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Theories of Personality Understanding Persons, 6th Edition By Susan C. Cloninger

Instructor’s Manual Susan Cloninger The Sage Colleges

THEORIES OF PERSONALITY Sixth Edition

Susan Cloninger The Sage Colleges

Contents Additional Instructor Resources: PowerPoint and Test Bank 1 Approaches to Teaching Personality 1 Pedagogical Aids in the Text 2 Illustrative Biographies 2 Preview Table 3 Chapter Summary 3 Thinking About the Theory 3 Study Questions 3 Glossary 3 For the Beginning Teacher 4 Approaches to Teaching Personality 5 Biography 5 Films and Television Sources 6 Empirical Research 7 Chapter by Chapter Suggestions for Lessons and Class Discussions 9 Chapter 1: Introduction to Personality Theory 9 PART I: The Psychoanalytic Perspective 12 Chapter 2: Freud: Classical Psychoanalysis 12 Chapter 3: Jung: Analytical Psychology 15 PART II: The Psychoanalytic-Social Perspective 18 Chapter 4: Adler: Individual Psychology 18 Chapter 5: Erikson: Psychosocial Development 20 Chapter 6: Horney and Relational Theory: Interpersonal Psychoanalytic Theory 22 PART III: The Trait Perspective 24 Chapter 7: Allport: Personological Trait Theory 24 Chapter 8: Two Factor Analytic Trait Theories: Cattell’s 16 Factors and the Big Five 26 Chapter 9: Biological Theories: Evolution, Genetics, and Biological Factor Theories 28

PART IV: The Behavioral Perspective 30 Chapter 10: The Challenge of Behaviorism: Dollard and Miller, Skinner, and Staats 30 Chapter 11: Kelly: Personal Construct theory 34 Chapter 12: Mischel: Traits in Cognitive Social Learning Theory 36 Chapter 13: Bandura: Performance in Cognitive Social Learning Theory 38 PART V: The Humanistic Perspective 39 Chapter 14: Rogers: Person-Centered Theory 39 Chapter 15: Maslow and His Legacy: Need Hierarchy Theory and Positive Psychology 42 Chapter 16: Buddhist Psychology: Lessons from Eastern Culture 44 Chapter 17: Conclusion 45 Using the World Wide Web 47 Video Suggestions 47

This manual provides teaching suggestions and test questions to accompany Theories of Personality: Understanding Persons (6th edition). Each instructor and each class are different, and there are more possibilities than any one of us can implement. I hope that some of these suggestions will be useful both to experienced teachers (who may wish to try something new) and to those teaching Personality Theory for the first time, as each chooses which aspects of the material to emphasize. Some theoretical perspectives will appeal more than others, and the balance of application and research will vary. Whatever the choice, I have found that students prefer a course in which they can identify their particular instructor's "angle" on the material, giving them a guide into unfamiliar territory. A personal voice from the instructor is important for both traditional seat time classes and the increasingly popular hybrid and online modes of instruction.

Additional Instructor Resources: PowerPoint and Test Bank Instructors may wish to use PowerPoint presentations in their lectures or make them available as a study aid for students. Slides that accompany the text are available from the publisher through your local representative, that can be incorporated into the instructor’s own presentations. An extensive test item file (multiple choice, true-false, and essay format) with software for test construction is also available.

