Techniques February 2016

contents

Volume 9 Number 3 / February 2016

in every issue

4 A Letter from the President 5 USTFCCCA Presidents

8

FEATURES

8 Strengthening the Springs

How the inclusion of properly sequenced weightlifting derivatives into the strength-training program can improve sprint performance.

By Brad H. DeWeese, EdD, Chris Bellon, MS, Eric Magrum, MS,

Christopher Taber, MS, Timothy J. Suchomel, PhD

24 Straighten Up

The importance of proper posture and the quality of stiffness in sprinting

By Karim Abdel Wahab

30 Growing Pains

The effects of the adolescent growth spurt on biokinetic energy production and middle distance performance

By Peter Thompson

34 By Design

30

Physical performance components for the jumps

By Boo Schexnayder

AWARDS 47

48

50

52

54

USTFCCCA National Cross Country Coaches & Athletes of the Year Division I: USTFCCCA Regional Cross Country Coaches & Athletes of the Year Division II: USTFCCCA Regional Cross Country Coaches & Athletes of the Year Division III: USTFCCCA Regional Cross Country Coaches & Athletes of the Year NJCAA Reginal Cross Country Coaches & Athletes of the Year

COVER

Photograph courtesy of TCU Athletics Department

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A LETTER FROM THE PRESIDENT Publisher Sam Seemes Executive Editor Mike Corn Contributing Editor Kristina Taylor

A

s our 2016 Indoor Track and Field seasons have started and are rolling along, I would like to take this opportunity to follow up on our very successful 2015 convention in San Antonio. This year’s convention featured our largest attendance to date as we had over 1,500 coaches participate. Our numbers attending convention continue to grow every year and were bolstered this year as our NAIA and NJCAA membership continues to increase and our NCAA participation remains strong.

I certainly want to give a big thank you to the individuals that made this convention such a successful one, many times these people are overlooked for the important work that they do. These individuals include the coaches who taught a great slate of symposiums, as nearly every seat was taken, I am positive that this knowledge will produce great dividends. This year’s Hall of Fame class shared some of the most entertaining speeches given and I want to thank the Hall of Fame committee for their effort they put in every year in selecting such a great group of coaches. I would like to acknowledge the divisional officers for their time and effort in running meetings and preparing an agenda for our candid discussions in our divisional meetings, these positions provide great leadership and insight that is very much appreciated. The always-popular Bowerman ceremony was another hit this year and we always appreciate when John Anderson can join us as our master of ceremonies. And most importantly, a great job by our CEO Sam Seemes and the National office staff for their professionalism and quality they produce every year. Their work seems to be flawless and I am sure that it looks effortless, but I can assure you that this is only because of their talent and hardworking nature to pull off such great events.

This years meetings provided plenty of great dialogue regarding the legislation that passed. I look forward to these passages going through the processes of approval at the various levels to become enacted.

These legislative changes are vital to the successful future of our sport.

It is well worth the time and effort we put in to these meetings as we see the influence of USTFCCCA on our collegiate sports going forward.

As we move into the remainder of this 2016 Indoor and Outdoor seasons, I encourage each of you to also thank the people that have contributed to making your programs special. In the words of the incomparable Helen Keller “Alone we can do so little, together we can do so much.” Good luck to each of you as you and your athletes chase excellence together in 2016.

Damon Martin President, USTFCCCA Director of Cross Country and Track and Field Adams State University. ddmartin@adams.edu

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DIRECTOR OF MEDIA, BROADCASTING AND ANALYTICS Tom Lewis DIRECTOR OF COMMUNICATIONS

Kyle Terwillegar Membership Services Dave Svoboda communications assistant

Tyler Mayforth director of administrative and legislative affairs Jared Williams Photographer Kirby Lee Editorial Board Tommy Badon, Todd

Lane, Boo Schexnayder, Derek Yush

Published by Renaissance Publishing LLC 110 Veterans Memorial Blvd., Suite 123, Metairie, LA 70005 (504) 828-1380 myneworleans.com USTFCCCA

National Office 1100 Poydras Street, Suite 1750 New Orleans, LA 70163 Phone: 504-599-8900 Fax: 504-599-8909 Techniques (ISSN 1939-3849) is published quarterly in February, May, August and November by the U.S. Track & Field and Cross Country Coaches Association.

Copyright 2016. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any manner, in whole or in part, without the permission of the publisher. techniques is not responsible for unsolicited manuscripts, photos and artwork even if accompanied by a self-addressed stamped envelope. The opinions expressed in techniques are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the view of the magazines’ managers or owners.

Periodical Postage Paid at New Orleans La and Additional Entry Offices. POSTMASTER: Send address changes to: USTFCCCA, PO Box 55969, Metairie, LA 70055-5969. If you would like to advertise your business in techniques, please contact Mike Corn at (504) 599-8900 or mike@ustfccca.org.

DIVISION PRESIDENTs DIVISION I DENNIS SHAVER

Dave Smith

Dennis Shaver is the Head Men’s and Women’s Track and Field Coach at Louisiana State University. Dennis can be reached at shaver@lsu.edu

Dave Smith is the Director of Track & Field and Cross Country at Oklahoma State University. Dave can be reached at dave.smith@okstate.edu

Ryan Dall

Mark Misch

Ryan Dall is the head Track & Field and Cross Country coach at Texas A&M Kingsville. Ryan can be reached at ryan.dall@tamuk.edu

Mark Misch is the head Cross Country coach at the University of Colorado-Colorado Springs.

Mark can be reached at mmisch@uccs.edu

Gary Aldrich

Robert Shankman

Gary is the Associate Head Track & Field Coach at Carnegie Melon University and can be reached at galdrich@andrew.cmu.edu

Robert is the Head Cross Country and Track & Field coach at Rhodes College and can be reached at shankman@ rhodes.edu

Jerry Monner

Brad Jenny

Jerry Monner is the head Track & Field coach at Grand View University. Jerry can be reached at jmonner@grandview.edu

Brad Jenny is the head Cross Country coach at Doane College. Brad can be reached at brad.jenny@doane.edu

Ted Schmitz

Don Cox

Ted Schmitz is the head Track & Field coach at Cloud County Community College.

Ted can be reached at tschmitz@cloud.edu

Don Cox is the head Track & Field and Cross Country coach at Cuyahoga Community College.

Don can be reached at donald.cox@tri-c.edu

NCAA Division I Track and Field

NCAA Division I Cross Country

DIVISION II NCAA Division II Track & Field

NCAA Division II Cross Country

DIVISION III NCAA Division III Track and Field

NCAA Division III Cross Country

NAIA NAIA Track & Field

NAIA Cross Country

njcaa NJCAA Track & Field

NJCAA Cross Country

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kirby lee photo

Strengthening the Springs

How the inclusion of properly sequenced weightlifting derivatives into the strength-training program can improve sprint performance.

By Brad H. DeWeese, EdD, Chris Bellon, MS, Eric Magrum, MS, Christopher Taber, MS, Timothy J. Suchomel, PhD

“I

f you want to be fast, you have to run fast.” While no practice or training tool is more specific to sprint development than consistent exposure to high-quality sprinting, there are obvious advantages to the incorporation of supplemental training tactics (48). Specifically, there is ample evidence sprint performance can be bolstered through a strength-training program that enhances “usable” strength while minimizing excessive body mass. Therefore the purpose of this article is to provide an overview on the nature of sprinting, while highlighting the benefits of including weight-training exercises that maximize the translation of strength-gains to the track, namely the weightlifting derivatives.

contacts, nearing .80-.90 milliseconds at maximum velocity (70). Furthermore, the ground contacts of more successful sprinters demonstrate an asymmetrical force curve where most of the force is produced within the first half of the stance phase (8).

In sum, these findings lead to an acknowledgement that sprint performance is dictated by the ability to generate high rates of force development (RFD), which can be defined as the change in force divided by the change in time. As such, strength-training programs should attempt to maximize a sprinter’s ability to produce high RFD and tolerate the resultant ground reaction forces (GRF), which are defined as the forces exerted by the ground back onto the moving body.

Specificity Overview on Sprinting Sprinting has been defined as a volitional activity that represents how fast an athlete can move down the track through a rapid, un-paced, maximal run that lasts less than 15 seconds (47). While correct, this definition does not highlight the many underlying components that lead to sprint race success (Figure 1). For instance, elite sprinters generate and yield forces up to four times body mass during each stance phase (39). In addition, these forces are produced during very brief ground

Employing training methods that are similar (task/mechanically) to sprinting, will serve to improve a sprinter’s RFD on the track. This can be accomplished by increasing the specificity of additional training means. For the purpose of this paper, specificity can be divided into mechanical and task similarities.

Mechanical specificity explains the kinetic (force, RFD, power) and kinematic (range of motion, spatio-temporal characteristics) association between an exercise and a physical performance.

