PNGAF MAGAZINE ISSUE #94A OF 22 FEB 2022. Why Forest Plantations?

AUSTRALIAN FORESTERS in PAPUA NEW GUINEA 1922-1975

PNGAF MAGAZINE ISSUE # 9D4A of 22 Feb 2022 THE DEVELOPMENT OF PNG’s FOREST MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS A history of plantation development globally, especially in tropical rainforest areas as pertinent to PNG’s forest tree plantation development.

PNGAF MAG 94A. Why Forest Plantations?

Editor R B McCarthy1 2021.

1

Dick McCarthy District Forester TPNG 1963-1975.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS “FORWOOD”

page 3

Year 1937 Introduction Global Distribution of Forests in 1937 Global Forest Areas, Growth and Harvest 1937

page 4 page 5 page 5 page 6

Year 2000 Impacts Human Civilisation on Forested Lands/Forest Plantations The Global Forest Resources Assessment 2000 (FRA 2000) World and Regional Data on Human and Forest Resources, 2000 Plantation Areas & Plantation Rates by Region 2000 FAO Global Production and Trade in Forest Products in 2020 Total Roundwood Production, 1961-2000 Total Primary Wood Production, 1961-2000 World & Regional Consumption of Wood Product Categories 2000 Trends in Annual Production by Product Category, 1961-2000 Main Wood Product Trade Flows Wood Fuels and Wood Energy

page 7 page 7 page 11 page 12 page 13 page 14 page 15 page 15 page 16 page 17 page 18 page 19

Forecasts and Implications Plantation Areas & Plantation Rates by Region 2000 Estimated Current and Forecast Industrial Roundwood Supply Future Wood Trade and Production Patterns Projections of World Consumption of Industrial Wood (RWE) Annual Plantation Rates & Plantation Areas (regions/species group) Distribution of Forest Plantation Areas by Region and Species FRA 2000 and New Sources of Fibre Forest Plantations Harvest Regimes

page 20 page 20 page 21 page 21 page 21 page 23 page 23 page 27 page 28

References

page 30

Acronyms

page 55

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“FORWOOD” WHY FOREST PLANTATIONS? Globally, population pressures, industrial, agricultural, and mining activities have created an ongoing scarcity and need of wood fibre by regions for fuel and shelter for Man and industry. Natural forested lands have been unable to satisfy these needs. To address these scarcities and needs globally, foresters developed forest tree plantations within a sphere of limited land availability utilising agrarian practices. Those plantations sequester carbon in both trees and soil and help restore biodiversity to previously cleared agricultural lands.

From 1937 with a global annual roundwood cut of 1,500 million cubic metres, to an annual cut in 20002 of 3443 million cubic metres, although accounting for only 5 percent of global forest cover, forest plantations (of some 187 million hectares) were estimated in the year 2000 to supply about 35 percent of global roundwood annual harvest. The most common genera of global forest plantations are Eucalyptus spp. and Pinus spp. A few species of these two genera constitute about one third of the world’s plantation area.

Since 3FRA 1990, advances in wood utilization technology have resulted in increasing importance of new sources of fibre – rubber (Hevea brasiliensis), coconut palm (Cocos nucifera) and African oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) – especially in the Southeast Asian subregion. These species account for 9.7, 12.0 and 6.0 million hectares of plantations, respectively. All grow in the humid tropics. 4FRA 2000 included these agricultural wood fibre crops.

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However, the TPNG Department of Forests developed forest plantations of indigenous and exotic species in selected areas since 1950, following the concept that permanent centres of population and existing industry, required a perpetual supply of raw materials. This policy recognized that plantation forests were seen as complementary to natural forests, never able to replace all the values associated with the natural forests, but where appropriately developed, helping to divert some of the pressures away from them.

Between 1937 (McAdam6 commenced duties in 1938 as TPNG’s Chief Forester) and 2000, PNG had established some 62,000 hectares7 of forest plantations. The major species planted include Araucaria cunninghamii (Hoop pine), Araucaria hunsteinii (Klinkii pine), Tectona grandis (Teak), Eucalyptus deglupta (kamarere), Pinus sp as P caribaea; P merkusii; P patula, Ochroma lagopus (balsa) and Acacia mangium. Minor species planted include, Eucalyptus robusta; Eucalyptus grandis, Eucalyptus saligna, Anthocephalus cadamba (labula), Terminalia species as T. brassii, Calophyllum sp and Octomeles sumatrana (erima).

2

FAO FRA 2000 - Results of the Global Forest Resources Assessment 2000.

FAO FRA 1990 - Results of the Global Forest Resources Assessment 1990.

4 FAO FRA 2000 - Results of the Global Forest Resources Assessment 2000.

5 FAO UNASYLVA. 6 PNGAF Magazine Issue # 3 of 30th Oct 2020 – Jim McAdam first Director TPNG Forests.

7 PNGAF Magazine Issue # 9D4F PNG Plantation Statistics of 10th March 2022.

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YEAR 1937 Source Wikipedia January January 15 – Spanish Civil War: Second Battle of the Corunna Road January 19 – Howard Hughes establishes flying record Los Angeles to New York City in 7 hours, 28 minutes and 25 seconds.

January 23 – Moscow Trials: Trial of the Anti-Soviet Trotskyist Center – In the Soviet Union 17 leading Communists go on trial, accused of participating in a plot led by Leon Trotsky to overthrow Joseph Stalin's regime, and assassinate its leaders.

February February 6 – John Steinbeck's novella of the Great Depression, Of Mice and Men, is published in the United States February 16 – Wallace H. Carothers receives a patent for nylon.

March The first issue of Detective Comics is published in the USA. April April 12 Frank Whittle ground-tests the world's first jet engine designed to power an aircraft, at Rugby, England.

May May 6 – Hindenburg disaster: German airship Hindenburg bursts into flame when mooring to a mast in Lakehurst, New Jersey.

June June – Picasso completes his painting Guernica.

June 3 – Wallis Simpson marries the Duke of Windsor, the former Edward VIII, in France.

July July 2 Amelia Earhart and navigator Fred Noonan disappear after taking off from New Guinea, during Earhart's attempt to become the first woman to fly around the world.

A guard takes his place at the Tomb of the Unknowns in Washington, D.C.; continuous guard has been maintained there ever since.

August August 5 – The Soviet Union commences one of the largest campaigns of the Great Purge, to "eliminate anti-Soviet elements".

September September 21 – George Allen & Unwin, Ltd. of London publishes the first edition of J. R. R. Tolkien's The Hobbit.

October October 15 – Ernest Hemingway's novel To Have and Have Not is first published, in the United States.

November November 5 – World War II: In the Reich Chancellery, Adolf Hitler holds a secret meeting and states his plans for acquiring "living space" for the German people (recorded in the Hossbach Memorandum) December December 11 – Italy withdraws from the Nations. December USS: Japanese bombers sink the American gunboat USS Panay. .December 21Walt Disney's Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, the world's first featurelength animated film, premieres at the Carthay Circle Theatre in Los Angeles .Dr. Seuss’s first children’s book, And to Think That I Saw It on Mulberry Street is published

by Vanguard Press.

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Introduction Global Distribution of Forests in 1937 FAO in the first UNASYLVA edition8 described the global situation in 1937 at the FAO annual conference in 1946 at Copenhagen entitled Forestry and Forest Products - World Situation 1937-1946.

Global Distribution of Forests 1937. Source FAO Europe U.S.S.R. Middle North Central other than East and America and South U.S.S.R. N. Africa America

Population in 1939 (millions) Forest Area (million hectares) Forest Area per caput (hectares) Annual Harvest Total (million m³) per hectare (m³) per caput (m³)

392

178

98

143

130

Africa other than North Africa 115

132

960

41

635

815

0.3

5.4

0.4

4.4

308

262

5

2.3

0.3

0.8

1.5

Southern Pacific World and Area Total Eastern Asia 1,099

11

2,166

512

500

54

3,650

6.3

4.4

0.4

4.9

1.7

392

178

65

300

10

1,500

0.1

0.6

0.2

0.1

0.6

0.2

0.4

0.05

2.7

1.4

0.4

0.3

0.9

0.7

Despite the inaccuracies inevitable in world-wide statistics, the average quantity of wood obtained annually by Man from the total forest area at his disposal was about 0.4 m³ per hectare. Nevertheless, it was found at that time that, in almost every country, competent forest authorities were deploring the ill effects of the current exploitation of forests.

This FAO study was the first step toward the rational treatment of the forest and the adoption of silvicultural methods able to improve rates of growth through future endeavours as increased knowledge of the existing forests, control of forest activities, forest protection, the adoption of more intensive silvicultural methods, the more skilful use of forest products coupled with silvicultural research on selection of species, hybridization, reproduction by sprouts, the action of mycorrhiza, etc.

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FAO UNASYLVA Vol 1 No 1 July August 1947 The growth of the World’s Forests.