Approaches to Teaching Personality The field of personality theory can be approached from many angles: applied, biographical, conceptual, descriptive, empirical—and undoubtedly more. Some instructors emphasize research that tests theoretical ideas. Studies reviewed in the text can be expanded in lecture or in student reports. Students, working individually or in groups, can examine the current literature to determine whether, overall, theoretical ideas are valid. They may also design their own research projects. If these are not too ambitious, data may even be collected during the course. Instructors choosing this option may consider administering personality questionnaires in class, having students write questionnaires on particular topics (such as birth order or recalled parental behavior or life goals), and having various students each analyze some part of this pooled data set. The discussion of theoretical constructs and propositions in Chapter 1 provides a beginning point for this assignment. By testing hypotheses derived from various theories using their own data, students understand both the theories and the process of empirical validation. Other instructors may prefer to discuss the philosophical and historical foundations of theory, or to emphasize one or a few theories more than others. Alternatively, instructors may emphasize how theoretical concepts apply to individuals. Individual applications include implications of personality theory for psychotherapy and for job placement or other managerial issues. These applications make extensive use of personality testing, suggesting the exercise of taking personality tests in class and/or discussing research on test validation. Cross-cultural issues could be included in this discussion. Psychobiography is another individual focus, one that is more conceptual and less applied. It is my favorite approach for undergraduate courses. It helps students understand life narratives (an approach that could be supplemented in lecture). I include psychobiographical writing assignments in my own course. Students read a biography or autobiography and write term papers interpreting the personality from the perspective of various theories. (A term paper assignment is provided later in this Instructor Manual.) The details of individual lives that students bring to class make the 1

theoretical material come alive with freshness and unanticipated insights each term. This approach has an additional strength: it makes each student the expert in the sense that they know more about the biography they are reading than the instructor knows, and this experience of expertise can transform attitudes toward learning. Biography also reminds us that the cultural and historical background of a person's life cannot be ignored. When theories "fit" the case examples which students bring to class, we all feel intellectually gratified. When theories don't fit, we remember that theory development is an ongoing process.

Pedagogical Aids in the Text The theories are grouped into five perspectives: psychoanalytic, psychoanalytic-social, trait, behavioral, and humanistic. Brief introductions to each “Part” identify the key assumptions of the perspective in a numbered list. Each theoretical chapter includes several pedagogical features that can be used to guide students' reading and, depending upon the instructor's preferences, may provide material for class discussion and for assignments or quizzes.

Illustrative Biographies Throughout the text, biographies are presented and analyzed to illustrate theoretical concepts. In this edition, each theoretical chapter is illustrated with one biography. Interpretations are systematically presented to correspond to the topics presented in the preview table for each chapter: description (individual differences), adjustment, cognition, society, biology, and development. Here are the biographies that are analyzed: Chapter 2 (Freud): Adolf Hitler Chapter 3 (Jung): Martin Luther King, Jr. Chapter 4 (Adler): Oprah Winfrey Chapter 5 (Erikson): Mahatma Gandhi Chapter 6 (Horney and Relational Theory): Marilyn Monroe Chapter 7 (Allport): Mother Teresa Chapter 8 (Cattell and the Five Factor Theory): Sonia Sotomayor Chapter 9 (Evolution and Temperament): Hillary Rodham Clinton Chapter 10 (Skinner and Staats): Tiger Woods Chapter 11 (Kelly): Richard Nixon Chapter 12 (Mischel): Frida Kahlo Chapter 13 (Bandura): Barack Obama Chapter 14 (Rogers): Maya Angelou Chapter 15 (Maslow): David Pelzer Chapter 16 (Buddhism): The Dalai Lama Illustrative biographies help students understand how theoretical concepts can be used to understand particular individuals—what evidence from a person’s life fits a concept (such as “trait” 2

or “self-actualization”). Psychobiography has its limitations. Obviously the cases do not provide a rigorous empirical test of the concepts and do not demonstrate that we can generalize the conclusions to other people. They do help illustrate the concepts, though, and can be powerful pedagogical tools, especially if extended in class with critical analysis. Instructors have many choices for using these Illustrative Biographies in their classes. They may use them as models for student writing assignments or critical thinking exercises. It is also possible to make the Illustrative Biographies optional or extra credit, or they can be skipped altogether. The rest of the text stands alone without them.

Preview Table Each theoretical chapter (Chapters 2 through 16) contains a preview table that briefly summarizes the theory's position on six issues: individual differences, adaptation and adjustment, cognitive processes, culture, biological influences, and development. These issues are described more fully in Chapter 1 of the text. These tables can organize comparisons among various theories, and they can be used for review (for example, to systematically close each lecture or student study session).

Chapter Summary A bulleted summary list at the end of each chapter describes the main points of the chapter. In addition to reviewing the material, it can be used, together with the Preview table at the beginning of the chapter, to preview key concepts before students study the chapter in detail.

