PNGAF MAGAZINE ISSUE #9D4C of 20th March 2022 - Global Plantation Issues and Trends.

AUSTRALIAN FORESTERS in PAPUA NEW GUINEA 1922-1975

PNGAF MAGAZINE ISSUE # 9D4C of 20 March 2022 THE DEVELOPMENT OF PNG’s FOREST MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS A history of plantation development globally, especially in tropical rainforest areas as pertinent to PNG’s forest tree plantation development.

PNGAF MAG 9D4C. Global Plantation Issues and Trends Editor R B McCarthy1 2022.

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Dick McCarthy District Forester TPNG 1963-1975.

1937 pictorial.

3 FAO 2001 Global Forest Resources Assessment 2000 Main report ISSN 0258-6150 FAO FORESTRY PAPER 140.

4 Norcell Bahia State Brazil Photos E. grandis clone 4 years old. Photo credits Dick McCarthy Gottstein Fellowship 1992.

5 8 year old P. radiata cuttings Tasman NZ. Photo credit Dick McCarthy 1990.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS “FORWOOD” WOOD AND WOOD FIBRE PRODUCTION PERIOD 1937 TO 2000 Global Production/Trade in Forest Products 1937/38 to 1954 World Wood and Wood Fibre Production and Trade 1947 World Production of Wood and Wood Fibre Products 1954 Global Production/Trade Wood & Wood Fibre Products 2000 IMPACT ON GLOBAL PLANTATION DEVELOPMENT DUE TO AUSTRALIAN EUCALYPT PULPING RESEARCH ATTRIBUTES OF WOOD AND WOOD FIBRE PRODUCTS Wood Softwood Hardwood Wood Fibres Uses of Wood and Wood Fibre FAO Definitions of Wood and Wood Fibre Products Roundwood Fuelwood Industrial roundwood Sawnwood Wood Based Panels Veneer sheets Plywood Particle Board Fibreboard Medium density fibreboard Pulp and Recovered Paper Wood Pulp Other fibre pulp Paper and Paperboard Newsprint Other Paper Products GLOBAL PLANTATION DEVELOPMENT 1937-2000 MAI and Rotation Lengths for the most planted species WHERE FROM WOOD AND WOOD FIBRE RESOURCES? FAO’s Global Forest Resources Assessment 2000 (FRA 2000) Global Plantation Issues and Trends Changing Origin of Forest Production: Natural and Planted Forests Predicted contribution of plantation wood to regional wood supply Key Findings of FRA 2000 Distribution of forest plantation areas by region and species Regional plantation area by purpose and ownership End Use Global Forest Plantations Produce Plantation purpose, ownership, largest plantation countries Species Trends by Regions Genus Pinus Genus Eucalyptus REFERENCES ACRONYMS

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“FORWOOD” In the period 1937 to 2000, global demand for all wood products increased, but the forest resources of the world decreased.

The biggest impact on species plantings in that period has been an upsurge globally, in the establishment of the fast-growing, short-rotation species in the genera Eucalyptus spp. and Acacia spp for short fibred pulpwood stock.

This was due to the research work undertaken by Australian forest researchers from Boas in 1918 to Benjamin and his assistant R B Jeffreys during the 1930’s. They found that short fibred eucalypt pulp made commercial paper. The Australian researchers showed the important factor was not the length of the fibre but the rela tionship of the fibre length to the fibre thickness.

Ball6 1993 noted that the rate of forest plantation establishment has increased sharply in the past decade, particularly in Asia and the Pacific, and species of Eucalyptus have been among the most important components of such plantation programmes.

Total world roundwood production was predicted to grow to 4.1 billion cubic metres by the year 2000 (Gauthier7, 1991).

FRA 2000 estimated the total roundwood harvest to be some 3.3 billion cubic metres.

Although accounting for only 5 percent of global forest cover, forest plantations were estimated in the year 2000 to supply about 35 percent of global roundwood.

Total world roundwood production was predicted to grow to some 6.6 billion cubic metres by the year 2025 (Sharma8, 1992). Some of the demand will be met from managed natural forests but that resource will have been diminished by an unknown but probably considerable amount due to forest destruction and degradation in the tropics.

The difference between supply from the natural forests and demand must be met from planted trees. Trees in well managed plantations have considerable production potential.

Globally, the main fast-growing, short-rotation species are in the genera Eucalyptus spp. and Acacia spp. Pines and other coniferous species are the main medium-rotation utility species, primarily in the temperate and boreal zones.

Of the estimated 187 million hectares of plantations worldwide (FAO9), 30 countries of the world account for 93 % (173 million ha).

Ball J B 1993 Development of Eucalyptus Plantations - An Overview. RAP publication: 1996/44 Proceedings Regional Expert Consultation on Eucalyptus spp. 4-8 October 1993 Bangkok vol 1 and vol 2. FAO. 7 Gauthier, JJ. 1991. Les bois de plantation dans le commerce mondial des produits forestiers. In: L'emergence des nouveaux potentiels forestiers dans le monde. AFOCEL, Paris. 9-20.

8 Sharma N P (ed) 1992 Managing the World’s Forests: Looking for balance between conservation and development.

Kendall/Hunt, Dubuque IO 605 pp.

9 FAO 2001 Global Forest Resources Assessment 2000 Main report ISSN 0258-6150 FAO Forestry Paper 140.

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The top ten countries with the largest forest plantation development account for 79% of the global forest plantation development area. Six of these countries, accounting for 56 % of global forest plantations are in Asia. (NB USA 9%). Source FAO 2000 Asia had by far the largest area, accounting for 62 percent of the world total. In terms of composition, Pinus spp. (20 percent) and Eucalyptus spp. (10 percent) remain the dominant genera worldwide, although the diversity of species planted was found to be increasing.

Many estimates predict that by 2050, 50% of the world's industrial roundwood supply will be sourced from fast-growing industrial plantations and that only 5% will be derived from unmanaged natural forests. Most of these fast-growing plantations will be in the tropics and sub-tropics where climatic conditions are particularly favourable for the species involved.

If these predictions prove correct, concerns over the impact of forest harvesting and trade will shift to how plantations are run and how natural forests that are not used for timber production can be protected effectively.

Constraints facing global plantation development to meet future global wood supply include shortage of available and sufficiently fertile land, shortage of investment capital and the weakness of existing institutions to manage long term plantation developments.

Unfortunately, the politics of plantations are the main and intractable constraint to their development, and in no case is it more so than with the use of species of the genus Eucalyptus in plantation programmes.

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WOOD AND WOOD FIBRE PRODUCTION PERIOD 1937 to 2000 FAO10 reported that when the Second World War ended (1945), there were great requirements for wood and wood fibre products. Fuelwood still had to replace coal in many countries which once they could import that commodity. Sawnwood was essential for reconstruction work, and wood pulp and its derivatives were needed. Plywood, veneers, and board were in great demand. Electrification and improvement of the railway network resulted in an increased demand for posts, poles, and sleepers although in some countries electric fencing and steel or concrete sleepers and pylons were tending to displace wood.

World Production Roundwood, Fuelwood, Industrial Roundwood 1937/38 to 1954 in millions of cubic metres.

The above table compares production of the world's forests from pre-second world war levels of 1937/38. (in million cubic metres) to total recorded removals of roundwood from the period 1946 to 1954.

The gradual increase in the volume of wood production from nearly 1,300 million cubic meters in 1946 to about 1,500 million cubic meters by 1954 reflects mainly a greater output of wood destined for industrial uses, from 614 million cubic meters in1946 to 828 million in 1954.

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FAO Commodity report Roundwood 1946-1954 Unasylva Vol (no 3 Sept 1955.

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The relative production of fuelwood tended to decline so that industrial wood represented an increasing share of total fellings.

World Wood and Wood Fibre Production and Trade (million m³) 1947 11 Consumption Fuel 800 Structural uses (lumber, squared timbers) 450 Paper 100 Rayon and staple fibre 5 Railway ties 30 Mine props 30 Other uses 85

Trade 56.0 60.1 60.1 2.5 6.6 1.4

In Europe, the level of total roundwood production immediately after the war considerably exceeded the volume warranted by traditional silvicultural practices. As economic conditions improved, fellings were gradually decreased to a level which seemed better to correspond to the sustained productive capacity of Europe's forests. At the same time, there was a spectacular fall in the volume of wood cut for fuel, from 155 million cubic meters in 1946 to only some 95 million cubic meters in 1954. Industrial roundwood cut rose by almost 12 percent during this period, from 145 million cubic meters to about 163 million cubic meters.

The continuation of the war-time expansion of forest industries in North America saw roundwood removals rise from 348 million cubic meters in 1946 to 370 million cubic meters in 1954, accompanied by a decline of some 14 percent in the volume of reported fuelwood production. More and more wood served as industrial raw material, in 1954 about 84 percent of the figure cited above.

The Soviet Union was the world's largest timber producer before the war, but production in 1946 was 12 million cubic meters less than the pre-war output. The reconstruction effort and industrial expansion gradually resulted in an increased volume of fellings and the cut in 1954 apparently considerably exceeded the immediate pre-war level. Exploitation was increasingly extended into the northern parts of the country and into Siberia. The planned figure for roundwood fellings in 1954 was 435 million cubic meters, a figure which meant a rise in the volume of industrial roundwood produced during the period under review of close to 74 percent, and a 40 percent rise in fuelwood fellings. This increased production followed the trend in other regions; in fact, the proportion of fuelwood in total removals declined from 50 percent in 1946 to 40 percent in 1954.

During the war years, considerable encouragement was given to developing forest industries in certain countries of Latin America. Total roundwood output in 1946 was 10 percent above pre-war and a further 8 percent rise was recorded in 1949. Thereafter, output declined, reflecting a reduction in fuelwood cut, but the total volume regained the 1946 level in 1954 when the output of industrial wood which earlier only represented some 10 to 12 percent of

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Hall J A Forest Utilization. Unasylva Vol 1 No 1 July-August 1947

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the region's total fellings, reached just 200 percent of the pre-war figure and exceeded the 1846 level by one-third.

