Serpentes Issue 3

RADLEY COLLEGE ACADEMIC JOURNAL

SERPENTES SUMMER TERM 2019

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Welcome to Serpentes, the Radley College Academic Journal. Before you start reading, let us briefly introduce you to our aims.

We aspire to change the way academic study is perceived in Radley. Due to the relatively restricted content of GCSEs and A-levels, academics often becomes more about ticking a box than thinking beyond it. We would like to fundamentally change this misconception – there is so much more to academics than what is written in your textbooks.

Do you have an outlandish interest you would like to write about? Have you read an especially good book recently? Did you solve or create a particularly challenging maths puzzle? Send it to us and it could be published in the next issue. Whether you are 6.1 or Shell, this journal belongs to you.

The Editorial Team

Alfred Mawdsley, Angus Parker, Christoph Wallendahl, Declan McCarthy, John Fu and Matija Conic

Don-in-Charge

DLC

Contributors

Sam Auchterlonie, Nina Becket, Ned Carter, Alec Cooke, Xavier Coughlan, Jamie Walker, Peter

Denton,

Jack

Dhillon,

George

Edgerton-Warburton, Alex Senior, Jake Elliott, Muez Khan, Usman Ladan, Felix Rawlinson, Dominic Scott

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Nina Becket: An understanding 4 Peter Denton: What kinds of inequality, if any, are unjust? 6 Alec Cooke: The cars of tomorrow 9 Muez Khan: The story of penicillin 12 Dominic Scott: Democracy: Rule of the least fit? 16 Ned Carter: The old sheperd’s chief by Sir Edwin Landseer 20 George Edgerton-Warburton: Dyslexia and education 22 Felix Rawlinson: Sequencing my genome 27 Peter Stern: Music in video games 31 Alex Senior: Can literature ever be timeless? 35 Sam Auchterlonie: Will we see another 70 years of the NHS? 42 John Fu: The need and use of experimental art 44 Xavier Couglan: Poetry 47 Usman Ladan: Sum of powers 51 John Fu: Patterns in primes 54 Jake Elliott: “Stasiland” by Anna Funder 56

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RADLEY COLLEGE ACADEMIC JOURNAL

SICUT SERPENTES AN UNDERSTANDING NINA

BECKET

Mrs Becket holds an MPhil in Accounting for

succeed in life and work. This is based on what I

Marketing and was a senior lecturer at Oxford

have gleaned from the specifics of the subjects I

Brookes University Business Faculty. She now

have taught and from observing undergraduate

works at Radley as an Assistant Librarian.

and postgraduate students within university and later in their working lives.

I see the three

Having spent over 20 years in management

necessary areas of knowledge and abilities to be

education teaching at university I have had time to

concerned with:

reflect on the key strengths I feel are necessary to

4

An understanding of the philosophy of marketing

understanding of yourself and your expectations when dealing with others.

In essence, in business this is concerned with understanding the wants or needs of your

Corporate responsibility has many definitions and

customers or clients and identifying the best way

is closely linked with the concept of sustainability.

to ensure that these needs are satisfied. Of course,

It is largely concerned with the impact of actions on

it is much more complicated than that, but this

individuals,

gives you an idea of the philosophy.

Whilst

considerations are very relevant to individuals. For

developed for business purposes, the concept can

example, is it okay if your trainers (that cost a small

also be applied in non-commercial settings or

fortune) were made by underpaid workers in

within organisations.

appalling conditions? This was happening at Nike

groups

or

society,

and

similar

in the 1990s and it is worth noting how Nike’s So, take for example a surgeon working in a busy

business practices and supply chain management

operating theatre.

You might consider the

have changed in the 21st century. What do you

surgeon’s clients or customers to be their patients,

think about the ‘greenwashing’ that happened at

they want surgery that will take care of their issue

Volkswagen more recently?

in a safe and timely manner. The hospital needs the work of the surgeon to be safe, efficient and

Being able to understand other people

effective, the operating theatre staff could be considered as both customers and colleagues of

Emotional intelligence has been identified as

the surgeon, and the family of the patient will want

being as important as IQ in many situations. It

the surgeon to provide the best outcomes.

offers good insights into the skills of relating to and communicating with others. Many companies now

Deciding the direction of your moral compass

consider

emotional

recruiting,

promoting

intelligence and

skills

developing

when their

Whilst at Radley and further in your education and

employees. There are five elements of emotional

beyond you have time to consider what you feel is

intelligence:

right and what you are prepared, and indeed not

motivation; empathy and social skills. Empathy can

prepared, to be involved with. It is essential to

be understood by seeing it as your ability to put

consider and establish your personal moral

yourself in someone else’s shoes, or see things

compass in order that you have a good

from their point of view; this is just as fundamental

self-awareness;

self-regulation;

in a person’s working or private life.

5

WHAT KINDS OF INEQUALITY, IF ANY, ARE UNJUST? PETER

DENTON

for circumstances to be unjust, the circumstances must be a result of a person causing an action impacting another; the second is that an unjust event must involve a wrong by a person; lastly, for a person to be subject to an event that is unjust, the person must be wronged. The functioning of justice systems demonstrates this is not an idiosyncratic analysis of injustice. A justice system A theoretical view of injustice and inequality seems the best method of answering the given question.

It avoids needlessly determining whether specific, real-world circumstances of inequality are unjust,

has the intention of ensuring no injustice occurs. In a justice system, only people—not elements of nature—are protected or prosecuted and only for wrongdoing against other people.

since this provides no answer to the general form

Thus, one is drawn to the conclusion that a justice

this question takes as it refers to ‘kinds of

system is predicated on the same definition of

inequality’.

injustice as suggested. While evidence of a belief

Inequality can be defined by merely citing the rather undisputed definition provided by the Oxford Dictionary: it is a ‘difference in size, degree, circumstances etc.’ i.e. a disparity. Inequality can occur in nature (take the differing size of trees— even among the same species), and among humans (for example difference in eye colour, material possessions, or even one’s sense of worth). It can occur because of nature and because of actions of humans.

Defining the nature of injustice requires somewhat more in-depth attention. Plato suggests injustice occurs ‘when men do wrong and are wronged by one another’. There are three noteworthy elements constituting this definition of injustice. One is that

(in this case the meaning of injustice) being prevalent is not necessarily justification for the belief holding any legitimacy, when it comes to language it is most certainly appropriate. This is because

language

is

a

mere

means

of

communicating concepts, and so the best way of determining which concepts language is intended to transmit is to see what concepts are most prevalently communicated with that language.

Now, since the criteria, which must be met for a circumstance to be deemed unjust, have been determined, one can henceforth begin applying the said criteria to situations of inequality. Thus, it can be said: inequality in nature is not unjust; inequality caused by nature is not unjust; inequality impacting a person that occurs as a result of one’s

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own actions is not unjust; inequality that has no

climate change—yet the tornado that destroys a

negative consequences is not unjust; inequality

house is not considered an act of injustice.

that occurs not a result of any wrongdoing by a person is not unjust. This leaves circumstances where inequality negatively impacts a person, and that is caused by another person’s wrongdoing.

One complicating argument in this discussion is as follows: if persons have no agency, then any action of a person is simply the result of inputs from either non-human entities (nature) or other persons (all of

This is a rather unsatisfactory definition to be used

which have no agency). This suggests, in the end,

to determine which kinds of inequality are unjust

all actions of persons are due to nature, and hence

alone. Within each criterion that must be met for

there can be no unjust action, so too no unjust

inequality to be defined as unjust is a whole new

inequality. Nevertheless, this point is rather

set of terms that must have their own criteria for a

irrelevant, because of the premise of justice being

circumstance to be said to meet that term. These

used that ‘men do wrong’—which implies men can

are as follows: ‘negatively impacts a person’;

do, not just transmit outputs (actions) from inputs

‘caused

(from nature).

by...

[a]

person’;

and

a

‘person’s

wrongdoing’.

A solution to the problem that most events are not

For something to ‘negatively impact a person’, it

the direct result of either persons or nature is to

must cause them more harm than good. To

discern the true determining factor responsible for

consider there is a list of objective things good for

the event creating inequality. This means the

us is most certainly true—demonstrated through

action which turns potentiality for inequality into

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, a psychological

inequality, and so is often the final action in a

theory that has the implication there are some

sequence of events, thus avoiding tracing causal

things that are just good for us. This includes

sequencing back to the Big Bang. An application

physiological needs, a sense of safety, intimate

of this line of thought to a real-world example can

relationships, and feelings of accomplishment. If

be seen in determining who began the Great War.

inequality leads to the absence or degradation of

Gavrilo Princip turned all the potentiality for war in

any of these qualities by a proportionately greater

Europe in 1914 (such as the British imperial

amount than any increase in the level experienced

eagerness to achieve naval supremacy over

of any of the other qualities, it can be said to have

German

a negative impact on a person.

confrontation) into actual war, and so he would be

‘For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction’. All events are caused by something in this universe. For a state of inequality to be unjust, the inequality must be caused by a person.

However, most events are not the result of a single action or occurrence. For example, a natural disaster is due to both freak weather events, and often, in part, human action that contributes to

Empire

and

so

readiness

for

responsible. In the same way, in the situation of a natural disaster, the potentiality for a tornado is in part due to human activity—yet the action that turns that potentiality into reality is a mechanism of nature,

and

so

one

would

judge

nature

responsible, not persons. If it is determined this is a person, then any subsequent inequality can be unjust.

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The final criterion necessary for an inequality to be

A more satisfactory detailing of what constitutes a

unjust is that a person must have done a wrong to

‘wrong’ action can be found, by supplementing

bring about the inequality. One may judge this to

illegal actions with any action that causes a

be assumedly true based on the negative impact

negative impact on another person given this

on another person, which would render this

action has not been taken to avoid any negative

criterion insignificant given the presence of this

impact to oneself. While this definition lends itself

term already in the definition. However, this is

to a broad interpretation which may be used to

absurd, if one views the real-world view implication

justify ostensibly selfish acts, and thereby too

of this. Consider a situation where a person stops

arguably wrong acts, it seems the only feasible

a burglar as he rummages through a drawer in this

criteria one can generate that are applicable to

person’s house, and then orders him to leave. This

general circumstances. It serves to include any

person has had a negative impact on the burglar’s

agreed upon wrong acts (through citing the law)

life, but by no means have they committed a

and demonstrably clear immoral acts that fall

wrong.

outside the scope of the law. Thus, for inequality to

An easy way to determine whether an action is wrong or not is simply to see whether the action is

be unjust, the inequality must be brought about by an action that falls within this definition.

illegal in law. This would mean relying upon already

Given examination, criteria determining ‘what

agreed examples of wrong actions. This is not

kinds of inequality, if any, are unjust?’ have

suitable alone. For the law encompasses only

emerged. Inequality is unjust if: the disparity brings

issues of wrongness so significant they require

about a net diminishment in a person’s wellbeing

deontological

of

(as defined by Maslow’s hierarchy of needs); it is

legislation. Thus, this excludes actions which are

the action of another person that specifically turns

wrong in their context, but not defined in law (such

the potential for any inequality into actual

as ignoring a stranger dying of thirst pleading for

inequality; and the action which brings about this

water, as you walk past with an unneeded bottle of

change is illegal (as per the laws of the land) or

water). Additionally, actions which are deemed

there are no self-serving reasons for causing the

insufficiently ‘wrong’ to qualify for legislation, or

said negative impact. If there exists a kind of

simply would be too impractical to enforce so not

inequality which possesses qualities as to meet all

legislated

three of these criteria—then it is an unjust kind of

classification

for,

are

in

also

consideration using this means.

the

form

excluded

from

inequality.

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THE CARS OF TOMORROW ALEC

COOKE

With the sale of new petrol and diesel cars to be

the wheels with the electric motor and only uses

banned by 2040 (in the UK) and the government

the engine as a generator. A series hybrid is more

under pressure to bring this deadline forward even

efficient and simpler but requires lots of batteries,

further, the automotive world is going to

which makes the car a lot more expensive. This is

experience a period of change, uncertainty and

one of the reasons why more manufacturers tend

development throughout the industry. This will

to go for parallel hybrids which rely more on

lead

charging up a smaller battery pack.

to

new,

exciting

technologies

being

developed alongside the improvement of those we are using right now. We will undoubtedly

Another alternative to the standard internal

experience a variety of changes in the way our cars

combustion engine that we will probably see a lot

are fueled, driven and how their power units work.

of in the future is the Fuel Cell. These cells are

At the end of 2017, petrol and diesel cars

somewhat

occupied a total of 98.4% of cars registered in the

Combustion engine and the battery powered

UK. Only 1.3% percent of cars were electric

motor. Put simply, they take a fuel (in this case,

hybrids and only 0.2% ran off alternative fuels (like

hydrogen) and react it with oxygen to form water.

bio-fuel and electric).