These variables are often supported and result from task specificity, which deals with the manner in which motor unit synchronization and whole muscle activation patterns occur (13).

Considering the components of specificity, an ideal strength-training regimen would include exercises that promote high levels of force production in a swift manner that parallel the mechanics and muscle activation patterns found in sprint running.

Furthermore, an argument can be made that weight training exercises utilizing and overloading the stretch-shortening cycle (SSC) may be of upmost benefit. Recall from DeWeese et al (2015) that upright sprinting has been loosely described as locomotion using the Spring Mass Model, where a runner’s gait cycle manifests from the compression and resultant propulsion of a coiled spring. This arbitrary spring is analogical of the neural, musculature, and connective tissues that are responsible for the SSC, which is a ballistic contraction in response to a forceful lengthening.

While myriad exercises and combinations of training tools are available, a great deal of literature and anecdotal information points to the weightlifting (WL) movements as one of the most efficient methods of priming a sprinter for enhanced RFD production while ensuring the transfer of training effect through mechanical and FEBRUARY 2016 techniques

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Strengthening the Springs

Figure 1: A detailed map of the underlying constructs of sprint speed task similarities.

The Limitations on Sprint Performance May Clarify Exercise Selection Most often, academic literature measures the usefulness of various strength-training exercises in terms of power, which can be considered a work-rate. As a result, many within the profession elect to perform potentiation complexes (PC) as they seemingly parallel the power outputs of traditional WL movements. These complexes most often pair a “heavy” exercise (squat) with a “light” exercise (countermovement jump) in hopes that the heavy lift allows the velocity of the subsequent lighter exercise to be enhanced following a sufficient recovery period. The enhanced performance characteristics resulting from the pairing of exercises may lead to superior neurological and physiological adaptations in comparison to performing these exercises separately (56).

Practically speaking, this may be a reason why many coaches find PC to be a more appealing option than WL as familiarity with these exercises is usually higher in these circumstances. Additionally, there is a wealth of literature supporting the concept that PC have been shown to display comparable, if not greater, power outputs when compared to WL. Since sprint velocity has displayed a close relationship with high power outputs, this argument is considered justifiable by most (12, 44).

Despite the validity of this argument, there is also a great deal of research indicating that sprint velocity is ultimately governed by other limiting factors (8, 69). While 10

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power is a measure of work performed and provides a casual relationship to athletic performance, it does not clearly articulate the relationship between the many training tools and their effectiveness for sprinters. As stated earlier, sprint performance is maximized by an athlete’s ability to produce high rates of force development with each ground contact. Furthermore, the force generated and placed onto the track yields a nearly equal amount of ground reaction forces. Simply put, the magnitude of force an athlete can apply to the ground with each foot contact is the most influential factor in determining their sprint velocity. As such, implementing exercises that elicit high GRF’s is of primary importance to improving an athlete’s sprint speed. When compared with WL, PC may not produce the same GRF’s. Based on this information, omitting WL from strength training programs may limit an athlete’s ability to develop the higher GRF’s necessary to produce greater sprint velocities. This may also hinder the athlete’s capacity to make improvements in their in sprint mechanics due to the fact that sprint kinetics play a pivotal role in determining the outcome of an athlete’s movement parameters (44). In other words, if an athlete cannot produce sufficient force during ground contact, they may not be able to achieve the positions necessary to produce optimal sprint technique. Accordingly, the argument of which method of strength and power development reigns superior is ultimately superfluous. Both WL and PC can serve as vital components in maximizing improvements in sprint performance.

Therefore, it is the responsibility of the coach to invest the time in developing a comprehensive curriculum of strength and power training modalities that can provide the greatest benefit to the athlete.

Weightlifting Derivatives The use of weightlifting movements (WL) to develop neuromuscular strength and power in athletes has long been a topic of debate in the realm of athletics. While the strength and power gains that can be derived from this type of training are clear (66), many coaches still argue against the use of these exercises. Although there are multiple reasons underpinning this school of thought, the most central argument in this debate is with respect to the time investment required to learn WL. Essentially, many believe that fostering competence in these exercises requires too much of a time commitment for both the athlete and the coach. Additionally, some literature has demonstrated that strength and power capabilities can also be improved more through alternative means, namely the aforementioned potentiation complexes. While there is some evidence that supports this notion, the questions surrounding this dispute should not pertain to which methodology is superior, but rather how the combination of the two can synergistically enhance sprint speed.

The primary concern of spending an inordinate amount of time teaching the WL is often misunderstood, as it is commonly believed that in order to reap the benefits of WL, one must complete a full snatch or clean from the floor. However, many of the

Strengthening the Springs strength and power adaptations of the full lifts can be realized by implementing the derivatives of these exercises, such as a clean grip mid-thigh pull or clean pull (19, 20, 60).

This is significant from the perspective of both pedagogy and performance, as simpler movements are easier to teach and can be overloaded to a greater extent. Therefore, the time investment involved in teaching these exercises is not nearly as significant as many coaches perceive it to be. Additionally, the greater loads used in these lifts may also provide greater physiological and neurological stimuli from which superior strength and speed adaptations can be developed.

Phasic Progression in Prescription of Weightlifting Derivatives DeWeese et al. previously described a training system, termed Seamless Sequential Integration (SSI), that promotes enhancements in sprint speed through a short to long approach on the track that coincides with loading and organizational tactics embedded within conjugate sequential programming (15, 17). Further, this model considers a harmonious relationship with non-track training, including strength development.

In short, the aim of this model is to enhance and exploit acceleration ability, which serves to enhance the sprinter’s speed reserve, thus improving race economy.

Coinciding with “on the track” programming, the strength training must be planned and carried out in such a way that athlete’s build a “strength reserve” that sets the foundation for success in higher velocity movements. This sequenced training is supported by the works of Minetti and Zamparo (2002) who demonstrate that long-term tactics which enhance strength or the ability to produce, exert, (and tolerate) force against the environment allow for the successful execution of swifter movements in subsequent phases through enhanced power output.

One such method of ensuring increased movement speed is the development of a properly directed training plan that unifies the training goals on the track and in the weight room. In this manner, the requisite skillset needed for sprinting (properly directing forces) and physiological/neurological underpinnings (Cross sectional area/fiber type transitions/RFD) are developed in unison. As such, the remainder of this article will provide an overview on how best to utilize weightlifting derivatives and other strengthtraining methods with sprint training.

General Preparatory Phase 12

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Within SSI or a similar short-to-long program, the primary goal of the general preparatory phase is to maximize accelerative ability in order to augment a sprinter’s top speed and resultant speed reserve in later phases.

Typically, acceleration training includes resisted-runs (inclines, towing) and shortdistance sprints that provide opportunities to direct high propulsive forces into the track for as long as possible. Simultaneously, the weight training begins with an emphasis on strength-endurance proceeded by an introduction to maximal strength, furthering the sprinter’s work capacity and Type II muscle cross-sectional area that ultimately serve as the foundation for improvements in muscular strength and power in subsequent training phases (4, 56). While training volumes are typically higher within this period of an annual plan, coaches can emphasize force production off the track through exercises that mimic acceleration-specific positions and time constraints.

Practically speaking, significant training time should be spent on developing the sprinter’s overall strength capacity, which will likely improve RFD in later phases.

Therefore, exercises such as the barbell back squat along with weightlifting derivatives that emphasize the “first pull” or pull to the knee can strengthen a sprinter’s musculature (low back, glutes, hamstring, mid-section) at specific angles related to the start and initial acceleration. For instance, previous research has indicated that a sprinter’s knee angles in the starting blocks are approximately 90 degrees (front foot) and 120 degrees (rear foot) which are similar to knee angles during the initial pull (5, 9, 37, 42).

An additional weightlifting derivative that may enhance torso strength is the “bent knee” clean or snatch grip shoulder shrug.

Alongside basic upper-body exercises such as the overhead press and bench press, the shrug may bolster postural integrity during acceleration-dependent phases such as the start and transition while also serving as a precursor for more ballistic movements in later phases (e.g. the Mid Thigh Pull).

Consequently, these complimentary strength-training exercises may provide the stimulus to develop vertical force production needed to stabilize and offset any rotation of the sprinter’s center of mass during block clearance resulting from horizontal displacement.

Special Preparatory Phase Seamlessly moving away from the generalized training, the special preparatory period

(SPP) serves to utilize a sprinter’s enhanced acceleration ability in the development of top speed. This is typically carried out through the prescription of more specific training runs that promote optimal transition mechanics with drills such as acceleration holds, low-load resisted runs (up to 30m), and longer-segment accelerations (approximately up to 50m). These practices are then followed with an introduction to maximumvelocity sprinting through training sessions that may include fly-in sprints and “in and out’s.” Collectively, these efforts seek to improve the sprinter’s speed reserve, which can be used to optimize long-sprint tactics within practice sessions dedicated to race modeling, split runs, or special endurance.