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Global Forest Areas, Growth and Harvest 1937, Source FAO Country

Forest Area

Growth Growth per hectare Volume of Annual Harvest Total Net Total Net million hectares million m³ m³ million m³ British Isles 1.3 1.5 1.3 1.15 1.00 1.5 France 10.5 26.8 26.8 2.55 2.55 20.2 Belgium and Luxembourg 0.6 2.0 1.8 3.33 3.00 1.8 Netherlands 0.2 0.6 0.6 3.00 3.00 0.6 Denmark 0.4 2.4 2.4 6.00 6.00 2.1 Germany 12.6 41.7 41.7 3.31 3.31 56.0 Switzerland 0.9 3.1 3.1 3.44 3.44 3.2 Hungary 1.2 3.0 3.0 2.50 2.50 3.1 Spain 4.9 4.0 4.0 0.82 0.82 4.0 Italy 5.8 12.5 12.0 2.16 2.07 12.0 Norway 7.7 11.7 10.6 1.52 1.32 11.7 Sweden 23.1 41.6 42.0 2.06 1.82 45.0 Finland 38.3 45.7 39.7 1.19 1.04 47.6 Poland 8.5 18.0 16.4 2.12 1.93 17.7 Czechoslovakia 4.6 13.4 12.9 2.91 2.80 12.9 Austria 3.2 9.2 9.2 2.87 2.87 10.5 Portugal 2.3 9.0 9.0 3.91 3.91 9.0 Yugoslavia 8.1 16.0 16.0 1.98 1.98 22.6 Bulgaria 2.6 3.0 3.0 1.15 1.15 3.0 Rumania 6.5 25.0 18.0 3.85 2.77 18.6 Canada 334.5 154.0 80.0 0.46 0.24 67.0 Newfoundland 11.6 12.5 4.0 1.08 0.34 2.4 United States 255.2 319.8 248.3 1.25 0.97 322.0 Alaska 40.5 14.0 0.2 0.35 0.00 0.4 China 66.0 200.0 20.0 3.03 0.304 15.5 Japan 25.9 90.0 90.0 3.47 3.47 75.0 U. S. S. R. 960.0 630.0 262.0 0.66 0.27 262.0 New Zealand 5.3 3.1 2.3 0.58 0.43 2.3

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YEAR 2000. Source Wikipedia January January 30 – Kenya Airways Flight 431 crashes off the Ivory Coast into the Atlantic Ocean, January 31 Alaska Airlines Flight 261 crashes off the California coast into the Pacific Ocean February February 5 – Second Chechen War: Novye Aldi massacre – Russian forces summarily execute 56-60 civilians in a suburb of Grozny.[11] February 6 – Second Chechen War: Battle of Grozny (1999–2000) ends with Russian forces conclude capture of the Chechen capital Grozny.

March March 4 – The PlayStation 2 is released in Japan, March 17 – Uganda mass death: 778 members of the Movement for the Restoration of the Ten Commandments of God die in Uganda.

April April 3 – United States v. Microsoft Corp.: May May 4 – The 7.6 Mw Central Sulawesi earthquake affects Banggai, Indonesia, with a maximum Mercalli intensity of VII (Very strong), leaving 46 dead and 264 injured.

May 5 After originating in the Philippines, the ILOVEYOU computer virus spreads globally June June 4 – The 7.9 Mw Enggano earthquake shakes southwestern Sumatra , killing 103 people and injuring 2,174–2,585.

July July 1 – The Øresund Bridge between Denmark and Sweden is officially opened for traffic.

July 25 – Air France Flight 4590, a Concorde aircraft, crashes into a hotel in Gonesse August August 8 – The Confederate submarine H. L. Hunley is raised to the surface after 136 years on the ocean floor.

September September 15 – October 1 – The 2000 Summer Olympics, held in Sydney, Australia, is the first Olympic Games of the 2000s.

September 16 – Ukrainian journalist Georgiy Gongadze is last seen alive; this day is taken as the commemoration date of his death.

October October 31 Soyuz TM-31 is launched, carrying the first resident crew to the International Space Station. The ISS has been continuously crewed since.[29] November November 7 The 2000 United States Presidential Election: No winner can be declared, prompting a controversial recount in Florida.[31] December December 7 – Kadisoka temple is discovered in Sleman, Yogyakarta, Indonesia.

December 12 – Bush v. Gore: The United States Supreme Court rules that the recount of the 2000 presidential election in Florida should be halted and the original results be certified, thus making George W. Bush the winner of the U.S. presidential election.

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Impacts of Human Civilisation on Forested Lands and Forest Plantation Development Dohrenbusch and Bolte9 ascertained that disturbances are the main driving force of forest dynamics and often lead to stand regeneration via seedlings of the same species. Secondary succession, the establishment of woody and non-woody pioneer plant communities, can be observed after forest removal due to high intensity disturbances such as forest fires or hurricanes extending over broad areas. Global tree harvesting systems such as clear cutting or shelterwood systems over large area resulted in disturbances like catastrophic natural events.

Tree planting was introduced to bridge the unproductive pioneer stages of forest development, to regulate tree species composition, and to avoid possible site degradation processes such as erosion and nutrient leaching.

Fox10 encapsulated that because of the rapid increase in the world’s population, demand for forest products was increasing while substantial amounts of forest land were being lost or degraded. In addition, timber harvest was being restricted in many of the world’s natural forests.

The term forest plantation, according to 11FAO (2000), includes the establishment of forests through planting or seeding in the process of afforestation and reforestation.

Afforestation is the direct human-induced conversion of land that has not been forested for a period of at least 50 years to forested land status through planting, seeding or the humaninduced promotion of natural seed sources.

Reforestation (or reafforestation) is the establishment of forest in areas forested through the previous 50 years in which either the previous crop is replaced by different species or by the same species as before.

Both activities, reforestation, and reafforestation, focus on indigenous and introduced species.

Young natural stands and all plantations which have yet to reach a crown density of 10% or tree height of 5 metres are designated simply as ‘forest’.

The lack of consistent reforestation activities, coupled with both natural and human disturbances, for example, resulted in the reduction of the forest land cover in Central Europe from more than 90% to less than 30% during the last 2,500 years (12Küster 1995, 1998) Deforestation is the most important single cause of land degradation followed by agricultural activities and overexploitation of vegetation (13Oldemann et al. 1991). The removal of forest Dohrenbusch A & Bolte A 2007 in book: wood production, wood technology, and biotechnological impacts (pp.7383) chapter: forest plantations publisher: Universität Verlag Achim Dohrenbusch1 and Andreas Bolte2 1 Institute of Silviculture, Georg-August-University, Göttingen and 2 Institute of Forest Ecology and Forest Assessment, Federal Research Centre for Forestry and Forest Products, Eberswalde.

10 Thomas R Fox article Sustained productivity in intensively managed forest plantations in Forest Ecology and Management Volume 138, Issues 1–3, 1 November 2000, Pages 187-202.

11 FAO. 2000. On definitions of forest and forest change.

12 Kuster H 1995 Geschichte der Landschaft in Mitteleuropa. C H Beck, Munchen.

Kuster H 1998 Geschichte des Wakles C H Beck Munchen.

13 Olderman LR, Hakkehng RTA & Sombrock W G 1991 Global assessment of soil degradation – GLASOD, UNEP Nairobi World map of the status of human – induced soil degradation. 2nd ed. ISRIC Wageningen, The Netherlands.

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is often followed by soil erosion. Worldwide, the total land area subject to human induced erosion is estimated at some two billion hectares (Oldemann et al. 1991). Land degradation was estimated in 1991 to be increasing by five to six million hectares annually. In 1996, land degradation had affected nearly 2,000 million ha (15%) of the world land area.

Global forest cover has been estimated at some six billion hectares prior to human impact.

According to the 2000 Forest Resource Assessment completed by the FAO, the current global forest cover was about 3.869 billion ha. This equates to some 29.6% of the ice-free land surface of the Earth. Of this area, approximately 95% is defined as natural forests. This includes planted forests with one or more indigenous tree species or forests with a heterogeneous composition. The remaining 5% of the current global forest area is comprised of what is referred to as forest plantations having a uniform structure comprised, in the main, of introduced tree species. The FAO Forest Resource Assessment from 2000 notes that almost 70% of global forest land was in just ten countries.

Sedjo14 2001, described the beginning of a powerful transition in the latter part of the twentieth century that has been taking place in forestry and the production of wood for industry. This transition has yet to run its course. The nature of society's wood supply is changing. Traditionally, industrial wood has been harvested from natural forests created by nature. In the recent past, however, this situation has been changing. Planted forests have become common in some regions, e.g., much of Europe, over the past 200 years. Recently, since about 1960, intensively managed forest plantations have become increasingly common in several regions, including North America, Latin America, Oceania, and parts of Asia.

Humans had earlier made a similar transition in agriculture, over thousands of years, from foraging and hunting to planting and herding and finally to modem cropping and livestock raising. Wild forests were supplemented by planted forests as early as 100 BC, with some evidence that management was practised perhaps even a millennium or two earlier. By 1800, planted forests were common in Europe, and Japan undertook tree planting in that period also. The first industrial tree planting began in the US in the early 1940s, and some earlier commercial tree planting occurred elsewhere, e.g., New Zealand in the early 1900s. However, it was not until about 1960 that intensively managed industrial plantation forests began in earnest. By the 1970s, tree breeding was being undertaken and by 1990, cloning had begun to arrive.

Thus, it was not until the latter half of the twentieth century that forestry was earnestly making the transition from a primitive gathering of the forest bounty, created solely by nature (old-growth harvesting), to the development of the science of tree growing (silviculture). Tree growing provided a process whereby commercial wood could become a crop, as in agriculture, to be planted, tended, and harvested. (Sedjo15 1999) Tree growing allowed for a

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R A Sedjo The role of forest plantations in the World’s future timber supply March/April 2001 Vol 77 No 2 The Forestry Chronicle.