Thinking About the Theory Critical thinking questions at the end of each chapter ask students to critically evaluate and to expand upon concepts provided in the chapter. Since a variety of informed opinions are often possible, these questions are particularly useful to guide class discussion.

Study Questions Study questions at the end of each chapter ask students to recall material from the chapter. They are useful for review and may be used for quizzes or exam questions, particularly when instructors want to reward students for reviewing in the structured way that the questions provide. This approach is especially motivating for students who have weaker study skills.

Glossary A glossary for the entire text is found at the end of the text (page 333). Within each chapter, glossary definitions are found in the margins, defining key terms. In the text, the glossary terms are printed in boldface type. Students should be encouraged to recognize these terms as key concepts and to pause in their reading to understand them. In addition to the study questions, these glossary terms can be used to quiz students by asking them to define the terms in their own words and to provide or recognize examples of each.

For the Beginning Teacher The intrinsic interest of the subject matter in personality can make this course one of the most gratifying to teach. Success is not automatic, however. Students and teachers need to have some clear, shared sense of their task, since the amount of material and number of side issues to be explored can be daunting. Carefully selected assignments and examinations, with clear expectations, provide direction for student effort and focus for class sessions. Interesting tangents will still emerge, and occasionally spending time on them may feel even more playful when there is a clear sense of the fundamental work of the course. Students generally want to know clearly what will happen in class and what they are required to do. Grades are, like it or not, important to students, and careful planning can turn this to good purpose by strategically using grades and assignments as motivators for behavior that the instructor values. Is attendance required? Will tests include material in the book that is not discussed in class? If you present material that is not in the book, will students be expected to know it for the test? If there is a class exercise, will they get credit for completing it? If there is a class discussion, will talking influence their grade? If there is a film, will it be tested? Should they have read the text before class? Explain requirements clearly, and plan how to monitor their accomplishment. To balance this clarity, though, the teacher must also be flexible in order to accommodate student interest and to correct for unrealistic expectations about what can be accomplished. Class time can be spent various ways. Students appreciate clear explanations of important concepts from the text, illustrated by new examples. Identifying what is most important can be more helpful than trying to cover everything. One way to organize a lecture is to outline the chapter, using the accompanying PowerPoint slides, and to use this structure to explain the material -- deviating enough from the text to provide interest, but not so much as to confuse students. I generally present lectures using computer-displayed visual materials, combining PowerPoint outlines, definitions, clip art, videos, and occasionally class exercises. I make my presentations available to students on the web, which many of them download and print before class to facilitate note-taking (although some instructors prefer to delay making electronic notes available until after the lecture, to encourage attendance). Lectures can expand on material not covered in the text. Even faculty who stay close to the book most of the time may wish to do this in areas of their own particular interest and expertise. If this "lecture supplements the book" approach is the regular strategy, students should be clearly told what they must learn through their own reading, and how exams will weigh content from lecture and from the book. For a change of pace, the instructor may spend some classes on class exercises, personality tests, or films. It has been my experience that both students and instructors are most appreciative of such a change of pace after an exam or major written assignment. At most schools, films need to be scheduled well in advance, particularly if they must be rented. The librarian or media consultant at your school may have additional suggestions. A carefully chosen term project or set of assignments can enhance class discussions as well as supplement the book. Students may be asked to do a psychobiographical analysis on the basis of a biography they have read. Alternatively, they may be assigned to read research articles relevant to a particular theory, and to present them either in a paper or in an oral report. A panel of related research makes an interesting class session. If the instructor chooses to do several class 4

demonstrations throughout the term, having students briefly write about them can ensure that students will take them seriously. Brief papers reporting such demonstrations could be collected frequently, or they could be written in an Exercise Notebook to be collected two or three times throughout the term. (An advantage of the Exercise Notebook is that it allows the instructor greater flexibility throughout the term to add or delete exercises, since there is no prior announcement of a particular number of written reports.) Some instructors may wish to make written reports of class exercises an "extra credit" assignment. These strategies, to be maximally effective, should be anticipated at the outset of the term so that they can be included in a list of course requirements on the class syllabus.