In Africa, the recorded output of roundwood in 1946 was 28 percent higher than before the war and, after a fall in 1947 and 1948, climbed higher to 39 percent above the pre-war level.

Industrial timber had only represented a very small percentage of the total wood output - 2 percent before the war, 4 percent in 1946 and 7 percent in 1954; but the increase of production that has occurred, though small in volume, is high percentagewise: in 1953/54, 300 percent over the thirties. The war induced a heavy increase in both timber and fuelwood output and after the war there was a strong drive to develop new forest industries in the dependent territories of European powers.

In Asia, the dislocation of the war led to a large drop in timber output. Despite this region's great needs, arising both from increasing industrial activities and ever-growing populations, the reported volume of roundwood production had by 1954 only slightly exceeded the prewar level. Fuelwood production apparently did not change during the years under review but output of industrial roundwood rose by some 15 million cubic meters, or by 38 percent, still, of course, quite insufficient to meet requirements. The expansion of timber output, started in the Pacific area during the war, continued at a steady pace. Production of industrial roundwood rose by over 71 percent from 1946 to 1954 while the output of fuelwood remained steady.

World Production of Industrial Roundwood 1937-1954. Source FAO. Year

Industrial Wood Million Percent 1946 m3 =100 1937/38 572 93 1946 614 100 1947 635 103 1948 683 111 1949 652 106 1950 696 113 1951 748 122 1952 767 125 1953 785 128 1954 825 135

Sawlogs Million Percent 1946 m3 =100 400 103 390 100 415 106 420 108 405 104 455 117 465 119 480 123 495 127 505 129

Pulpwood and Pitprops Million Percent 1946 m3 =100 110 89 124 100 135 109 152 123 148 119 156 126 183 148 184 148 178 144 197 159

In the developing regions of Latin America, Africa and the Pacific Area, the big increase has been in the output of sawlogs, while the output of pulpwood and pitprops has not greatly changed. This is to be expected since sawmilling has in the past generally been the first stage in the growth of forest industries in new areas. The more complex industries, particularly pulp and paper, have followed rather far behind.

The increase in Asia's apparent total production of industrial roundwood was almost entirely due to the rising output of Japan, the other countries of the region accounting only for a minor 7

amount. But Asia is a region too vast and diverse to recognize general trends. The only country which can be discussed in detail is Japan where considerable wood-using industrial capacity, especially sawmills, already existed before the war. The available raw material supplies have since the war had to meet simultaneously heavy demands for sawnwood, for pitprops and for pulpwood. The pulpwood demand was especially strong from 1952 onwards, from many newly established pulp and paper mills. With better use of the available forest resources, much of the demand was able to be met but the sawmills inevitably suffered to the gain of the pulp industries which yield a greater economic profit.

World Production of Wood and Wood Fibre Products. 1954. Source FAO. The diagram shows how the production of; the main wood-based commodities developed in the period under review. While removals of all industrial wood, as compared with the pre-war level, rose by close to 50 percent, sawnwood production increased by some 40 percent, wood pulp and pulp products by about 70 percent, and fibreboard and plywood trebled. These figures reflect largely the changes in the industrial demand for roundwood as a raw material, although wood waste has been used increasingly for fibreboards.

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Global Production and Trade in Wood and Wood Fibre Products in 2000.

By 2000, global demand for all wood products had increased, but the forest resources of the world had decreased.

Total world roundwood production was predicted to grow by 1.9% yearly, to reach 4.1 billion cubic metres by the year 2000 (Gauthier, 1991).

FRA 2000 estimated the total roundwood harvest to be some 3.3 billion cubic metres.

By the year 2025 total roundwood production is predicted to be some 6.6 billion cubic metres (Sharma, 1992). Some of the demand will be met from managed natural forests but that resource will have been diminished by an unknown but probably considerable amount due to forest destruction and degradation in the tropics.

Forest tree plantations will have to meet the shortfall in supply unable to be met from the natural forests.

FAO Global Production and Trade in Forest Products in 2000. Source FAOSTAT – forestry database.

PRODUCT Roundwood Wood fuel Industrial roundwood

Sawn wood Wood-based panels Plywood Particle board, OSB and fibreboard

Wood pulp Pulp from fibres other than wood Recovered paper Paper and paperboard Forest products value

UNIT million m³ million m³ million m³

million m³ million m³ million m³ million m³

million tonnes million tonnes million tonnes million tonnes US$ billion

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PRODUCTION EXPORT 3208 1793 1646 364 392 122 273 169 2 93 304

113 1 111 101 29 11 17 14 0.34 8 97

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IMPACT ON GLOBAL PLANTATION DEVELOPMENT DUE TO AUSTRALIAN EUCALYPT PULPING RESEARCH The paper making industry in the Australian colonies was founded on rag and waste paper. Donath12 reported that in Sydney in 1818 newsprint was made from waste rags.

In Melbourne in 1868 a paper mill began operations using imported wood pulp as well as waste paper and rags. Some wheat straw was pulped.

Globally papermaking was based on the use of softwoods because their fibres were longer than that of hardwoods and easier to felt together to produce a strong sheet of paper. Because the world’s pulping industry was based on softwood forests of Europe and the Americas, the Australian papermaking industry remained static for decades.

During World War One, (1915-1918) Australia’s dependence on overseas supplies of softwood wood pulp caused serious shortages in the Australian paper industry. High international freight costs meant wood pulp was not available.

Research work undertaken by Australian forest researchers from Boas in 1918 to Benjamin and his assistant R B Jeffreys during the 1930’s found that short fibred eucalypt pulp made commercial paper. The Australian researchers showed the important factor was not the length of the fibre but the relationship of the fibre length to the fibre thickness. The research undertaken to use short fibred eucalypt pulps to replace imported long fibred softwood pulp in the 1930’s represented a major technological triumph for Australia.

At the same time, technology changes from cereal straw, rags and other waste products to wood meant as in Europe and North America in the late 1800’s shifted the location of pulp and paper mills to areas of wood resources. Similarly in Australia coupled with the results of eucalypt pulping research, from 1938 on, three large integrated pulp and paper mills had begun production in Australia close to large eucalypt wood resources – 1938 Burnie Tasmania, 1939 Maryvale Victoria and 1941 Boyer Tasmania.

The biggest impact globally on species plantings in the period 1937-2000, has been an upsurge in the establishment of the fast-growing, short-rotation species in the genera Eucalyptus spp. and Acacia spp for short fibred pulpwood stock.

The cellulose fibres in wood that are turned into paper. Source APM.

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Donath E J (1957) The Australian Paper Industry – Past, Present and Future. The Australian Quarterly Vol 29 No 3 (Sept 1957) pp. 61-68 Published by Australian Institute of Policy and Science.

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ATTRIBUTES OF WOOD AND WOOD FIBRE APPLICABLE TO GLOBAL PLANTATION DEVELOPMENT 13

Wood is a porous and fibrous structural tissue found in the stems and roots of trees and other woody plants. It is an organic material –a natural composite of cellulose fibres that are strong in tension and embedded in a matrix of lignin that resists compression.

Source Qld Forestry ForEd Project 1982-1985.

Wood is renewable, has a variety of species and colours, workability, highly versatile, relatively light in weight, yet has good strength in both tension and compression; and provides rigidity, toughness, buoyancy and insulating properties. It can be bent or twisted into special shapes, and it is readily worked, fastened, and finished. The finished surface is pleasant to the touch and the visual patterns provided can be of great beauty.

Source Qld Forestry ForEd Project 1982-1985.

The plant vascular system is comprised of two main types of tissue: the xylem and the phloem. The xylem distributes water and dissolved minerals upward through the plant, from the roots to the leaves and provides physical support. The phloem carries food

downward from the leaves to the roots.

The word xylem is derived from the Ancient Greek word ξύλον (xylon), meaning "wood"; the best-known xylem tissue is wood, though it is found throughout the plant.

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Qld Dept of Forestry/Dept Education/TRADAC 1982-85. ForEd Project 1982-1985.

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Despite their name, all hardwoods are not hard (balsa is a hardwood) and some softwoods are hard. In the plant kingdom, hardwoods are angiosperms (flowering plants – broad leaved plants) and softwoods are gymnosperms (cone-bearing plants usually with needle like leaves). Source Qld Forestry ForEd Project 1982-1985.

Softwoods (make long fibred pulp) have a simple wood structure where most of the wood consist of tracheids – long narrow cells up to 7 mm long. Tracheids functions include – conducting water and nutrients up from the roots, supporting the tree and providing physical support and strength.

Source Qld Forestry ForEd Project 1982-1985.

Hardwoods (make short fibred pulp) have a more complex wood structure. Vessels are long hollow pipes consisting of wide short cells stacked one above the other. These hollow vessels carry water and nutrients up from the roots. Fibres are the strength giving cells. They are short (about 1 mm long and usually thick walls). Their only function is to support the tree. They are the most numerous cells in the hardwood stem.

Source Qld Forestry ForEd Project 1982-1985.

Wood fibres are the cellulosic elements that are extracted from the wood of trees and used to make materials in the modern composite pulp and paper industry due to their specific characteristics (including paper products as paper, paperboard, tissue, cardboard etc, and feedstock to produce purified cellulose and its derivatives, such as cellophane and cellulose acetate.).

Outcomes of the 1918-1930’s Australian eucalypt pulping research work demonstrated that pulps from long fibred fibre softwoods were not superior to pulps obtained from short fibred eucalypt pulp.

Further testing showed: • • • •

that the age of the wood was just as important as the species of tree . the area where the species grew was of paramount importance – e.g., young E. regnans from Eastern Victoria was much superior to that from Southern Tasmania. fine printing papers could be made from several eucalypt species. by adding some long fibre pulp to the pulp made from Australian eucalypts, excellent newsprint could be made for high-speed printing presses.