15 Sedjo, R.A. The potential of high-yield plantation forestry for meeting timber needs. New Forests 17, 339– 360 (1999). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1006563420947.

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choice of location and species, as well as the opportunity to provide superior stock with desired traits. Under this regime, trees could be grown much faster and possess the traits desired by society. Furthermore, such changes had desired environmental implications. It did not imply, as some erroneously maintain, that most natural forests were to be replaced with planted forests. Rather, the implication of the much more rapid growth associated with intensive management is that huge volumes of wood could be produced from relatively small amounts of land. Forestry had adopted an agricultural cropping approach with a planting, tending, and harvesting cycle.

Forest plantations presently account for only a small proportion of the world's total forest area. FAO estimates that, in 1995, the global plantation estate totalled 123.7 million hectares, or approximately 3.5 percent of the world's total forest area (16Pandey, 1997). Industrial plantations (plantations primarily established as a source of industrial wood and fibre) were estimated to account for 103.3 million hectares.

Forest plantations can provide most goods and services that are provided by natural forests.

These include timber, non-timber forest products, protection of clean water and clean air, soil erosion control, biodiversity, aesthetics, carbon sequestration, and climate control. Forest plantations are used in combating desertification, protecting biodiversity, absorbing carbon to offset carbon emissions, protecting soil and water values, rehabilitating lands exhausted from other land-uses, providing rural employment, and if planned effectively, diversifying the rural landscape.

In addition, forest plantation trees are increasingly being planted to support agricultural production systems, community livelihoods, alleviate poverty and to provide food security.

Communities and smallholder investors, including individual farmers, grow trees as shelterbelts, home gardens, woodlots, and a diverse range of agroforestry systems to provide wood, non-wood forest products, fuelwood, fodder, and shelter. Out-grower schemes under various forms of contract with wood processing industries can also provide valuable sources of wood supply. Smallholder investors are producing an increasing proportion of decorative veneer species, especially teak, using such schemes.

The most common genera of forest plantations are Eucalyptus spp. and Pinus spp. A few species of these two genera constitute about one third of the world’s plantation area.

Eucalyptus spp. plantations are found on a large-scale basis in India, Brazil, South Africa, and Vietnam.

In Chile, Australia, South Africa, Brazil, and China, on the other hand, Pinus spp. are the most common plantation species. Other conifers comprise about 11% of global plantations while various unspecified species add up to nearly 30% of the total global forest plantations.

Pandey, D. 1997 (unpublished). Hardwood plantations in the tropics and subtropics: tropical forest plantation areas 1995.

Project: GCP/INT/628/UK. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. 64 pp.

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The Global Forest Resources Assessment 2000 (FRA 2000) concluded that the world's forest cover as of 2000 was about 3.9 billion hectares, or about 0.6 ha per capita.

Forested land was defined by FAO as land with tree crown cover greater than 10% and a mature tree height exceeding 5 metres on over 0.5 hectares. Hence the total area of forests in the world in 2000 was estimated at 3.87 billion hectares or almost 30% of the global land area. Forests in tropical countries account for 48% of the world’s forests, covering 39% of that climatic region’s land area. Forests in temperate and boreal countries comprise 52% of the world’s forests and cover 25% of that climatic region’s land area. Approximately 95% of the total forest area is natural forest, the remaining 5% comprising plantations of various sorts (both softwood and hardwood). Plantations account for 4% of forested areas in tropical countries and 6% of forested areas in temporal and boreal regions. The main areas of plantation are in China, East and South Asia and the former USSR. The regional distribution of global forests showed that Europe (including the Russian Federation) has 27 percent of the forests; South America, 23 percent; Africa, 17 percent; North and Central America, 14 percent; Asia, 14 percent; and Oceania, 5 percent. Gross deforestation at the global level during the decade is estimated to have taken place at an annual rate of approximately 11.5 million hectares while net global deforestation (gross deforestation less reforestation and afforestation) was approximately 9 million hectares per year. Forest loss in the tropics was attributed largely to conversion of forests to permanent and shifting agriculture and pasture.

Reduction in net deforestation (or gain in forest area) in both developing and industrialised countries was mainly due to a significant increase in forest plantations and the succession of forests on abandoned agricultural land. In 2000, plantations covered an estimated area of over 187 million ha, most of which were reported in developing countries. The extent of plantations in industrialised countries is less clear since many make no distinction between planted and natural forests in their inventories. Additionally, because trees have been planted over long periods of time in these areas, frequently have long rotation periods (up to 100 years) and commonly use naturally occurring species, the distinction between natural and planted stands is not readily discernible.

New forest plantations were established globally at the rate of 4.5 million hectares per year, with Asia and South America accounting for more new plantations. Asia had the largest area.

In terms of genera composition, Pinus (20 percent) and Eucalyptus (10 percent) remain predominant. Of the global forest plantation estate, industrial plantations accounted for 48 percent while non-industrial and unspecified were 26 percent each. The ten countries with largest forest plantation areas were China, 24 percent; India, 18 percent; Russia, 9 percent; USA, 9 percent; Japan, 6 percent; Indonesia, 5 percent; Brazil, 3 percent; Thailand, 3 percent; Ukraine, 2 percent; and Iran, 1 percent; which account for 80 percent of the total forest plantation area. Over 56 percent of the total is in the Asia region.

Since FRA 1990, advances in wood utilization technology have resulted in increasing importance of new sources of fibre – rubber (Hevea brasiliensis), coconut palm (Cocos nucifera) and African oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) – especially in the Southeast Asian subregion. These species account for 9.7, 12.0 and 6.0 million hectares of plantations, respectively.

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From 1937 with a global annual roundwood cut of 1,500 million cubic metres, to an annual cut in 200017 of 3443 million cubic metres, although accounting for only 5 percent of global forest cover, forest plantations were estimated in the year 2000 to supply about 35 percent of global roundwood annual harvest.

Since FRA 1990, advances in wood utilization technology have resulted in increasing importance of new sources of fibre – rubber (Hevea brasiliensis), coconut palm (Cocos nucifera) and African oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) – especially in the Southeast Asian subregion. These species account for 9.7, 12.0 and 6.0 million hectares of plantations, respectively. All grow in the humid tropics. FRA 2000 included these agricultural wood fibre crops.

In terms of plantation area, Asia has 92 percent of the world’s rubber, 86 percent of the world’s coconut palm and 78 percent of the world’s African oil palm. Indonesia, Thailand, and Malaysia have almost three-quarters of the rubber plantations; Indonesia and the Philippines have about half the coconut resources; and Malaysia has 55 percent of the oil palm resource.

All three species are grown principally for other products rather than wood, so when overmature they are available for fibre-based industries at minimal cost.

World and Regional Data on Human and Forest Resources, 2000. Source FAO Country

Land area

Forest area

Forest Plantation area area

Plantation area

Land area per Rural capita population

GNP per capita

(m ha.)

(m ha.)

(% land (m ha.) area)

(% forest area)

(ha/capita)

(% pop)

(US$)

CAC

263.7

78.5

30%

1.3

2%

1.58

34%

2,414

ESA

880.7

203.8

23%

44.0

22%

0.54

70%

888

Europe

475.7

161.9

34%

9.3

6%

0.93

26%

18,739

NENA

1,189.2

27.6

2%

6.5

24%

3.19

37%

2,004

Oceania

1,060.7

308.8

29%

13.5

4%

3.37

54%

2,387

S. America

1,753.5

885.6

51%

10.5

1%

5.15

21%

4,216

SSA

2,377.1

643.6

27%

6.3

1%

3.80

67%

488

F. USSR

2,191.0

901.1

41%

23.3

3%

7.63

31%

1,680

Canada

922.1

244.6

27%

0

0%

29.84

23%

19,267

China

932.7

163.5

18%

45.1

28%

0.73

66%

668

Japan

37.7

24.1

64%

10.7

44%

0.30

21%

43,574

USA

915.9

226.0

25%

16.2

7%

3.32

23%

28,310

Tropical

4,859.2

1,871.4 39%

67.8

4%

1.7

63%

993

Nontropical

8,140.9

1,997.6 25%

118.9

6%

2.7

44%

8,808

Total

13,000.0

3,869.0 30%

186.7

5%

2.18

53%

5,021

17

FAO FRA 2000 - Results of the Global Forest Resources Assessment 2000.

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Historically, most of the timber production has come from natural forests in both temperate and boreal regions and tropical and subtropical regions. Timber has been sourced both from sustainably (and unsustainably) managed forests and from land clearance. The clearance of forest land has its origins in land use competition. Land use competition is most pronounced in areas made accessible by transport infrastructure - some of which has been developed explicitly to enable forest harvesting, some of which has been developed for agricultural or other forms of land use settlement.

The development of transport infrastructure has not occurred uniformly across all forested regions, it being a function of many factors such as policy direction, population density and the stage of economic development. As a result, timber extraction has historically been focused on more populous and developed regions such as temperate Europe and more recently South East Asia and less so in areas such as the Brazilian Amazon and Central Africa. Large areas of boreal forest also have limited accessibility because of their distance from transport infrastructure.

Political and economic concern over the increasing inaccessibility of remaining natural forest resources, and the cost of sustainable management in them, coupled with the continuing expansion of the global market for timber, have enhanced the economic viability of plantations and semi-natural forests.