Concurrently, the emphasis in the weight room should be to increase maximal strength with greater loading (decreased repetitions and higher intensities) through more complex movements that develop musculature necessary for optimized top speed mechanics. Recall that during this time the sprinter is accelerating for longer distances and simultaneously achieving higher velocities. These higher velocities are the product of increasing vertical force production, which may be harnessed from the exposure to maximal strength work in the weight room.

Coinciding with the need to produce high forces is the fact that this strength must be demonstrated within a short period of time.

As such, exercises that promote “strengthspeed,” which can be generalized to describe as the intent to move a relatively heavy load quickly, should be introduced within this phase so to begin the enhancement of RFD. Along with the continuing prescription of strength-staples such as the squat, weightlifting derivatives that simulate and overload the rapid triple extension associated with acceleration and top-speed running can be utilized (60). For instance, the pull from floor (PF) requires the athlete to utilize a large portion of their muscle mass to move an external load that is typically heavier than what they can power clean or snatch, through a complete range of motion (19, 25). As a result, both work capacity as well as hypertrophic adaptations developed within the GPP may be maintained (68). In addition, specific adaptations may include greater Type II/I functional cross-sectional area and pennation angle changes which both serve to increase the sprinter’s physical readiness (1, 6, 29, 30, 34, 35).

In addition to the pull from floor, the midthigh pull (MTP) is an additional weightlifting derivative that vertically overloads the

Strengthening the Springs

athlete in a position that is relative to top speed mechanics (17). Coinciding with the knee angle of 120-140 degrees, a tall torso, and shortened range of motion, the MTP emphasizes the triple extension movement to a great extent. Furthermore, this exercise is a sound teaching tool and precursor to the mid-thigh clean or snatch (MTC & MTS).

The MTC and MTS continue to emphasize the biomechanics of the MTP, but the prescription of lighter loads allows the athlete to completely “turn the bar over.” This ballistic movement is intended to enhance RFD through the aggressive triple extension of the hip, knee, and ankle joints from a static position. In comparison to a traditional power clean or snatch from the floor or hang, the MTC and MTS remove the stretch-shortening cycle as a result of initiating the pull from technique boxes or a rack.

Collectively, the heavily-loaded pulls from the floor and mid-thigh, along with lowerloaded mid-thigh cleans allow the athlete to a) rehearse movement patterns of the power clean and snatch in an organized manner while b) overloading the triple extension phase of sprinting. In addition, these movements may improve the co-contraction within and between the active musculature surrounding the hips and knees leading to coordinated recruitment patterns of the necessary motor units needed to generate forces necessary to propel a sprinter down the track (17).

Early-Mid Competition Phases Nearing the competitive season, an athlete has graduated from the SPP with an increased speed-reserve following the exposure to concentrated efforts of acceleration work and maximum velocity training while also maximizing long-sprint success through the incorporation of a speed-reserve. Off the track, the strength training served to develop a strength-reserve, which utilized exercises 14

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that may have increased the likelihood of a transfer in the training effect through muscle architectural changes (Type II fiber content, pennation angles, fascicle length) and movement similarities (overloading the SSC, cocontraction of hip/knee joints).

Once the season begins, a sprinter’s training should prioritize competitive readiness, which is founded upon lowered volume (to allow for recovery and realization of ability) alongside more specific training methods that are balanced around the racing schedule. Typically, a sprinter will take part in practices that retain their accelerative and top speed ability through “maintenance” doses of short sprint work, along with traditional sessions serving to enhance specific racing distance needs (speed endurance, special endurance, etc).

Within the weight room, an early emphasis should be placed on “strengthspeed” which was introduced during the SPP. Recall that strength-speed prioritizes the swift movement of heavier loads in order to enhance rate of force development. Adaptations in RFD and peak power produced during the speed strength phase are produced through: increases in motor unit rate coding, neural drive, interand possibly intra-muscular coordination, motor unit synchronization and the ability to use the SSC, while decreasing neural inhibitory processes (3, 7, 23, 26, 27, 28, 43, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52).

These adaptations often occur through exercises that are multi-joint and innervate the musculature surrounding the hips and knees. Since the sprinter has invested training time to the pull from floor and mid-thigh clean or snatch, the requisite skill-set is present for the execution of the power clean and snatch (PC & PS). In fact, a properly performed power clean that utilizes the double knee bend (indicative of staging the SSC) has been demonstrated to yield high power out-

puts and relate strongly to sprint speed and vertical jump height (11). In addition, the PC and PS are believed to enhance the sprinter’s ability to generate large vertical forces in the upright position that may counteract the magnitudes of force experienced during the stance phase of sprinting.

In conjunction with the power clean or snatch, acceleration work can be supported off the track through strength training that maintains the strength-reserve, which was enhanced during the SPP. At this time, the sprinter can perform relatively “heavier” partial back squats to remove the fatiguingeffects of full range of motion efforts, along with WL derivatives such as the MTP. The MTP utilizes loads that can exceed what an athlete can power clean by up to 140 percent, therefore making it an obvious choice to maintain force production (10).

Finally, the coach may consider employing strategies that introduce the concept of “speed-strength” which is defined as the intent to move lighter loads quickly. This tertiary goal that can be increased during the competition phase through the adoption of potentiating clusters that include medicine ball throws and multi-jump activities (plyometrics).

Late Competition-Taper Phase At the latter stage of competition, a large emphasis is placed on maximizing preparedness through a reduction in overall volume and maintaining intensity through economical training-choices. These choices may include sprints that continue to maintain acceleration ability while fine-tuning race speed and tactics.

In order to ensure that competition is not compromised, strength training should be supplementary and prioritize the retention of strength-speed while shifting toward an objective of maximizing speed-strength, which was introduced during the early to

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Strengthening the Springs

mid-competitive phase of training. Speedstrength, or the ballistic movement of lighter loads, can be carried out by prescribing potentiating complexes (partial squats followed by jumps or throws), light-weighted jump squats, and WL derivatives such as the countermovement “hang” clean or snatch.

The hang clean and snatch are typically prescribed with loads lighter than one can catch from the floor, while continuing to overload the SSC (36). Therefore, executing a hang power clean and snatch with light loads from a position on the mid-thigh yields high velocities, thus increasing power output typical of top-speed sprinting. In addition to, or in place of the hang power clean or snatch, an athlete can perform the countermovement shrug, which utilizes the same movement pattern as the hang clean or snatch minus the catch phase (18). This exercise is suitable for those athletes who have less than proficient technique in the full lifts.

Finally, the sprinter can continue to retain “strength-speed” qualities that were maximized during the previous phase through low-doses of higher force producing WL derivatives, namely the MTP. Recall the MTP uses a very small “concentric” range of motion that allows the athlete to tripleextend with heavy loads. In fact, prescribing this exercise prior to the execution of a hang clean or snatch may serve to potentiate the power output.

Conclusion While success in the sprint events is largely determined by who can get to the finish line first, numerous training factors must be considered when planning the practice schedule. Acknowledging the value of time and the strong relationship between recovery and readiness, training economy should be a top priority. Although no stimulus is more 16

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relative to the sprinter as frequent sprinting, appropriate strength training protocols can elicit high specificity while minimizing training time. As discussed throughout this paper, weightlifting derivatives are efficient tools for promoting the movement of both heavy (RFD) and light loads (Power) within brief periods of time. In addition, these exercises can be manipulated to target specific musculature and angles that are indicative of various sprinting phases and mechanics.

Moreover, these lifts can be programmed to allow for graduated learning so to minimize the fatiguing effects stemming from the introduction of novelty training. Remember that there is no panacea or “magic” training tool that will ensure the sprinter a podiumworthy performance, but properly aligning the speed work with task and mechanically specific strength training may increase the likelihood of competitive readiness.

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DeWeese, B. H., Serrano, A. J., Scruggs, S. K., & Burton, J. D. (2013). The midthigh pull: Proper application and progressions of a weightlifting movement derivative. Strength Cond J, 35(6), 54-58.

DeWeese, B. H., Serrano, A. J., Scruggs, S. K., & Sams, M. L. (2012a). The clean pull and snatch pull: Proper technique for weightlifting movement derivatives. Strength Cond J, 34(6), 82-86.

DeWeese, B. H., Serrano, A. J., Scruggs, S. K., & Sams, M. L. (2012b). The pull to knee— Proper biomechanics for a weightlifting movement derivative. Strength Cond J, 34(4), 73-75.

DeWeese, B. H., Suchomel, T. J., Serrano, A. J., Burton, J. D., Scruggs, S. K., & Taber, C. B. (2015). The pull from the knee: Proper technique and application. Strength Cond J, In press.

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Haff, G. G., & Nimphius, S. (2012).

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Suchomel, T. J., Taber, C. B., & Wright, G. A. (2015). Jump shrug height and landing forces across various loads. Int J Sports Physiol Perform, Epub ahead of print.