This process also generates electricity, which can

of

a

cross-over

between

the

be used to power an electric motor. This reaction is

known

as

an

‘electrochemical

reaction’.

Chemical because it involves the joining together of two chemicals and electro- because electricity is produced in the process.

The cell consists of a positively charged terminal (made of platinum), a negatively charged terminal and an electrolyte. Hydrogen atoms are fed down Toyota Prius Electric hybrid cars mainly come in two forms, ‘parallel hybrid’ and ‘series hybrid’, and both have an internal combustion engine and an electric motor. A Parallel hybrid, (e.g. the Toyota Prius) can run off either the electric motor or the combustion engine at any time. A series hybrid only ever drives

a tube to the positive terminal, where the platinum acts as a catalyst, to speed up the reaction, and splits the hydrogen into ions (just protons in the case of hydrogen) and electrons. Simultaneously, Oxygen is being fed down towards the negative terminal. The H+ ions (protons) are then attracted to the negative terminal. Whilst this is happening, the electrons go around the outer circuit, drive an

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electric motor which turns the wheels, and arrive at

car travelling behind it, which sent out radio

the negative terminal too. The protons and

signals to be received by an antenna on the target

electrons then react with Oxygen to form water as

car.

the only product other than the electricity generated. The electrolyte is key in this cell as it is a thin membrane of special polymer film, which only lets the protons through. These cells are popular because they don’t run flat like most batteries (so long as they have a constant supply of hydrogen) and the fact that they only produce water; no greenhouse gases or anything harmful is emitted into the environment.

Modern driverless car Jump forward almost 100 years and companies such as Google, Tesla, Uber etc... are using vastly different technology to work towards a similar goal. Laser light, radio waves, and sound waves have all been tested as ways of making a virtual map for autonomous vehicles. The concept for all of these is the same – The car emits a beam of waves which are then reflected off an object back towards the car, which detects these and measures the time it took for the waves to return to the car.

This value can then be used alongside the speed of the wave to calculate the total distance from the car to the object and back to the car. Once the vehicle has enough data to create its ‘map’, it can

Hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell

plot a route and send commands to its ‘actuators’,

Another area which is already experiencing

which control things such as the vehicle’s steering,

development

acceleration and braking.

is

the

field

of

autonomous

(driverless) cars. Some of the first evidence of driverless cars comes, somewhat surprisingly, from

This kind of technology is still being developed to

the 1920s. Houdina Radio Control demonstrated,

be even better but some manufacturers, such as

in 1925, the ‘American Wonder’ on the streets of

Tesla, have already implemented ‘auto-pilot’

New York City. This car was radio-controlled by a

systems, which use this kind of technology.

However, the human behind the wheel must

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always be ready to step in just in case there is

can tap into this development by funding a team

something the computer can’t deal with. The main

and allowing this futuristic technology to drip

steps for this technology to take in the future will

down into all their new road cars. For example, in

be learning to make decisions like a human, and

the new season of Formula E, McLaren (who

for all cars to communicate together. If at some

manufacture the batteries for every team) have

point in the future every car was autonomous, they

managed to massively reduce the weight of the

would be able to communicate with each other on

batteries as well as nearly doubling the energy

scales we have never seen before. They could

density. How this has been achieved is a close-

potentially eliminate the need for traffic lights and

guarded secret, but many people have been led

traffic would be a lot easier to manage and reduce.

to believe it was by adding aluminum to their

This

a

batteries. However, we can expect this technology

junction/moving car could know exactly where to

to be on standard roads within the next 20 years.

and when a car would make a certain movement,

More ideas being developed in formula E are

getting rid of many situations that would cause

energy-recovering brakes and ways to cut the

crashes or traffic jams with humans at the wheel.

charging times for electric vehicles.

is

because

every

car

around

The breeding ground for these future technologies is motorsport. F1 teams are a combination of hundreds of world-class engineers and millions of pounds dedicated to researching new technology to improve the performance and efficiency of their cars in any way possible. Most components in a modern-day car will have been either first thought of, or mainly developed in motorsport. From suspension to engines, motorsport is at the

Motorsport

pinnacle of development. Road car manufacturers

11

THE STORY OF PENICILLIN MUEZ

KHAN

as Assistant Director of the same inoculation department he was once a student in. He was promoted

to

Principal

of

the

Inoculation

department in 1946; succeeding his mentor Sir Almroth Edward Wright.

During his time at St. Mary’s Hospital, Fleming made many discoveries that advanced our knowledge of the human body. The discovery that won him a joint Nobel Prize in 1945 and the one Sir Alexander Fleming

we all know him for is penicillin.

It was September 1928 and Fleming had returned

The story of antibiotics began in 1928 when Sir Alexander Fleming made an observation which would change pharmaceutical science forever. Sir Alexander Fleming was born to a Scottish farmer in 1881. Some say that because he was brought up in the countryside he had a sharper eye than others when looking at organisms from the natural world such as plants. Years later with financial support from his uncle Sir Alexander Fleming, he attended St. Mary’s Hospital Medical School (University of London) where he won the 1908 gold medal for being the top medical student at the university.

Fleming had always wanted to become a surgeon

from a two-week holiday with his family. He noticed a petri dish containing a culture of Staphylococcus which had not been placed in an incubator as envisioned. Staphylococcus Aureus is a spherical-shaped bacterium that mainly causes skin infections such as boils and impetigo. Fleming also noticed that a Penicillium, which is a genus (group) of moulds, had contaminated the petri dish that the bacterium culture was growing in.

Until this day, it is a mystery how the Penicillium mould spores were introduced into the equation.

Many people believe that it may have travelled from the laboratory one floor below where various

but during his temporary move to the hospital’s

moulds were being cultured.

inoculation department he turned his thoughts to

Fortunately the temperature in Fleming’s lab was

the then-new field of bacteriology. He developed his research skills under the supervision of bacteriologist Sir Almroth Edward Wright. After leaving St. Mary’s Medical School in order to join the Royal Army Medical Corps he returned in 1918

fitting for both the Staphylococcus and mould spores to grow. Had the petri dish been placed in an incubator, only the bacteria would have prevailed. Flemings observations led him to

12

believe that the mould was somehow attacking the bacteria and inhibiting its growth. He thought this because there were clear zones where the Staphylococcus was absent; these areas were mainly around where a liquid substance from the mould met the bacteria. He carried out many experiments involving Penicillium moulds and he found

that

not

all

had

the

antibacterial

characteristics he observed in the original sample.

In the end he worked on a particular strain of Penicillium called Penicillium Notatum, which he knew

for

sure

produced

this

antibacterial

substance.

Sir Howard Florey

Fleming came up against a brick wall – he couldn’t extract a pure sample of the mould “juice” which he called penicillin. His discovery also failed to grab the attention of the scientific community despite him publishing a paper in the British Journal of Experimental Pathology (1929). This led him to cease his research into penicillin in 1931.

The story doesn’t end there. A little less than a decade later two researchers at Oxford university, Sir Howard Florey and Sir Ernst Boris Chain, carried on Fleming’s work and set out to overcome the difficulties of extraction and purification of penicillin. They had found a way to produce fluid extracts containing penicillin and in 1940 they Sir Ernst Boris Chain

decided to run an experiment involving mice. Fifty mice were infected with deadly bacteria known as streptococcus. Half of the mice received penicillin and the other half were left to rely on their own immune system. Those that received the fluid

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extract containing penicillin survived and showed

known for its high standards. This institute proved

signs of a healthy body but those that weren’t so

vital in the race to mass produce penicillin.

fortunate ended up dying from the infection.

Towards the end of 1943 pure penicillin was being produced in large quantities; enough to be used as medicine by doctors. Infections were no longer seen as life threatening and were no longer one of the main causes of death during the war.

Strep throat is a bacterial infection which is commonly treated with penicillin. It is caused by a genus of bacteria known as Streptococci and is most commonly spread by droplets in the air. This means that when someone with the infection coughs or sneezes near you, the bacteria they release can be inhaled by you causing you to become ill.

Streptococci is a genus or group of bacteria. The actual bacterium that causes the development of strep throat is called Streptococcus Pyogenes. This bacterium invades the pharyngeal tissue which is the part of the throat behind the mouth and above

Norman Heatley

the esophagus. It causes inflammation of this tissue and the tonsils that are located in that

At this point it was known that penicillin was capable of curing bacterial infections but the problem was that the quantity of penicillin purified was insufficient to treat even a single person.

World War II was in full swing and the need for

region. Inflammation is the human body’s immune response to injury or infection but in excess it can cause sepsis which is a life threatening condition; it leads to multiple organ failure. We need antibiotics to treat serious bacterial infections such

penicillin was greater than ever (for both soldiers

as this one.

and civilians). The two researchers from Oxford

Howard Florey and Sir Ernst Boris Chain, carried

along with Norman Heatley (a biochemist that helped them with the extraction and purification process) travelled to America seeking assistance in production from large pharmaceutical companies.

At the time the chemical industry in Britain was fully dissolved in the war effort hence their trip to America. During their time there they were referred

to

the

Illinois

Regional

Research

Laboratory where the fermentation division was

on Fleming’s work and set out to overcome the difficulties of extraction and purification of penicillin. They had found a way to produce fluid extracts containing penicillin and in 1940 they decided to run an experiment involving mice. Fifty mice were infected with deadly bacteria known as streptococcus. Half of the mice received penicillin and the other half were left to rely on their own immune system. Those that received the fluid

14

extract containing penicillin survived and showed

macromolecule present; in other words, it only has

signs of a healthy body but those that weren’t so

an effect on bacteria.

fortunate ended up dying from the infection.

There are two types of bacteria – Gram-positive

Before we can understand the mechanism of

and Gram-negative.

penicillin, we need to know the structure of bacteria. Bacteria are living cells compromising of organelles such as mitochondria and circular DNA strands known as plasmids. These structures are enclosed by the cell wall and the outermost layer known as the capsule. The cell wall has a component called peptidoglycan which is a macromolecule of various sugars and amino acids.

When bacteria divide in order to increase their

Penicillin can only harm Gram-positive bacteria.

numbers, small holes appear in the cell walls. It’s

Gram-negative bacteria’s cell wall consists of

the newly-produced peptidoglycan’s job to fill

peptidoglycan and a lipopolysaccharide layer. This

these holes and prevent water from entering; as

extra layer in the cell wall prevents penicillin from

well as providing support to the cell wall against

accessing peptidoglycan and therefore damaging

osmotic pressure.

it.

Penicillin prevents peptidoglycan monomers from

Infections have been known to man since the

linking

newly-

beginning of life. Research shows that pre-

synthesized cell wall to become fragile and have

antibiotics 90% of children who had bacterial

holes. Water can enter the bacteria by osmosis

meningitis died. In early 20th century America, the

through the holes and since the cell wall is delicate

average life expectancy of a new born was 47

it will burst due to osmotic pressure.

years, but because of the development of

properly

which

causes

the

Peptidoglycan is only present in the cell walls of bacteria. Human cells do not make or have use for peptidoglycan because they do not have a cell wall. This makes penicillin selectively toxic because it

only

attacks

the

cells

which

have

this

antibiotics the life expectancy increased to 78.8 years. The leading cause of death was no longer infectious diseases but it was non-communicable diseases such as cancer or cardiovascular disease.

I believe it is safe to say that antibiotics have been one of mankind’s most important discoveries.

15

DEMOCRACY: RULE OF THE LEAST FIT? DOMINIC

SCOTT

Democracy may have been born in Athens, but it

version. For one thing, even at its greatest extent

was a stuttering and uncertain birth. Plato,

in the early 4th century BC, the whole city-state of

famously,

by

Athens never comprised more than 60,000 voting

philosopher-kings, and the idea of a benevolent

citizens. That was enormous by ancient standards,

dictatorship has arisen endlessly whenever other

but is less than almost all single constituencies in

forms of polity come into difficulty. Slaves,

England (the smallest being the Wirral, around

foreigners, and women were all barred from

55,000, and the largest being the Isle of Wight

participation, meaning that only around 30% of the

which is twice that). There are constituencies in

population could take part in elections. Moreover,

India of over 3,000,000 people with a single MP.

such democracy was relatively short-lived – it was

Combined with the relatively small number of

twice interrupted by the Spartans and ended by

citizenry, representation in Athens was also far

Alexander the great, lasting less than 200 years in

more direct, with the central assembly, the

total. Nonetheless, the beacon was lit, and the

Ecclesia, comprising around 6,000 citizens. Other

ideal of a state being controlled by its own people,

assemblies with different roles also comprised

rather than by a rich, powerful minority, never

hundreds of members, meaning that the average

entirely faded again.