Semi-natural forests are common within but by no means exclusive to temperate and boreal zones and are typically monoculture stands, but occasionally contain more than one species, managed like plantations, but whose regeneration occurs naturally rather than through plantation. The area of plantations has consequently increased rapidly since the 1980s, and now corresponds to 5% of total forest area and 8.5% of economically accessible forest as shown in the following table.

Plantation areas and plantation rates by region 2000. Source: FAO. Region

Total Area 000 ha

Share of total %

Annual planting 000 ha/yr.

Africa

8,036

4

194

Asia

115,847

62

3,500

Europe

32,015

17

5

North &Central America

17,533

9

234

Oceania

3,201

2

50

South America

10,455

6

509

World Total

187,086

100

4,493

Asia is currently the dominant region for plantations accounting for 62% of the world's total plantation area. As the extent of annual planting in Asia also is much higher than anywhere else, corresponding to 78% of the global total, the concentration of plantations in this region is likely to continue.

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FAO Global Production and Trade in Forest Products in 2020. Source: FAOSTAT-Forestry database

FAO Global production and trade in forest products in 2020

Production

Exports Change (%) compared to:

Change (%) compared to:

2020 Product

Unit

2020 2019

2000

1980

2019

2000 1980

Roundwood

million m³

3 912

-1%

12%

25%

140

-2%

19%

Wood fuel

million m³

1 928

-1%

7%

15%

6

-15%

79%

Industrial roundwood

million m³

1 984

-2%

17%

37%

134

-1%

17%

50

3%

31

6%

Wood pellets and other agglomerates million tonnes

50%

43%

Sawn wood

million m³

473

-3%

23%

12%

153

-3%

34% 118%

Wood-based panels

million m³

367

-1%

107%

280%

88

-2%

67% 490%

Plywood

million m³

118

2%

103%

200%

28

-6%

60% 326%

Particle board, OSB and fibreboard

million m³

250

-2%

109%

335%

60

0%

71% 622%

Wood pulp

million tonnes

186

-2%

9%

48%

69

1%

80% 226%

Pulp from fibres other than wood

million tonnes

11

-1%

-26%

55%

0.4

7%

15%

Recovered paper

million tonnes

229

-1%

59%

352%

45

-8%

83% 716%

Paper and paperboard

million tonnes

401

-1%

24%

137%

111

-2%

13% 218%

Forest products value

US$ billion

244 -10%

68% 331%

The largest producers of industrial roundwood are USA, Europe, Canada, and South America. Production has been relatively stable since 1980 apart from a rising trend during the late 1980s, which ceased with the break-up of the USSR.

14

79%

Total roundwood production, 1961-2000. Source: IIED calculations based on FAOSTAT on-line database (2002).

REGION

1961

1971

1981

1991

2000

Annual Change

CAC

57,387,243

67,248,008

76,396,820

86,495,353

94,691,214

1.26%

ESA

305,319,306

384,051,695

464,518,912

538,670,419

535,421,764

1.41%

Europe

308,173,000

335,752,016

331,400,016

316,377,000

378,410,667

0.51%

NENA

35,814,883

62,018,917

52,890,032

48,469,537

47,725,007

0.72%

Oceania

292,561,716

270,719,621

248,436,147

226,267,831

197,430,551

-0.98%

S. America 145,429,194

167,077,098

227,695,451

277,518,355

337,998,999

2.13%

SSA

256,641,880

320,874,758

388,174,943

473,433,184

568,382,396

2.01%

Former USSR

351,000,000

384,700,000

358,200,000

356,400,000

198,938,610

-1.41%

Canada

93,569,008

119,819,000

144,736,000

160,168,000

187,443,903

1.75%

China

141,653,000

172,834,360

233,576,712

282,440,760

287,471,832

1.79%

Japan

65,048,999

46,978,000

31,747,999

28,106,000

18,120,621

-3.14%

USA

289,770,016

334,318,016

407,094,008

478,600,000

500,433,996

1.38%

Tropical

1,002,749,342

1,138,601,366

1,315,760,786

1,489,628,464

1,584,553,074

1.15%

Nontropical

1,339,618,903

1,527,790,123

1,649,106,254

1,783,317,975

1,767,916,486

0.70%

Total

2,342,368,245

2,666,391,489

2,964,867,040

3,272,946,439

3,352,469,560

0.90%

Total primary wood production, Roundwood, and Fuelwood 1961-2000: Source: IIED calculations based on FAOSTAT on-line database (2002).

The category of industrial roundwood includes logs, wood residues, and chips and particles, the basic inputs for all other industrial wood product categories.

15

World production of processed wood products has been increasing since the 1960’s for each of the four main product categories: sawn wood, pulp, paper and panels, with paper and panels showing the highest rates of growth. Sawn wood production has been more cyclical such that current production levels are only slightly higher than in the beginning of the 1980s.

These trends hold true for each region, except in the case of sawn wood production which has been declining in China, Japan and former USSR but has grown slightly faster in Canada than paper production. Tropical countries have experienced considerably higher growth rates for all four product categories than non-tropical countries.

World and regional consumption of wood product categories by volume and as a proportion of total world consumption, 2000. Source: IIED calculation based on FAOSTAT on-line database (2002).

Region

Pulp

Paper

Sawn wood

Panels (m3)

(%)

100.0 421.9 100.0

193.9

100.0

8.2

2.5

7.1

1.7

1.3

0.6

3.4

18.3

5.7

22.2

5.3

7.8

4.0

48.2

28.2

85.5

26.4

103.4 24.5

59.3

30.6

NENA

1.1

0.7

7.1

2.2

11.7

2.8

5.7

2.9

Oceania

5.6

3.3

10.1

3.1

8.6

2.0

5.5

2.8

South America

6.8

4.0

11.5

3.5

25.5

6.0

9.1

4.7

SSA

1.7

1.0

2.7

0.8

6.5

1.5

1.3

0.7

Former USSR

4.6

2.7

4.6

1.4

16.9

4.0

5.1

2.6

Canada

15.0

8.8

8.1

2.5

21.2

5.0

5.2

2.7

China

7.7

4.5

42.4

13.1

12.1

2.9

24.0

12.4

Japan

14.3

8.4

31.8

9.8

27.0

6.4

11.9

6.1

USA

59.2

34.6

93.7

28.9

159.6 37.8

57.6

29.7

(mt)

(%)

(mt)

(%)

Total

171.2

100.0 324.0

CAC

1.0

0.6

ESA

5.8

Europe

3

(m )

(%)

Annual total production of industrial roundwood from all sources has expanded by 1.12% on average since 1961, with all regions increasing their production except the former USSR (declining since 1971) and Japan (declining throughout). Tropical countries exhibit greater annual increase in production than non-tropical countries, growing at 3.0% per year in comparison to less than 1%. This is due both to increases in hardwood production from natural forests and due to the maturation of tropical plantations in regions such as South America and South East Asia.

16

Trends in annual production by product category, 1961-2000 (% per annum). Source: Calculated from FAOSTAT online database (2000).

Region

Pulp

Paper

Sawn wood

Panels

CAC

2.71%

5.59%

2.01%

2.79%

ESA

9.97%

8.52%

2.93%

10.81%

Europe

2.03%

3.51%

0.78%

5.01%

NENA

5.36%

6.07%

4.08%

7.81%

Oceania

5.87%

6.85%

0.79%

8.30%

South America

8.05%

5.25%

2.73%

8.26%

SSA

5.58%

6.17%

2.47%

4.75%

Former USSR

1.44%

1.38%

-3.23%

3.03%

Canada

2.34%

2.43%

3.21%

5.85%

China

4.20%

6.83%

-1.07%

11.38%

Japan

2.60%

4.54%

-1.21%

2.99%

USA

2.39%

2.62%

1.15%

3.65%

Total

2.59%

3.63%

0.49%

5.06%

In addition to the expansion of processed products, there has been a rapid expansion in the production of Secondary Processed Wood Products (SPWPs). The Standard International Trade Classification of these lists SPWPs in several categories which include wooden furniture and parts: builder's woodwork, other SPWPs (including packaging, cooper's products, domestic products etc.) mouldings. The production of SPWPs is spread across the globe and is increasingly offering tropical countries and Eastern European countries entry points into international trade. Furniture is by far the most important category for trade and China, Indonesia and Malaysia vie with Italy, Canada, Poland, and the USA for the export markets. While production is dominated in tropical regions by South East Asia, capacity is also expanding rapidly in other areas of the tropical and/or developing world such as Brazil (primarily in furniture) and Cote d'Ivoire and Ghana (primarily in mouldings).

The most notable feature of SPWP production has been the spectacular rise in Chinese production capacity. From a total output value of US$ 157 million in 1978, Chinese furniture production expanded to US$16.9 billion in 2001 involving 50,000 enterprises and nearly 5 million employees (ITTO 2002).

Increasing production, as can be expected, has been accompanied by increasing consumption at a global and regional level. The main exceptions are for roundwood and sawn wood. It can be observed that both Japan and the former USSR have experienced declines in consumption of these two commodities. In the case of the former USSR, this reflects this region's political transformation during the 1990s. In the case of Japan, reduced consumption in the 1990s of roundwood and sawn wood reflected the recession that plagued the Japanese economy in this period. China also experienced a reduction in sawn wood consumption in the 1990s, probably reflecting a switch into other wood products such as panels. Consumption of panels in China grew at 10.8% per year over the period 1961 and 2000 and increased almost fourfold between 1991 and 2000.