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Suchomel, T. J., Wright, G. A., & Lottig, J. (2014). Lower extremity joint velocity comparisons during the hang power clean and jump shrug at various loads. Paper presented at the XXXIInd International Conference of Biomechanics in Sports, Johnson City, TN, USA. Tricoli, V., Lamas, L., Carnevale, R., & Ugrinowitsch, C. (2005). Short-term effects 20

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on lower-body functional power development: Weightlifting vs. Vertical jump training programs. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 19(2), 433-437.

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Eur J Appl Physiol, 88(3), 193-202.

Brad H. DeWeese, EdD is the Head Speed, Strength and Conditioning Coach while also serving as a Sport Physiologist at the East Tennessee State University Olympic Training Site.

Chris Bellon, MS is a PhD student and associate strength & conditioning coach within the ETSU program of Sport Physiology and Performance.

Eric Magrum is a graduate student and assistant strength & conditioning coach within the ETSU program of Sport Physiology and Performance.

Christopher Taber MS is a PhD student and associate strength & conditioning coach within the ETSU program of Sport Physiology and Performance.

Timothy J. Suchomel, PhD is an assistant professor in the Department of Exercise Science at East Stroudsburg University.

The Full Names and Complete Mailing Addresses of the Publisher, Editor and Managing Editor are: Sam Seemes, Mike Corn, 1100 Poydras St., Suite 1750 New Orleans, LA 70163.

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Straighten Up

The importance of proper posture and the quality of stiffness in sprinting

By Karim Abdel Wahab

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roper force application is a prerequisite for faster sprinting, jumping or throwing. Adequate strength levels in relation to sprinters’ and jumpers’ body weight is a great asset for successful performance only if the strength developed in the weight room was successfully carried over to the track or to the field and translated to better performance. Research showed that sprinters moving at 11.1 m/s exerted 26 percent more mass-specific force into the ground compared to athletes running at 6.2 m/s (Weyand, Sternlight, Bellizzi, & Wright, 2000). Additional research from Weyand, Sandell, Prime, & Bundle demonstrated that faster sprinters also produce greater amounts of force in significantly less time, resulting in shorter ground contact times (2010). The top male sprinters in the world are on and off the ground in less than 0.09 seconds when sprinting at top end speed.

The top females take just slightly longer.

Proper posture is the platform for applying force, Sprinters with high strength levels that aren’t capable of attaining proper posture won’t see much of their strength in the weight room carry over to the track.

Without proper posture sprinters won’t be able to perform correct sprinting mechanics thus won’t be able to take advantage of their strength levels.

Poor sprinting posture leads to waste of force. I’m going to go further to stress my point and say that sprinters won’t see the fruit of Sir Isaac Newton’s third law of motion take place in their performance unless proper posture and mechanics are attained. I usually use the example of sprinting in quicksand with athletes that aren’t holding proper posture while sprinting.

Another analogy to use with your athletes to illustrate the point is “trying to fire a canon off of a canoe,” an equally ineffective undertaking. Proper posture provides a solid platform where force can be applied effectively and efficiently, resulting in a successful link between strength levels developed in the weight room and sprinting on the track.

During sprinters’ ground contact, the body joints go through a degree of amortization where the joints give and a stretch is placed on the muscles resulting in a stretch shortening effect allowing sprinters to overcome the gravity forces and take advantage of the muscular system free stored energy. A tall sprinting body posture results in a proper and efficient force application by minimizing the collapsing at ground contact in the ankles, knees and hips joints.

Too much amortization at ground contact leads to longer ground contact times and less productive impulse at ground contact, which is

a great disadvantage for successful sprinting.

The vertical movement of an elite sprinter’s center of mass following touchdown occurs higher and sooner than slower athletes. A proper tall body posture provides a level of stiffness at the sprinters joint and muscular systems where healthy and productive levels of amortization can take place.

Sprinters must have fast eccentric force generating capacity at ground contact to ensure that joints have proper but not excessive amortization at each contact. This fast eccentric force and stiffness at ground contact allows the world’s best male sprinters to apply as much as 5 times their bodyweight in force to the ground in single support in under 1/10th of a second.

In 1996 former Italian track and field national team head coach Elio Locatelli published a research article in the IAAF magazine, New Studies In Athletics titled “The importance of anaerobic glycolysis and stiffness in the Sprints (60, 100 and 200 meters).”

Locatelli concluded from his research that 1) the maintenance of speed is a function of stiffness and 2) anaerobic glycolysis, during sprint races, is a function of stiffness.

Simply this means that proper amortization at ground contact and avoiding excessive collapse of the ankles, knees and hips at ground contact leads to a greater speed maintenance phase and a better speed endurance for short sprinters (60,100,200m).

It should be understood that proper posture is a prerequisite to the quality of stiffness coach Locatelli was talking about, and that an ideal impulse at ground contact is a great indicator of the quality of stiffness a sprinter holds. See the Figure 1 for a comparison between the types of impulses at ground contact. Note that impulse of great sprinters looks like a check mark (Maximum force application in the least amount of time during ground contact).

Training approach Many coaches spend a tremendous amount of time and effort in the weight room addressing concentric strength qualities with the intent being that these developed concentric strength qualities carry over to successful sprinting, jumping or throwing performance. Coaches and athletes alike get frustrated when they see concentric strength gains in the weight room in relation to body weight but fail to see improvement in competition marks.

While concentric strength and maximum strength qualities are fundamental and essential for power development there should be a bridge of drills and exercises that help translate and express the strength gained in the

weight room to the actual next level performance on the track and on the field.

The following section addresses the some guidelines for drills and exercises that will help bridge the gap between concentric strength development in the weight room and actual performance.

Impulse and stiffness development training requires drills and exercises that enforce the following qualities: Drills that enforce tall body posture.

Regardless of whether these drills are designed to target the development of impulse and stiffness for the start and acceleration phase or for max velocity phase, the body posture will have to be tall. Emphasis should be placed on avoiding undesirable excessive joints collapse and maintaining a tall body posture at the max velocity phase while the body is upright and perpendicular with the ground.

Drills that target the qualities of static and dynamic stability. Some may argue the importance of static stability for sprinters.

The argument is usually based on specificity of training and how static contraction work and static stability don’t address the dynamic needs and nature of the skill of sprinting. But if one looks at the components of the stretch shortening cycle, one would see that at the instant immediately before ground contact, static contraction is taking place. This is followed by an eccentric contraction due to the shock of ground contact and the force of gravity and then a concentric contraction to overcome gravity. Static and dynamic stability qualities are great proprioceptive activators that call stabilizing muscles to aid in decreasing undesirable excessive joint collapsing at ground. These also help in attaining proper amortization at ground contact which will allow the stretch shortening effect off the ground to be far more effective and productive in terms of force application in and off the ground. From a training progression standpoint, static stability qualities can be addressed earlier in the training plan, while dynamic stability qualities need to be addressed throughout the training plan with volumes, intensities and densities that suit each specific phase of training.

Drills that target rapidly decelerating and accelerating the center of mass into and off the ground (Plyometrics) will help the neuromuscular system be developed to perform the proper impulse at ground contact. These drills should be designed to train sprinters, jumpers and throwers to explode from proper joints angles, the kind of angles you look for in competition. This answers the question that many coaches have regarding the speFEBRUARY 2016 techniques

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cific parameters for plyometric drills that are effective in speed and power development.

Coach Dan Pfaff shared in his “Guidelines for the implementation of plyometric training” paper that was published when he was working at LSU, providing several guidelines for the design and implementation of plyometric training. Two of these guidelines are highly related to our topic: “Maximum tension can be obtained by creating a situation which stretches an active muscle rapidly. The faster a muscle is forced to lengthen, the greater the force obtained upon resulting contraction. Most physiologists feel that the rate of prestretch is far more important than the magnitude of stretch” “Event specific demands have also sparked research into movement analysis of these exercises. Sport scientists are currently involved with testing to see how angles of takeoff, speed of movement, and force application exhibited during jump training relate to event performance. The more closely one designs a series to the demands of his or her event, the higher the carryover”

Four avenues can be used to develop proper posture and the quality of stiffness: 1 - Postural enforcement form training drills during warm ups “A” skips with arms stretched above the head, enforcing a tall body posture “B” skips done with arms stretched above the head, enforcing a tall body Straight leg bound with arms in front of chest, enforcing a stable core 2 - Postural enforcement form training drills Static/dynamic stability drills during warm down “A” runs done on the long jump runway and through the sand pit. The goal is to stay tall and fight collapsing in the sand. Typically 3 sets are done at the cool down, 3-4 times a week “A” runs and freeze for 2 seconds every three counts, keeping ankles, knees and hips rigged at the moment of freezing while recovering thigh in the air parallel to the ground and perpendicular with the torso.

