Albigensian Crusade, the Hussite Wars, and the

their resilience during the Second World War, and

Eighty Years’ War to name a few—and the severe

thereby strengthening their community. However,

punishment of dissenters such as Jan Hus and

the long-term damage to individual freedoms,

Thomas Cranmer through torture and execution.

extensive human costs the purges had, and the

Nowadays, these ‘heresies’ are widespread in

creation of a culture of fear, suggest that whilst

Europe, Protestants accounting for a fifth of

extreme censorship may provide short-term

European Christians (Pew Research Center,

stability, it undermines the fundamental values

2011). This shows that restrictions on speech can

of trust and collaboration that sustain a healthy

be ineffective at containing unwanted ideas and

community. The fear-driven loyalty it produced

thus do not always help to promote unity within

was unsustainable, necessitating reforms

a community. Additionally, strict impositions

as part of de-Stalinisation, as introduced by

may exacerbate tensions, both inside the

Stalin’s successor, Nikita Khrushchev.

community and externally, causing more conflict.

This means that restrictions on speech may

Moreover, history also shows that this censorship

even help to damage and break a community by

is often ineffective. Even under strict censorship,

introducing irreparable social and legal divides.

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Today, free speech is widely recognised as a fundamental human right, with censorship like that overseen by the Lord Chamberlain in the UK prior to the 1960s being rare in developed countries (Handley, 2004). Despite this, a sense of community has declined in real life.

Trust, neighbourly conversation, and overall cohesion have significantly fallen within local communities in the last decade (Borkowska and Laurence, 2021). A sense of belonging has been on the decline for the last decade, as well as reported membership of political, voluntary, professional, or recreational organisations (Mohdin, 2020). However, this trend applies

A sense of belonging has been on the decline for the last decade, as well as reported membership of political, voluntary, professional, or recreational organisations

Mohdin, 2020.

mainly to physical communities, not virtual ones. Future evaluation should consider how digital communities, such as those on platforms such as microblogs, imageboards, and forums, are affected by free speech and censorship.

CONCLUSION Ultimately, free speech is crucial in the early stages of a community. In a vulnerable state, informed decision-making improves survival. By leading to the free exchange of ideas, free speech fosters trust, social equality, and democracy, helping decision-making. However, whilst gentle censorship may increase social cohesion and harmony by slowing the spread of minority viewpoints, this often leads to greater unrest and division in the long term. Free speech enables communities to adapt and evolve in response to changing circumstances, fostering trust, progress, and effective decision-making, essential for enduring unity and resilience. In contrast, heavy-handed restrictions, as in medieval Europe and the USSR, weaken the very foundations of communities by stifling discourse and creating artificial, fear- driven unity. This has ultimately led to entrenched divisions and perceptions that mean these restrictions have continued to harm society, such as in the Troubles, originating from sectarian divide in Northern Ireland.

Therefore, despite the risk of divisive opinions, free speech remains essential to sustainable communities. Rather than breaking them, it allows them to rebuild, reform, and grow stronger.

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JUDGING PANEL Michael Royds, International Education Director, RGS Guildford Louise Ford - Head of Senior School, RGSG Dubai James Creighton - Deputy Head (Academic), RGSG Muscat.

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Royal Grammar School High Street Guildford GU1 3BB