Globally, there is a trend to export a greater proportion of timber harvested, whether as industrial roundwood or as processed products. The trend is strongest in non-tropical 17

countries indicating the maturing of plantations during the 1990s coupled with increased demand from tropical countries as consumption in those countries continues to rise.

Intra-regional trade flows account for the bulk of world trade. Most of these are within the same region, in particular between Canada and the USA, within Europe, and within East and South Asia. Indeed, Europe, North America and Asia primarily trade internally with only one-third of exports leaving each region.

Main wood product trade flows. Source: Peck18 (2001) and FAOSTAT (2002).

Product category

Main Trade Flows (based on volume)

Industrial roundwood

Intra-Europe Former USSR to Europe Former USSR to East and South Asia

Sawn wood

Intra-North America Intra-Europe Intra-East and South Asia

Panels

Intra-East and South Asia Intra-Europe Intra-North America

Paper

North America to East and South Asia Intra-Europe Intra-North America

For tropical timber, the emergence of China as the world's largest importer of tropical logs, sawn wood, and veneer, means that trade flows within the Asian region predominate.

According to ITTO19 (2002) in 2001, the three largest trade flows of tropical logs were from Malaysia to China and to Japan, and from Indonesia to China. For European importers, the main source of supply was West and Central Africa. For tropical sawn wood, there was a similar pattern with the largest trade flows being from Indonesia to China, and Malaysia to Thailand and China. In the case of tropical veneer, a considerable proportion of exports were from Malaysia to China and other Asian countries. Trade in tropical plywood was also primarily between Asian countries, with imports by Japan from Indonesia and Malaysia accounting for 46% of world imports.

Peck, T. 2001. The International Timber Trade. Cambridge, UK: Woodhead Publishing Company.

ITTO. (2002c). Annual Review and Assessment of the World Timber Situation. Yokohama. Japan. International Tropical Timber Organisation. (available at www.itto.or.jp) 18 19

18

Source: UN Comtrade, WFSE/EFI, FAOSTAT in Katila A & Simula M 2005 Draft Final Report.

Sustainability Impact assessment of Proposed WTO negotiants Draft Report for the Forest Sector Study. Savcor Indufor Oy, Finland & IARC University of Manchester UK (in million USD) Wood Fuels and Wood Energy Fuelwood production has been expanding at 1% per annum on average worldwide since 1961. However, its use is declining in some regions (Canada, Japan, NENA, Oceania, Europe, and Former USSR), and expanding in others (notably in SSA, China and the USA).

Tropical countries produce over 70% of all fuel wood and over the period 1961 to 2000 have been expanding production at double the rate of non-tropical countries.

Globally, fuelwood accounts for 7-11% of energy consumption (20IEA 1998); FAO 2001) but developing countries account for 90% of global fuelwood use (21ABARE and Jaako Poyry 1999) Indeed, 80% of wood harvested in developing countries is consumed as fuel (FAO 2001), accounting for 15-35% (IEA 1998) of total energy use.

The volume of wood destined for fuelwood (approximately half of global production) suggests that forest management at the landscape level is likely to be affected as much by fuelwood use as by industrial roundwood production and trade. It is also important that little fuelwood is traded internationally. This reflects its relatively low unit value, wide availability, and importance for domestic energy supply (22Nasi et al 2002; 23Buongiorno et al 2002). Shortages of fuelwood are more likely to cause diversification to other fuels (kerosene, coal, dung, etc.) rather than augmentation of supply through international markets.

20 : IEA BIOENERGY ANNUAL REPORT 1998.

21 ABARE & Jaakko Pöyry 1999. Global outlook for plantations. ABARE research report 99.9, Canberra, ABARE Australia, 107 pp. ISSN 1037-8286 ISBN 0 642 26647 6 ABARE – Jaakko Pöyry, ABARE Research Report 99.9, Canberra. Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource Economics.

22 Nasi R, Dennis R, Meijaard E, Applegate G, Moore P 2002 Forest Fire, and biological diversity. Unasylva 209 vol 53.

23 Buongiorno J & Zhu S. 2002. International impact of national environmental policies: The case of paper recycling in the United States. International Forestry Review 4(2):133-142.

19

Increased use of wood fuel-electricity is linked, like that for wind and solar electricity, to fair access to the electricity market.

Most probably, consumption of wood fuels for heat production will increase in the shortterm, while a longer perspective is necessary for combined heat and power (CHP) generation, which still suffers from an unstable regulation environment caused by electricity market liberalization.

Forecasts and Implications Plantation areas and plantation rates by region 2000. Source: FAO. Region

Total Area 000 ha

Share of total %

Annual planting rate 000 ha/yr.

Africa

8,036

4

194

Asia

115,847

62

3,500

Europe

32,015

17

5

North and Central America

17,533

9

234

Oceania

3,201

2

50

South America

10,455

6

509

World Total

187,086

100

4,493

The table shows the regional breakdown of plantation area and planting rates. Asia is currently the dominant region for plantations accounting for 62% of the world's total plantation area. As the extent of annual planting in Asia also is much higher than anywhere else, corresponding to 78% of the global total, the concentration of plantations in this region is likely to continue.

FAO (1998) estimates that current plantation area in the southern hemisphere has a potential annual growth of 1.1 bn m3 (approximately 70% of current industrial timber production). As such plantation areas mature, it is widely anticipated that there will be a continuing dramatic shift in the origin of timber supply towards plantation areas (24Evans 1999).25 Sedjo and Botkin (1997) estimate that current demand for industrial roundwood could be met by plantations on as little as 1.5 m km2 of land, approx. 4% of current global forest area. Table 2.4 presents forecasts of the continued shift of supply to plantations.

Evans J. 1999. Sustainability of forest plantations: a review of evidence and future prospects. The International Forestry Review. Vol. 1, No. 3, SPECIAL ISSUE: PLANTATIONS (1999), pp. 153-162 (10 pages). Commonwealth Forestry Association.

25 Sedjo R & Botkin D 1997. Using Forest Plantations to spare Natural Forests. Environment: Science and Policy for Sustainable Development. Vol 39, 1997 Issue 10.

24

20

Estimated current and forecast industrial roundwood supply by forest management situation (% global harvest). Source: 26Sedjo (2001) Forest type

2000

2050

Old growth

22

5

Second-growth (minimal management)

14

10

Indigenous second growth (managed)

30

10

Industrial plantations Indigenous

24

25

Industrial plantations, fast-growing

10

50

These estimates predict that by 2050 50% of the world's industrial roundwood supply will be sourced from fast-growing industrial plantations and that only 5% will be derived from unmanaged old growth forests. Most of these fast-growing plantations will be in the tropics and sub-tropics where climatic conditions are particularly favourable for the species involved.

If these predictions prove correct, concerns over the impact of forest harvesting and trade will shift to how plantations are run and how natural forests that are not used for timber production can be protected effectively.

Future Wood Trade and Production Patterns There is clear consensus in five areas: 1 Increasing consumption and production. Increasing population, greater urbanisation and rising incomes will result in continued strong growth in global consumption of most products. It is anticipated that consumption will grow most rapidly in developing countries where many countries may move from being net exporters to net importers in some forest product categories.

Comparison of projections of world consumption of industrial wood (RWE) to 2020.

Source: 27Peck, 2001 in billions m3 Source

Year of publication

2010*

FAO28

2020*

1995

2.28

Sedjo and Lyon29

1995

1.97

2.14

Jaako Poyry30

1995

1.94

2.25

Sedjo, R.A. 2001. The role of forest plantations in the world’s future timber supply. The Forestry Chronicle Vol 77. No. 2: 221-225.

27 Peck, T. 2001. The International Timber Trade. Cambridge, UK: Woodhead Publishing Company.

28 FAO 1995. Forest resources assessment 1990, Tropical Forest plantation resources. (FRA 1990) FAO Forestry Paper 128. FAO, Rome, Italy.

29 Sedjo, R. and K. Lyon (1995). A Global Pulpwood Supply Model and Some Implications. Resources for the Future, Washington DC, USA. 30 Jaakko Pöyry (1995). Global Fibre Resources Situation: The Challenges for the 1990s. The Jaakko Pöyry Group, Tarrytown, NY, USA. 26

21

Brooks31

1997

2.03

Zhu et al32

1998

1.88

2.16

2 Regarding increasing proportions of plantation wood in timber trade, market forces, low tariff barriers and the growing concern over environmental degradation and illegal logging will continue to shift production towards the most efficient and controllable locations, namely plantations (particularly high growth rate tropical plantations) and seminatural forests (particularly in temperate and boreal regions). The drive to restrict production volumes in natural forests to the annual allowable cut and to curb illegality will further exacerbate this trend.

3 Increasing trade-output ratios; while domestic markets will continue to dominate trade statistics in many areas, falling tariff barriers are likely to prompt increasing numbers of consumers to widen their search for lower cost and greater quality across national boundaries.

4 Increasing shift towards processed and SPWPs trade with gradual inroads by developing countries. The developed countries will continue to maintain market share through attention to technology and product design, but it is expected that the burgeoning technical capacity in developing nations, coupled with low wages, ample natural resources and policies directed towards value adding processing will continue to drive the shift towards exports in processed and SPWPs from developing nations - although the nature of these exports may vary over time.

5 The consolidated position of some emerging exporters and importers (e.g., Russia and China). The emergence of Russia and China as major exporters is likely to continue as capacity development has yet to reach its full potential. In China's case this will also involve continued expansion as a major importer of industrial roundwood and sawnwood. Brazil may also be expected to consolidate its position in world markets due to its resource abundance and growing technological proficiency.