Athenian citizen at any one time had at least a 1/9

preferred

the

idea

of

rule

Athenian democracy, then, was very different from the British version, or the US version, or the Indian

chance of being a representative politician. On that scale, India and China would require well over

16

300 million politicians to be as representative.

the non-essential – that is to say, the practical

Think of the expenses claims!

rather

So the first democracy was small, and direct, with a

than

philosophical

–

problems

with

democracy in future articles.

strong chance of citizens having a direct influence over policy, speaking in debates, and knowing their leaders personally. Whether or not one thinks of Athenian democracy as hugely successful, a well-intended failure, or somewhere on the spectrum in between, there is no doubt at all that these conditions define a very different mode of political organisation from a large, modern democracy. Democracy, even its most enthusiastic proponents agree, is cumbersome, distant, and a success only in that its failures are less dangerous and less final than those of more immediate systems: in Winston Churchill’s words, ‘the worst form of Government except for all those other forms that have been tried from time to time’.

We are faced with a central problem: that millions of people, who have been living in democracies now generations-old, are no longer enthusiastic about democracy, and in many cases downright hostile to it. Is this a problem with democracy itself?

Or with the way it is currently structure and administered? I will begin to examine the first in this essay, which can only be a sketch, or

Isaac Asimov The great scientist and writer Isaac Asimov once wrote of the widespread notion that democracy means ‘my ignorance is just as good as your folly’.

HL Mencken, the American writer and sceptic, put it somewhat more bitterly: ‘Democracy is a pathetic belief in the collective wisdom of individual ignorance’. In an indirect way, this was the argument cast against democracy for much of

framework, for further questions.

the mediaeval and early modern period – that the

Let us begin with the fundamental problems of

that those who were better educated and wiser

democracy. These are 3 – the ignorance of the electorate; the slowness of democratic responses to non-immediate crises, such as climate change or economic development; and the dangers of majoritarianism/populism,

sometimes

characterised as ‘two wolves and a sheep voting over what to have for lunch’. This essay will deal only with the first of these problems, but I shall hope to return to slow responses, populism, and

people were ignorant, and it was better for them and more intelligent should rule in their stead.

Now, this was largely a convenient fiction to disguise

the

fact

that

democracy

was

inconveniently disruptive for the wealthy and powerful, who overlapped with the educated almost entirely, and who had long grown used to getting their own way. Nonetheless, there is undoubtedly truth in it.

17

The collective ignorance of the people (about

Now,

politics, and areas outside their arena of expertise,

acknowledge the separation between evidence-

I mean – I do not argue that all people are ignorant

based policy and what the electorate rewards in

about everything) produces politicians who have to

the ballot-box without calling it ignorance.

speak,

common

Perhaps, they might say, what we mean by

denominator – a stultifying fear of ‘elitism’, as if that

‘evidence-based’ is an unspoken assumption of

were something to be concerned about rather than

Utilitarianism – the greatest good for the greatest

sought. It produces politicians who themselves are

number – and that most people tend to a more

often ignorant, because their appeal is to baser

mixed bag of ethical impulses, many of which are

instincts or to illogical and fallacious arguments

more deontological – that is, which see certain

rather than to treating the electorate as adults. It

actions as good or bad in themselves, rather than

produces policy based more on fear of the tabloid

always to be defined within an overall calculus of

headlines than evidence of what works. In the

the greater good. To take an obvious and

recent and usually fruitless debates over Brexit, the

simplistic example, it might well be the case that

ignorance of the people has been trumpeted as

an infant with a terminal illness, who could in no

‘the settled will of the people’ by those who

way survive beyond a 3rd birthday, might save the

support Brexit, and dismissed as racist, or ignorant,

lives of 3 or more people who could go on to lead

or other patronising characterisations, by those

healthy and productive lives, if he/she were killed

against it.

earlier and the organs harvested. I think, and hope,

and

work,

to

the

lowest

It is undoubtedly the case that the ignorance of the electorate produces problems. Drug policy, for example, has for many generations gone against all scientific evidence of what will cause least harm, for fear of the moral outrage generated by ‘softer’ (more evidence-based) policy. The same applies to the justice system, where systems of local justice for minor crimes, psychotherapy for violent and

an

enthusiastic

democrat

may

well

that most of us would find this kind of utilitarianism morally repugnant – if so, it would underlines the fact that at least in certain circumstances, we may well acknowledge that a certain course of action – more liberal drug policies, or rarer prison sentencing – might produce less recidivism or save the Exchequer money, whilst still arguing against it because we see it as inherently morally wrong.

sexual criminals, are proven to be far more

That argument, however, merely appeals to

effective at reducing crime than any type of

philosophical rather than evidential evidence. We

vengeful justice which will undoubtedly feel more

are to celebrate, or at least tolerate, a public

appropriate to victims in the understandable grip

opinion which knows of the evidence against its

of fear and rage. It is the ‘lock ‘em up and throw

preferred policy, but sets it aside in favour of an

away the key’ sentiment which is, and has usually

often inchoate sentiment. I would argue that if we

been, at the heart of public response, regardless of

are to do this, we ought at least to ensure that

evidence.

medical

people are clear about the evidence in the first

policies, too, suffer from this tendency of

place, and then ensure that they are clear about

democracy to reward the most popular, rather than

the likely consequences of ignoring such evidence.

the most evidence-based, solution.

In other words, my argument is like that of some of

Education,

scientific,

and

the less-determined ‘Remainers’ about the need

18

for a second referendum on the EU. ‘You are

The key issue here is that, after generations of

entitled to support policy which you know perfectly

politicians and political practice devoted largely to

well to be economically damaging, because you

harvesting the votes of the ignorant voters, it will

have decided that certain things (sovereignty,

not be in the interest of the current political class

national democracy remaining superior to any

to change a system which has put them into power.

external form, etc) matter more to you than

Like all change, this will have to come from below,

economic well-being. You are not entitled to

and in this, I suspect that the recent Brexit situation

believe that you can leave the EU with no economic

may have a tutelary role to play. There is already a

hardship, because that simply will not be the case

groundswell of young people, disenfranchised by

– and if we ever thought it were true, the last two

reasons of age in the recent referendum, who have

years have shown otherwise.’

informed themselves far more than most of we

In a similar fashion, the clear solution to electoral ignorance is electoral education. If people choose moral absolutes over scientific evidence, they are perfectly entitled to do so, unless we are to bring in some kind of rule of the experts (technocracy) to overrule this. What they are not entitled to do – or not without consequences – is to ignore the evidence altogether whilst being unaware even that they are doing so. However, it is clear that we can retain democracy AND avoid the problems of ignorance if the populace is better educated on matters of public policy. This might be a positive approach – better political education in schools; or a negative one – some kind of qualified voting, whereby voters in the ballot box are asked to

older generations, and have taken direct action to make their claim for a say. It may well be that this does not have a direct effect on the current political crisis, but the experience of educating oneself and making the argument for evidencebased policy as opposed to the politics of ignorance is only likely to rise as an increasingly high percentage of the population attends university. It is the young generation – those under 25 – who may break the cycle connecting democracy and ignorance, which has helped to lead ( I do not say it is the only or even the most important factor) to the rise of Orban in Hungary, Farage in the UK, and Trump in the US, among others.

correctly ascribe particular policies to particular

At any rate, it will be interesting to watch. For if

parties and, if they are unsuccessful, their vote is

ever the will of the people can become a truly

discounted or ignored. Probably it would be best

informed, evidence-based, critical, sceptical will, it

to have a mixture of the two.

will be a formidable voice indeed – and could never be ignored again.

19

THE OLD SHEPERD’S CHIEF BY SIR EDWIN LANDSEER NED

CARTER

In a dark corner of the Victoria and Albert museum,

scene and granted it its due appreciation by

hung so as to be easily overlooked amongst many

declaring it ‘one of the most perfect pictures or

other oil paintings, is a murky picture portraying

poems modern times have ever seen’. Only then

the height of loyalty. Often missed, the small scene

did the scene’s occupants receive the respect and

requires a second glance from the passerby. The

recognition they deserved, with copies and

painting’s current display is not unlike its first

engravings spreading their popularity around the

exhibiting in 1837, when many failed to notice it.

country. Nonetheless, this initial (and subsequent)

However, the most renowned critic of the time,

neglect is an ironic reflection of the message of the

John Ruskin, recognized the talent in this emotive

painting: that we often overlook what is most

20

poignant—the

strength

of

human-animal

blanket is the only real source of light within the

relationships, the emotional capacity of animals, or

frame of the dark painting, as though lighting up

the heartfelt love of a beloved dog.

his final and darkest time, while also giving comfort

Ruskin thought that what set this painting above ‘hundreds of equal merit’ was its emotional content. The poignant companionship of man and beast is portrayed through the perfectly intricate and detailed brush strokes of Sir Edwin Landseer, the Victorian painted who had been a child

and perhaps consolation to his canine companion.

However, whilst this is a representation of their relationship, the dog himself is unable to see his master inside the coffin. The visual absence of the shepherd communicates a bond that goes beyond the physical.

prodigy. The moral courage of a mere canine

The dog remains motionless, resting on the

towers

human

gleaming blanket. The arch of the dog’s back

counterparts, who left their ‘friend’ alone in an

seems an uncomfortable yet familiar position, as if

unfamiliar circumstance for his final moments.

he is used to resting his head upon the shepherd’s

above

that

of

its

fleeing

The dark, crowded setting of the V&A chimes with dimly-lit wood of the painting, enhancing the somber mood of mourning. The dark fore- and background highlight the central image of the ‘chief mourner’. The blanket strewn across the coffin as a last comfort held up by the faithful dog brings warmth and light to the gloomy room. This

knee. Simultaneously, the blanket seems to embrace the dog and support him in his discomfort. The curving lines of both dog and cloth together helps to disrupt the horizontal emphasis of the picture, highlighting their importance, without disrupting the stillness and peace of the moment which echo through the sadness and resonate in the viewer’s mind.

21

DYSLEXIA AND EDUCATION GEORGE

EDGERTON-WARBURTON

An estimated 10% of the world’s population will

Many are not as fortunate as myself; they are left

have some form of learning disability; some 75

unattended and expected to obtain and develop

million people, with two children per average class

their literacy skills while at a disadvantage. The

in the UK.

considerable potential of these children is often overlooked, resulting in such children often ‘giving up’ at school with life impacting consequences

Dyslexia and Me

thereafter. Real talent (Orlando Bloom, Whoopi I am myself dyslexic and was fortunate enough to

Goldberg, Stephen Spielberg, Kiera Knightley,

be diagnosed from an early age. As a result, I have

Albert Einstein, Patrick Dempsey, Jo Malone and

been provided with support throughout my

Richard Branson to name just a few) may be lost

schooling career. Without this, I have no doubt, my

due to a lack of understanding of the way that

dyslexia would have led to a lack of self-esteem.

‘different’ brains work.

Prior to being diagnosed, it was hard to understand why I found certain tasks so much harder than my peers: I felt ‘slow’ in comparison and

was

encouraged

to

adjust

my

future

Defining dyslexia and what that means in schools

expectations accordingly.