Approaches to Teaching Personality Biography The study of individual lives through psychobiography is an intrinsically interesting approach for students. Students may be required to read a biography or autobiography and to analyze it from the perspective of one or several personality theories. Students' oral presentations of these projects at the end of the term provide an interesting review of course concepts, as well as permitting some review time between the completion of the last chapter of the book and the final exam. (Students may need to be reminded to include theoretical concepts in their presentations, so captivating are the details of the lives they report.) A number of excellent biographies have been televised; students occasionally mention them in class and venture theoretical interpretations. I ask my students to report on their biographies at various points throughout the term, since otherwise they tend to procrastinate until the end, and the quality of the work suffers. Class discussion of interim assignments is also a useful review of theories to date. This is my syllabus statement of the assignment: PERSONALITY TERM PAPER Apply the theories of personality that have been covered in the course to an understanding of one person. The person must be a real person, not a fictional or mythological figure. Base your paper a on published biographical or autobiographical book, in addition to the text. You should discuss all of the theories covered in the course in your paper, though you may choose to concentrate on some more than others. Be detailed in your discussion of how theoretical concepts apply. There is no need to explain the theoretical concepts in the paper. (You may presume that the reader knows the theories.) Focus on how the theoretical concepts apply to the one person you are trying to understand. Cite specific details from the biography to support your interpretations. Cite references that you use for direct quotations and for factual material. Ordinarily, only two references will be necessary: the biography (or autobiography) and the text. If you wish to do more detailed reading about personality theory or about the biography, you may include more references, but that is not necessary or expected. The purpose of this paper is to demonstrate that you understand the theories well enough to apply them appropriately, with insight.

Tips for working on the term paper may be found by following links from the course home page. [These tips are listed below.] Three brief progress reports will be collected: Assignment #1: List the biographical source (book) you will be using. Use APA format (or the format used in the class text), and include all bibliographical information. In one page (prose or outline), summarize your thoughts about how the material covered so far (chapters 1-6) applies to this person. Assignment #2: In 1-3 pages (prose or outline), summarize how the trait and biological interpretations (chapters 7-9) apply to the biography you are analyzing. Assignment #3: In 1-3 pages (prose or outline), summarize how behavioral theories (chapters 1013) apply to the biography you are analyzing. In particular, consider what cognitions are relevant to understanding this personality. The purpose of these assignments is to ensure that you are thinking critically about the theories throughout the course. As a result, no credit will be given for assignments that are more than a day or two late. As described on the syllabus, the final paper is due [date], and you should be prepared to present selected parts of it informally, orally, in class. Submit your final paper both electronically and in print form. The print form will be returned to you, with the instructor's comments. Please be sure that both copies are identical in every way (including the cover page). Suggested Length: 15 to 20 pages (Longer papers are acceptable. Shorter papers will not be penalized for length, but be sure that you are discussing theories adequately, which is difficult to do in a paper much less than 15 pages.) When I introduce the assignment in the first or second class, I discuss tips on the following list, which are also posted on the course website: Advice for psychobiography assignment •Is there sufficient information? •Is the information unbiased? •Do you have biased ideas about the person? •Are you very interested in the person? •Can you complete the analysis in time?

Films, Television Sources and Music In some ways similar to biography, analysis of television programs and movies also offers an intrinsically interesting approach to studying personality, and one that is comfortable to our media-immersed students. Personally, I worry that the personalities that we may analyze in films are distorted by the implicit theories of the film producers—a concern that is somewhat attenuated, but not entirely eliminated, when the films are based on real people. Nonetheless, the intrinsic interest of this approach, the hope that it will create habits of critical thinking that extend beyond the classroom, and the relative ease of incorporating video materials in class are clear advantages.