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Some advantages of short fibred eucalypt pulp- Bootle 14 1971.

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The shorter fibres permit a more even spread of material during production.

Long fibres tend to become entangled more readily giving a greater degree of flocculation.

Eucalypt fibres are finer producing a paper with a smoother surface.

For a given tensile strength paper from eucalypt fibres has greater opacity that that from long fibred softwoods.

Eucalypt fibres are higher in density than softwood fibres and produce a bulkier sheet of paper. Hence a sheet of paper meeting a certain requ irement as to its thickness can be made from a smaller amount of fibrous material.

Kraft pulps from lower density eucalypts develop better bursting strength than softwood kraft pulps.

Hardwoods contain less lignin than softwoods which means less chemicals required during pulping.

Some advantages of long fibred softwood pulp - Bootle 1971.

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The longer fibres distribute high stress concentrations more effectively, so paper produced from them has higher tearing strength.

Softwood pulp has much more resistance to repeated folding of the paper.

Uses of Wood and Wood Fibre Products Source Qld Forestry ForEd Project 1982-1985.

FAO Definition of Wood and Wood Fibre Products Roundwood It comprises all wood obtained from removals, i.e., the quantities removed from forests and from trees outside the forest, including wood recovered from natural, felling and logging losses during the period, calendar year or forest year. It includes: all wood removed with or without bark, including wood removed in its round form, or split, roughly squared or Bootle K R (1971) The Commercial Timbers of New South Wales and their uses. Publisher Angus and Robertson ISBN 0207122555 14

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in other form e.g., branches, roots, stumps, and burls (where these are harvested) and wood that is roughly shaped or pointed. In the production statistics, it represents the sum of wood fuel, including wood for charcoal; sawlogs and veneer logs; pulpwood, round and split; and other industrial roundwood. It is reported in cubic metres under bark (i.e., excluding bark).

Wood Fuel, including wood for charcoal is roundwood that will be used as fuel for purposes such as cooking, heating or power production. It includes wood harvested from main stems, branches, and other pails of trees (where these are harvested for fuel) and wood that will be used for charcoal production (e.g., in pit kilns and portable ovens). The volume of roundwood used in charcoal production, is estimated by using a factor of 6.0 to convert from the weight (MT) of charcoal produced to the solid volume (CUM) of roundwood used in production. It is reported in cubic metres under bark (i.e., excluding bark).

Fuel wood Acacia managium Markham Valley via Lae PNG. Photo source Dick McCarthy 1995.

Industrial Roundwood. It includes: all roundwood except wood fuel. In the production statistics, it represents the sum of sawlogs and veneer logs; pulpwood, round and split; and other industrial roundwood. It is reported in cubic metres under bark (i.e., excluding bark).

Sawlogs and Veneer Logs Sawlogs and Veneer Logs (C) Sawlogs and Veneer Logs (NC) Roundwood that will be sawn (or chipped) lengthways for the manufacture of sawnwood or railway sleepers (ties) or used to produce veneer (mainly by peeling or slicing). It includes: roundwood (whether or not, it is roughly squared) that will be used for these purposes; shingle bolts and stave bolts; match billets and other special types of roundwood (e.g., burls and roots, etc.) used for veneer production. It is reported in cubic metres under bark (i.e., excluding bark).

Industrial roundwood photos left to right. Pulpwood Aracruz Brazil, Mine props South Africa, Sawlog Chile, Vanimo log loading, Tokyo Bay log pond, Canada log harvesting.

Photo source Dick McCarthy.

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Sawnwood Wood that has been produced from both domestic and imported roundwood, either by sawing lengthways or by a profile-chipping process and that, with a few exceptions, exceeds 5 mm in thickness. It includes planks, beams, joists, boards, rafters, scantlings, laths, boxboards, sleepers, and "lumber", etc., in the following forms: un-planed, planed, grooved, tongued, finger jointed, chamfered, rabbeted, V-jointed, beaded, etc. It excludes wooden flooring. It is reported in cubic metres solid volume.

Source Qld Forestry ForEd Project 1982-1985.

Sawn timber photo left to right South African two concurrent lines in sawmill, PNG Wewak Kwila sawmill. Photo source Dick McCarthy.

Wood based Panels The wood-based panels category is an aggregate category. In the production and trade statistics, it represents the sum of veneer sheets, plywood, particle board, and fibreboard. It is reported in cubic metres solid volume.

Veneer Sheets Thin sheets of wood of uniform thickness, rotary out (i.e., peeled), sliced or sawn. It includes wood used for the manufacture of plywood, laminated construction material, furniture, veneer containers, etc. It excludes wood used for plywood production within the same country. It is reported in cubic metres solid volume.

Source Qld Forestry ForEd Project 1982-1985.

Veneer - PNG production of Veneer Western Province.

Photo source Dick McCarthy.

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Plywood A panel consisting of an assembly of veneer sheets bonded together with the direction of the grain in alternate plies generally at right angles. The veneer sheets are usually placed symmetrically on both sides of a central ply or core which may itself be made from a veneer sheet or another material. It includes: veneer plywood (plywood manufactured by bonding together more than two veneer sheets, where the grain of alternate veneer sheets is crossed, generally at right angles); core plywood or blockboard (plywood with a solid core (i.e. the central layer, generally thicker than the other plies) that consists of narrow boards, blocks or strips of wood placed side by side, which may or may not be glued together); cellular board (plywood with a core of cellular construction); and composite plywood (plywood with the core or certain layers made of material other than solid wood or veneers).

It excludes laminated construction materials (e.g., glulam), where the grain of the veneer sheets generally runs in the same direction. It is reported in cubic metres solid volume.

Plywood - PNG Bulolo PNGFP plywood manual. Source PNGFP.

Particle Board A panel manufactured from small pieces of wood or other lignocellulosic materials (e.g., chips, flakes, splinters, strands, shreds, shives. etc.) bonded together by the use of an organic binder together with one or more of the following agents: heat, pressure, humidity, a catalyst, etc. It includes: waferboard; oriented strand board (OSB) and fiaxboard. It excludes wood wool and other particle boards bonded together with inorganic binders. It is reported in cubic metres solid volume.

Source Qld Forestry ForEd Project 1982-1985.

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Fibreboard A panel manufactured from fibres of wood or other lignocellulosic materials with the primary bond deriving from the felting of the fibres and their inherent adhesive properties (although bonding materials and/or additives may be added in the manufacturing process). It includes fibreboard panels that are fiat-pressed and moulded fibreboard products. In the production and trade statistics, it represents the sum of hardboard; medium density fibreboard (MDF); and insulating Fibreboard with a density exceeding 0.80 g/cm3. It excludes similar products made from pieces of wood, wood flour or other ligno-cellulosic material where additional binders are required to make the panel; and panels made of gypsum or other mineral material. It is reported in cubic metres solid volume.

Source Qld Forestry ForEd Project 1982-1985.

Medium Density Fibreboard (MDF) Fibreboard of a density exceeding 0.5 g/cm3 but not exceeding 0.8 g/cm3. Before 1995, this product was a component of the compressed fibreboard product category, so data for this product is not available for 1994 and earlier years. It is reported in cubic metres solid volume. Insulating Board Fibreboard of a density not exceeding 0.5 g/cm3. Before 1995, this product was referred to as non-compressed fibreboard. It is reported in cubic metres solid volume.

Pulp and Recovered Paper Wood Pulp Fibrous material prepared from pulpwood, wood chips, particles, residues or recovered paper by mechanical and/or chemical process for further manufacture into paper, paperboard, fibreboard, or other cellulose products. In the production and trade statistics, it represents the sum of mechanical wood pulp; semi-chemical wood pulp; chemical wood pulp; and dissolving wood pulp. It is reported in metric tonnes air-dry weight (i.e., with a 10% moisture content).

Australian wood chips being unloaded in Tokyo Japan for papermaking. Photo credit Dick McCarthy 2003.

Wood pulp. To make paper, woodchips are cooked in chemicals which release the cellulose fibres to make paper. Source APM. Sheets of paper pulp at APM Maryvale mill Victoria, ready to be made into paper products as envelopes, note paper, photocopy paper and packaging. Source APM

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Mechanical Wood Pulp Wood pulp obtained by grinding or milling pulpwood or residues into fibres, or through refining chips or particles. Also called ground wood pulp and refiner pulp, it may be bleached or unbleached. It includes: chemimechanical and thermomechanical pulp. It excludes exploded and defibrillated pulp. It is reported in metric tonnes air-dry weight (i.e., with a 10% moisture content).

Source Qld Forestry ForEd Project 1982-1985.

Semi-Chemical Wood Pulp is obtained by subjecting pulpwood, wood chips, particles, or residues to a series of mechanical and chemical treatments, none of which alone is sufficient to make the fibres separate readily. It may be bleached or unbleached. It includes semi-chemical wood pulp; chemi-ground wood pulp; and chemimechanical wood pulp etc. (named in the order and importance of the treatment during the manufacturing process). It is reported in metric tonnes air-dry weight (i.e., with a 10% moisture content).

Chemical Wood Pulp Wood pulp obtained by subjecting pulpwood, wood chips, particles, or residues to a series of chemical treatments. It includes sulphate (kraft) wood pulp; soda wood pulp; and sulphite wood pulp. It may be bleached, semi-bleached or unbleached. It excludes dissolving grades of wood pulp. It is reported in metric tonnes air-dry weight (i.e., with a 10% moisture content).