The forecasts described above depend heavily on assumptions about technological innovation and political stability.

There are three important reasons why future forecasts are increasingly risky: • •

Political and social instability - the growing scarcity of renewable and non-renewable resources, growing global inequality and a rise in unilateralism need to be factored into any future predictions under the current model of globalisation.

Environmental instability - the current rates of economic growth are both based on non-renewable energy resources and have major climatic and environmental consequences. It would be unwise to take as read that global consumption will be able to continue growing at its current rate.

Brooks D.1997 The outlook for demand and supply of wood: implications for policy and sustainable management.

Commonwealth Forestry Review Vol 76 No.1 Special Issue: the contribution of the social sciences to forestry pp 31-36.

Publisher CFA. 32 Zhu, S, Tomberlin, D, and Buongiorno, J, 1998, Global forest products consumption, production, trade and prices: global forest products model projections to 2010, Global Forest Products Outlook Study Working Paper No GFPOS/WP/01, FAO t:http://www.fao.org/forestry/FON/FONS/outlook/global/gfpswp-e.stm.

31

22

•

Economic instability - the measures required to correct the market externalities implicit in the growing political and environmental instability may require dramatic shifts in economic policy. The rapid development of markets for environmental services is but one of the measures that may be required to promote sustainability, and which will have far reaching consequences for forest cover and timber production.

Global trade in forest products has increased over the last forty years in both value and volume terms, raising questions about the possible impact on forest management. Statistics on land area, forest area, demographic patterns and income show considerable variation such that it is not possible to draw simple conclusions about the impacts of trade and increased economic activity. The relationships between deforestation and population and economic pressures are complex and highly location specific. It is also important that roughly half of total roundwood production consists of fuelwood, very little of which is traded internationally.

Annual plantation rates and plantation areas by region and species group. Source FAO 2000

Distribution of forest plantation areas by region and species. Source FAO 2000 Durst and Brown33 2000, advised that it is only a handful of countries possess the bulk of global forest plantation resources. Five countries have each established more than 10 million hectares of forest plantations: China (21.4 million ha); United States of America (18.4 million ha); Russian Federation (17.1 million ha); India (12.4 million ha); and Japan (10.7 million ha). Together, these five countries account for 65 percent of the world's forest plantation resources. The overall concentration of forest plantations in a handful of countries is further demonstrated by the fact that only 13 other countries have an area of forest plantations 33

P Durst, C Brown 2000 Current trends and development of plantation forestry in Asia Pacific countries FAO.

23

exceeding 1 million hectares. Thus, 18 countries account for 87 percent of the world's plantations. Ten of these countries are in the Asia-Pacific region.

While plantation forest areas can provide a broad approximation of plantation wood production potential, the development of national age-class structures for plantation forests allows considerable refinement of these assessments. Age-class information enables more accurate assessment of the current level of wood production from plantations and likely future changes in production levels.

Plantations of non-native species are grown worldwide, and many are more productive (m3 wood/ha/year) than native species. Although less than 5% of the total world forest area, plantations account for nearly 35% of the world's wood products (FAO, 2011). Non-native pines and species of eucalyptus make up a significant percentage of the trees in plantations.

Although initially lacking a normal complement of insects and diseases, non-native plantations are difficult to sustain and may offer routes for movement of insects and disease into native forests. In plantations, lack of species diversity and structural complexity limit varieties of habitats to support biological diversity.

The use of plantations managed for timber production must increase to meet the world’s increasing demand for wood and fibre from this reduced land base. Concentrating timber production on the best-adapted sites will allow the world’s demands to be met on fewer hectares. Intensive management of plantation forests is perhaps the only way to meet the increasing demand for forest products and still reserve large areas of native forests for conservation and preservation purposes. Maintaining long-term soil productivity in these intensively managed plantations is critical. The impacts of intensive management on soil quality and subsequent tree growth can be positive, neutral, or negative; the direction and magnitude of the impact depends on the specific management practice soil physical, chemical and biological properties. To understand and predict the impacts of intensive management, the factors limiting productivity on each specific site must be understood.

Forest plantations require intensive management inputs, more similar to agriculture than to traditional management of native-species forests; e.g., in plantations there may be intensive site preparation, weed control, fertilizer use, pest control, relatively frequent uses of heavy machines for harvest and planting with associated impacts on soils. Many plantations are on abandoned agricultural land and therefore seem aesthetically and socially acceptable as landscape components; this may contrast with places where plantations replace the visual appearance of native forests, whereas some plantations seem to be well integrated into complex landscape mosaics.

Forest plantations of single tree species may have quite different ecosystem characteristics than do many native forests and create intensive and usually simplifying interactions with soils. These interactions may influence soil properties essential for sustained productivity, e.g. nutrient element biogeochemistry, organic matter dynamics, soil biota and dynamics of soil structure and porosity. These influences result when vegetation is extremely simplified by uses of site manipulations and herbicides to eliminate plants that would compete for site 24

resources with the desired trees. In the most simplified plantations, with a single tree species as the sole source of organic matter recycled to soils nutrient cycling dynamics will be altered. It is important that forest managers consider the implications of site manipulations for soil properties and processes essential for long-term productivity.

Forest harvesting by itself tends to have minor impacts on soil quality and long-term site productivity. Compaction during timber harvesting can degrade the soil quality. However, tillage during site preparation can in most cases restore soil physical properties to predisturbance levels. Site preparation practices that remove large quantities of organic matter and surface soil can detrimentally impact soil quality, most notably on sandy soils. Intensive management practices such as fertilization can improve soil quality and increase site productivity by ameliorating factors limiting growth. The increased growth rates in intensively managed stands can indirectly improve soil quality by increasing organic matter.

The increased production of coarse roots in intensively managed plantations is particularly important in this regard. These changes can lead to long-term improvement in soil quality and site productivity, especially on the degraded soils on which many forest plantations are established.

Based on the available data, intensive management can be practiced sustainably on many soils. Land classification systems are needed to identify soils that are suitable for intensive management. Site-specific management regimes must then be developed to ensure that intensive management is practiced sustainably on these soils.

Blakesley and Marks34 2003 stated that making significant changes to the productivity of plantation forests by conventional means will always be a long-term process because of the generally long rotation times prevalent in forest trees, whereas global demands upon this resource necessitate the use of processes that will achieve production targets in the short term. To make any serious inroad into the annual reduction in the global forest, serious consideration needs to be given to maximizing the planting of high-yielding short rotation clones. Although some of these may be identified from conventionally produced trees, it is likely that many will need to be produced by biotechnological means, either because of the time taken to introduce new genes, or the impracticality of achieving the desired function (e.g., altered lignin biosynthesis). Also, practical mechanisms, whereby field assessment of clones can be optimized, and the desired characteristics of the clones proved to be robust in the field, will need to be more widely utilized.

Because forest plantations grow much faster than natural forests, forest plantations are seen as an increasingly important source of timber supply. In 1995, natural forests contributed some 78% of global industrial timber supply, and the remaining was from forest plantations.

The general trend of the sector is for timber supply to shift from natural forests to plantations.

The transition from natural forests as the primary source of timber supply to forest plantations will take a long time. Nonetheless, the transition has been completed in some countries such as New Zealand and Chile.

34

D Blakesley, T Marks Tissue culture and plant breeding | clonal forestry Encyclopedia of Applied Plant Sciences, 2003.

25

Though the yields from forest plantations depend on site condition, tree species, and sensitivity against pest and diseases, in most cases the productivity of plantations is higher than from natural forests. In the tropics, the annual plantation wood increment ranges between 10 and 30 m³ ha-1 yr-1 compared to the natural forest of 1-5 cubic metres per hectare per year. Eucalyptus spp., on an annual basis, can yield as much as 45 m³ ha-1 yr-1 or more, while yields of up to 100 m³ ha-1 yr-1 have been recorded (35Brown 1999). A focus on fast growing tree species such as Eucalyptus combined with fertilisation practices are seen as the underlying reasons for such high productivity of plantations.

Compared to natural forests, plantations offer a more uniform timber size and quality which helps to forecast the future supply. The rotation period ranges between seven years for some Eucalyptus plantations in the tropics to more than 100 years in temperate and boreal zones.

(36Savill et al. 1997).

With demand for forested land for many urban developments, agricultural and mining activities, the ongoing development of commercial forest plantations is based on economies of scale re suitable land availability, growing, harvesting, transportation, and conversion costs.

About 50% of the world’s natural forests are not available for use (37Fenning & Gershenzon 2002).

In the face of a dramatically increasing world population, there is strong and increasing demand for wood even where the anticipated consumption per person does not change or decrease. There is evidence that the increase of wood demand seems to be higher than the population growth. Recently, world population has shown a 1.3% increase per year. The global demand for wood, however, is increasing by 1.7% per year (FAO 2000).

Wood is the most important energy source for about three billion people. Over 50% of the world’s harvest of wood is used as fuel (firewood and charcoal). More than 80% of this consumption, an increasing trend, takes place in developing countries.

It is estimated that some 80% of the world’s population does not have access to the minimum amount of paper considered necessary to fulfil basic needs in reading and communication. The lack of paper is a serious threat to the efficiency of educational programs in developing countries.

In 1992, the European Commission launched a program to increase afforestation activities on farmland. The purpose of the program was to reduce the costs of agricultural subsidies.

Agricultural subsidies, at that time, were the largest single item in the EU budget.