22

Our understanding of dyslexia has continually

evidence that the cerebellum (part of the brain

evolved as the science of cognition and learning

located inside the back and base of the skull, just

has advanced with time. The term was first coined

above the top of the spinal cord) provides an

in 1887 by a German ophthalmologist, Rudolph

integral part of the development of ‘language

Berlin. The word, derived from the Greek; ‘dys’

dexterity’ in addition to its more established role in

meaning poor or inadequate and ‘lexis’ meaning

motor skill acquisition and execution, and that mild

words or language. Berlin, observed that some of

cerebellar

his adult patients had a difficulty in reading printed

explanation for a number of problems exhibited by

words, yet could find no fault in their vision. He

children with dyslexia.

impairment

could

provide

an

speculated that there must be a physical ‘defect’ in the brain causing such difficulty although he never

In contrast to the cerebellum argument, an article

discovered what this was. Since that time,

written by Nora Maria Raschlea, Jennifer Zuka, and

understanding of dyslexia itself has greatly

Nadine Gaaba provides substantial evidence for

increased as have the efforts to provide support to

disruption within the posterior left-hemispheric

individuals with this specific learning difficulty.

neural networks significantly interfering with

phonological processing. The study concludes that

Dyslexia, as defined by the Rose Review 2009, is a

the results heavily suggest that dyslexia is not a

learning difficulty that primarily affects the skills

result of failing to read but instead present in the

involved is accurate and fluent word reading and

individual before they even begin to acquire

spelling. Characteristic features of this condition

literacy knowledge. (However, they admitted that

include issues with memory, processing speed and

further studies would need to be conducted in

phonological

best

order to confirm that the identified differences

thought of as a continuum rather than a condition

could act as indicators for the early diagnosis of

with clear parameters; there are no clear start or

dyslexia.)

end

awareness.

points, with

Dyslexia

individuals

is

impacted

differing degree. Furthermore,

a

children

‘Teaching the Brain to Read’ was written with the

get older they may develop coping strategies

sole focus on the reading brain and stresses how

which

observed

the act of reading is a relatively new process, no

umbrella

older than 4,000 years, in the timeline of humanity.

used

As a result, the brain has not evolved with reading

dyslexic

compensate

for

as

to

previously

tendencies. Therefore,

term ‘dyslexia’ should

the

be

with some caution.

factored in and, in the case of dyslexics, it is accepted that there is a genetically driven

‘Proust and The Squid: The Story and Science of

disruption in the left hemisphere leading to the

the Reading Brain’ is a fascinating book providing

disconnection between the auditory and visual

an insight into the origin of language and how

circuits. As a result, reading acquisition is

dyslexia has been present, since the first known

significantly harder as the brain is simply not ‘wired’

method

was

to do so and the ultimate goal, automaticity (an

created. An article written by Angela J. Fawcett,

ability to read words at an automatic rate) using the

Roderick I. Nicolson and Paul Dean, provides

lower circuit where the brain simply recognises a

of

communication, Ursprache,

23

word, is much harder to obtain. As dyslexia is the

disproportionate number of

result of one or more differences in brain function,

it would indicate a number of specific inhibiting

it is on a spectrum, from mild to severe. Someone

factors implying that there are specific forms of

with severe dyslexia may find it nearly impossible

reading disability. The sample population he used

to access the curriculum taught at school, whereas

did indeed provide an asymmetrical distribution

someone with only a mild form may only have to

curve, thus demonstrating that there are specific

deal

issues which result in dyslexia.

with

difficulties

‘nuisances’

better described

rather than an inability

as

underachievers)

to

learn optimally within the mainstream schooling

It is now known that reading requires the co-

system.

ordination of many skills within the brain to decode and comprehend words. Weakness in any of these

In 1996, significant evidence was published by a

can result in dyslexia, making the definition of

research team at the Human Biology Program,

dyslexia harder. This poses

University of Kansas Lawrence headed by Jeffrey

problem for schools. At what point do they draw a

W.Gilger. Theirresults showed that dyslexia is stron

cut-off point? the more research is done on

gly heritable at 54% to 75% and occurring up to

dyslexia, the further the title is broken down and

68%

the

in

identical

twins.

Despite twins

more

specific

the

a particular

label

can

become.

developing different interests, skills and levels of

Hypothetically one could break down the term so

intelligence due to different environmental factors

far as to a point where everyone has their own

that affect them, in 68% of cases both twins

special needs and teaching requirements. Exams

develop

genetic

would become near impossible to manage due to

link. 50% of individuals who have a parent or sibling

so many different individuals with their own

with dyslexia are likely to also have dyslexia. Since

timings, breaks etc. There has to be a point at

first publishing this data, Gilger and his team have

which the exam system says, ‘you qualify for certain

observed the same results in all cultures and

access arrangements and others do not’ while

countries that they have researched.

trying to make the process as fair as possible.

dyslexia, implying

Richard

L.

Masland

a

strong

(1979)

illustrates

Dyslexia and intelligence

how individuals with dyslexia cannot be viewed as a homologous group. He argues that if, as it

The issue of what is ‘intelligence’ is an area that

is generally accepted, there is a continuum of

should

reading ability (those who find the activity easy to

the ‘capacity

those who struggle), the level of reading ability, if

knowledge’, intelligence includes the ability to

represented

adapt

statistically would

symmetrical

bell

of

However, if asymmetrical

this this

normal curve

in a

curve

to new

Typically

acquire

situations,

defined and

learn

from

as

apply past

experiences and act with purpose. Spearman

the

lower

(2017) proposed the general intelligence factor ‘g’.

distribution

curve.

This factor can be measured qualitatively such as

was

(there

to

addressed.

with

those labelled ‘dyslexic’ making segment

result

be

up

found is

to

be a

IQ (Intelligence Quotient). This traditional view on intelligence

one

could

argue

is,

24

however, outdated. Howard Gardner proposed in

Dyslexia in the Classroom

the 1980s and 1990s not one simple measure of intelligence, but intelligence being made up of

a. Poor auditory discrimination. b. Poor visual

eight

Logical-

discrimination. c. Weakness in translation of

Interpersonal,

sounds into symbols. d. Gross motor difficulties. e.

Intrapersonal and Nature. Gardner emphasised

Excessive letter reversals and inversions. f. Right-

how each of these domains have significant value

left disorientation. g. Difficulty in generalizing from

but that different cultures and context may mean

word to concept. h. Faulty memory of sequences. i.

that different domains are valued over others. The

Speech disorders. j. Spatial disabilities. k. Faulty

current system of schooling places great emphasis

cerebral dominance

constituent

Mathematical,

on

both

parts:

Musical,

linguistic

Linguistic,

Spatial,

and

logical-mathematical

intelligence, both of which dyslexics often find

When presented with a stream of information, as

particularly difficult.

one is at school, it is as if the individuals ‘cognitive workbench’ becomes too cluttered and important

In this context, someone with dyslexia could

pieces of information begin to drop off: much

potentially

place in

less information is accessible. The implications in a

society limited by this predisposed difficulty,

school environment are clear. Once the stream of

simply

education

information begins to bottleneck, the situation can

system assesses ona disproportionate representati

quickly become unmanageable and fundamental

ve of our daily lives. I do not completely agree with

parts of the taught syllabus can be lost. Spelling

Gardener’s model of intelligence as you could

difficulty can

certainly subcategorise further and there are

as dysorthographia, however, it is often a stubborn

factors such as experimental intelligence, the

trait of dyslexia. In contrast reading difficulty, often

ability to adapt to new situations, and contextual

referred to as the ‘dyslexic difficulty’, is usually not

intelligence, the ability to function effectively in

a standalone issue, but comes as one of a

day to day situations (The Triarchic Theory of

collection of problems, including spelling, oral

Intelligence as proposed by Robert Sternberg in

reading, and silent reading (our brain tends to be

the 1980s). However, this is how the school system

better developed at silent comprehension as it can

currently works and hence the question as to

skim over barriers that affect oral reading, instead

whether this system is appropriate for dyslexics.

making use of context to attain an effective level of

Furthermore,

exceedingly

understanding). Finally, phonological difficulties,

successful dyslexics who have managed to

usually seen as the core deficit in dyslexia, is a

overcome the hurdles that the learning difficulty

problem with manipulating the sounds that make

has presented them, turning it to their advantage.

up the spoken word. It affects encoding (turning

Does this suggest that the current view on

letters into sounds) and decoding (breaking down

intelligence

a word into its constituent parts).

emphasis

feel

defined: their

because

the

there are

is be

intelligence?

too

current

many

limited?

placed

future

on

Should more

greater

areas

be

a

standalone

issue

known

of It is important to note that when diagnosing for dyslexia that an assessor is not just looking for

25

dyslexia; the likelihood that the individual has other

rates may in fact improve were every student to be

learning difficulty is high. This is a comorbidity, or

taught as if they were dyslexic.

an ‘adjacent’ difficulty, and can include dyscalculia, auditory

processing

Communication between Special Educational

difficulties, dyspraxia, language

Needs (SEN) departments and the teachers who

disorders (expressive and receptive), Meares-Irlen

teach the student day to day is vital. The learning

Syndrome, dysgraphia, ADHD and many more.

of the syllabus occurs in the classroom with subject

specialist teachers

Dyslexia support in the future

knowledge on what learning difficulties mean for

With this understanding of dyslexia, it can be seen how

the

current education system

challenge. Currently one model

of

is

a

support

adopted is to provide extra time. This is provided through additional lessons, often on a one-on-one basis, to provide an environment where dyslexic children can catch up. Additional time is also provided in exams. This raises the question as to whether this is sufficient and there is the challenge of equality of provision for all.

Dyslexia is a multifaceted condition where there is not a case of ‘one size fits all’. The impact it has on an individual varies vastly and, therefore, so do the measures that need to be taken to combat this difficulty effectively. This creates a challenge for both the teaching and learning environment.

Teachers need to be aware of the difficulties a student may face so they can create a learning environment that is inclusive for the student whilst not impacting the pace at which the syllabus can be covered. However, there is no reason why this should be an issue; strategies used for dyslexic students are applicable to many, if not all. Literacy

who require particular

the student in question and how to adapt a class room to be more inclusive for those who learn in different ways. Communication between the SEN department and the rest of the teachers provides a better

learning

environment and allows the

student to focus on specifics in the extra sessions they have.

Key to success is ensuring that dyslexia is not viewed as a disability, but rather a challenge more akin to left versus right handedness, which if supported should not impact a child’s overall learning outcome. Dyslexia is not something to be stigmatised, instead celebrated as a different way to approach tasks.

Self-esteem is vital. It is not unusual for pupils to have an emotional response to their difficulties including embarrassment, frustration and anger.

This will only create additional barriers to their learning.

Schools who strive

to

create

a

comfortable learning environment for all, where anyone is willing to express their opinion in the class, can hope that maximum learning potential can be reached.

26

SEQUENCING MY GENOME FELIX

RAWLINSON

27

California so my DNA can be sequenced and tested for genes commonly associated with cancers

and

other

inherited

diseases

like

dementia. The results were intriguing with me testing positive for a few gene variants that cause certain diseases. I tested positive for Age-related Macular Degeneration (AMD), Celiac Disease and Late-Onset

Alzheimer’s

Disease.

The

most

interesting of these three was AMD as I had inherited two different variants for this disease (variant Y402H in the CFH gene and A69S in the ARMS2 gene that makes me slightly (5.79 times) more likely to develop the disease over the age of 80, where the disease already affects 2-14% of the population over 80 (depending on ethnicity) and 2.5% of Europeans over the age of 50. I also know that I was very lucky that I did not test positive for a deadly gene variant like the dominant huntingtin gene for Huntington’s, which effectively condemns you to a slow and horrible death from your nervous system slowly degenerating as you get older. The impacts for testing positive for a disease like this are huge, and may impact many decisions in your life, like whether to have children or not considering there is a 50% chance your children will inherit the condition. A powerful example of this was Charlotte Raven, a journalist who took a genetic test in 2010 and found out she had the Huntington gene. After the test she stated that initially she thought “taking the test would be like finding out the weather before you go on holiday” but afterwards that it was much closer feeling to “there was a bomb on the plane when you were already airborne. I felt impotent and envious of the In June 2018, I bought a DNA kit from 23andMe for $50 and I sent a sample of my saliva to their lab in

uninformed majority. I wished I didn’t know”. She also stated that she considered “suicide” before the disease could have a chance to take hold.

28

On a somewhat lighter note, the test also showed

before and may hugely benefit our long-term

me other less morbid gene variants I tested

health and maybe even success in life.

positive for. The test showed me my heritage, Neanderthal genes, weird traits, and wellness predictions. There were two traits that I was particularly proud of and explain a lot of my characteristics. One of them was my Neanderthal height gene, that provided explanation to why I was genetically predisposed to be very tall, which I am at 198cm. The other, was the ACTN3 gene which is found in fast-twitch muscle fibres. It is a gene that is found in every elite power athlete that has been genetically tested (e.g. professional sprinters, weightlifters, etc.). This may explain why I’ve always had an unusual knack for rowing, a very explosive, fast-twitch muscle-based sport. What’s also

interesting

is

how

one’s

genetic

predisposition predictions in wellness and diseases they tested positive variants for may start to dictate their decisions in their day to day activities or even their career. Say that you were on the cusp of becoming a professional sprinter and genetic tests revealed you did not have the ACTN3 gene. A result like this would be life changing for that person and could convince them to try their talents in something they are a better ‘genetic match’ for, like a career in music if they have any of the 529 gene variants identified that makes it easier to match musical pitches. Another personal example of this is me trying to reduce the likelihood of developing Alzheimer’s when I am older. I am doing this by following the guidelines on 23andMe on how to minimise the possibility of developing the disease, which include reading, writing and doing puzzles regularly to promote a healthy brain and exercising regularly to maintain a normal blood pressure and healthy levels of cholesterol.