Unbleached Sulphite Pulp Bleached Sulphite Pulp Wood pulp obtained by mechanically reducing pulpwood, wood chips, particles or residues to small pieces that are subsequently cooked in a pressure vessel in the presence of a bisulphite cooking liquor. Bisulphites such as ammonium, calcium, magnesium, and sodium are commonly used in this process. It excludes dissolving grades of wood pulp. It is reported in metric tonnes air-dry weight (i.e., with a 10% Unbleached Sulphate Pulp Bleached Sulphate Pulp Wood pulp obtained by mechanically reducing pulpwood, wood chips, particles or residues to small pieces that are subsequently cooked in a pressure vessel in the presence of sodium hydroxide cooking liquor (soda pulp) or a mixture of sodium hydroxide and sodium sulphite cooking liquor (sulphate pulp). It excludes dissolving grades of wood pulp. It is reported in metric tonnes air-dry weight (i.e., with a 10% moisture content) and data for two classes: bleached (including semibleached); and unbleached, are reported separately.

Dissolving Wood Pulp Chemical pulp (sulphate, soda, or sulphite) made from wood of special quality, with a very high alpha-cellulose content (usually 90 percent and over). This type of pulp is always bleached and is readily adaptable for uses other than papermaking. It is used principally as a source of cellulose in the manufacture of products such as synthetic fibres, cellulose plastic materials, lacquers, and explosives. It is reported in metric tonnes airdry weight (i.e., with a 10% moisture content).

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Other Fibre Pulp manufactured from fibrous vegetable materials other than wood and used for the manufacture of paper, paperboard, and fibreboard. It includes pulps made from: straw; bamboo; bagasse; esparto; other reeds or grasses; cotton fibres; flax; hemp; rags; and other textile wastes. It excludes pulp made from recovered paper. It is reported in metric tonnes airdry weight (i.e., with a 10% moisture content). Recovered Paper Waste and scraps of paper or paperboard that have been collected for re-use as a raw material for the manufacture of paper and paperboard. It includes paper and paperboard that has been used for its original purpose and residues from paper and paperboard production. It is reported in metric tonnes.

Paper and Paperboard The paper and paperboard category are an aggregate category. In the production and trade statistics, it represents the sum of newsprint; printing and writing paper; and other paper and paperboard. Products in this category are generally manufactured in strips or rolls of a width exceeding 15 cm (36 cm for HS 48.13 and 48.19) or in rectangular sheets with one side exceeding 36 cm and the other exceeding 15 cm in the unfolded state. It excludes manufactured paper products such as boxes, cartons, books, and magazines, etc. It is reported in metric tonnes.

Source. Qld Forestry ForEd Project 1982-1985.

Paper reels Maryvale Mill. Source APM.

Newsprint Uncoated paper, unsized (or only slightly sized), containing at least 60 percent mechanical wood pulp (percentage of fibrous content), usually weighing not less than 40 g/m2 and generally not more than 60 g/m`, of the type used mainly for the printing of newspapers. It is reported in metric tonnes.

Other Paper and Paperboard than Newsprint The paper and paperboard category is aggregate. It comprises other printing and writing paper, and other paper and paperboard. It only appears in tables showing direction of trade. It is reported in metric tonnes. Printing and Writing Paper, except newsprint, suitable for printing and business purposes, writing, sketching, drawing, etc. Made from a variety of pulp blends and with various finishes. It includes papers used for books and magazines; wallpaper base stock; box lining and covering; calculator paper; roto news; duplicating tablet or block; labels; lithograph paper; banknotes; tabulating card stock; bible or imitation bible paper; stationery; manifold paper; bonionskin; typewriter paper; and poster paper, etc. It is reported in metric tonnes.

Other Paper and Paperboard All other types of paper. It includes construction paper and paperboard; household and sanitary paper; special thin paper; wrapping and packaging paper and paperboard; and other paper and paperboard not elsewhere specified. It is reported in metric tonnes. Where detail is available, statistics for the following three components are also 19

given: household and sanitary paper; wrapping and packaging paper and paperboard; and other paper and paperboard not elsewhere specified. Household and Sanitary Paper Absorbent paper (creped or uncreped and sometimes embossed) made from bleached or unbleached chemical wood pulp, sometimes with a mixture of pulp from waste paper and mechanical pulp. It includes towelling; napkins; facial tissue; toilet tissue; wadding; and disposable tissues, etc. It is reported in metric tonnes. Wrapping and Packaging Paper and Paperboard Paper or paperboard used for wrapping, packaging and the manufacture of sacks and boxes. It includes: vegetable parchment, greaseproof paper and glassine paper (made from pure chemical wood pulp or from a mixture of chemical wood pulp, cotton fibre pulp, treated (e.g. highly hydrated or hard beaten) to render the resulting paper resistant to oil, grease and water and used primarily for packaging frozen, moist or greasy materials such as butter, margarine, meat or fish); linerboard (paper or paperboard used as facing material on corrugated or solid paper or paperboard boxes and containers); fluting medium (paper or paperboard used as medium when combining paper and paperboard for conversion into a corrugated board); sack kraft paper (strong paper made from sulphate pulp and used in the manufacture of single or multiwall sacks); other kraft wrapping paper (all other wrapping-and packaging papers made principally from sulphate pulp); folding boxboard (all types of paperboard used in the manufacture of folding boxes); and other wrapping and packaging paper and paperboard. It is reported in metric tonnes.

Other Paper and Paperboard Not Elsewhere Specified Paper and paper board used for construction, special purposes and other uses not elsewhere specified. It includes: kraft papers used for waxing, asphalting, waterproofing, laminating, impregnating, spinning or twisting, gumming, etc.; papers manufactured principally from furnishes other than sulphate pulp and not elsewhere specified (such as rope and jute paper, folder stock, blotting paper, filter paper, photographic sensitising paper, etc.); construction paper and paperboard (papers, paper felts and paperboards used in the construction of buildings and other structures for insulation, vapour seal, roofing and flooring underlay, etc. (these papers are generally made from fully refined material such as wood pulp, waste paper, other vegetable pulp and mineral fibre and their principle characteristics are low thermal conductivity, moisture resistance, fire resistance, permanency and insect and vermin resistance)); special thin paper (papers made for special purposes, their common characteristics being their relative thinness, these papers may be made from mechanical or chemical wood pulps, bleached or unbleached, but frequently from pulps containing flax, hemp or cotton fibre and the principal characteristics of some of these papers are: uniformity of surface and caffiper, freedom from pinholes, strength, close formation, opacity, low permeability, chemical purity, examples of this type of paper includes: carbonising tissue, condenser and capacitor paper, cigarette paper, lens tissue, pattern tissue, and tea-bag paper); and paperboards not elsewhere specified (such as shoe board, gasket board, transformer board, press textile board, index pressboard, panel board (car), trunk and suitcase board and matrix board). It excludes papers, felts or boards that are impregnated, saturated, laminated or further manufactured in any way and fibreboard or fibre building-board, in the form of insulating board, medium hardboard and hardboard. It is reported in metric tonnes.

20

GLOBAL PLANTATION DEVELOPMENT 1937-2000 Until FRA 2000, the quality of data held in the FAO planted forest database (PFDB) had been found to be insufficiently reliable, outdated, inconsistent and weak. Annual planting rates are inconsistent where provided, as unclear whether for afforestation or reforestation.

Del Lungo15 2003 undertook an analysis of the most reliable data collected in the PFDB. It shows the main trends according to different regions. The following is pertinent information to plantation developments over the period 1937-2000.

The top 30 countries of the world which account for 93 % (173 million ha) of the total planted area of 187 million hectares.

COUNTRY China India Russian Federation USA Japan Indonesia Brazil Thailand Ukraine Iran Islamic Rep. Chile UK Spain Turkey Malaysia Viet Nam South Africa NZ Australia Pakistan Bulgaria France Argentina Venezuela Portugal Myanmar Philippines Algeria Nigeria Sudan Total Top 30 Countries

Total area of planted forest (000ha). Source FRA 2000 45063 32578 17340 16238 10682 9871 4982 4920 4425 2284 2017 1928 1904 1854 1750 1711 1554 1542 1396 980 969 961 926 863 834 821 753 718 693 641 173215

15

Del Lungo A (2003) Planted Forest database: Analysis of annual planting trends and silvicultural parameters for commonly planted species. FAO planted forests and tree working papers.

21

Source Del Lungo FAO 2003.

22

Source Del Lungo FAO 2003.

23

Source Del Lungo FAO 2003.

24

Source Del Lungo FAO 2003.

Source Del Lungo FAO 2003.

25

Source Del Lungo FAO 2003.

26

Source Del Lungo FAO 2003.

Source Del Lungo FAO 2003.

27

Source Del Lungo FAO 2003

28

Source Del Lungo FAO 2003.

29

Source Del Lungo FAO 2003.

30

Source Del Lungo FAO 2003.

31

Source Del Lungo FAO 2003.

Source Del Lungo FAO 2003.

32

Source Del Lungo FAO 2003.

33

MAI and Rotation Lengths for the most Planted Species in PFDB16 Top 14 most planted world’s trees.

Pinus radiata, a tree originally from California is the most planted species by PFDB in Oceania, South America, and Africa. Rotation length varies from 20 years in Africa and South America to 30 to 38 years for Oceania. Mai averages 20-22 m3/ha/yr.

Tectona grandis, a native of South Asia is grown as a natural and planted species. Planted in Asia, Africa, Central and South America. Rotation lengths in Asia and Africa vary from 35 to 65 years with MAI of 4-12 m3/ha/yr. In Central and South America rotation lengths 24-35 years and MAI can reach 14m3/ha/yr.

Acacia nilotica, native of East Africa, planted in Asia and Africa. Rotation length 21 years and MAI for Africa 18m3/ha/y while Asia is 10m3/ha/yr.

Pinus merkusii, native to Continental South east Asia grown as native and as planted species.

Rotation 27 years and MAI 21m3/ha/yr.

Pinus halepensis, native to Mediterranean countries, grown in natural and planted forests.

Rotation lengths 30-80 years and MAI 3-5 m3/ha/yr. In temperate South Africa rotation length 30 years and MAI 12 m3/ha/yr.