Landowners willing to convert agricultural land into forest production received afforestation Brown, C. 1999, Global Forest Products Outlook Study: Thematic Study on Plantations. Working Paper No. GFPOS/WP/03. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, 129 pp.

36 Savill P, Evans J, Auclair D, Falck J 1997 Plantation Silviculture in Europe. Publisher Oxford University Press UK. ISBN 9780191590467, 0191590460.

37 Fenning TM, Gershenzon J. 2002. Where will the wood come from? Plantation forests and the role of biotechnology. Trends Biotechnology 20: 291–296.

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grants which included a cost support for maintenance during the first critical years as well as forest premium compensation for the income lost from agricultural products. Within the first decade of the program’s launch, about one million hectares were afforested in the European Community, mainly in Spain, Portugal, and Ireland. Species included Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis), lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta), the common oak (Quercus robur) and European beech (Fagus silvatica), In the main, planting activities, particularly in developed countries, are undertaken to provide a continuing supply of timber and pulp. According to the FAO Forest Resource Assessment in 2000, 35% of the industrial roundwood came from plantation forest. This figure is expected to increase to about 44% in 2020.

FRA 2000 and New Sources of Fibre Since FRA 1990, advances in wood utilization technology have resulted in increasing importance of new sources of fibre – rubber (Hevea brasiliensis), coconut palm (Cocos nucifera) and African oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) – especially in the Southeast Asian subregion. These species account for 9.7, 12.0 and 6.0 million hectares of plantations, respectively. All grow in the humid tropics. FRA 2000 included these agricultural wood fibre crops.

In terms of plantation area, Asia has 92 percent of the world’s rubber, 86 percent of the world’s coconut palm and 78 percent of the world’s African oil palm. Indonesia, Thailand, and Malaysia have almost three-quarters of the rubber plantations; Indonesia and the Philippines have about half the coconut resources; and Malaysia has 55 percent of the oil palm resource.

All three species are grown principally for other products rather than wood, so when overmature they are available for fibre-based industries at minimal cost.

Rubberwood is harvested when latex productivity declines (beyond 30 years) and yields 100 m3 per hectare of roundwood, but recovery for lumber is only 25 to 45 percent because of poor form and small size. Most of the planted stands in Southeast Asia are owned by smallholders and are geographically dispersed, with poor accessibility and poor-quality stems. Currently the major proportion of industrially utilized rubberwood comes from largescale plantations. Quality furniture, parquet, panelling, reconstituted panels, general utility timber and wood fuel, including charcoal, are made from rubberwood.

However, the rubberwood must be processed within days of harvesting to minimize sap stain attack. The most developed downstream industries are in Malaysia, where the production of sawn rubberwood timber rose from 88 000 m3 in 1990 to 137 000 m3 in 1997 and medium density fibreboard (MDF) production from rubberwood reached 1.16 million cubic metres per annum by 1999. Exports of rubberwood furniture have grown from about US$74 million in 1991 to US$683 million in 1998. Rubberwood has become a substitute for light tropical forest hardwoods. Its acceptance as a sustainable plantation-grown, environmentally friendly timber has given it wide appeal (FAO 2001c).

Coconut palms are harvested as the copra yields decline (beyond 60 years) and yield 90 m3 per hectare of coconut wood. Coconut palm has variable properties and is intrinsically 27

difficult for conversion but can yield a relatively low-cost, general-utility timber for construction, panelling, stairs, door jambs, furniture, flooring, and power poles. In 1993 Indonesia had 65 million cubic metres of overmature coconut stems which needed disposal before replanting. There is increasing interest in this raw material in European and North American markets. It is unlikely to replace conventional timber, but likely to find its way into niche markets. It will continue to be used as a low-cost construction timber (FAO 2001).

Oil palm plantations are harvested for fibre beyond the 25-to-30-year rotations and yield about 235 m3 per hectare. It is estimated that over 1.6 billion cubic metres of fibre will be available in the years to come from established resources in Southeast Asia. From 1996 to 1999 the area increased by 18 percent. In Malaysia, the area has increased by 3 million hectares in the past 30 years. Most oil palm plantations (unlike rubber and coconut) in the main growing countries, Malaysia, and Indonesia, are managed by plantation companies or cooperatives. Oil palm by-products such as kernel shells, pressed fibres and empty fruit bunches are currently used in heat generation at the extraction plants. Water in the stems can reach five times the weight of dry matter. The high moisture content as well as the high amounts of parenchyma tissue rich in sugar and starches make conversion into quality forest products a challenge. An MDF plant in Malaysia is currently being planned to utilize oil palm stems (FAO 2001).

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Sedjo 2001 examined the potential of non-wood fibre sources, including annual cropping of plants such as hemp, bagasse, etc. These types of fibre sources have several economic and ecological problems. A major economic problem is that there is a specific peak harvesting period. Subsequently, the crop must be stored and preserved until it is to be processed. Both functions incur cost.

By contrast, timber can generally be harvested throughout the year, or at least through a much larger portion of the year than an annual crop, and it can be stored for a longer period.

Thus, labour and capital equipment can be used, essentially, year-round. Furthermore, wood tends to resist deterioration better than non-woody plants.

Forest Plantations Harvest Regimes The harvest rotations of forest plantations vary enormously, from annual or sub-annual for some non-wood products, to around 200 years for traditionally managed high-value temperate hardwoods.

With few exceptions, shorter rotation plantations - typically of 5 to 15 years - have been grown for fuel, fibre or roundwood, and longer rotation plantations - typically upwards of 25 years - principally for sawn or veneer wood products.

Notwithstanding successful antecedents in both temperate (e.g., oak in Europe) and tropical (e.g., teak in Asia and India; 39Keh 1997) environments, plantation forests on a large scale are a twentieth-century phenomenon. The majority of the world’s plantation forests have been established in the past half-century, and the rate of plantation afforestation has been Sedjo, R.A. 2001. The role of forest plantations in the world’s future timber supply. The Forestry Chronicle Vol 77. No. 2: 221-225.

39 Keh, S.K. 1997. Wither goest Myanmar teak plantation establishment? Eleventh World Forestry Congress. Unasylva- No. 190-191.

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increasing progressively during this period. Global rates of forest plantation establishment and re-establishment are poorly known but are estimated at around 2.6 million ha annually in the tropics (40FAO 1993, 41Pandy 1995), and perhaps 1 to 2 million ha in the temperate zones (42Mather 1990, 1993).

Recent plantation expansion has been greatest in the southern hemisphere: in South America (principally Argentina, Chile, and Brazil), Asia (principally Indonesia) and New Zealand, where particular coincidences of public policies, opportunities and market forces have been most conducive to afforestation. In some countries, e.g., Indonesia or Chile, plantation establishment remains concentrated on sites converted directly from natural ecosystems; in others, e.g., New Zealand or Portugal, plantation establishment has shifted entirely to sites formerly used for agriculture.

Plantation forests currently provide around 10% of the world’s wood harvest; this proportion is rising and will continue to rise rapidly, as the area of natural forest available for harvesting diminishes, as economic pressures and technological change favour plantation crops, and as the plantation forest estate matures and expands.

The contribution of plantations to wood production within domestic economies varies enormously, reflecting different forest endowments and policies - from, for example, nearly 100% in New Zealand or South Africa, to around 50% in Argentina or Zimbabwe, to negligible levels in Canada or Papua New Guinea.

Given the wood production objectives of most plantation forests, and the commodity nature of most wood markets, plantation growth rates are of fundamental importance because of their implications for the cost of wood at harvest. Only around 10% of existing plantations can be classified as "fast growing" (in 43Sutton’s (1991a) terms, yielding more than 14 m3 /yr.); most of these plantations are in the southern hemisphere, with around 40% in each of South America and Asia-Pacific. The majority of "fast growing" plantations are of species such as Acacia or Eucalyptus grown on short rotations for the relatively low-value uses of fuel, fibre or roundwood; perhaps a third are longer-rotation crops, of either softwood or hardwood species, grown principally for sawn- or veneer- wood.

The importance of plantations in general is likely to increase further as it is expected that plantations will become the principal source of wood fibre soon especially with production and simpler management than that of natural forest.

FAO. 1993. Forest resources assessment 1990. Tropical countries. FAO Forestry Paper 112. FAO, Rome. 61 p + appendices.

41 Pandey, D. 1995. Forest Resources Assessment 1990 - Tropical Forest plantation resources, FAO Forestry Paper 128, FAO Rome, 81 pp. 46 13.

42 Mather, AS. 1990. Global forest resources. Bellhaven Press. 341 p. Mather, AS (Ed). 1993. Afforestation: policies, planning and progress. Bellhaven Press. 223 p.

43 Sutton, WRJ. 1991a. Are we too concerned about wood production? New Zealand Forestry 36(3): 25-28.

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ACRONYMS AAD ACT ACIAR ACLMP ACP ADB AEC AFAP ADB AFLEGT AFPNG AFS AFTA AIF AMF ANBG ANGAU ANU APEC APMF APPM ARD ASEAN ASIO ASOPA ATIBT ATL ATO AusAID BA BCOF BDV “Beer Time” BFC BGD BNGD BUC C cm CALM CBD CDM CEFACT CEPT CERFLOR CFA

Australian Antarctic Division Australian Capital Territory Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research AusAid funded World Bank Land Mobilisation program.