This makes it obvious that our genome may control our decisions in a way that has never been seen

29

30

MUSIC IN VIDEO GAMES PETER

STERN

The importance of music in visual media is

very

indisputable. Just try watching famous scenes from

inappropriate having one take the another’s place.

any

genre

with

no

music.

Music

creates

atmosphere, which in turn helps to set a mood or tone for what is happening on screen. The style of music used is arguably the most important factor when choosing a soundtrack. Imagine Luke’s theme in Star Wars being replaced with Ligeti’s soundtrack from 2001: A Space Odyssey. Whilst both are science fiction films, the two pieces are

different

and

would

be

completely

An area of music I feel is criminally underrated is that of video game soundtracks. There exists a myriad of types to choose from, ranging from Doom’s intense heavy metal to The Witness’s soothing, ASMR-esque soundscapes, but here I’ll be covering two specific case studies, and going into some detail on the theory behind the music.

31

top. In this piece specifically Kaufman also nearly always uses this 2nd next to the 3rd of the scale, creating dissonance every time the harmony resolves to the tonic. The tonic is usually a place of harmonic stability, but adding this dissonance reinforces the idea of a constant struggle, with no rest or resolve. Another example of how this motif is used is right at the beginning of the game, when the storyline is being introduced. The motif is sped up and placed over a whole-tone scale in G, which is a common technique used to create a dreamIn a game, the soundtrack can be used to create the right mood for different areas, specific points in the storyline or even to describe a certain character’s personality. However, one of the most interesting uses for music is to help tell a story. A great example is Shovel Knight’s soundtrack, composed by Jake Kaufman. The plot of this game revolves around Shovel Knight embarking on a quest to the Tower of Fate to save his lost love Shield Knight. Kaufman uses a single motif to represent Shield Knight, which is used from the first piece of music past the title screen right up until the final boss theme. The extract shown below is taken from ‘Requiem of Shield Knight’, which plays in dream sequences where Shovel Knight dreams of his love falling and attempting to catch her. The section circled in red is where the motif is first introduced in this piece. One of the main techniques used to reinforce Shovel Knight’s loss through this piece is

sequence vibe.

In the first phase of the final boss fight, the motif makes a return, but only once in a small quote in the first section of the music. This may be signifying that Shield Knight isn’t fully in control and the player isn’t really fighting her. However, in the second phase, Shield Knight is freed and joins the player to fight the Remnant of Fate. This incarnation of the motif is the most upbeat so far, partly due to the sheer speed of the music, but mostly due to the change in harmony. Even before the theme kicks in Kaufman opens the piece (titled The Betrayer) with a barrage of notes. When the motif comes in (boxed in red), the change in harmony (as mentioned) creates a more upbeat and almost joyful mood, rather than the Requiem’s dreamy, forlorn mood. Where the Requiem relies on root movement and chord extensions (like the added 7th and 9th), The Betrayer uses a repeating i to majIV vamp in Eb minor, which

Kaufman’s decision to use F sharp minor 2 instead

corresponds to Eb minor and Ab major. The majIV

of a regular F sharp minor chord at the end. It is

is also technically mode mixture due to it

common for composers to add a 7th or a 9th to

containing the natural 6th, which can bring a sense

minor chords to soften the sound or to add a layer

of mystery to the music.

of complexity respectively, so moving the 9th down an octave to make it into a 2nd adds an edge to the sound not present by simply adding a 9th on

32

this functional harmony must first be analysed. This type of harmony has two defining characteristics: It exists in a key and obeys the laws of functional harmony. The laws of functional harmony can be summed up as choosing chords to fit certain purposes,

with

Tonic

chords

being

stable,

Dominant chords being chords in need of Kaufman next uses the motif melody to jump into

resolution (or that resolve well to their respective

a bridge passage, which heavily uses syncopated

tonics), and Predominants (used to set up tension).

rhythms (boxed in blue above). This is a common

Non-functional harmony diverges from these rules

technique used in many scores to bring a sense of

and uses chords not to fill certain roles but because

movement, and in some cases can create a

they sound nice. Vaughn Williams and Debussy are

more jarring melody. It can also serve to highlight

some well-known composers who make good use

dissonant or unusual harmonies, if the composer

of these methods. In the world of video game

wishes.

music, Chrono Trigger’s ‘Secret of the Forest’ is a

One of the main challenges of writing music for a

fantastic example non-functional harmony:

video game is realising that whatever you write must essentially never get boring. It must be able loop indefinitely without an obvious cut back to the start. This idea has been around since the days of Super Mario Bros, where the main Athletic Theme isn’t actually that long, but can loop seamlessly back to where it started. Koji Kondo, arguably Nintendo’s greatest composer, is rumoured to listen to his current work on repeat throughout the day, and if it gets boring, go back and change it or scrap it entirely. This composition philosophy has led to some of gaming’s greatest themes, such as Ocarina of Time’s ‘Hyrule Field’ and Super Mario Galaxy’s ‘Buoy Base’. But simply composing something that can loop indefinitely isn’t enough.

Modern pop music is notorious for using a 4-chord structure that can in theory be repeated infinitely by ending on IV, V, or even VII chords to lead back into the I chord. However, even the funkiest chord progressions can get boring after a standard threeor four-minute song. This is where techniques such as non-functional harmony come in. To understand

As indicated in red, the music is structured around a repeating Gb13#11 – Fm9 vamp1. Upon first glance this seems relatively functional, as both chords can be shown to fit in to the key of Db major, with Gb13#11 being the IV chord and Fm9 being the iii chord. This key relation is even reinforced by the melody over the Gb13#11 showing off the #11, creating a distinctly Lydian feel that infers a IV chord. Over the Fm9 the 9th is accented, which is not in the key of Gb, but is completely inescapable as it is in every bar of the accompaniment (circled in red). Now, a naïve

33

listener may just say that this is fine, due to functional music never staying completely within its home key, but a more astute observation would be to say that the two chords don’t go anywhere harmonically, as no tension is created or resolved.

Instead they just wash over the listener, going round and round forever.

With the chords in place, a melody is needed.

Creating a melody over this style of harmony is difficult, as the two chords have little in relation to each other upon first glance. But there is a method to create a scale of notes that works with both chords. First, take the two scales, in this case Gb Lydian and Fm:

The removal of these notes leaves behind an Ab Pentatonic scale, which due to having notes that fit into both starting scales creates a melody which can move seamlessly across chord changes. Except in this case the composer Yasunori Mitsuda doesn’t do this. He actually highlights the differences in the two scales. Mitsuda uses this idea of nonfunctionality throughout the game’s soundtrack, helping to create the atmosphere of being out of place, a perfect fit for Chrono Trigger, where the characters jump between many different points in time. This is the secret to creating atmospheric music: Creating a harmonic structure that can repeat forever, with no resolution or jarring loop.

Of course, this is possible in the realms of functional harmony, by means of using diminished 7th chords or a longer progression to make the music repeat, but using this non-functional

Then remove notes that only appear in one scale

technique is a more sure-fire method to creating

or that are never used in the melody line:

an infinite loop, as non-functional harmony rarely relies on building tension at all.

In conclusion, I hope that I’ve managed to show that music from games isn’t all bleeps and bloops, but can be an intrinsic part of the experience, second only to the way the game actually plays. So next time you pick up your controller or load up Steam, maybe give a thought to the music helping to shape your experience.

34

CAN LITERATURE EVER BE TIMELESS? ALEX

SENIOR

Eternal literature does not exist. Literature cannot

time is measured, yet still be acknowledged for

surpass time as a human neurobiological sensation

doing so. Literature and art are representative not

as is it itself a human construct. Timeless literature

of its time but rather how the time before it has

transcends time as something that is perpetually

shaped the present; in this way, it also defines the

experienced, it creates a concrete presence that is

future. Yet timelessness is a biased concept, much

an agglomeration of both the past and future, a

in the way it defines its time and politics it is tainted

river that flows yet no water passes. It is the writer’s

by what it defines. It is through art that human’s

ability to bring the unreality of the past into

innate yearning for immortality is quenched, the

perpetual reality, yet timeless literature is not

need to leave a material representation of society

timeless through longevity but rather through its

by which it can be judged is reflective of our own

ability to mould time and become a pillar by which

mortal insecurities.

35

alludes to in the first of Four Quartets: Burnt Language is both a product and definer of time, it moves, syllable by syllable, second by second; in fact, an attempt to transcend it into a timeless

Norton: Time present and time past

realm could be impossible just as it would be

Are both perhaps present in time

impossible to create a timeless moment. Language

future,

changes to such an extent that to grant one piece of literature definite immortality would be farce.

The timeless quality of the effects of literature can

And time future contained in time past.

be seen through the belief held by many

If all time is eternally present

Romantics

All time is unredeemable.

in

the

existence

of time

as

a

simultaneous whole. They believed that nothing is lost, and in this way, the possibility of recovery is endless. This is much like infantile memories, we have very little recollection of our most formative years, only small glimpses of images, but nothing of perception or feeling, yet that time will have an effect on us for the whole of our living life, and perceptions of events of the past are changed by experiences of the present. The same can be applied for the effect of time on literature, it leaves nothing behind, although substance may be lost, the effect of every single published piece is evident in our society no matter how minute as Eliot says, “this change is a development which abandons nothing en route, which does not superannuate either Shakespeare, or Homer, or the rock drawing of the Magdalenian draughtsmen.”1 No writer has independent meaning but rather his significance is created through relation to previous writers; in this way he shapes the significance of those before him and after him, similarly, writers to come will define his significance post-humorously. By connecting the timeless and temporary, a writer who encompasses

the

traditional

transcends

the

boundaries of past, future and present as T.S Eliot

In Tradition and Individual Talent, Eliot describes the idea of achieving a “Temporal togetherness,”

through

creation.

Whilst

this

argument would seem to say that all literature is timeless in the sense that its effects are felt for all time, but in order for a certain piece to be accredited with its effects the writer needs to bring the multeity of life into a unity of creation2 such that not only is a piece’s effects timeless but so is the actual content. To conform with the past is not to create new art, it is the ability to be judged by past art that warrants it. For Eliot, a writer could achieve this “temporal togetherness,” through years of studying the “tradition,” of a culture to break down the perception of the “pastness of the past,” and bring time into simultaneous order, a self-sacrifice of the writer to become a receptacle of tradition from which personality is separated.

This requires a great classical education and is a work of hard labour. The Romantics petitioned for literature to be a democratic artform, “The language really spoken by men”3 and should not require great knowledge. Yet all the great Romantic poets, including Wordsworth himself, were classically educated, studying at Oxford or

36

Cambridge. The only Romantic poet without this

ideology, in the USSR, its translation was deemed

education was John Keats, studying medicine at

an act of national resistance and in Yugoslavia, the

Kings College London, this is evident in his work.

political prisoner Milovan Djilas translated Paradise

He explores Romantic ideas through classical

into Serbo-Croatian while imprisoned, writing it

method be it through form (ballad: Belle Dame

out on toilet paper with a pencil before smuggling

Sans Merci) or language and style, as if to

it out.

compensate for his lack education comparatively to his peers, who wrote in a less classical style yet

Paradise Lost itself is written to survive. It is written

arguably had a more extensive education.

A

in the style of a Homeric Greek epic yet with the

classical education is something that is needed in

syntax of Latin and is written in English with a

order to discard it.