Acacia auriculiformis, native to Australia, PNG, and Eastern Indonesia planted in SE Asia, rotation length 10 years and MAI 8-18 m3/ha/yr.

Eucalyptus grandis, native to Australia, planted worldwide. Rotation lengths Oceania, Asia, America, and Africa of 25-30 years. Short rotations of 6-14 years in Africa, Asia, and America. Tropical regions MAI 30-35m3/ha/yr. and temperate zones 16-30m3/ha/yr.

16

FAO planted forest database (PFDB) 34

Eucalyptus globulus, native to Oceania and planted worldwide. Rotation lengths depend on climate and range from 10-30 years. Similarly, MAI ranges from 10 to 35m3/ha/yr.

Pinus roxburghii, native to South Asia. Planted in Africa with rotation length of 46 years and MAI of 9m3/ha/yr.

Dalbergia sissoo, native to South Asia, planted in Asia and Africa with rotation lengths of 10 years and MAI of 9-10 m3/ha/yr.

Gmelina arborea, native South Asia and planted in Africa – rotation length 18-20 years, Asia - rotation length up to 60 years, and America – rotation length 9-10 years. MAI form 1015m3/ha/yr. Africa and Asia to 30m3/ha/yr. in tropical South America.

Swietenia macrophylla, native South America and planted in America, Asia, and Oceania.

Rotation length vary from 20 years America to 30 years Oceania to 40-50 years in Asia. MAI from 7-10 m3/ha/yr. in Asia/Oceania up to 15m3/ha/yr. in America.

Acacia mearnsii, native to Australia planted in Africa. Rotation length 10-12 years and MAI 15m3/ha/yr.

Populus spp., widely planted genus in Africa, Asia, America, and Europe. Rotation lengths up to 25 years and MAI from 12-20m3/ha/yr.

35

WHERE FROM WORLD’S WOOD AND WOOD FIBRE RESOURCES? FAO’s Global Forest Resources Assessment 2000 (FRA 2000)17 FRA 2000 was the most comprehensive assessment since FAO first reported on forest resources in 1946.

Table World and regional7 data on human and forest resources, 2000 Country Land area

Forest area

Forest area

Plantation Plantation Land area area area per capita

Rural population

GNP per capita

(m ha.) (m ha.) i (% land (m ha.) area)

(% forest area)

(ha/capita) ii= (% pop) i

(US$) i

CAC

263.7

78.5

30%

1.3

2%

1.58

34%

2,414

ESA

880.7

203.8

23%

44.0

22%

0.54

70%

888

Europe

475.7

161.9

34%

9.3

6%

0.93

26%

18,739

NENA

1,189.2 27.6

2%

6.5

24%

3.19

37%

2,004

Oceania 1,060.7 308.8

29%

13.5

4%

3.37

54%

2,387

S. 1,753.5 885.6 America

51%

10.5

1%

5.15

21%

4,216

SSA

2,377.1 643.6

27%

6.3

1%

3.80

67%

488

F. USSR 2,191.0 901.1

41%

23.3

3%

7.63

31%

1,680

Canada

922.1

244.6

27%

0

0%

29.84

23%

19,267

China

932.7

163.5

18%

45.1

28%

0.73

66%

668

Japan

37.7

24.1

64%

10.7

44%

0.30

21%

43,574

USA

915.9

226.0

25%

16.2

7%

3.32

23%

28,310

Tropical 4,859.2 1,871.4 39%

67.8

4%

1.7

63%

993

Nontropical

8,140.9 1,997.6 25%

118.9

6%

2.7

44%

8,808

Total

13,000.0 3,869.0 30%

186.7

5%

2.18

53%

5,021

i

Forest area is the sum of natural forests and plantations. Source: Calculated from FAOSTAT on-line database (2002) and FAO (2001c).

FAO defined forested land as land with tree crown cover greater than 10% and a mature tree height exceeding 5 metres on over 0.5 hectares (FAO 2001c). Based on this definition, the total area of forests in the world today is estimated at 3.87 billion hectares or almost 30% of the global land area (above table). It can also be seen from the table that forests in tropical countries6 account for 48% of the world's forests, covering 39% of that climatic region's land area. Forests in temperate and boreal countries comprise 52% of the world's forests and cover 25% of that climatic region's land area. Approximately 95% of the total forest area is natural forest, the remaining 5% comprising plantations of various sorts (both softwood and hardwood). Plantations account for 4% of forested areas in tropical countries and 6% of forested areas in temporal and boreal regions. The main areas of plantation are in China, East and South Asia and the former USSR.

17

FAO 2001 Global Forest Resources Assessment 2000 Main report ISSN 0258-6150 FAO FORESTRY PAPER 140

36

FAO defined forest plantations as “forest stands established by planting and/or seeding in the process of afforestation or reforestation....” Because of their increasing significance as a supply of fibre for wood industries, rubber (Hevea spp.) plantations were included as forest plantations for the first time. Despite the high losses of the world’s natural forests at the global level, new forest plantation areas are being established at the reported rate of 4.5 million hectares per year, with Asia and South America accounting for more new plantations than the other regions.

The dramatic market-led shift in the origin of forest production towards plantation and seminatural forest types has two contrasting implications for the sustainability of forest management.

•

•

It is much easier to manage plantation and semi-natural forests sustainably than comparable complex natural forests (and especially diverse tropical forests) - so the there is an increasing likelihood that the timber from production forests will come from a sustainable origin.

The much greater intensity and efficiency of forest production in relatively tiny plantation and semi-natural forest areas may leave extensive remaining tracts of natural forest below the minimum threshold for economically viable production (18Macqueen 2001). In the absence of other mechanisms to attribute value to those natural forests, forest clearance for alternative land uses and/or the lucrative, unsustainable, and possibly illegal creaming of timber resources become rational (although perhaps undesirable) economic alternatives.

Global Plantation Issues and Trends The Changing Origin of Forest Production: Natural and Planted Forests Historically, most of the timber production has come from natural forests in both temperate and boreal regions and tropical and subtropical regions. Timber has been sourced both from sustainably (and unsustainably) managed forests and from land clearance. The clearance of forest land has its origins in land use competition. Land use competition is most pronounced in areas made accessible by transport infrastructure - some of which has been developed explicitly to enable forest harvesting, some of which has been developed for agricultural or other forms of land use settlement. Using evidence from both satellite and sociological data it has been shown that "increased road density in a country leads to more deforestation in that country and in neighbouring countries" (Pfaff 199619) - a fact explaining recent reactions towards new infrastructure development programmes in forested areas (Nepstad20 et al.

2000).

18

Macqueen, D.J. 2001. Evidence-based policies for good governance – The applicability of growth and yield modelling to the forest sector in Guyana. London, UK: International Institute for Environment and Development.

19 Pfaff, A.S.P. 1996. What drives deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon? Evidence from satellite and socioeconomic data. New York, USA: Columbia University.

20 Nepstad, D.C., Copobianco, J.P., Barros, A.C., Carvalho, G., Moutinho, P., Lopes, U. & Lefebvre, P. 2000.

Avança Brasil - os custos ambientais para a Amazônia. Belém, Brasil: Instituto de Pesquisa Ambiental da Amazônia.

37

The development of transport infrastructure has not occurred uniformly across all forested regions, it being a function of many factors such as policy direction, population density and the stage of economic development. As a result, timber extraction has historically been focused on more populous and developed regions such as temperate Europe and more recently South East Asia and less so in areas such as the Brazilian Amazon and Central Africa. Large areas of boreal forest also have limited accessibility because of their distance from transport infrastructure. Worldwide as much as 43% of the forest area is beyond 10km from major transport infrastructure and is therefore not likely to be economically accessible.

In South America this proportion increases to 60%. In Europe, this proportion is relatively high at 47% because of the large areas of boreal forest. It can be observed that in most regions it is the economic restrictions implied by remoteness that have the greatest effect on availability rather than the protected area status or altitude.

Political and economic concern over the increasing inaccessibility of remaining natural forest resources, and the cost of sustainable management in them, coupled with the continuing expansion of the global market for timber, have enhanced the economic viability of plantations and semi-natural forests.

Semi-natural forests are common within but by no means exclusive to temperate and boreal zones. They are typically monoculture stands, but occasionally contain more than one species, managed like plantations, but whose regeneration occurs naturally rather than through plantation. The area of plantations has consequently increased rapidly since the 1980s, and now corresponds to 5% of total forest area and 8.5% of economically accessible forest.

The following table shows the regional breakdown of plantation area and planting rates. Asia is currently the dominant region for plantations, accounting for 62% of the world's total plantation area. As the extent of annual planting in Asia is much higher than anywhere else, corresponding to 78% of the global total, the concentration of plantations in this region is likely to continue.

Plantation areas and plantation rates by region Region

Total Area 000 ha

Share of total %

Annual planting rate 000 ha/yr

Africa

8,036

4

194

Asia

115,847

62

3,500

Europe

32,015

17

5

North and Central America

17,533

9

234

Oceania

3,201

2

50

South America

10,455

6

509

World Total

187,086

100

4,493

Source: FAO (2001c)

38

FAO (1998) estimates that the current plantation area in the southern hemisphere has a potential annual growth of 1.1 bn m3 (approximately 70% of current industrial timber production). As such plantation areas mature, it is widely anticipated that there will be a continuing dramatic shift in the origin of timber supply towards plantation areas (21Evans 1999).

22

Sedjo and Botkin (1997) estimated that current demand for industrial roundwood could be met by plantations on as little as 1.5 m km2 of land, approx. 4% of current global forest area.

These estimates predict that by 2050, 50% of the world's industrial roundwood supply will be sourced from fast-growing industrial plantations and that only 5% will be derived from unmanaged old growth forests. Most of these fast-growing plantations will be in the tropics and sub-tropics where climatic conditions are particularly favourable for the species involved.