African, Caribbean and Pacific States Asian Development Bank Administrators Executive Committee Australian Foundation for the Peoples of Asia & the Pacific Ltd. African Development Bank African Forest Law Enforcement, Governance and Trade Association of Foresters of PNG Australian Forestry School Asean Free Trade Area Australian Infantry Forces Australian Military Forces Australian National Botanical Gardens Australian New Guinea Administrative Unit Australian National University Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation Australian Paper Manufacturers Forestry Pty Ltd Australia Paper and Pulp Manufacturers Afforestation, Reforestation and avoided Deforestation Association of South East Asian Nations Australian Security Intelligence Organisation Australian School of Pacific Administration Association Technique Internationale des Bois Tropicaux Accelerated Tariff Liberalization African Timber Organization Australian Aid Agency basal area British Commonwealth Occupational Force 1945-52 Brussels Definition of Value Any time.

Bulolo Forestry College Bulolo Gold Dredging Company British New Guinea Development (Company Limited) Bulolo University College Commonwealth centimetre Western Australian Department of Conservation and Land Management Convention on Biological Diversity Clean Development Mechanism United Nations Centre for Trade Facilitation and Electronic Business Common Effective Preferential Tariff Certificate of Origin of Forest Raw Material, Brazil Commonwealth Forestry Association 55

CFE CGTM CIF CIFOR CITES C&I CNGT CO2 COC COP CPF CRE CRE

CSIRO CHAH C&I C&L CSD CTE DASF DBH/ dbh DEPT DESA DIES DIY DPI DOF DSB EC ECE ECOSOC EEA EFI EIA EMAS EMS ENB e.g.

ENGO Etc EU EVSL FAO F &TB FIM

Community forestry enterprise Cintra for Global Trade Model cost, insurance, freight Centre for International Forestry Research Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora Criteria and indicators Commonwealth New Guinea Timbers Bulolo carbon dioxide chain of custody Conference of Parties Collaborative Partnership on Forests Commander Royal Engineers CRE is a term inherited by RAE from RE and is the term for the Commanding Officer of a RAE unit which is headed by a Lt Col. Although the officer is called the CRE the name is also used for the name of his unit.

E.g., CRE Aust Forestry Group or 1(NG Forests).

Commonwealth Scientific & Industrial Research Organisation Council of Heads of Australasian Herbaria Criteria and Indicators Certification and Labelling Commission on Sustainable Development (United Nations) Committee on Trade and Environment Dept of Agriculture, Stock and Fisheries Diameter at breast height Department United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs Department of Information and Extension Services Do-it-yourself Department of Primary Industry Department of Forests Dispute Settlement Body European Commission ECA Export credit agency Economic Commission for Europe Economic and Social Council of the United Nations European Economic Area European Forest Institute Environmental Investigation Agency Eco-Management and Audit Scheme of European Union Environmental Management System East New Britain Province.

For example Environmental Non-governmental Organisation et cetera (more of the same) European Union Early Voluntary Liberalisation Food and Agriculture Organisation Forest and Timber Bureau Canberra Forest Information System 56

FMA FPRC FRA FRG FRI Forkol FSP/PNG FCCC FD FDI FIELD FLEGT FLEG FLONAS FOB FSC FTAA GAB Gbhob Gubab GIS G8 GATT GDP GEF GFTN GFPM GHG GIS GMO GNP GPA GSP GTZ ha IBRD IEA IFA IFY IADB IBAMA ICA ICCI IDB IEA IEC IFC IFF IHPA

Forest Management Agreement Forest Products Research Centre Hohola Forest Resource Assessment Forest Red Gum Forest Research Institute Lae Bulolo Forestry College Foundation of the Peoples of the South Pacific See UNFCCC Forest department Foreign direct investment The Foundation for International Environmental Law and Development Forest Law Enforcement, Governance and Trade Forest Law Enforcement and Governance National Forest logging concessions, Brazil free on board Forest Stewardship Council Free Trade Area of the Americas Girth above buttress Girth breast height over bark Girth under bark above buttress Geographic Information Systems Group of Eight (leading economies) General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade Gross Domestic Product Global Environment Facility Global Forest and Trade Network Global Forest Products Model greenhouse gas Geographical information system genetically modified organism Gross National Product Plurilateral Government Procurement Agreement Generalized System of Preferences Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit hectare International Bank for Reconstruction and Development International Energy Agency Institute of Foresters of Australia International Year of the Forest Inter-American Development Bank Amazon Environmental Institute, Brazil International Commodity Agreement International Conference on C&I for Sustainable Forest Management Inter-American Development Bank International Environmental Agreement International Electrical Commission International Finance Corporation Intergovernmental Forum on Forests International Hardwood Products Association 57

IIED IMF INGO IPC IPCC IPF ISO ITC ITTA ITTC ITTO IUCN IWPA JICA L of N LRRS LCA LEEC LEI LULUCF m3 MCCAF MHA MM MUS MEA MFN MIGA MOU MTTC n.a.

NAA NARI NB NAFTA NGO NHLA NRRP NT NTB NTCC NTFP NTM NWFP NDS NFCAP NGM no.

NG NGF

International Institute for Environment and Development International Monetary Fund International Non-Governmental Organisations Integrated Programme for Commodities Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Intergovernmental Panel on Forests International Organization for Standardisation International Trade Centre International Tropical Timber Agreement International Tropical Timber Council International Tropical Timber Organization The World Conservation Union International Wood Products Association Japanese International Cooperation Agency League of Nations Land Resource Soils Survey (branch of CSIRO) Life Cycle Analysis London Economic and Environmental Centre Indonesian Ecolabelling Institute Land Use, Land Use Change and Forests cubic metre McCarthy & Associates (Forestry) Pty. Ltd. Member of House of Assembly PNG Military Medal Malayan Uniform System Multilateral Environmental Agreement Most Favoured Nation Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency Memorandum of Understanding Malaysian Timber Certification Council not available National Archives Australia National Agriculture Research Institute New Britain North American Free Trade Agreement Non-Governmental Organisation National Hardwood Lumber Association Natural Resources and Rights Program National Treatment non-tariff barrier National Timber Certification Council non-timber forest product non-tariff measures non-wood forest product Northern District Sawmills PNG National Forestry and Conservation Action Plan New Guinea Mainland number New Guinea New Guinea Forces (relates to plant collection of Lae Herbarium) 58

NGIB NGI NGO NGVR NZ NSW NTSC OECD OTO OIC OISCA OTML P or p PEFC PIB PIR PNG PNGAA PNGAF PNGFA PNGFIA PNGRIS PNGUT POM P&C PEFC PGA PPM PPP QLD QF RAE RPC RRA RIIA RIL RFE RTA RWE SAP SPS SFM SGS SMS SP SPWP sq m TAG TSS

New Guinea Infantry Battalion New Guinea Islands Non-Government Organisation New Guinea Volunteer Rifles New Zealand New South Wales National Tree Seed Centre PNG Bulolo Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development Office of Trade and Investment Ombudsman Officer in Charge Organisation for Industrial, Spiritual and Cultural Advancement International Japan.

Ok Tedi Mining Ltd page Pan European Forest Certification Scheme Papuan Infantry Battalion Pacific Islands Regiment Papua New Guinea Papua New Guinea Australia Association Papua New Guinea Australian Foresters Magazine Series Papua New Guinea Forest Authority PNG Forest Industries Association Papua New Guinea Resource Information System PNG University of Technology Port Moresby Principles and Criteria Pan-European Forest Certification Framework Plurilateral Agreement on Government Procurement production and processing method Polluter Pays Principle (other meaning Purchasing Power Parity) Queensland Queensland Forestry Royal Australian Engineers/Australian Army Royal Papuan Constabulary Rapid Resource Appraisal Royal Institute of International Affairs reduced impact logging Russia Far East Regional Trade Agreement roundwood equivalent structural adjustment programme Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures Sustainable Forest Management Société General de Surveillance Selective Management System Malaysia South Pacific Secondary Processed Wood Products square metres Trade Advisory Group of ITTO Tropical Shelterwood System 59

TBT TFF TFRK TNC TRAINS TREM TRIM TRIP UK UN Unasylva UNCCD UNCED UNCSD UNCTAD UNESCO UNDP UNECE UNEP UNFCCC UNFF USTR UNE UNEP UNI UNITECH UNRE UPNG UQ US USA USD TPNG TUBL TA TA TRP Vol VSF WA WB WCMC WCO WSSD WTO WWF

Technical Barriers to Trade Tropical Forest Foundation traditional forest-related knowledge Transnational corporation Trade-Basic Indicators of UNCTAD trade-related environmental measures Trade Related Investment Measures Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights United Kingdom United Nations Journal of FAO of UN United Nations Programme to Combat Desertification United Nations Conference on Environment and Development United Nations Committee on Sustainable Development United Nations Conference on Trade and Development United Nations Economic and Social Council United Nations Development Programme United Nations Economic Commission for Europe United Nations Environment Programme Framework Convention on Climate Change of United Nations United Nations Forum on Forests US, Office of the US Trade Representative University of New England Armidale NSW United Nations Environment Program University University of Technology Lae PNG University of Natural Resources and Environment University of Papua New Guinea University of Queensland United States United States of America United States dollar Territory of Papua and New Guinea Territory United Brewery Ltd Timber Area Timber Authority Timber Rights Purchase volume Victorian School of Forestry Western Australia World Bank World Conservation Monitoring Centre World Customs Organisation World Summit for Sustainable Development World Trade Organization World Wide Fund for Nature

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