Christian meaning. Milton’s universal meaning is not just derived through allegory, he uses

Yet Eliot is describing how to be traditional not

comparisons through the natural world; a variable

how to achieve timelessness, he describes the

assumed to be independent from human change,

seemingly prescriptive method to being traditional

the most famous being the bee-simile. The bee

which seems to conflict directly with the purpose of

simile is not new, its role in epic literature started

literature as an artform. The longevity of a piece is

with Homer, comparing Achaean warriors flocking

not dictated by how it fits into the simultaneous

to hear the verdict of their chieftains to bees

order of literature but rather how it survives

emerging form a hollow rock. Virgil, also, likens the

changes in human interest through time. Central to

hard-working industrial qualities of the Tyrians to

the doctrine of timeless literature is timeless

bees pollinating in the summer. Milton’s writing

interest by the readers. For example, Paradise Lost

constantly renews itself with more relevant

has been translated more in the last 30 years than

meaning; for example, the modern perception of a

the previous 300 4 . Religion satisfies the human

“straw-built citadel,” in human terms would differ

need for eternity and yet demands no concrete

greatly to what Milton was comparing a beehive to

explanation; its constant allegory lends religious

when writing and even more from the city that

text a universal meaning that can be redefined as

Virgil described the Tyrians building:

human perceptions change. This allows it to be brought into perpetual reality through a constant relevance, it was found that Paradise Lost, “Mirrors

Thick swarmed, both on the ground and air,

periods of rebellious ideology or nationalism,” the

Brushed with the hiss of rustling

parallels are clear: failure of absolute obedience to

wings. As bees

one’s father resulted in death, an idea of an omnipotent controlling figure and Milton does not attempt to portray God as a compassionate figure but rather a vindictive spiteful ruler. As a result, it has

become

associated

with

revolutionary

In springtime, when the sun with Taurus rides, Pour forth their populous about the hive

4

37

In clusters; they among fresh dews and flowers

The idea of outside inspiration for creation prevails throughout literature, Milton refers to an unnamed

Fly to and fro, or on the smoothed

divine muse in book I and book III, “Sing heavenly

plank,

muse,” and later naming her as Urania8, “Descend

The suburb of their straw-built

from heaven Urania,” clarifying to the reading in

citadel, (I. 767-773)

the footnote, “The meaning not the name.” Milton

Milton is aware that his audience knows he is using the rhetorical stratagem known as retractio, a rebranding of previous writer’s content 5 ; the audience is aware of his inspiration and it allows him to be judged by the past in the same way as those who allude to Paradise Lost 6 is judged in comparison to him. It is the ultimate culmination of Eliot’s idea of tradition; Milton, a man who is widely recognised one of the best educated ever, encompasses the past through Latin and Greek epics, the

present through

English

and

a

continuous future through Christian and universal allegory.

is not invoking a single muse but rather Urania is the holy spirit and the two unnamed muses are the other members of the holy trinity. Milton cannot perceive the endlessness time or power humans have constructed around religion9 and so looks for heavenly inspiration, through the subconscious, in order to bring divine eternality into perpetual reality through literature: Her nightly visitation unimplored And dictates to me slumbering, or inspires Easy my unpremeditated Verse (IX. 21-24)

The longevity of a piece is reliant on the ebb and flow of reader’s interest, for a piece to be timeless: it requires a constant interest in the past by the reader. Georges Poulet argues that it is an innate human characteristic to try and bring the unreality of the past into the present; he displays this through the idea of paramnesia 7 . Paramnesia (often known as déjá vu) combines the conviction having seen something before with the knowledge that that is not possible. It brings the present and the past, usually separated in our minds, into simultaneous existence; giving the past a newfound reality. Through this the role in the subconscious in bringing the past and present together is made clear.

Yet for the Romantics, the subconscious from which they sourced their inspiration did not stem from a theo-metaphysical force from above, rather an unconscious psyche existing within them but removed from their everyday consciousness. The sub-conscious or perhaps more precisely, any state without conscious thought, creates poetic impulse unbounded by its medium, a raw realism of eternity. The subconscious is the closest to a manifestation of perpetual presence without the concept of time that humans will ever achieve.

Recollection of the subconscious psyche, or the transferring of the subconscious to the ego psyche, is so difficult precisely because uncontrollable

38

thought must be defined in conscious terms

audience’s interests or constant relevant meaning

translating

human

to them, there is no way of knowing if any single

perceptions of the physicality or relativity of time

piece of work can last if literature does as a form.

and space do not exist. The Romantics searched

What can be decided is if as with an interest in the

for a return to wholeness of spirit from the

past, will human always have an appreciation for

alienation of the ego from the original unconscious

literature as something beautiful, not necessarily

wholeness that is lost after childhood. Through this

with profound relevant meaning. If Paradise Lost

was born one of the most well documented works

were to lose its meaning would it still be read and

to come out of the Romantic period, Samuel

acknowledged simply for its beauty as an art?

Taylor-Coleridge’s Kubla Khan:

“Truth is beauty” The concept of taste arose in the

from

a

realm

in

which

18th century as a counter to the age of

But oh! that deep romantic chasm

enlightenment counter against the idea of

which slanted

rationalism when applied to beauty and against

Down the green hill athwart a

egoism when applied to virtue.

cedarn cover!

In

A savage place!

The deconstructed syntax rids itself of grammatical necessities, loosening the bounds of its structural constraints. In Kubla Khan, the central image is the river, flowing under the surface but takes an active role. Humphrey House argues, “The fertility of the plain is only made possible by the mysterious energy source of the river.” The river, symbolising the subconscious, is the source of Coleridge’s vision and through the metaphor of creation that the poem continues, it is the source of creation. It combines the terror of vast unknown without answer through the sublime yet also evokes beauty through the delicacy with which he presents his dream.

Kubla

Khan

is

a

manifestation

of

Romanticism in the way it is a fragment of the creative process that can be interpreted into meaning but can also be appreciated on purely aesthetical value.

We may look to the past but in what will people find meaning. If longevity is based on the

The

Long

Schoolroom,

Allen

Grossman

describes his bitter logic of poetry principle showing an ineluctable gap between what the writer wants a poem to do and what the poem is capable of doing. Poetic impulse is a longing to transcend the human and finite and by writing poem or literature, the author is undermining their own motivations by portraying this using a medium that is both human and finite. Metafiction, though often a form of parody, provides an active separation between the human and the perpetual, perhaps the self-awareness that is created through acknowledging literature’s artificiality lends a realistic medium through which the unreal can be projected. As mentioned in the analysis of Kubla Khan, prescriptive forms such as rhyme, “An invention of a barbarous age,”10 are simply more barriers that widen the gap between the author and their medium. It is a paradox from which no poet is safe, the immortality of a work is passive, is not something that a poet can actively seek out. If writer wants immortality, that is exactly what

39

they’re not going to get as their work is

Of pure ablution round earth's

immediately structurally foredoomed.

human shores,

Through his idea of negative capability 11 , Keats scathes writers such as Coleridge in their pursuit of knowledge over beauty, trying to answer eternal,

Or gazing on the new soft-fallen mask

indeterminable questions “It is impossible to

Of snow upon the mountains and the

answer eternal questions,”, in this way, Keats

moors—

implies that Coleridge his attempts to bring “Multeity into unity,” is not a unification of the human condition but rather an egotistical urge to try and

rationalise the world

and

achieve

No—yet

still

stedfast,

still

unchangeable, Pillow'd upon my fair love's ripening

philosophical certainty rather than beauty creating

breast,

a

To feel for ever its soft fall and swell,

private

mind

“thoroughfare

that

for

does

all

not

provide

thoughts.”

a

Negative

capability is the ability to be comfortable in

Awake for ever in a sweet unrest,

uncertainty

Still, still to hear her tender-taken

and

being

content

with

“Half-

knowledge,”; creating literature for beauty’s sake rather than to have complex, existential meaning.

The writer’s personality and opinions are the best indicator of the time, be it counter-culture and

breath, And so live ever—or else swoon to death.

supportive of the status-quo, it is representative of their experience. unfulfillable

longing

Keats depicts this human to

answer

impossible

questions in his sonnet Bright Star: Bright star, would I were stedfast as thou art—

In “Bright star,” presents how incompatible the infinite realm of time is with human life. Keats fuses the organic and the geologic to provide a stark contrast between physical time and perceptual time. The narrator yearns to be as eternal and “steadfast,” as a star yet also wants the “Soft fall

Not in lone splendour hung aloft the

and swell,” of their lover’s breath, this is a clear

night

conflict between the stationary star and the

And watching, with eternal lids apart, Like

nature's

patient,

sleepless

Eremite, The moving waters at their priestlike task

movement of life, the idea of a human desire for constant being in a world of timelessness whilst living within the constraints of human fixed time displayed by Keats’s use of human sensations, “awake”, “feel” and “hear” human perception has no place in eternity. This creates a clear paradox, humans cannot grasp the concept of eternity and time and so define it in human terms. Creation is

40

human as much as life is human; life is intertwined

society in which it exists; it can be destroyed (see

with time, so therefore, creation is inseparable

the lost Latin works) or destroyed (the book

from time and cannot elude its grasp.

burnings in Hitler’s Germany). Ultimately, the longevity of literature is not an objective measure

Literature should be an attempt to have a moment

of quality but rather a subjective choice of those

of simultaneous unity of time through creation,

who decide the merit of a piece be it through

bridging the divide between the past and present

educators,

and creating foundation on which the future will

themselves. Writing a piece of timeless literature is

define itself. Whilst it is impossible to mark a single

a passive action, it should not chase the sublime

piece if literature as timeless, literature as a form,

through magnitude, trying to rationalise the

and all pieces within it, has timeless effect on

eternal in order to become part of it, but rather

society despite the perceived longevity of the

create beauty through aesthetic with immortality of

substance: it very possible that certain pieces will

the work being a by-product.

politicians

or

even

the

authors

last till the end of literature as a form. Nonetheless, literature is a physical form that is as fragile as the

41

WILL WE SEE ANOTHER 70 YEARS OF THE NHS? SAM

AUCHTERLONIE

The NHS was founded on the 15th of July 1948 and

few decades has meant that the current NHS has

has been a symbol of Britain ever since with,

become

among other things, a tribute provided to it in the

bureaucracy has led to the long waiting lists that

opening ceremony of the London 2012 Olympics.

plague all areas of the NHS, with waiting times for

Now 70 years on, it looks as though the NHS is

conventional health troubles reaching as long as 18

failing.

weeks, and times for other treatments sometimes

As many who have used the service know, it takes a very long time to make it up a waiting list to be

bloated

and

bureaucratic.

This

taking indefinitely long. These problems are something that can’t simply be “paid away”.

treated by the NHS, whilst there are only around 2

An obvious reason for this inefficiency caused by

to 3 public hospital beds for 1000 people in the UK,

neglect is the fact that the NHS is still using hard

as opposed to 8 in Germany and 6 in France. The

copies of medical documents for their patients,

simple answer as to why the NHS is in such bad

whereas most other healthcare services including

shape is the lack of money put into it when

private clinics in the UK have fully digitised their

compared to other European countries, with the

records. This is terrible for the NHS as it means that

UK only spending $4100 on each person compared

someone who lives in Cornwall would be unable to

to $4600 in Germany and $9800 in the US.

receive medical care personal to his needs

However, this problem of continued neglect from

(allergies to certain antibiotics etc.) for a few hours

both Conservative and Labour parties in the last

if he were to become seriously ill in Scotland as,

42

although some of the more recent records are

businesses rather than government charities would

digital and could be accessed by the hospital

be more incentivised to process as many people as

instantly, the Scottish hospital would need to ask

they could quickly to make profit, rather than just

the man’s regular hospital to send a scan of his

exist knowing that they will receive government

older records.

funding regardless of how many patients they

In late 2018 the government tried to fix this problem in the similar neglectful fashion that caused it: George Osborne and Jeremy Hunt handed the life sciences minister George Freeman 4.2 billion pounds and told him to digitise the NHS by 2020. Although 4.2 billion sounds like a lot of money and it’s possibly enough to get the job done, George Freeman is the life sciences minister with absolutely no experience in digitisation, let alone digitising something as huge as the amount

process. The doctors at these private clinics would be much better paid, making medicine a more lucrative profession which would make more young people want to study medicine, effectively ending the problem of a lack of doctors which is faced by the NHS today. Finally, most private clinics in the UK already are completely digitised, which is much easier to do at a smaller scale, meaning that it would be easier for someone to get records from a private hospital to a different private clinic on the other side of the country than from one NHS

of NHS patient records.

hospital to another that is only one county away.

Many are calling for a privatisation of the NHS, like

The NHS has been a symbol of this country’s values

that of the US healthcare system. There would be some benefits to doing this. For example, the smaller private clinics and hospitals that are now

for the last 70 years, but when put against more modern problems it's hard to say whether it can survive for 70 more.

43

THE NEED AND USE OF EXPERIMENTAL ART JOHN

FU

It has become increasingly alarming to me how

areas of art are merely coincidental features of

much experimental art is dismissed as pretentious

style.

and flat out boring. While tastes in the arts in purely a subjective thing, I would endeavour to find someone who truly thinks that art that pushes its field into new interesting directions is banal. It seems more symptomatic of a cultural preservation and favouritism towards tradition and the norms.

While this may be the more comfortable default position, the merits behind any experimental piece of art should still be celebrated for its impact on the form and general uniqueness.

If we take this to be true, avant-garde or experimental

art

is

merely

a

unique

or

unconventional style of human consciousness. The importance of such is, indeed, key to the survival of any art form. The most salient reason for this lies merely in the fact that art that lends itself to experimentation tends to expand the vision of not only art but also human consciousness as a whole.