If these predictions prove correct, concerns over the impact of forest harvesting and trade will shift to how plantations are run and how natural forests that are not used for timber production can be protected effectively.

Estimated current and forecast industrial roundwood supply by forest management situation (% global harvest) Forest type

2000

2050

Old growth

22

5

Second-growth (minimal management)

14

10

Indigenous second growth (managed)

30

10

Industrial plantations indigenous

24

25

Industrial plantations, fast-growing

10

50

Source: Sedjo23 (2001) The difference between supply from the natural forests and demand must be met from planted trees. Trees in plantations have considerable production potential.

Globally, the main fast-growing, short-rotation species are in the genera Eucalyptus spp. and Acacia spp. Pines and other coniferous species are the main medium-rotation utility species, primarily in the temperate and boreal zones. The potential for forest plantations to partially meet demand from natural forests for wood and fibre for industrial uses is increasing.

Evans, J. (1999). Sustainability of forest plantations. The evidence. DFID issues paper. London, UK: Department for International Development (DFID).

22 Sedjo R & Botkin D (1977) Using Foret Plantations TO SPARE Natural Forests. Environmental Science and Policy for Sustainable development 39 (10) :14-30. DOI 10.1080/00139159709604776 23 Sedjo, R.A. (2001). The role of forest plantations in the world’s future timber supply. The Forestry Chronicle Vol 77. No. 2: 221-225.

21

39

Of the estimated 187 million hectares of plantations worldwide (FAO24), Asia had by far the largest area, accounting for 62 percent of the world total. In terms of composition, Pinus spp.

(20 percent) and Eucalyptus spp. (10 percent) remain the dominant genera worldwide, although the diversity of species planted was found to be increasing.

Although accounting for only 5 percent of global forest cover, forest plantations were estimated in the year 2000 to supply about 35 percent of global roundwood.

Ball25 1993 noted that the rate of forest plantation establishment has increased sharply in the past decade, particularly in Asia and the Pacific, and species of Eucalyptus have been among the most important components of such plantation programmes.

If the solution to the problem of wood supply is so simple, one wonders what are the problems to prevent it from being put into effect? Unfortunately, there are many constraints. Shortage of land that is both available and sufficiently fertile is one, shortage of money and the weakness of existing institutions are others. These could be overcome if the will is there. Unfortunately, the politics of plantations are the main and intractable constraint to their development, and in no case is it more so than with the use of species of the genus Eucalyptus in plantation programmes.

Nevertheless, the eucalypts have great potential for wood production as well as for the provision of some services, which could be increased through tree improvement or biomass plantations. Plantation programmes could be promoted using incentives, as has happened elsewhere in the world. No plantation programmes, with Eucalyptus species or any other, can succeed, however, without awareness of the political processes necessary for success, including reliable information, participation in decision-making and management by rural people and careful planning and evaluation of the social consequences of environmental or economic effects.

Several countries have already invested heavily in forest plantations to meet the demand for some forest products. Chile, New Zealand, Brazil, Spain, and Portugal are examples of countries with plantation programmes aimed at the export market, and the eucalypts are important components of the programmes especially in the last three mentioned. Plantations in both Brazil and Argentina, for instance, produce 60% of the country's industrial roundwood but comprise only 2% of the forest area, (26Pandey, 1992) and Brazilian exports accounted for 2.8% of the world market for pulp and paper in 1988 (27Gauthier 1991).

About 70 percent of new plantations, or 3.1 million hectares per year, are successfully established.

FAO 2001 Global Forest Resources Assessment 2000 Main report ISSN 0258-6150 FAO Forestry Paper 140 Ball J B 1993 Development of Eucalyptus Plantations - An Overview. RAP publication: 1996/44 Proceedings Regional Expert Consultation on Eucalyptus spp. 4-8 October 1993 Bangkok vol 1 and vol. FAO. 26 Pandey D (1992) Assessment of Tropical Forest Plantation Resources. Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences. Unpublished manuscript.

27 Gauthier, JJ. 1991. Les bois de plantation dans le commerce mondial des produits forestiers. In: L'emergence des nouveaux potentiels forestiers dans le monde. AFOCEL, Paris. 9-20.

24 25

40

Although accounting for only 5 percent of global forest cover, forest plantations were estimated by FAO in the year 2000 to supply about 35 percent of global roundwood.

Globally: •

•

•

Half the forest plantation estate is for industrial end-use, provide the raw material for wood processing for commercial purposes, including timber for construction, panel products and furniture, and pulpwood for paper.

One quarter of the forest plantation estate is for non-industrial end-use plantations aimed for example at supplying fuelwood, providing soil and water conservation, wind protection, biological diversity conservation and other non-commercial purposes One quarter of the forest plantation estate uses are not specified.

Industrial plantations (producing wood or fibre for supply to wood processing industries) accounted for 48 percent of the global forest plantation estate and non-industrial plantations (e.g., for provision of fuelwood or soil and water protection) for 26 percent. The purpose of the remaining 26 percent is unclear.

The extent of plantations in industrialized countries was less clear than in developing countries. Many industrialized countries make no distinction between planted and natural forests in their inventories.

The top ten countries with the largest forest plantation development account for 79% of the global forest plantation development area. Six of these counties, accounting for 56 % of global forest plantations are in Asia. (NB. USA 9 %). Source FAO 2000.

41

Predicted contribution of plantation wood to regional wood supply by 2020. Source ABARE and Jaakko Poyry 199928.

The potential for forest plantations to partially meet demand from natural forests for wood and fibre for industrial uses is increasing. According to FRA 2000, global forest plantation area accounts for only 5% of global forest cover and the industrial forest plantation estate for less than 3%. Forest plantations were estimated in the year 2000 to supply about 35% of global roundwood, with anticipated increase to 44% by 2020.

In some countries forest plantation production already contributes most of the industrial wood supply. E.g., Forest plantations in New Zealand met 99% of the needs for industrial roundwood in the country in 1997; the corresponding figure in Chile was 84%, Brazil, 62% and Zambia and Zimbabwe, 50% each.

Key Findings of FRA29 2000 Broadleaf species account for 40% of global forest plantation resources, conifers, 31% and not specified, 29%. In terms of genera composition, Pinus (20 percent) and Eucalyptus (10 percent) remain dominant genera world-wide, although overall diversity of species planted was shown to be increasing compared to 1990.

ABARE & Jaakko Pöyry 1999. Global outlook for plantations. ABARE research report 99.9, Canberra, ABARE Australia, 107 pp. ISSN 1037-8286 ISBN 0 642 26647 6 ABARE – Jaakko Pöyry, ABARE Research Report 99.9, Canberra. Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource Economics.

28

29

FAO 2001 Global Forest Resources Assessment 2000 Main report ISSN 0258-6150 FAO FORESTRY PAPER 140

42

Annual plantation rates and plantation areas by region and species group.

Distribution of forest plantation areas by region and species. Source FAO 2000 There are differences in the main species between the regions.

•

• • •

In Asia broadleaves make up 57% of which Eucalyptus, Hevea, Acacia, Tectona as main genera. Conifers make up 30% of primarily Pinus species. In North and Central America, Pinus species account for 88% of area planted.

In South America broadleaves make up 52%, of which Eucalyptus is the principal genera. Conifers make up 45% of which Pinus is the main genus.

In Africa broadleaves make up 47%, mainly with Eucalyptus, Hevea, Acacia, and Tectona. Conifers make up 28%, of which Pinus is the primary group.

In Oceania, the species distribution is primarily unspecified.

Regional plantation area by purpose and ownership.

The purpose and ownership of forest plantations varies markedly between regions. Industrial plantations provide the raw material for wood processing for commercial purposes, including timber for construction, panel products and furniture, and pulpwood for paper. In contrast, non-industrial plantations are aimed for example at supplying fuelwood, providing soil and water conservation, wind protection, biological diversity conservation and other noncommercial purposes. In many countries, particularly in the developing world, the end purpose of the plantations is not clearly defined at the outset. In some of these cases, valuable tree resources are established which coincidentally match future needs. However, in others 43

the lack of planning may result in plantations which have little commercial value and a low potential for local use. The following table details regional plantation areas by purpose and ownership for the global forest plantation estate.

Regional plantation area by purpose and ownership. Source FAO 2000

Distribution of annual planting area.

Source FAO 2000

Ownership of global industrial plantations.

Forest industrial plantation ownership is public, 27%; private, 24%; other, 20% and not specified, 29%.

Global End Use Forest Plantations Produce. Source FAO 2000 Globally, 48% of the forest plantation estate is for industrial end-use; 26% for non-industrial (fuelwood, soil, and water conservation, other); and 26% is not specified. Industrial plantation resources are dominated by China, India, and USA, while non-industrial plantation resources are dominated by China, India, Thailand, and Indonesia.

Industrial plantations are 34% publicly owned, 29% privately owned and 37% other or unspecified.

Within non-industrial plantations, 41% are publicly owned, 37% are privately owned and 22% are other or unspecified.

44

Plantation purpose and ownership by reported area for the ten largest plantation development countries. Source FAO 2000

The top ten countries with largest forest plantation development account for 79% of the global forest plantation development area. Six of these counties, accounting for 56 % of global forest plantations are in Asia. (NB. USA is 9%). Source FAO 2000

45

Within these top ten countries, 52% of forest plantations are grown for industrial purposes to supply raw material for industry. Source FAO 2000

Ownership of ten top countries industrial plantations. Source FAO 2000

46

Species trends by Regions.

Plantation areas by genus, Asia. Source FAO 2000

Plantation areas by genus, North and Central America. Source FAO 2000

47

Plantation area by genus, South America. Source FAO 2000

Plantation area by genus, Africa. Source FAO 2000

48

Plantation area by genus, Oceania. Source FAO 2000

49

Genus Pinus Burley and Barnes (2004)30 noted that there are virtually no natural pine forests in the southern hemisphere. It is not surprising, therefore, that the tropical pines have been used most extensively as exotics in the southern tropics, where some 6 million ha of plantations have been established to produce structural lumber and long-fibered pulp for particleboard, kraft paper, and newsprint manufacture. Unlike other crops, it is not usually economic to modify the plantation environment artificially through fertilization or irrigation.