Many varieties of films are possible. Some are documentary biographies, such as those broadcast on the Biography program on the A&E television network (http://www.aetv.com/biography/). Other programs are formatted as interviews that focus on a person’s life (a format that invites discussion of the interview as a data collection method). The television program Inside the Actors Studio, on the Bravo television network, probes the life history of actors, producers, and others in the film industry in an interview format (http://www.bravotv.com/Inside_the_Actors_Studio). James Lipton, the host, includes a standard open-ended set of questions toward the end of each interview, in which guests are asked a standard set of questions (e.g., “What is your favorite curse word?” and “What is your favorite sound or noise?”). I have occasionally presented this brief portion of the program from several different guests, back-to-back, to illustrate individual differences and to invite student interpretation of the responses. It’s fun, and sometimes the responses seem ready-made for a particular theoretical interpretation. It is a welcome change of pace from the over-used multiple choice questionnaires that are so pervasive in personality research. Feature films provide another source of material. Though more fictional in plot and with disclaimers about portraying actual people, the personality concepts have pedagogical potential. Lists of Hollywood films that have been used in teaching psychology courses (including but not limited to personality) are occasionally circulated, and one such list is found in the first reference below. A systematic method for analyzing films, using a method called the Structural Analysis of Social Behavior (SASB), is described in the second reference below, which applies this method to psychoanalytic and humanistic approaches, (A word of warning: Implementing this approach would require considerable advance preparation by the instructor to select appropriate video segments and to understand the SASB method.) Music can also be used to illustrate personality theories by examining the lyrics of popular songs. One suspects that operas could also be used, though with less appeal to most students. SUGGESTED READING: Lampropoulos, G. K., Kazantzis, N., & Deane, F. P. (2004). Psychologists’ use of motion pictures in clinical practice. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 35, 535–541. [This study reports several movies and their rated usefulness in therapy.] Leck, K. (2007). Teaching personality theories using popular music. Teaching of Psychology, 33, 34–36. [This approach uses song lyrics both in lecture and in student assignments.] Paddock, J. R., Terranova, S., & Giles, L. (2001). SASB goes Hollywood: Teaching personality theories through movies. Teaching of Psychology, 28, 117–121.

Empirical Research Theories are, in principle, evaluated and accepted, rejected, or revised as a consequence of empirical research. Chapter 1 presents an overview of the strategy of empirical verification of theories. Later chapters consider empirical research related to each theory. Expanded consideration of empirical research (whether reported in the text or not) is an effective lecture or lecturediscussion exercise, and a logical choice for paper assignments or oral reports. Such assignments can be facilitated by providing instruction in literature search techniques and by presenting an 7

overview of the major parts of a research article (Introduction, Method, Results, Discussion). Besides reviewing published research, students can design their own studies. Depending on the college curriculum, they might actually conduct such studies in a subsequent research course. (To do so within a one-term personality class is, in most cases, too rushed to permit high-quality research.) If individually designed and conducted projects are not feasible within the time constraints of a course, the class can together collect data and then individually or in small groups, analyze parts of it. For example, personality tests can be taken in class or administered to volunteers outside the class, and brief background demographic information collected. Students may write their own test items--an activity that is likely to foster appreciation of the pitfalls of ambiguous items. Instructors should be familiar with the requirements of their institution's human subjects research committee. Some projects may require an ethics review before being conducted. The instructor may use lecture time to expand on selected studies reported in the text. Studies with tables or figures in the text would be particularly appropriate for such expansion. Other articles of particular interest to the instructor, or which are too recent to be included in the text, would also be fine choices for lecture. The difficulty of making causal inferences from correlational studies bears frequent repetition in personality research SUGGESTED READING: Benjamin, L. T. (1983). A class exercise in personality and psychological assessment. Teaching of Psychology, 10, 94–95. [Describes a 2-week exercise in which students develop a personality test, administer it, and analyze it.] Camac, C. R., & Camac, M. K. (1993). A laboratory project in scale design: Teaching reliability and validity. Teaching of Psychology, 20, 102–104. [Describes a class project in developing a scale of sensation seeking.]