If art is a product of human consciousness, unconventional or unique art sheds light onto

Any discourse on the general field that is art

areas previously unexplored. These vanguard

requires a rigorous definition and purpose of it.

regions have an important role in influencing

This is decidedly a very difficult thing to do. I tend

further refinement to the form. Art is an

to lean towards a more Essentialist view on the

evolutionary beast that evolves by trial and error;

nature of art. In this particular dialectic, art will be

ebbing and flowing throughout the infinite planes

seen described as objects which demonstrate

of consciousness. Without experimentation in art

variations in forms of human consciousness. The

there can be no progress. For example, within the

differentiating factor between these forms is style

realm of film Sergei Eisenstein presented new

which has the added function of allowing for the

narrative structures through the use of cutting in his

object of the art to be distanced from reality. This

1925 classic Battleship Potemkin. This is now a

distancing is key in allowing the observer to resist

common technique adopted almost universally.

the urge to link art intrinsically to reality and to

Early Luis Buñuel films like Un Chien Andalou and

interpret the art. More succinctly, it would not be

L’Age D’Or were the experimental works that

too reductionist to say that art is style. One may see

paved the way for much of the poignant and

that this definition lacks a proper use for an

ground-breaking films of Ingmar Bergman, Andrei

artwork’s content. This is because content is merely

Tarkovsky, as well as many elements of French New

a facet of style, and hence it is not integral to the

Wave.

definition of art. Similarly, emotional or ethical

44

Some may argue that progress can be achieved by

works of geniuses but they lack the natural fluidity

without the use of avant-garde art. This is not true.

that

Consider for a moment what the hypothetical

Lighthouse or The Sound and the Fury have.

death of art would look like. This would be when all

Effective art is a fluent stream rather than a rotund

stylistic variations have exhausted themselves

mass. It is key for all good art, including

completely and there are no longer any new forms

experimental art, to retain distinct origins in that

of human consciousness to explore. It may be

human consciousness that births it. Therefore, it is

tempting to say this will come about from continual

imperative that we continue stringently to assess all

experimentation, yet the human psyche and mind

art, including experimental art, in this fashion. It

seems to boundless in that sense of creativity.

would be as much a shame to completely forgo all

Furthermore, with the continual progress in

critical theory at the feet of a wildly experimental

society, creativity will constantly have new objects

work that is most unnatural as it is to not

to latch to. Instead, the death of art would be from

acknowledge experimental work at all.

other

avant-garde

works

like

To

the

a repeated process of making art of the same styles.

While

the

subjective

enjoyment

of

experimental art will not, understandably, be the same for everyone, a general commendation for the work should be necessary rather a mere dismissal of its pretentions. Some may argue that this is present. Yet, there are numerous works of art have not received any recognition for their scope and influence. There is a genuine lack of critical and professional appreciation for the work of the rock band the Shaggs, despite their noticeable and prominent contributions to the formation of protopunk and grunge. Indeed, one can hardly ignore the blueprints of their style on the music of Captain Beefheart or Frank Zappa.

That is not to say that all forms of unconventional

Therefore, in order for the very essence of art to

or

any

continue growing and refining, a recognition for

conventional art for merely being so. Of course,

experimental art is intrinsically needed in the

some works that are better than others at achieving

culture. This is not to say that all experimental art

its aims in distancing art from reality in a more lucid

should be commended as good art; some of it is

manner. Lucid, in this situation, does not mean in

bad. However, one needs to appreciate its value in

terms of style but rather in the orchestration of

avoiding oversaturation. Yet, I do realise that it may

style. To paraphrase Auden, good art is a

be difficult to consume art of this form. The easiest

secretion. Experimental works like Finnegan’s

reconciliation

Wake can be intensely impressive and definitive

experimentation comes in the form of a natural

experimental

art

are

better

than

between

pleasure

and

45

experimentation style––I have already given two examples but here are a few more: Blonde by Frank Ocean, Godard’s Vivre Sa Vie, the poems of E.E. Cummings, or the Surrealist movement. Works of art like these, are the bridge between the experimental and the traditional, and by their very definition are good art. I would like to add finally that although much of my argument relies on this specific definition of art, I do believe that the importance of experimental art is universal to all definitions of art. If you disagree with my definition, I

would

encourage

you

to

consider

how

experimentation is important based on your definition.

46

RADLEY COLLEGE ACADEMIC JOURNAL

POETRY THE

DECIMATION

BY

XAVIER

COUGHLAN

An assembly of ten, Unburdened by morals, Gathered one fierce night To float suggestions of a solution To fabricate subtleties in catastrophe And solve what makes you man.

These mighty ten had been carefully selected By a 1983 law And together round a table, Crafted by Joseph himself, The group disputed your future.

The richest clanged for an annihilation; The tearing down of a continent Blessed not by wealth, But by culture, And all the economics heritage entails, Under the guise of playing saviours.

One proposed a decimation And advocated it by tying a noose

47

And swaying from the hands of Our strongest And jiggling to the pain of their Blood-crossèd hands We were subdued by two thoughts In watching him dangle: Admiration for not being unoriginal In not using the flush lighting, And the eulogizing of his manifesto In watching its flair unfold.

He was right.

That night, we shared his Lithium, Grinding the pills into equal amounts Complying with the cadaver.

Decimation was the future.

The decision had been made.

They bid farewell and set off To tackle the execution.

Pax vobiscum

48

MES

QUATRES

CHEVALIERS

BY

XAVIER

COUGHLAN

La mort, ma fille, Prenez les rênes et rasez cette ville, On aura besoin de votre épée rapide !

Mourir pour changer Mourir pour sauver Cette terre qui est devenue fétide !

Les cieux se trouvent ouverts Avec la fin du monde découverte, Car j’ai atteint mon bout Donc le feu sera commencé Autour de votre lumière qui sera révélée La manière dont vous contrôlez tout Là, je peux voir à travers de ma vitrine, Le monde créé par Mort, Conquête, Guerre et Famine Des immeubles émiettant, Écrasés dans un seul moment, Dépeint votre pouvoir inégalable, Mon fils : qui charge à la victoire Dans la conquête, qui illustre sa gloire Et montre comment de tout vous êtes capable Ô mon peuple condamné, Vous seriez enchainés, Et comme mon fils et mon fidèle : Il n’a jamais possédé la pitié,

49

Il ne comprend que l’inimitié Et il tient la faim pour anéantir cette citadelle Là, je peux voir à travers de ma vitrine, Le monde créé par Mort, Conquête, Guerre et Famine Et finalement, sous mon jugement, mes jumeaux Dépasseront le monde comme des roseaux, Ces forces monteront en saupoudrant mon arrêt Et pendant que la Guerre divise chaque pays, La Famine agressera sans hâte les faibles Rangeant ma création que l’homme altérait.

Ils rejoindront les autres à la fin Pour qu’ils comprennent leur rôle demain Le rôle de formuler mon règne Ou personne ne peut le toucher Ou mes chevaliers planent pour me protéger Sans une race qui saigne Là, je peux voir à travers de ma vitrine, Le monde créé par Mort, Conquête, Guerre et Famine

50

RADLEY COLLEGE ACADEMIC JOURNAL

MATHS SUM OF POWERS USMAN

LADAN

It’s clear to anyone that when you add the number 1 to itself n times the result is equal to n. In other

This then leads to the final result

words, #

S = !r =

#

$%&

!1 = n

n(n + 1) 2

$%&

Fairly simple really. This is a proof which many of The next logical step is to ask what the sum of the

you will have seen before. In fact, some of you will

integers up to n is equal to.

have heard a famous story about Gauss. The story goes that Gauss, when he was a young boy, was

#

! r = ? $%&

This, again, is a fairly trivial problem to solve. First, let us define S = 1 + 2 + 3 + ⋯ + n = ∑#$%& r . We can then write out the sum in two ways: S = 1 + 2 + ⋯+ n

tasked by his teacher to find the sum of the integers from 1 to 100. Of course, the teacher expected his pupils to take a while on this calculation; Gauss, however, very quickly came up with the correct result of 5,050 by using the trick above. Not bad for an 8 year old. Anyway, regarding the above sum, there is a different and more abstract way to approach the problem. Let us

S = n + (n − 1) + ⋯ + 1

consider the following sum: #

If we then add together these two sums, we find

! r @ − (r − 1)@

that

$%&

2S = [n + 1] + [(n − 1) + 2] + [(n − 2) + 3] + ⋯ + [1 + n] = (78888888889888888888: n + 1) + (n + 1) + ⋯ + (n + 1)

If we write out the sum in full, something becomes apparently clear

# ;<=>?

= n(n + 1)

51

#

! r@

to make a start in answering the question. To save

− (r − 1)@

time, I’ll define ∑#$%& r D ∶= S#,D , so S is a function of

$%&

n and k. We shall now do what we did above, but

= 1@ − 0@ + 2@ − 1@ + 3@ − 2@ ⋮ + (n − 1)@ − (n − 2)@ + n@ − (n − 1)@

in a more general manner. So, as before, #

! r D − (r − 1)D $%&

= 1D − 0D + 2D − 1D + 3D − 2D ⋮ + (n − 1)D − (n − 2)D + nD − (n − 1)D = nD

You can see that all of the terms besides the first and last term cancel out, meaning #

! r @ − (r − 1)@ = n@ $%&

But of course, I could have expanded the bracket

This next part gets a bit messy, but bear with me. If

at the beginning. If I do so, I find that

we use the binomial theorem to expand our initial bracket, we find that

#

! r @ − ( r − 1) @ $%&

(r − 1)D

#

#

#

= ! r @ − r @ + 2r − 1 = 2 ! r − ! 1 $%&

$%&

$%&

= 2S − n And from here it is trivial to rearrange and solve for S 2S − n = n@ → S =

n(n + 1) 2

This technique should be common knowledge to all A level further mathematicians. This is known as the “method of differences” (you can see where the name comes from). So now, the question becomes this: What is the general formula for the sum of the integers raised to any integer power? In other words ∑#$%& r D

=?

Well we won’t be able to tackle the problem fully.

=

r D − GD&Hr DI&

+

GD@Hr DI@

+⋯+

D (−1)< GD<Hr DI< + ⋯ + (−1)DI&GDI& Hr& + (−1)D

Naturally it follows that r D − (r − 1)D = GD&Hr DI& −

GD@Hr DI@

+⋯+

D (−1)<J&GD<Hr DI< + ⋯ + (−1)DGDI& Hr& + (−1)DJ&

And therefore ∑#$%& r D − (r − 1)D = GD&HS#,DI& − GD@HS#,DI@ + ⋯ + D (−1)<J&GD<HS#,DI< + ⋯ + (−1)D GDI& HS#,& +

(−1)DJ& S#,K

Still following? Yes? Fantastic. Now we can do as before and set our two evaluations of the sum equal to one another #

D

$%&

<%&

k ! r D − (r − 1)D = nD = !(−1)<J& L O S#,DI< i

That’s a bit too difficult. But we do have the tools

52

Now, remember that when k = 2, we used the S

above to find out what S#,& was equal to? Well in

đ?&#x2018;&#x2020;R,S

the general case we rearrange the expression

1 đ?&#x2018;&#x2DC;+1 = !(â&#x2C6;&#x2019;1)U L O đ??ľU đ?&#x2018;&#x203A;SJ&IU đ?&#x2018;&#x2DC;+1 đ?&#x2018;&#x2013; U%K

above to solve for S#,DI& .

D

k nD = !(â&#x2C6;&#x2019;1)<J& L O S#,DI< i <%&

Now I imagine you will be asking what the term đ??ľU represents. These terms represents what are D

k k = L O S#,DI& + !(â&#x2C6;&#x2019;1)<J& L O S#,DI< 1 i <%@

below.

S

đ?&#x2018;&#x2DC; đ?&#x2018;&#x2DC; L O đ?&#x2018;&#x2020;R,SI& = đ?&#x2018;&#x203A;S + !(â&#x2C6;&#x2019;1)U L O đ?&#x2018;&#x2020;R,SIU 1 đ?&#x2018;&#x2013; U%@

And as a consequence đ?&#x2018;&#x2020;R,SI& =

đ?&#x2018;&#x203A; +

â&#x2C6;&#x2018;SU%@(â&#x2C6;&#x2019;1)U GSUHđ?&#x2018;&#x2020;R,SIU đ?&#x2018;&#x2DC;

How simple. What we have above is a sequence that defines any đ?&#x2018;&#x2020;R,S as a function of all previous sums. This is known as a recurrence relation (which, as youâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;ve all read my article in the previous issue, you know all about). As this is a recurrence relation, we should be able to solve it, right? Wellâ&#x20AC;Śno. Or more specifically I donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t know how to. Not only is this problem difficult as it is a multivariable relation, but also the recurrence changes length as we vary the value of k, making this a task I cannot complete.