However, the extensive gene pool of tropical pine species has made it possible to establish plantations that are many times more productive than the natural forests over a great range of environmental conditions.

31World

Distribution of the genus Pinus.

USA Southern pines loblolly pine. P. taeda and slash pine P. elliottii. Photo credit D McCarthy 1982.

Forestal Mininco Conception Chile P. radiata, age 18 years CF25 yr. Photo credit Dick McCarthy Gottstein fellowship 1992.

Burley J, Barnes R D 2004 TROPICAL ECOSYSTEMS | Tropical Pine Ecosystems and Genetic Resources. in Encyclopedia of Forest Sciences, 2004.

31 World Distribution of the genus Pinus. Reproduced from Critchfield WB and Little EL 1966 Geographic Distribution of the Pines of the World. USDA Miscellaneous Publications.

30

50

Introduction of Pinus spp into new areas.

The introduction of new Pinus sp. into an area is most likely to give successful and satisfactory results when carried out under either of the following two conditions: Condition 1. from one country to another of the 'tropical region', i.e., within the 300 N and 30° S latitudes, in which case it is only necessary to grow the new species at nearly the same altitude or within the same elevational belt as in the home country.

Condition 2. from outside the 'tropical region' areas, i.e., from countries of higher latitude into localities of the 'tropical region', in which case it will be necessary to seek out areas with sufficiently high elevation to produce comparable thermal equivalent in the climate.

Introduced Pinus spp allocated to their respective thermal zones32.

Tropical over Subtropical 67°F 75°F mean 75°F (19.5°C - 24°C) (24°C) 1. P. hondurensis 4. P. strobus var. chiapensis 4. P. strobus var. 5. P. oocarpa chaipensis 6. P. montezumae 7. P. pseudostrobus 8. P. michoacana 9. P. lawsoni 10. P. pringlei 11. P. herrerai 12. P. douglasiana 22. P. leiophylla

32

Warm temperate 62°F Cold temperate 50.F Arctic - 67°C (16.6°C - 62°F (10°C - 16.6°C) below 50°C 19.6°C) (10°C) 5. P. oocarpa 6. P. oocarpa 16. P. rudis 6. P. montezumae

6. P. montezumae

7. P. pseudostrobus 8. P. michoacana 9. P. lawsoni 10. P. pringlei 11. P. herrerai 12. P. douglasiana 13. P. tenuifolia 14. P. patula 15. P. ayacahuite 22. P. leiophylla 23. P. lumholtzii 26. P. teocote

7. P. pseudostrobus 8. P. michoacana 14. P. patula 15. P. ayacahuite 16. P. rudis 17. P. cooperi 18. P. duranguensis 20. P. hartwegli 21. P. flexilis 22. P. leiophylla 23. P. lumholtzii 24. P. greggii 25. P. teocote 26. P. cambroides 27. P. pinceana 28. P. nelsoni 29. P. chihuahuana 30. P. engelmanii 31. P. arizonica 32. P. reflex

U Aung Din (1958) Pines for tropical areas. Unasylva Vol 12 No 3 1958 FAO

51

20. P. hartwegii

Source FAO Genus Eucalyptus Davidson33 1993 described the acceleration of industrial planting of eucalypts, especially to produce raw material for pulping. Eucalypt pulp from intensively managed plantations is currently less costly than that produced from other hardwoods like Birch. The market has recognized that eucalypt pulp imparts a special strength and softness to the product for tissues and fine white papers such as those for offset and laser printing, photocopying, and writing.

Over 13 million ha of eucalypts now are estimated to be under cultivation in plantations worldwide. This latest estimate is almost double that made in 1985 (7 million ha: Davidson 1985a, 1988) and already exceeds the prediction made in 1988 of 10 million ha by the year 2000 (Davidson 1988). These new data mean that eucalypt planting worldwide has doubled each decade since 1960, and, if this trend continues, will exceed 16 million ha by the year 2000.

Despite the continuing acceleration of planting Eucalyptus, the genus today still only represents 15 percent of all plantations worldwide (excluding most of Europe).

Regionally, Eucalyptus represents 38 percent of African, 8 percent of Asian and 43 percent of American plantations. After planting huge areas over the last two decades, India and Brazil have the largest areas of eucalypt plantations (estimated at 4.8 million and 3.6 million ha respectively; or, for both countries combined: 63 percent of the world's total). In the Asia Pacific Region, other than India, planting of acacias is overtaking eucalypts, with nearly 750,000 ha established, mostly in the last decade, and principally comprising Acacia mangium in Indonesia (500,000 ha estimated to date) and Malaysia (100,000 ha estimated).

Hl & H Mining Co near Pietermaritzburg South Africa with plantation area of 165,000 ha. Photo credit Dick McCarthy Gottstein Fellowship 1992.

Davidson J 1993 Ecological Aspects of Eucalyptus Plantations RAP Publication: 1996/44 Proceedings Regional Expert Consultation on Eucalyptus spp. 4-8 October 1993 Bangkok Vol 1 and Vol 2. FAO. 33

52

Hans Merensky Holdings Northern Transvaal South Africa.

Photo left E. grandis 19 yr. old. Photo right E. grandis/saligna hybrid age 4. Photo credit Dick McCarthy Gottstein Fellowship 1992.

Eucalypts in Forest Plantations of the World 1993. Source34 Aust Tree Seed Centre.

Total area of plantations (ha) Africa: Algeria Angola Burkina Faso Burundi Cameroon Central African Republic Congo Comores Ethiopia Gabon Ghana Kenya Libya Madagascar Malawi Mali Mauritius Morocco Mozambique Niger Nigeria Rwanda

171,500 28,000 132,000 23,000 9,000 53,000 1,000 270,000 30,000 75,000 168,000 310,000 180,000 20,000 11,900 40,000 17,000 216,000 125,000

Eucalypt plantations (ha) 30,000* 135,000 7,000 40,000 13,000 1,500 35,000 500 95,000 2,000 14,000 17,000 26,000* 130,000 30,000 5,000 3,000 200,000** 14,000 2,000 11,000 60,000

Percent eucalypts (%)

79 25 30 57 17 66 50 35 7 19 10 42 17 25 25 35 12 5 60

Notes: This Table was compiled in the Australian Tree Seed Centre in August 1993, using data from FAO's global inventory programme with supplementary estimates by Midgley, Moncur and Davidson. Europe is excluded from the Table. There are small areas of Eucalyptus plantations in some European countries, e.g., the United Kingdom and France. Blanks mean either data were unavailable at the time of compilation, or were considered of too doubtful accuracy, so were excluded. Most figures are approximate, and reliability varies.

34

53

Senegal South Africa Sudan Tanzania Tcad Togo Tunesia Uganda Zaire Zambia Zimbabwe Sub-total Africa Mediterranean: Israel Italy Portugal Spain Turkey Sub-total (Mediterranean) Asia: India Indonesia Malaysia Myanmar Nepal Pakistan Philippines PR China Sri Lanka Taiwan Thailand Vietnam Sub-total (Asia) Pacific: Cook Islands New Zealand Papua New Guinea Australia Sub-total (Pacific)

160,000 1,500,000 290,000 220,000 6,000 24,000

40,000 538,000 23,000 25,000 1,000 10,000 42,000* 10,000 20,000 26,000 30,000* 1,636,000

25 36 8 9 17 42

100,000

10,000* 40,000* 500,000** 350,000** 20,000* 920,000

10

18,900,000 8,750,000 115,000 334,000 80,000 569,000 500,000 38,300,000 198,000 680,600 755,000 2,100,000 71,281,000

4,800,000 80,000* 8,000 25,000 5,000 28,500 10,000 670,000* 45,000 3,500 62,000 245,000 5,982,000

25 1 7 7 6 5 2 2 23 1 8 12 8

630 1,400,000 42,000 1,050,000 2,492,630

8 22,000 10,000 75,000*** 107,008

1 2 24 7 4

28,000 60,000 68,000 120,000 4,356,400

54

36 33 38 25 38

Sub-total (Asia - Pacific) North America: USA Sub-total (North America) Central America: Costa Rica El Salvador Guatemala Honduras Mexico Nicaragua Sub-total (Central America) South America: Argentina Brazil Chile Colombia Ecuador Paraguay Uruguay Peru Venezuela Sub-total (South America) Caribbean: Cuba Haiti Jamaica Sub-total (Caribbean) Sub-total (America) WORLD TOTAL (in 74 countries)

73,774,230

6,089,008

8

110,000* 110,000 40,000 6,000 20,000 4,000 155,000 20,000 245,000

10,000 2,000 6,000 500 38,000 5,500 62,000

25 33 30 13 25 28 25

780,000 7,000,000 1,600,000 180,000 64,000 13,000 208,000 263,000 362,000 10,470,000

236,000 3,617,000 180,000 31,000 44,000 8,000 160,000 211,000 70,000 4,557,000

30 52 11 17 69 62 77 80 19 44

350,000 12,000 21,000 383,000 11,098,000

35,000 2,000 80 37,080 4,766,080

10 17 0 10 43

89,328,630+

13,411,088

15

55

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ACRONYMS AAD ACT ACIAR ACLMP ACP ADB AEC AFAP

Australian Antarctic Division Australian Capital Territory Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research AusAid funded World Bank Land Mobilisation program.