Typically 3 sets are done at the cool down, 26

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during each set the athlete freezes 6 times for 2 seconds every three reps of “A” run, done 3-4 times a week 3 - Freeze plyometrics drills progression It’s very important to teach athletes the proper way to land before teaching the proper way to jump. Teach them the proper joint amortization at landing to activate proper stiffness quality and to avoid excusive collapsing at ankles, knees and hips joints. My suggested progression is: Step off box and land on two feet at a good athletic position, freeze for two seconds at proper joint amortization angles mirroring an ideal ground contact joint angles (It is likely that these angles will be greater than what your athletes are used to) Same as first progression but with med ball held in front of the forehead.

Same as before but land on one foot without med ball Same as before with med ball 4- High impulse plyometrics and multi-throws Plyometric drills that are done from a tall body posture with short and quick ground contact. Examples being a stationary double leg ankle hop (Pogo) while having minimum amortization at knees, hips and landing flat footed at ground contact to ensure explosive planter flexion off the ground while minimizing ground contact time and avoiding undesirable ankle amortization at ground contact. A progression would be a moving ankle hop, then progress to ankle skips, adding a thigh recovery mirroring sprinting action in a tall posture with a quick and explosive skipping rhythm.

Multi-throws that promote exploding from proper joint amortization angles and mirrors specific competition joints angles at ground contact. \From a tall body posture with a med ball or a shot. Drop into proper ground contact joint angles and explode with full body extension developing a quick impulses from competition specific joint amortization angles

Recommendations and final note

There are many great exercises and drills that can be used to address postural integrity and the quality of stiffness. Presented in this article are just a few examples and progressions that can be utilized in your training plan. Feel free to add or subtract drills and exercises that suit your athletes’ need and your logistical situation.

Making the warm up and warm down more productive by injecting drills and exercises that contribute to the overall athletic development of your athletes can increase the effectiveness of each and every training session.

Studying the technical model of your events and understanding proper amortization joint angles is fundamental in designing highly specific postural integrity drills, plyometrics and power training exercises to help train your athletes to explode from proper joints’ amortization angles.

The presented drills and ideas in this article can be very effective and instrumental in the development of your sprinters and athletes if addressed on regular basses throughout the training plan.

References Frederick Hatfield, Ph.D. (1989) Power: A Scientific Approach Dan A. Pfaff, Louisiana State University.

GUIDELINES FOR THE IMPLEMENTATION OF PLYOMETRIC TRAINING Elio Locatelli, (1996) The importance of anaerobic glycolysis and stiffness in the Sprints (60, 100 and 200 meters). New Studies for Athletics 11:2-3; 121-125, 1996 Frans Bosch HBO BSc and Roland Klomp DRS. MSC (2004) Running: Biomechanics and Exercise Physiology (Book and DVDs)

Karim Abdel Wahab is in his sixth year at Colorado State where he coaching sprints, hurdles and relays. He is also the personal coach for Janay DeLoach-Soukupin, bronze medalist in the long jump at the 2012 Olympic Games and a silver medalist in the same event at the 2012 World Indoor Championship. Additionally, DeLoach-Soukupin posted a 5th place finish in the 60m hurdles at the 2014 World Indoor Championships and an 8th place finish in the Long Jump at the 2015 World Outdoor Championships. A native of Egypt, he coached Amr Seoud and Anas Beshr to national records in the men’s 100,200, and 400m. He has also served as an assistant coach at Northern Colorado and Colorado School of Mines.

Growing Pains

the Effects of the Adolescent Growth Spurt on Biokinetic Energy Production and Middle Distance Performance

BY PETER THOMPSON

The Elephant in the Room The four of them stood somewhat awkwardly together at the end of the crosscountry race, the coach, the father, his wife and their daughter, the young athlete we’ll call Liz. The father looked at his daughter and said, “I don’t know what’s the matter with you but last year you 30

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were easily beating all of these girls and now they’re beating you and you’re just not trying. I just can’t understand it. Your mother and I do everything to support your running. We take you to training and to competitions but if you’re not going to even try, what’s the point.”

Liz studied intently the muddy grass at

her feet, unable or unwilling to respond to her father’s comments. This was not the first time that this theme had been uttered in public in the preceding weeks and it had been touched on with greater vehemence in private, at home. The coach tried to intervene by mentioning, again, the fact that Liz had gone through a conkirby lee photo

siderable growth spurt in the previous 12 months.

“I don’t want to hear excuses. She hasn’t grown that much and surely longer legs should mean that she can run faster.

She’s just not trying hard enough.” And, with that comment from the father, the parents departed, leaving their daughter to run freely and cool down with the other members of her team. They, at least, were supportive and the coach had taught them all well what to expect as they each made their journey physically, mentally and socially through puberty and adolescence.

The coach had her focus on the process, the father’s, purely on the outcome.

A week later, the coach received a phone call from the athlete’s mother. “I have to apologize. Last week when you said that Liz had grown a lot, we were not really aware of this and by how much. I’ve checked and in the past 12 months she has grown six inches and is 20 pounds heavier.” No wonder then, that Liz was having problems emulating her previous year’s performance. But, exactly what factors were causing the decreased performance? These conversations are fiction of course but, unfortunately, variations on this theme are played out within families each and every year.

There is always a very individualised response to the adolescent growth spurt but there are common contributors to performance at any age. We can identify these and then throw that knowledge against how the individual is impacted in any given area.

If we look at the simplest contributor to performance, it is how the athlete creates, manages, utilises and expresses energy.

The energy for middle and long distance performance derives from two principal sources, metabolic, or bioenergetics, sources and elastic, or biokinetic sources.

Coaches have long concentrated on the metabolic development of their athletes but have, until relatively recently, not recognised and therefore paid less attention to the biokinetic contribution. Many still have too great a focus on training the metabolic energy systems of their athletes, ignoring biokinetic development, as an equal and powerful, metabolic energysparing contributor.

In this article we will focus on the effects of the adolescent growth spurt, AGS, on biokinetic energy production and middle distance performance. We know that biokinetic energy comes principally from the stored elastic energy of tendons and the fascia surrounding the muscles.

Together, these structures are capable of providing an energy-return system, the efficiency of which is determined by the stiffness of the lower kinetic chain. We will come back to exactly what this “stiffness” is but it crucially defines performance.

The dramatic improvements and achievements of athletes such as Jenny Simpson, Galen Rupp, Paula Radcliffe and Mo Farah can be ascribed in large part to the appropriate development of the contribution from their elastic capacities. This development of optimal stiffness has turbo-charged their vVO2max, tlimvVO2max, running economy and performance. What has not been really examined previously is, “What is the effect, or potential effect, of the adolescent growth spurt on stiffness and biokinetic energy production?”

Growth and Maturation Now, every single one of you reading this article knows that during puberty and adolescence the body normally goes through distinct stages including a considerable growth spurt. The adolescent growth spurt, AGS, varies by gender, with different timing of onset and rates of growth. On average, girls between 10 and 16 will grow 8 inches and gain 38 pounds; boys between the ages of 12-16 will grow an average of 12 inches and gain close to 48 pounds. If we look at the averages again, the first sign of puberty in girls occurs at 10½ years of age, with breast development. The first period or menarche is at an average age of 12-13 years, and usually occurs about two years after puberty begins. This coincides with their peak in height velocity, the adolescent growth spurt, AGS. Once the ovaries are mature, the legs have generally finished growing. Any increase in height after periods have begun, usually comes just from the torso, as the spine grows. Development continues and a child will have reached her final adult height about two years after menarche as, lastly, the bones of the pelvis widen and become smooth, in preparation for childbirth. This can occur up to the age of 18 or even later. Puberty generally begins later in boys, on average at 11½ to 12 years of age and they undergo their AGS about 2-3 years later than girls.

The AGS usually begins at the distal areas, with an enlargement of the hands and feet and is later followed proximally, by growth in the legs and arms, then trunk and chest, for boys or hips, for girls. This growth pattern even follows a distal to proximal progression within the limbs,

with the shin bones lengthening before the thigh and the forearms before the upper arms. And, for all parts of the body bones grow slightly ahead of muscles, tendons and fascia. This has profound effects on coordination, skill and stiffness.

For both girls and boys there is tremendous individual variation in the timing of physical development. One standard deviation (68 percent of any population) away from the normal has been stated as plus or minus two years for the AGS and two standard deviations (embracing 95 percent of any population) would be plus or minus four years. This means that we could have a boy or girl who is 14 by their birth age but physically be anywhere from 10 to 18 years of age. For 95 percent of the population, the AGS takes place in a range of 9 to 17 years of age for girls and 11 to 19 years of age for boys.

Adolescents who are developmentally away from the average in their physical development are identified as “early” or “late” developers. In athletics, the power events usually attract the early developers and cross-country and the longer running events, the late developer. The 800m and 1500m fall in between and we see both early and late developers performing well as children and through adolescence.