However, there does exist an explicit function for the general sum. It is known as Faulhaberâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Formula, named after Johann Faulhaber. He was a German Mathematician who lived from 1580 to 1635. As far as I can tell, this was his only major mathematical contribution. In his initial paper, Faulhaber only computed the sums up to k = 17.

Jacob

Bernoulli,

a

more

famous

Swiss

mathematician, published the general expression for the sum of powers in 1713 in his paper titled Summae Potestatum which, if Google Translate is right, means â&#x20AC;&#x153;Total Powerâ&#x20AC;?. The aforementioned is written below.

sequence of numbers which appear in many areas of number theory regularly. The first few are listed

Meaning

S

known as the Bernoulli numbers. There are a

i

0

đ??ľU

1

1

2 1 1 Âą 2 6

3

4

5

0

â&#x2C6;&#x2019;

1 0 30

6 7 1 0 42

8 â&#x2C6;&#x2019;

1 30

One way to define the Bernoulli numbers is by looking for the values that satisfy _

đ?&#x2018;Ą đ?&#x2018;ĄU = ! đ??ľU đ?&#x2018;&#x2019;] â&#x2C6;&#x2019; 1 đ?&#x2018;&#x2013;!

U%K

But there are multiple ways to define the Bernoulli numbers, none of which I truly understand.

Interestingly though, it turns out that Bernoulli numbers are useful when evaluating negative values of the Riemann Zeta function (which, as youâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;ve all read my article from the first issue, you know all about). One can almost see why, as when we look at the Riemann Zeta Function, _

đ?&#x153; (đ?&#x2018; ) = ! đ?&#x2018;&#x203A;Ib R%&

When we input negative integer values for s, the above becomes the sum of powers. I hope you found this endeavour a valuable one. Itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s worth doing your own research on Bernoulli numbers if youâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;re still interested in what theyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;re all about. I donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t know what else to say, so I think Iâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;ll stop here.

53

PATTERNS IN PRIMES JOHN

FU

A prime number is defined as a number that has only factors of 1 and itself. In fact, all integers are

s = p& p@ … p# = q& q @ … q # p< , q h are prime

products of a unique combination of primes. A common proof within any Number Theory book is

Then,

the proof of infinite primes. Although there are

s = p@ … p# ∈ ℤ p&

dozens of proofs of this, the most common is outlined by Euclid which follows as such: Assume that there are finitely many primes. Hence, they can be ordered as such: p& , p@ , … , p# Consider a new number P, defined as: P = (p& p@ … p# ) − 1 Because 1 has no other factor besides itself, P’s unique prime factorisation cannot contain any of the primes in our original list. Therefore, either P itself is prime or it has a prime factor which is not contained in the original list. Hence, a prime outside of the list can be generated. By repeating the process, it can be shown that there are infinitely many primes.

QED This proof hinges on the idea that every integer is the unique product of a certain combination of primes. This is known as the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic. It can be proved as below:

Hence, there must be a q h that must have a factor of p& . But, because it’s prime q h = p& . By extending this argument, it can be shown that all integers have a unique prime factorisation.

QED Both of these are quite well-known facts about primes, yet they are fundamental bases for the study of primes and underpin much of Number Theory. An interesting and useful fact about primes is that disregarding 2 and 3 all primes are one more or one less than a multiple of 6. This can be shown as follows: For any six integers: 6n − 3 , 6n − 2 , 6n − 1 , 6n , 6n + 1 , 6n +2 If one of these numbers were to be prime, it definitely cannot be 6n because that has a factor of 6. Similarly, it cannot be 6n − 3 , 6n − 2 , 6n + 2 because they have factors of 2 and 3. Hence, primes can only occur in the form 6n ± 1.

Assume that there is an integer s that is the product of two different combinations of primes, such that

54

This leaves us with many interesting patterns, for

Hence, there are a finite number of primes not of

example, the reader should try proving that for

the form 6n + 1, including 2 and 3. Thus, a new

every prime p ≥ 5, p@ − 1 = 24k, where k ∈ ℤ.

number N can be constructed as such:

A natural question that may arise for some is ‘Are

N = 2 × 3 × (6k& − 1) × (6k @ − 1) × … × (6k # − 1)

there an infinite number of primes that are one less than a multiple of 6/one more than a multiple of 6, or is there a finite number of one and an infinite number of the other?’ Intuitively, there seems like there should be an infinite number of both. The unsolved Twin Prime conjecture which asks whether there are infinite pairs of primes that are only two apart (e.g. 3 and 5, 5 and 7, 11 and 13). It would make sense that there is an infinite number of primes in both groups if this conjecture has been hypothesised to be true. In fact, it can be demonstrated that there are an infinite number of primes one less than a multiple of 6: Assume that there are a finite number of primes of the form 6n − 1, such that they can written as such: 6k& − 1 , 6k @ − 1 , … , 6k # − 1

The product of the 6k < − 1 primes will be of the form 6K ± 1 . This can be seen through the expansion of brackets and the multiplication of terms.

N = 2 × 3 × (6K ± 1) N = 6(6K ± 1) N = 6P, P = (6K ± 1) Hence, we can now apply the same trick of subtracting 1 from N. This new number cannot be prime from our finite list of 2, 3, and 6n − 1 ’s.

However, because it is in the form 6n − 1, it is not a 6n + 1 prime. Hence, it must have prime factors outside of our finite list. This process can be repeated indefinitely. Hence, there are an infinite number of primes of the form 6n − 1.

55

RADLEY COLLEGE ACADEMIC JOURNAL

BOOK REVIEWS “STASILAND”

BY ANNA FUNDER JAKE ELLIOTT

56

that pried into every aspect of the lives of even the most ordinary East Germans. Even the Stasi’s own employees weren’t spared from this world of constant surveillance.

Dmitri Vrubel’s mural – Fraternal kiss

In Berlin, along the Mühlenstraße, one can find the city’s world-famous East Side Gallery. Once just a small part of the 96-mile-long barrier between East and West that tore communities and families apart, now it’s the only part remaining, a relic of the city’s

Berlin wall

past. In 1979 the East German Head of State Eric

Throughout ‘Stasiland’ Funder visits many of those

Honecker, and Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev

individuals whose lives were in some way related to

kissed according to a Socialist tradition, to mark

the Stasi, and sheds light on how oppressive the

the 30-year anniversary of the German Democratic

police force really was. The central strand of the

Republic(GDR). That same kiss is replicated

book is the tale of Miriam, a reluctant citizen of the

somewhat satirically as one of the many murals that

GDR

go along the Gallery.

mysterious

The Berlin Wall was up for 28 years; it’s since been down for 29. Yet the repercussions of those many years of segregation are still felt. This is what Australian journalist Anna Funder, in her book ‘Stasiland’, investigates. As its name suggests ‘Stasiland’, and the many stories told within it, all focus on the impact of the former East German ministry of State Security, or Stasi. Funder notes that there was one Stasi informant for every 63 people in East Germany- by comparison the Gestapo had one agent per 2000 people, and Stalin’s USSR had one KGB agent for every 5830 people. By these numbers alone you get a sense of what the Stasi stood for; it was a tyrannical regime

whose

husband

Charlie

circumstances

in

died the

under

infamous

Hohenschonhausen prison. The Stasi’s cold grip on the country is best felt here: not only was Charlie denied a trial, since the defense lawyers were on state payroll, but Miriam was denied access to his body in the morgue and was forced into having it cremated. She was fully aware of the harsh truth, that her husband was tortured to death in captivity for purely circumstantial crimes, yet remained helpless in the cause for justice. Just like the Third Reich, the GDR was based on the German doctrine of Rechtsstaat- a state in which the governmental powers are constrained by the law. In both instances,

Rechtsstaat

was

little

more

than

theoretical; there was little to stop both regimes

57

from exerting almost unlimited oppressive force.

driven by money and drugs. The considerably

Those like Charlie, who questioned the system,

underpaid

were quickly silenced.

something far more sinister; an element of

But Funder makes clear it that the Stasi-era was a far different one from the Nazi experience. From her interviews she notes the great illusion that East Germans lived under; convinced that Nazism was a

Stasi

informers

were

driven

by

satisfaction to betraying community members who had hinted at trying to escape, the fulfilment of being ‘in the know’. It’s what the Stasi used as fuel for their oppressive regime.

West German idea, many don’t feel that they have a responsibility for the atrocities of Hitler’s regime.

The idea of German collective guilt, a concept defined by psychoanalyst Carl Jung as a universal guilt felt by Germans for starting the Second World War- is alien to them. Funder describes it as one of the great ‘innocence manoeuvres’ in history. The same thought processes were behind putting up the Wall in 1961, which the then Head of State Walter Ulbricht called ‘An Anti-Fascist Protective Measure’. It was believed that East Germans would be educated locally, only to work in West Germany where pay was superior. As builder of the wall Hagen Koch put it, ‘people will reap where they have not sown’. It was this economic divide, one that is still evident today, that arguably dictated the way the GDR had to be run.

The Stasi regime was widely hated and feared, with its extensive network of spies and ‘unofficial collaborators’. At one point Funder comments on one of the Stasi’s great ironies; it 1989 an agent alerted his superiors of the large and growing numbers in a church opposition group, only to find out that most of its members were actually informers. By making the church group seem bigger than it really was it encouraged more average civilian groups to join and continue protesting against the regime. The Stasi was undermined by an unhealthy culture among its employees. Funder notes how there is something warmer about the way in which carnal dictatorships in South America are run, in which people are

East-West Germany When an informant threatened to break loose, the Stasi were more than willing to tighten their grip.

The aforementioned Hagen Koch, after building the wall, filed for resignation after the Stasi took his father off the payroll. Immediately Koch was arrested for possessing ‘pornography’, whilst his wife was approached in order to convince her to divorce him. The Stasi was a spy network, both internally and externally. In 1988 KGB agent Stanislav Levchenko used the acronym MICEmoney, ideology, coercion/compromise and egoto describe the reasons for espionage during the Cold War. There is no doubt as to which of the four motives best applied to the average Stasi informer;

58

people who operated mostly out of fear for the

the East. After all, language was the only thing East

leverage their officers had on them.

Germans shared with their Western counterparts;

East Germany has been criminally undocumented.

Despite the multitude of galleries and exhibitions in modern day Berlin little can truly be learnt from the true nature of these 28 years of a city split in two. Ironically the Stasi possessed 180 kilometres of files and spent the last days of the Wall frantically shredding and disposing of them, fully aware of the consequences were they to be seized by the newly re-unified German government. To this day a group of 31 so called ‘puzzle women’ in Nuremburg spend their days attempting to piece together these shredded files. It is estimated that

they developed their own daily routines, led different social lives, had their own culture. They don’t necessarily want a return to Communismonly 10% according to a recent opinion poll- but to hang on to the details that made the East Germany unique. Many feel alienated by Germany’s reunification, given that the West was not only financially superior but based on the entirely different ideology of democracy and capitalism.

They longed to return to the sense of security in the GDR, and the strong communities that developed as a result of the Stasi’s oppression.

it would take them another 375 years to reconstruct

In reading ‘Stasiland’ one gets an evocative and

every file, and despite their value few former East

unprejudiced feel for the Stasi’s reign, Funder’s

German citizens actually take this newfound

writing is atmospheric; her multi-layered narrative

evidence to court. Therefore, their efforts are more

weaves between her own experience walking

a symbolic act than a mission of vengeance.

down the streets of post-Wall Berlin and the

The available files are truly fascinating, but what Funder in ‘Stasiland’ provides is a series of moving encounters with both Stasi employees and East German citizens. They reveal how the Wall changed their life, almost universally for the worse, yet still possess fond memories of its existence.

devastating

first

person

accounts

of

her

interviewees. It’s far more than a description of a brutish regime built on a series of lies, but the way in which the Stasi made those 45 years after 1945 so extraordinary for everyone who ended up on the other side of the wall.

Locals call it ‘Ostalgie’- a feeling of nostalgia for

59

We are happy to announce the new editorial team of Serpentes, consisting of Muez Khan, Jake Elliott, Alex Senior, Jake Hubbard, Albi Tufnell and Jack Dhillon.

Stay tuned for the next issue.

Please send all submissions to muez.khan2015@radley.org.uk

60