African, Caribbean and Pacific States Asian Development Bank Administrators Executive Committee Australian Foundation for the Peoples of Asia & the Pacific Ltd. ADB African Development Bank AFLEGT African Forest Law Enforcement, Governance and Trade AFPNG Association of Foresters of PNG AFS Australian Forestry School AFTA Asean Free Trade Area AIF Australian Infantry Forces AMF Australian Military Forces ANBG Australian National Botanical Gardens ANGAU Australian New Guinea Administrative Unit ANU Australian National University APEC Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation APMF Australian Paper Manufacturers Forestry Pty Ltd APPM Australia Paper and Pulp Manufacturers ARD Afforestation, Reforestation and avoided Deforestation ASEAN Association of South East Asian Nations ASIO Australian Security Intelligence Organisation ASOPA Australian School of Pacific Administration ATIBT Association Technique Internationale des Bois Tropicaux ATL Accelerated Tariff Liberalization ATO African Timber Organization AusAID Australian Aid Agency BA basal area BCOF British Commonwealth Occupational Force 1945-52 BDV Brussels Definition of Value “Beer Time” Any time.

BFC Bulolo Forestry College BGD Bulolo Gold Dredging Company BNGD British New Guinea Development (Company Limited) BUC Bulolo University College C Commonwealth cm centimetre CALM Western Australian Department of Conservation and Land Management CBD Convention on Biological Diversity CDM Clean Development Mechanism CEFACT United Nations Centre for Trade Facilitation and Electronic Business CEPT Common Effective Preferential Tariff 82

CERFLOR CFA CFE CGTM CIF CIFOR CITES C&I CNGT CO2 COC Coillte COP CPF CRE CRE

CSIRO CHAH C&I C&L CSD CTE DASF DBH/ dbh DEPT DESA DIES DIY DPI DOF DSB EC ECE ECOSOC EEA EFI EIA EMAS EMS ENB e.g.

ENGO Etc EU

Certificate of Origin of Forest Raw Material, Brazil Commonwealth Forestry Association Community forestry enterprise Cintra for Global Trade Model cost, insurance, freight Centre for International Forestry Research Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora Criteria and indicators Commonwealth New Guinea Timbers Bulolo carbon dioxide chain of custody (Irish pronunciation: [ˈkəilʲtʲə], meaning "forests"/"woods") is a commercial forestry business in Ireland, owned by the state, Conference of Parties Collaborative Partnership on Forests Commander Royal Engineers CRE is a term inherited by RAE from RE and is the term for the Commanding Officer of a RAE unit which is headed by a Lt Col. Although the officer is called the CRE the name is also used for the name of his unit.

E.g., CRE Aust Forestry Group or 1(NG Forests).

Commonwealth Scientific & Industrial Research Organisation Council of Heads of Australasian Herbaria Criteria and Indicators Certification and Labelling Commission on Sustainable Development (United Nations) Committee on Trade and Environment Dept of Agriculture, Stock and Fisheries Diameter at breast height Department United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs Department of Information and Extension Services Do-it-yourself Department of Primary Industry Department of Forests Dispute Settlement Body European Commission ECA Export credit agency Economic Commission for Europe Economic and Social Council of the United Nations European Economic Area European Forest Institute Environmental Investigation Agency Eco-Management and Audit Scheme of European Union Environmental Management System East New Britain Province.

For example Environmental Non-governmental Organisation et cetera (more of the same) European Union 83

EVSL FAO F &TB FIM FMA FPRC FRA FRG FRI Forkol FSP/PNG FCCC FD FDI FIELD

Early Voluntary Liberalisation Food and Agriculture Organisation Forest and Timber Bureau Canberra Forest Information System Forest Management Agreement Forest Products Research Centre Hohola Forest Resource Assessment Forest Red Gum Forest Research Institute Lae Bulolo Forestry College Foundation of the Peoples of the South Pacific See UNFCCC Forest department Foreign direct investment The Foundation for International Environmental Law and Development Forest Law Enforcement, Governance and Trade Forest Law Enforcement and Governance National Forest logging concessions, Brazil free on board Forest Stewardship Council Free Trade Area of the Americas Girth above buttress Girth breast height over bark Girth under bark above buttress Geographic Information Systems Group of Eight (leading economies) General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade Gross Domestic Product Global Environment Facility Global Forest and Trade Network Global Forest Products Model greenhouse gas Geographical information system genetically modified organism Gross National Product Plurilateral Government Procurement Agreement Generalized System of Preferences Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit hectare International Bank for Reconstruction and Development International Energy Agency Institute of Foresters of Australia International Year of the Forest Inter-American Development Bank Amazon Environmental Institute, Brazil International Commodity Agreement International Conference on C&I for Sustainable Forest

FLEGT FLEG FLONAS FOB FSC FTAA GAB Gbhob Gubab GIS G8 GATT GDP GEF GFTN GFPM GHG GIS GMO GNP GPA GSP GTZ ha IBRD IEA IFA IFY IADB IBAMA ICA ICCI Management IDB Inter-American Development Bank 84

IEA IEC IFC IFF IHPA IIED IMF INGO IPC IPCC IPF ISO ITC ITTA ITTC ITTO IUCN IWPA JICA L of N LRRS LCA LEEC LEI LULUCF m3 MCCAF MHA MIA MM MUS MEA MFN MIGA MOU MTTC n.a.

NAA NARI NB NAFTA NGO NHLA NRRP NT NTB NTCC NTFP NTM NWFP

International Environmental Agreement International Electrical Commission International Finance Corporation Intergovernmental Forum on Forests International Hardwood Products Association International Institute for Environment and Development International Monetary Fund International Non-Governmental Organisations Integrated Programme for Commodities Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Intergovernmental Panel on Forests International Organization for Standardisation International Trade Centre International Tropical Timber Agreement International Tropical Timber Council International Tropical Timber Organization The World Conservation Union International Wood Products Association Japanese International Cooperation Agency League of Nations Land Resource Soils Survey (branch of CSIRO) Life Cycle Analysis London Economic and Environmental Centre Indonesian Ecolabelling Institute Land Use, Land Use Change and Forests cubic metre McCarthy & Associates (Forestry) Pty. Ltd. Member of House of Assembly PNG mean annual increment in cubic metres/hectare/year Military Medal Malayan Uniform System Multilateral Environmental Agreement Most Favoured Nation Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency Memorandum of Understanding Malaysian Timber Certification Council not available National Archives Australia National Agriculture Research Institute New Britain North American Free Trade Agreement Non-Governmental Organisation National Hardwood Lumber Association Natural Resources and Rights Program National Treatment non-tariff barrier National Timber Certification Council non-timber forest product non-tariff measures non-wood forest product 85

NDS NFCAP NGM no.

NG NGF NGIB NGI NGO NGVR NZ NSW NTSC OECD OTO OIC OISCA OTML P or p PEFC PFDB PIB PIR PNG PNGAA PNGAF PNGFA PNGFIA PNGRIS PNGUT POM P&C PEFC PGA PPM PPP QLD QF RAE RPC RRA RIIA RIL RFE RTA RWE SAP

Northern District Sawmills PNG National Forestry and Conservation Action Plan New Guinea Mainland number New Guinea New Guinea Forces (relates to plant collection of Lae Herbarium) New Guinea Infantry Battalion New Guinea Islands Non-Government Organisation New Guinea Volunteer Rifles New Zealand New South Wales National Tree Seed Centre PNG Bulolo Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development Office of Trade and Investment Ombudsman Officer in Charge Organisation for Industrial, Spiritual and Cultural Advancement International Japan.

Ok Tedi Mining Ltd page Pan European Forest Certification Scheme FAO planted forest database Papuan Infantry Battalion Pacific Islands Regiment Papua New Guinea Papua New Guinea Australia Association Papua New Guinea Australian Foresters Magazine Series Papua New Guinea Forest Authority PNG Forest Industries Association Papua New Guinea Resource Information System PNG University of Technology Port Moresby Principles and Criteria Pan-European Forest Certification Framework Plurilateral Agreement on Government Procurement production and processing method Polluter Pays Principle (other meaning Purchasing Power Parity) Queensland Queensland Forestry Royal Australian Engineers/Australian Army Royal Papuan Constabulary Rapid Resource Appraisal Royal Institute of International Affairs reduced impact logging Russia Far East Regional Trade Agreement roundwood equivalent structural adjustment programme 86

SPS SFM SGS SMS SP SPWP sq m TAG TSS TBT TFF TFRK TNC TRAINS TREM TRIM TRIP UK UN Unasylva UNCCD UNCED UNCSD UNCTAD UNESCO UNDP UNECE UNEP UNFCCC UNFF USTR UNE UNEP UNI UNITECH UNRE UPNG UQ US USA USD TPNG TUBL TA TA TRADAC TRP Vol VSF WA

Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures Sustainable Forest Management Société General de Surveillance Selective Management System Malaysia South Pacific Secondary Processed Wood Products square metres Trade Advisory Group of ITTO Tropical Shelterwood System Technical Barriers to Trade Tropical Forest Foundation traditional forest-related knowledge Transnational corporation Trade-Basic Indicators of UNCTAD trade-related environmental measures Trade Related Investment Measures Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights United Kingdom United Nations Journal of FAO of UN United Nations Programme to Combat Desertification United Nations Conference on Environment and Development United Nations Committee on Sustainable Development United Nations Conference on Trade and Development United Nations Economic and Social Council United Nations Development Programme United Nations Economic Commission for Europe United Nations Environment Programme Framework Convention on Climate Change of United Nations United Nations Forum on Forests US, Office of the US Trade Representative University of New England Armidale NSW United Nations Environment Program University University of Technology Lae PNG University of Natural Resources and Environment University of Papua New Guinea University of Queensland United States United States of America United States dollar Territory of Papua and New Guinea Territory United Brewery Ltd Timber Area Timber Authority Timber Research & Development Advisory Council Qld. Timber Rights Purchase volume Victorian School of Forestry Western Australia 87

WB WCMC WCO WSSD WTO WWF Yr.

World Bank World Conservation Monitoring Centre World Customs Organisation World Summit for Sustainable Development World Trade Organization World Wide Fund for Nature year

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