Many times the early developers “‘flatter to deceive” and fail to make the progress that their early performances indicate.

Late developers, however, have the advantages of the androgynous body type of the pre-pubescent child until mid to late teens but then the AGS will still affect performance.

The Impact of the AGS Boys have a performance advantage through puberty since they gain height and muscle mass and testosterone stimulates greater production of haemoglobin, leading to an increased oxygen-carrying capacity. Girls gain height but also a relatively higher percentage of body fat.

But for both boys and girls running performance is impacted by the AGS through the well-known factors of loss of coordination and biomechanical efficiency, low energy levels, increased weight, decreased power to weight ratio, decreased functional VO2 max and for girls the additional changing biomechanics, as the hips broaden. The rapid growth also impacts the body’s ability to control stiffness as the athlete loses the skill of running, if they had it, and this includes the ability to adapt to the running speed or surface to create and utilise elastic energy.

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GROWING PAINS

the AGS before they recapture their full biokinetic, elastic energy capacities generally takes much longer.

What can be done?

Energetics and Running Performance Endurance running performance is concerned with energy production, management, utilisation and expression with both bioenergetics and biokinetic contributions

At its simplest, running is based on propelling the body forward while the body tries to keep its centre of gravity level during the running cycle. During impact with the ground, the leg acts much like a spring, absorbing energy and releasing it later in the running cycle. The closer the ‘stiffness’ of the spring is to optimal, the better the elastic return and the less metabolic energy you will need to run at a certain speed, or the faster you can run for the same metabolic contribution.

To give you an example of this stiffness, think about what would happen if you were to run gently across a concrete parking lot at the beach and continue straight onto the sand. What would happen? Most probably, when you hit the sand your legs would remain extended to a much greater degree at each joint than they were while running over the parking lot. In other words, your legs would be stiffer on the sand. The stiffness of the leg is a function of the lower kinetic chain involving the hip, knee, ankle and foot joints and the connective tissues, tendons and fascia. If you were to sprint across the concrete on to the sand, you may well stumble and fall, as the legs do not have time to adjust to the new soft and giving surface.

Usually the body adapts and leg stiffness will relatively increase on softer surfaces and will decrease on harder surfaces. Incorrect stiffness produces negative results in either direction. If the lower kinetic chain is too stiff, then ground impact and reaction forces are increased and elastic energy is dissipated, lost, in the impact. If the stiffness is not sufficient then the energy is dissipated, lost, into the 32

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squidgy spring and another consequence is that the muscles will have to activate more, use more metabolic energy.

There has recently been a re-evaluation of the “stretch-shortening cycle” or SSC and its role in biokinetic energy production. The old view of the elastic properties of the lower kinetic chain was to imagine an active SSC, with the muscle-tendon system acting as a rubber band. While loading and stretching it, energy would be stored (eccentric phase) in the muscle and this energy would be regained at shortening (concentric phase) for toe-off.

The current view is that the eccentric contraction phase of the muscle is not so important as the elastic properties of the tendon and muscle fascia. The muscle now needs to be emphasised as being in isometric mode all through our movement and drills. This is essentially the same rubber band analogy except there is a recognition that the muscle response and contribution is not as great as it was thought to be for creating force but is vital as a stabilizer and resistance. The rubber band is now the tendon and the muscle fascia and the most energy will be regained if the stiffness is optimal. The level of isometric stabilization by the muscles and positioning of the joints determines the stiffness of the system.

For all adolescents, boys and girls alike, there is a negative impact on stiffness during the AGS from the changes to the hardware, the skeleton, muscles and connective tissues. But, girls have the added factor of changes to noncontributing body weight. For girls, the adaptations required during and after

Many of the things that you’re probably already doing can assist the passage through the AGS and do help in regaining elastic power but, now, you can perhaps see a different, or shift, in emphasis and different options.

Looking at research seems to tell us very little since most studies look at preadolescent compared to post adolescent subjects and performing jumping activities. Since the timing of the AGS is so individualized you would have to perform a longitudinal study over many years to obtain data on what is happening to stiffness during any given individual’s AGS. The results of one study indicated that young children have insufficient stiffness.

Another speculated, “that during adolescence, children acquire the ability to take greater advantage of elastic energy storage in the musculotendinous system when performing jumps.” But let’s look at what we know intuitively and from our new knowledge of the role of stiffness.

To be effective, the coach of adolescents must have some sense of the biological development of each of their athletes and take an individualized approach rather than a “group” approach. But within any group you can occasionally develop subgroups based on varying criteria, dependent on the activity, such as socio-mental maturation, physical maturation, competitive level or, simply, height.

Encourage and model healthy eating habits for all. Too many girls experience negative body image in adolescence and try to halt the healthy weight gains of the AGS, or even reverse it. But, an eating disorder typically helps an athlete maintain or improve performance as a runner for about six months. Then, the consequences are inevitable and disastrous.

An eating disorder often leads to amenorrhea, the absence of menstruation.

Amenorrhea decreases bone density.

Low bone density leads to stress fractures and osteoporosis and a destructive downward spiral that leads to a fragile skeleton for life. The emphasis for both boys a girls through the AGS is to maintain a healthy lean body mass.

Introduce at an early age, sessions that develop awareness of correct, natural, neutral posture to be continued during the AGS. Without correct posture the kinetic chains are unlikely to ever be in a

position to function optimally.

Novel and new coordination movements should be introduced along with the continued practice and re-learning of previous skills and coordination. Since all of these activities require learning and re-learning, fatigue should not be allowed to be a factor in the session. For a great resource for exercises for developing posture and optimal stiffness refer to Jay Dicharry’s 2012 book, “Anatomy for Runners.”

Educate the athletes that frequency and variety is better than quantity. “More” training rarely equals “better” training. We know that stiffness in running is a function of speed of running, shoe softness, surface softness and terrain.

In all these areas there should be variety and more, variety.

Change the paces and never jog, either walk or run from easy to faster. Use a variety of shoe models and brands and run on differing surfaces and terrain.

Outside of running, use multi-lateral movements and different, particularly glutedominant, movement patterns in cross-training and through taking part in other sports, while not losing the athletes to these other sports! Strength needs to be developed to handle the new, increased body weight and this should be developed within functional body movements.

What else can you do through the AGS? Encourage getting sufficient, uninterrupted sleep. Use an empathetic, process-oriented, noncomparison model of coaching. Motivate to maintain the physical activity when what was once easy becomes tough.

Be honest — particularly on the possible time it will take to recover performance levels.

Encourage patience and have patience. Respect their sociomental development as well as their physical development.

Be aware of the athlete’s susceptibility to training injuries,

especially during and immediately after AGS. It can take some athletes many years to recover priorAGS performance levels and for some there is barely a change in progression. When we see an athlete who loves the sport enough to continue and at age 25 finally surpasses her best from age 15, we know that perseverance has been rewarded and we have all see this happen. While the AGS appears to rob athletes of their ability, a good young athlete will usually develop into a good adult athlete, particularly the late developers, provided they regain and further develop the natural “spring” of their pre-adolescent youth.

References Dicharry, J. (2012) Anatomy for Runners: Unlocking Your Athletic Potential for Health, Speed and Injury Prevention.

Skyhorse Publishing, New York, USA Greene, L. and Pate, R. (2015) Training Young Distance Runners, Third Edition. Human Kinetics, Champaign, IL, USA Korff, T., Horne, S. L., Cullen, S. J. and Blazevich, A. J. (2009) Development of lower limb stiffness and its contribution to maximum vertical jumping power during adolescence. The Journal of Experimental Biology 212, 3737-3742 Wang, G, L-I., Lin, D-C. and Huang, C (2004) Age Effect on Jumping Techniques and Lower Limb Stiffness During Vertical Jump. Research in Sports Medicine 12: 209–219.

Peter Thompson was the IAAF Event Group Editor for the Endurance events and European ACA Leader for Endurance from 2007-2011. He lives and coaches in Eugene, Oregon. runfree@btinternet.com, newintervaltraining.com FEBRUARY 2016 techniques

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kirby lee photo

By Design

Physical Performance Components for the Jumps

By Boo Schexnayder

T

he first step in training any athlete is clear identification of the physical talents needed for success in the event. Designing training without a clear purpose in mind is an inefficient process at best, and clear designation of the talents we wish to develop is a logical and necessary first step in the training design process. Most such categorization schemes are far too general for all but the novice coach, so here we offer a detailed classification scheme for those talents and abilities most critical in the jumping events.

Strength Related Components Absolute Strength is the ability to produce great force in a static or dynamic sense. Speed of movement is not a concern in absolute strength situations. Absolute strength qualities determine greatly one’s ability to hold postural alignment under stress and impact, the ability to anchor the fulcrums of the musculoskeletal lever systems used in movement, and are an

inherent and contributing part of all other strength qualities needed in movement. In jumping events, because of the body types typically associated with high performance, absolute strength is best evaluated in the form of relative strength capabilities (force produced per unit of bodyweight). Most absolute strength training activities involve high resistances and low speeds of movement.