CHAPTER BY CHAPTER SUGGESTIONS FOR LECTURES AND CLASS DISCUSSIONS Many factors contribute to classroom interest, including the enthusiasm and expertise of the teacher and the students' sense that they are engaged in a meaningful endeavor. I hope that some of the suggestions in the pages that follow will be helpful as you develop assignments and lectures that reflect the unique approach to the field that each instructor provides.

Chapter 1: Introduction to Personality Theory Trait and Construct Measurement The concept of a theoretical construct can be rather abstract. One way to illustrate it would be to focus on particular personality traits and their measurement. Here are two references that describe class exercises designed for this purpose. SUGGESTED READING: Friesen, M. D., & Ellis, B. J. (). Convergent validation of an interview-based personality assessment: A laboratory project. Teaching of Psychology, 35, 109– 112. [This class exercise requires two class sessions and illustrates the importance of multiple operational definitions by measuring the same 4 personality traits by both interview and questionnaire methods.] Holmes, J. D. (2008). Teaching traits and constructs through scale construction: A need and a strategy. Teaching of Psychology, 35, 86–90. [Describes a classroom exercise for developing scales to measure traits, presented in the context of theory and hypothesis generation.] Comparison of Expert Knowledge with Common Sense As the quotations at the beginning of Chapter 1 indicate, common sense offers many opinions about personality. One way to begin the course, particularly appropriate for the first class when students will not have read the text, is to consider common sense statements about personality. Such statements can be provided by the instructor or elicited from the class. The statements can then be compared with available research (a strategy that requires advance preparation by the instructor). Or, requiring less advance preparation, the instructor can use these statements to discuss the issue of empirical verification. What research would support the statements, or refute them? What measures would be needed? Students may also be asked what topics or issues that they expect to be covered in the course. What areas seem relevant to personality; where can expert knowledge supplement common sense? If this topic is addressed at the beginning of the term, consider keeping a record of the issues raised, and return to them at the end of the term to evaluate whether expectations have been met. If they have not, is it because the questions were not well formulated? Or have the theories failed to meet legitimate expectations? SUGGESTED READING: Embree, M. C. (1986). Implicit personality theory in the classroom: An integrative approach. Teaching of Psychology, 13, 78–80. [Describes a classroom exercise for making students aware of their own implicit personality theories, comparing these with selected formal personality theories.] Goldstein, M. D. (1998). Forming and testing implicit personality theories in cyberspace. Teaching of Psychology, 25, 216-220. [Reports an exercise in which 9

students analyze internet home pages by psychologists in terms of their implicit personality theories.] Vyse, S. A. (1990). Adopting a viewpoint: Psychology majors and psychological theory. Teaching of Psychology, 17, 227–230. [Reports that students adopt theories based on understanding themselves.] Personality Measurement Students are usually quite interested in taking personality tests and learning their results. Such tests can be given early in the course or later, in conjunction with the related theorist. Some appropriate tests are the Myers-Briggs Personality Inventory (see Chapter 3), the AllportVernon-Lindzey Study of Values (see Chapter 7), Cattell's 16PF, and the NEO-PI or the Five Factor Inventory (see Chapter 8). (I recommend avoiding tests with clear implications for mental health, such as the Personal Orientation Inventory, unless your students are relatively sophisticated or will be entering mental health professions.) An introductory lecture on measurement, emphasizing the construction and validation of tests, is appropriate for Chapter 1, particularly if your students will be taking tests or conducting their own research. How much should we accept the results of psychological tests? The instructor may wish to supplement the text explanation of reliability and validity. A researchoriented class can analyze data collected from students for reliability, and can propose (perhaps even measure) validity criteria. The Barnum Effect refers to people's tendency to accept as valid statements that are really general personality descriptions, applicable to nearly everyone. Dickson and Kelly (1985) give some examples of Barnum statements: "You are generally cheerful and optimistic but get depressed at times." "You find that study is not always easy." Because of the Barnum Effect, we cannot assume that personality tests are valid simply because people accept the results. We need more scientific evidence of validity. SUGGESTED READING: Boyce, T. E., & Geller, E. S. (2002). Using the Barnum effect to teach psychological research methods. Teaching of Psychology, 29, 316–318. Brockway, J. H., & Bryant, F. B. (1998). You can’t judge a measure by its label: Teaching the process of instrumentation. Teaching of Psychology, 25, 121–123. [Describes an exercise in finding and comparing various instruments that purportedly measure the same theoretical construct, using library resources such as the measurement database, Health and Psychological Instrument (HaPI) File.] Dickson, D. H., & Kelley, I. W. (1985). The "Barnum Effect" in personality assessment: A review of the literature. Psychological Reports, 57, 367–382. [Reviews research on the Barnum Effect. People accept favorable statements more than unfavorable statements, though unfavorable statements are accepted if given by a high status person. Statements based on projective tests tend to be accepted more than those from other types of measures.] McKelvie, S. J. (1990). Student acceptance of a generalized personality description: Forer's graphologist revisited. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 5(4), 91–95. [Describes a class exercise in which students received a generalized personality profile based on handwriting samples, which resulted in increased rated belief in graphology compared to a control group. Discusses research on

acceptance of generalized feedback about personality based on various personality tests.] Psychobiography Instructors who assign psychobiographical analyses to their students may wish to lecture on psychobiography early in the course. Psychobiography has several advantages. It calls attention to the social and cultural context of individual personality. It requires precise definitions of theoretical constructs so that we know when they apply to an individual life. It has heuristic value, suggesting ways in which theorists have ignored important influences on real people's lives. However, psychobiography has disadvantages, too. It offers little control over many variables that influence an individual, so that it is impossible to know precisely what is causing a person to behave a certain way. It is difficult to know the extent to which our preexisting biases influence what we see. It is based on data that have already been selected and, likely, distorted by the biographer (or autobiographer). SUGGESTED READING: Enns, C. Z. (1994). On teaching about the cultural relativism of psychological constructs. Teaching of Psychology, 21, 205–211. [Discusses shortcomings in traditional personality theories that ignore multicultural issues. Describes how autobiography can help overcome this shortcoming.] Runyan, W. M. (1981). Why did Van Gogh cut off his ear? The problem of alternative explanations in psychobiography. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 40, 1070–1077. [Considers the difficulty that arises because many theoretical explanations can be offered for the same biographical event. Several particular explanations of Van Gogh's self-mutilation are described, which could be presented in lecture to introduce the problem of multiple interpretations.] Mueller, S. C. (1985). Persons in the personality theory course: Student papers based on biographies. Teaching of Psychology, 12, 74–78. [This is the “seed” that eventually developed into the Illustrative Biographies of this textbook; the text author “Cloninger” was “Mueller” in another phase of life.] Runyan, W. M. (1982). Life histories and psychobiography: Explorations in theory and method. New York: Oxford University Press.

PART I: The Psychoanalytic Perspective Chapter 2: Freud: Classical Psychoanalysis Defense Mechanisms Examples of defense mechanisms are given in the text. The instructor may wish to supplement these examples. To avoid misunderstanding, it is wise to emphasize the adaptive nature of defense mechanisms. They are ego functions, and they help adjust to reality. They are problematic only if they are over-used or distort reality excessively. The text refers to empirical measures of defense mechanisms, which could be further reported in a class that is concerned with research. SUGGESTED READING: Freud, A. (1966). The ego and the mechanisms of defense (rev. ed.). New York: International Universities Press. (Original work published 1936) Freud, S. (1962). The ego and the id. (J. Strachey, Ed.; J. Riviere, Trans.). New York: Norton. (Original work published 1923) Freud, S. (1972). Civilization and its discontents. (J. Strachey, Ed.; J. Riviere, Trans.). London: Hogarth Press. (Original work published 1929) Vaillant, G. E. (1992). The historical origins and future potential of Sigmund Freud’s concept of the mechanisms of defence. International Review of Psychoanalysis, 19, 35–50. Vaillant, G. E. (2000). Adaptive mental mechanisms and their role in a positive psychology. American Psychologist, 55, 89–98. Humor Jokes and cartoons can be used to illustrate various kinds of conflict. Students may enjoy bringing these in to class. Without advance preparation, class brainstorming can produce familiar jokes, slang, or curse words to be classified into categories as oral, anal, or phallic images. Similarly, slang obcenities or expressions of emotion can be categorized into these classical early childhood stages. Repressed Memory and Sexual Abuse This topic is one in which personality theory has brought therapy application and scientific research together in heated conflict. How are we to understand memories of childhood sexual abuse? Are they generally accurate, emerging during psychotherapy on the path from abuse to cure? Are they often false, created in therapy by the power of suggestion, in which the therapist is guided by an erroneous theory? What are, or should be, the boundaries between experiences in therapy and actions in the real world (such as taking action against those who perpetrated childhood sexual abuse)? Several issues might be expanded in lecture. What kind of empirical evidence is relevant to resolving the case; is clinical evidence within therapy sufficient, or should objective data be collected? Scientific evidence has cast considerable suspicion on memories of abuse that are recovered in therapy. Neuroscientists continue to explore the effects of trauma on memory, to see whether the extraordinary biochemical consequences of severe abuse might have memory consequences that are beyond the parameters of the stressful events that can be manipulated in experimental research. This topic offers an opportunity to discuss the importance of integrating empirical research with clinical application. 12