General Strength is the ability to overcome the internal resistance of and manage the displacement of one’s own body and body parts.

Since body control is implied, general strength is a functional component of all coordination related abilities, and an important part of relative strength capabilities.

General strength training activities involve no external resistance, using bodyweight as the sole load.

Power is the ability to produce force quickly. In situations requiring power, resistance must be overcome, and high speed of movement is also of great concern. Power seems to be a linking component

between absolute strength and speed qualities, and most training systems treat it as such. In track and field, where time available for force application is so often extremely short, the need for high power production capabilities becomes obvious. Power training activities combine resistance and high speeds of movement.

Reactive Strength is the ability to produce force using the stretch shortening cycle. This production of elastic energy is essential to efficient and high level performance in all speed and power oriented events, and training programs must prioritize development of this quality. Most reactive strength training involves plyometric or multi-jump exercises. All skeletal muscle and nearly all training components possess the potential for elastic energy production and reactive strength development.

Strength Endurance is the ability to sustain force production.

Strength endurance is a concern in stabilizing and postural muscle groups, which must be able to

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by design maintain alignment and functionality throughout the course of the event. For this reason, strength endurance training in athletics is directed toward muscle groups and postural musculature responsible for these stabilizing functions and is highly specific in nature. Strength endurance activities can take many forms, but all require either repetitive movement or extended stabilization.

Speed Related Components Accelerative Power is the ability to effectively move the body from rest and quickly approach maximal velocities. Inertia must be overcome in these situations, thus resistance exists. Therefore, accelerative power is related to one’s power capabilities. Acceleration should not be confused with absolute speed, and acceleration training activities involve moving the body from rest to high speeds.

Absolute Speed is the maximal locomotive velocity attainable. In most situations we are concerned with the rate of movement of the body as a system, but the speed of individual body parts is an

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important component of absolute speed.

This quality should not be confused with acceleration, and absolute speed training activities involve attaining and maintaining maximal velocities for short periods of time.

Speed Endurance is the ability to maintain absolute speed and resist the inherent degradation of absolute speed that occurs in performance. Once the body reaches its maximal velocity, deceleration inevitably occurs within a few seconds.

Speed endurance refers to the ability to resist this deceleration. This deceleration is associated with the buildup of certain byproducts or muscle contraction, but of more concern to us as a cause is a loss of coordinative ability. The inability to coordinate high speed movements for extended periods of time is essentially a form of nervous system fatigue, so speed endurance should be considered as a specific type of coordination training. Speed endurance training activities involve maintaining maximal velocities for extended periods of time.

Optimal Speed is the speed which best

optimizes the performance of some motor task. Increasing speed in performance gives the potential for greater success, but only if coordination and technical execution don’t suffer. Optimal speed can be regarded as a combination of speed and coordination abilities.

Endurance Related Components Aerobic Fitness can be considered as two subcomponents, aerobic capacity and aerobic power. Aerobic capacity is the ability to perform large amounts of aerobic work, while aerobic power is the ability to perform a single extended aerobic effort. Aerobic training activities involve intensities sufficiently low enough to keep the body in an aerobically fueled state.

Aside from the need to consume oxygen during recovery from work, aerobic fitness is of little concern in the jumping events.

Glycolytic Fitness can be considered as two subcomponents, glycolytic capacity and glycolytic power. Glycolytic capacity is defined as the ability to perform large amounts of anaerobic work, while glyco-

lytic power is defined as the ability to perform a single extended anaerobic effort.

The ability to perform while experiencing oxygen debt and the associated acidosis and lactic acid buildup is part of one’s glycolytic power capabilities. Glycolytic training activities involve intensities sufficiently high enough to force the body into a glycolytically fueled state. Because of the low energy systems demands associated with jump performance, glycolytic fitness concerns center around prerequisites for performing certain types of specific training, and stimulation of the body’s recovery processes.

Endocrine Fitness is a state of the body in which the presence and levels of certain hormones support improvements in performance and recovery from training.

Developing endocrine fitness involves prescribing training components that stimulate anabolic hormones and recovery processes.

Work Capacity is the ability to withstand large training loads. While the aforementioned energy system fitness levels do play a part in determining one’s work capacity, the levels of various components of coordination and strength play a greater role. A person who is technically efficient at a task, and whose strength levels enable operation at a lower percentage of maximal power output, will experience fatigue when performing that task much later than a person who does not possess these advantages. Achievement of high training volumes without sacrificing quality of work develops work capacity.

kirby lee photo

Flexibility Related Components Active Flexibility is the range of motion attainable at a joint without any outside forces acting upon the joint. Active flexibility training activities require movement into positions that challenge active flexibility limits.

Passive Flexibility is the range of motion attainable at a joint with assisting force.

Passive flexibility always exceeds active flexibility. The athlete or the environment may provide the assisting force. Passive flexibility training activities require assisted movement into positions that challenge passive flexibility limits.

Kinetic Flexibility is the range of motion attainable at a joint with the assistance of momentum. Usually the momentum of a body part supplies an assisting force. Kinetic flexibility training activities require ballistic movement into positions that challenge kinetic flexibility limits.

Coordination Related Components Agility is the ability to perform acyclic movements quickly and accurately. Quick starting, stopping, and changes of position and direction are agility demanding tasks. Since speed of movement is necessary in agility demanding situations, speed qualities are requisite to agility, as well as coordinative qualities. The body control needs in agility related tasks imply the importance of good general strength levels, and many general strength deficits masquerade as agility problems. Agility training activities require these types of movement.

Mobility is the ability to move joints through large ranges of motion in accordance with the demands of some particular motor task. Unlike flexibility related qualities, a task is denoted and a coordination demand is present. This quality is specific to a task and functional. Mobility training activities normally assign some technical task that by nature demands great amplitudes of movement.

Balance is the ability to maintain stability. Balance is a necessary component of coordination and all athletic tasks.

Balance is trainable but is often neglected, since balance problems are not readily visible at the high velocities of competitive athletics. Balance training activities normally require mastering slow movements or stationary positions that create the opportunity for instability.

Technical Execution is the ability to perform a motor skill accurately and repetitively. Technical execution refers to the actual specific skills we find in track and field events. It is important to note that the development of these skills is largely dependent upon other coordination capabilities, and improving these is often prerequisite to effective teaching of the desired skill. Technical execution training features movements that greatly replicate competition.

The effective coach constantly evaluates training in light of these abilities and each ability must be addressed in some way in the program. While equal distributions of training time and training effort across the board are not desired, over-specificity presents a unique set of risks as well. The art of coaching involves understanding the proper sequencing of the training of these abilities and the amount of time and effort proportionally devoted to each at any point in the training calendar.

This article was taken from the curriculum of the Jumps Specialist Certification of the Track & Field Academy. Boo Schexnayder is the Director of the Track & Field Academy and the author of this course curriculum.

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2015 usftccca Convention all photos courtesy of Craig Macaluso Photography

2015 Bowerman winners Jenna Prandini of Oregon and Marquis Dendy of Florida

Hosting duties for the Bowerman program were handled by Ryan Fenton of Flo-Track, ESPN’s John Anderson and past Bowerman winner Queen Harrison.

Grand Valley State’s Associate Head Coach Lou Andreadis (m) and Assistant Coach Aaron Watson(l) accept NCAA Division II Women’s Program of the Year award during the opening session from USTFCCCA President Damon Martin(r).

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The 2015 George Dales award was presented to former LSU coach and current head of the Track & Field Academy, Boo Schexnayder.

Pictured with Schexnayder is the award’s namesake, George Dales.

Vanderbilt University’s Associate Head Cross Country Coach Rhonda Riley leads a discussion during the Female Coaches Roundtable

University of Florida Head Coach Mike “Mouse” Holloway conducted one of the 32 technical symposium sessions offered during the convention.

USTFCCCA President Damon Martin thanks the association’s sponsors and supporters during the opening session.

The 2016 class of the USTFCCCA Coaches Hall of Fame included (l-r) Barbara Crousen, Bob Lewis, Billy Maxwell, Jim Bibbs, Don Strametz and Gary Wilson.

North Central College Women’s Head Coach Kari Kluckhohn received the Jimmy Carnes Award in recognition of her many years of service to the USTFCCCA. Pictured with USTFCCCA President Damon Martin.

National High School Coaches of the Year were presented with their awards during the opening session. Pictured (l-r) Aaron Berndt (Boys Track), Carmen Jackson (Girls Track) and Bill Miles (Boys XC). Bill Aris (Girls XC) not pictured.

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2015 ustfccca national cross country coaches & athletes of the year

division i

Joe Franklin New Mexico Women’s COY

Chris Fox Syracuse Men’s COY

Molly Seidel Notre Dame Women’s AOY

Edward Cheserek Oregon Men’s AOY

division II

Damon Martin Adams State Women’s COY

Peter Farwell Williams Women’s COY

Jim Robinson Lansing CC Women’s COY

Chris Siemers Colorado School of Mines Men’s COY

Dan Schwamberger Wisconsin-Eau Claire Men’s COY

Dee Brown Iowa Central CC Men’s COY

Alexis Zeis University of Mary Women’s AOY

Alfred Chelanga Shorter Men’s AOY

Abrah Masterson Cornell College Women’s AOY

Ian LaMere Wisconsin-Platteville Men’s AOY

Leanne Pompeani Iowa Central CC Women’s AOY

Gilbert Kigen Central Arizona Men’s AOY

division IIi

NJCAA DI

NJCAA DIII

Matthew French Suffolk County CC Women’s COY

James Macnider Harper Men’s COY

Meseret Hart Northampton CC Women’s AOY

Zakaria Djouma Mohawk Valley CC Men’s AOY

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division i 2015 ustfccca regional

cross country coaches & athletes of the year great lakes region

Mike McGuire Michigan Women’s COY

Kevin Sullivan Michigan Men’s COY

Molly Seidel Notre Dame Women’s AOY

Mason Ferlic Michigan Men’s AOY

John Gondak Penn State Women’s COY

Steve Dolan Penn Men’s COY

Blanca Fernandez Temple Women’s AOY

Patrick Tiernan Villanova Men’s AOY

Dave Smith Oklahoma State Women’s COY

Steve Plasencia Minnesota Men’s COY

Erin Teschuk North Dakota State Women’s AOY

Marc Scott Tulsa Men’s AOY

Joe Franklin New Mexico Women’s COY

Mark Wetmore Colorado Men’s COY

Hannah Everson Air Force Women’s AOY

Anthony Rotich UTEP Men’s AOY

mid atlantic region

midwest region

mountain region

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NORTHEAST region

Ray Treacy Providence Women’s COY

Chris Fox Syracuse Men’s COY

Dana Giordano Dartmouth Women’s AOY

Justyn Knight Syracuse Men’s AOY

SOUTH region

Steve Keith Vanderbilt Women’s COY

Bob Braman Florida State Men’s COY

Chelsea Blaase Tennessee Women’s AOY

Antibahs Kosgei Alabama Men’s AOY

Lance Harter Arkansas Women’s COY

Chris Bucknam Arkansas Men’s COY

Dominique Scott Arkansas Women’s AOY

Brian Barraza Houston Men’s AOY

SOUTH CENTRAL region

SOUTHEAST region

Todd Morgan Virginia Women’s COY

Dale Cowper Louisville Men’s COY

Letitia Saayman Coastal Carolina Women’s AOY

Thomas Curtin Virginia Tech Men’s AOY

WEST region

Corey Ihmels Boise State Women’s COY

Greg Metcalf Washington Men’s COY

Allie Ostrander Boise State Women’s AOY

Edward Cheserek Oregon Men’s AOY FEBRUARY 2016 techniques

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division iI 2015 ustfccca regional

cross country coaches & athletes of the year atlantic region

Daniel Caulfield California (Pa.) Women’s COY

Steve Spence Shippensburg Men’s COY

Ida Narbuvoll Edinboro Women’s AOY

Dylan Mountain Lock Haven Men’s AOY

Corey McElhaney Southwest Baptist Women’s COY

Tracy Hellman Augustana Men’s COY

Alexis Zeis University of Mary Women’s AOY

Vincent Kiprop Missouri Southern Men’s AOY

Karen Boen Stonehill Women’s COY

Kevin Curtin Bentley Men’s COY

Nicole Borofski Stonehill Women’s AOY

John Chirchir American International Men’s AOY

James Kearney Lewis Women’s COY

Jerry Baltes Grand Valley State Men’s COY

Emily Oren Hillsdale Women’s AOY

Benjamin Tuttle Cedarville Men’s AOY

central region

east region

midwest region

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2015 ustfccca regional division iI cross country coaches & athletes of the year south region

Jarrett Slaven Tampa Women’s COY

Kent Reiber Saint Leo Men’s COY

Colett Rampf Saint Leo Women’s AOY

Alfred Chelanga Shorter Men’s AOY

south central region

Jacob Phillips Dallas Baptist Women’s COY

Damon Martin Adams State Men’s COY

Kelsey Bruce Dallas Baptist Women’s AOY

Keifer Johnson Western State Men’s AOY

southeast region

Julia Marquardt Montevallo Women’s COY

Matt van Lierop Mount Olive Men’s COY

Catie Byrd Queens Women’s AOY

Alex Griggs Mars Hill Men’s AOY

west region

Gary Towne Chico State Women’s COY

Michael Friess Alaska Anchorage Men’s COY

Joyce Chelimo Alaska Anchorage Women’s AOY

Henry Cheseto Alaska Anchorage Men’s AOY FEBRUARY 2016 techniques

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division iII 2015 ustfccca regional

cross country coaches & athletes of the year atlantic region

Dan Moore SUNY Geneseo Women’s COY

Brett Hull Hamilton Men’s COY

Megan Kellogg St Lawrence Women’s AOY

Charlie Marquardt Haverford Men’s AOY

Joe Sweeney St. Thomas Women’s COY

Phil Lundin St Olaf Men’s COY

Ruth Steinke Carleton Women’s AOY

Cole Decker Central Men’s AOY

Mark Northuis Hope Women’s COY

Dr. Colin Young Wabash Men’s COY

Lauren Strohbehn Calvin Women’s AOY

Geno Arthur Oberlin Men’s AOY

Bobby Van Allen Johns Hopkins Women’s COY

Tom Donnelly Haverford Men’s COY

Sophia Meehan Johns Hopkins Women’s AOY

Charlie Marquardt Haverford Men’s AOY

central region

GREAT LAKES region

MIDEAST region

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2015 ustfccca regional division IiI cross country coaches & athletes of the year MIDWEST region

Jeff Stiles Washington (Mo.) Women’s COY

Dan Schwamberger UW-Eau Claire Men’s COY

Lucy Ramquist UW-Eau Claire Women’s AOY

Ian LaMere UW-Platteville Men’s AOY

NEW ENGLAND region

Kristen Morwick Tufts Women’s COY

Peter Farwell Williams Men’s COY

Maryann Gong MIT Women’s AOY

Mohamed Hussein Amherst Men’s AOY

SOUTH/southeast region

John Curtain Emory Women’s COY Men’s COY

Matt McGuirk Willamette Women’s COY

Elise Viox Emory Women’s AOY

Lukas Mees Emory Men’s AOY

west region

John Goldhammer Claremont-Mudd-Scripps Men’s COY

Maya Weigel Pomona-Pitzer Women’s AOY

Tyler Shipley Puget Sound Men’s AOY FEBRUARY 2016 techniques

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division i 2015 NJCAA regional

cross country coaches & athletes of the year atlantic region

Nicole Mancini Northern Virginia CC Women’s COY

Mike Spinnler Hagerstown CC Men’s COY

Annie Noffsinger Hagerstown CC Women’s AOY

Patrick Jones Southern Maryland Men’s AOY

Ryan Turner Butler County CC Women’s COY

Vince DeGrado Allen County CC Men’s COY

Lydia Mato Barton County CC Women’s AOY

Sampson Laari Barton County CC Men’s AOY

Jim Robinson Lansing CC Women’s COY Men’s COY

Kaitlin Beyer Lansing CC Women’s AOY

Eric Ponder Danville Area CC Men’s AOY

Dee Brown Iowa Central CC Women’s COY Men’s COY

Leanne Pompeani Iowa Central CC Women’s AOY

Andrew Ronoh Iowa Central CC Men’s AOY

central region

GREAT LAKES region

MIDWEST region

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WEST region

Not Pictured

Not Pictured

Felix Hinojso El Paso CC Women’s COY

Chris Beene South Plains Men’s COY

Kayla Pallares El Paso CC Women’s AOY

Hassan Abdi South Plains Men’s AOY

2015 NJCAA regional division IiI cross country coaches & athletes of the year

CENTRAL region

James Macnider Harper Women’s COY Men’s COY

Meseret Hart Northhampton CC Women’s AOY

Ed Baynes Ocean CC Women’s COY

Steve Mussleman Howard CC Men’s Coach of the Year

Will Troman Harper Men’s AOY

east region

Margaret Niland Howard CC Women’s Athlete of the Year

Martin Maldonado Rowan-Gloucester CC Men’s Athlete of the Year

NORTHEAST region

Matthew French Suffolk County CC Women’s Coach of the Year

Gary Parker Mohawk Valley CC Men’s Coach of the Year

Ryleigh Donegan Suffolk County CC Women’s Athlete of the Year

Zakaria Djouma Mohawk Valley CC Men’s Athlete of the Year FEBRUARY 2016 techniques

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