SUGGESTED READING: Alter-Reid, K., Gibbs, M. S., Lachenmeyer, J. R., Sigal, J., & Massoth, N. A. (1986). Sexual abuse of children: A review of the empirical findings. Clinical Psychology Review, 6, 249–266. Baker, R. A. (Ed.) (1998). Child sexual abuse and false memory syndrome. Amherst, NY: Prometheus. Froula, C. (1986). The daughter's seduction: Sexual violence and literary history. Signs, 11, 621–644. [Provides literary portrayals of father-daughter incest from a feminist perspective, including Maya Angelou's I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings, especially relevant because Angelou is an illustrative biography later in the text.] Loftus, E., & Ketcham, K. (1994). The myth of repressed memory. New York: St. Martin's Griffin. [Influential research documents scientific doubts about clinical claims of recovered memory for childhood sexual abuse.] Miller, L. A. (1997). Teaching about repressed memories of childhood sexual abuse and eyewitness testimony. Teaching of Psychology, 24, 250–255. [Describes a course devoted to repressed memories and eyewitness testimony.] Research on Psychoanalytic Theory Psychoanalytic theory is often criticized as difficult to verify by empirical research. Though this criticism has much validity, there have been efforts to apply empirical techniques, even true experimental techniques, to psychoanalytic hypotheses. Several of these are reported in the text. Silverman's studies, very briefly mentioned in the text (abbreviated from a longer discussion in the previous edition), are particularly instructive. Instructors may also wish to engage students in research on this topic. The following references offer ideas. SUGGESTED READING: Davidson, W. B. (1987). Undergraduate lab project in personality assessment: Measurement of anal character. Teaching of Psychology, 14, 101–103. [Describes a class exercise in which students developed an objective measure of anal character, based on the traits of frugality, orderliness, and obstinacy, and evaluated the reliability and validity of the measure. Appropriate for discussing the empirical validation of psychoanalytic concepts. This exercise could be replicated as a class exercise, either with the anal character or with other concepts (e.g., oral character).] Lilienfeld, S. O., Wood, J. M., & Garb, H. N. (2001, May). What’s wrong with this picture? Scientific American, 284(5), 80–87. [This article, clearly written and suitable as assigned reading for students, critically evaluates projective tests, including the Rorschach inkblot test, the TAT, and Draw-a-Person test. It is useful for discussing empirical validation of psychoanalytic approaches and for applying the discussion of reliability and validity in the previous chapter.] Psychobiography Freud’s contributions to psychobiography are as controversial as the subjectivity which distorted his clinical case reports. Nonetheless, psychoanalysis has been a favorite theory for psychobiographical analyses.

SUGGESTED READING: Elms, A. C. (1988). Freud as Leonardo: Why the first psychobiography went wrong. Journal of Personality, 56, 19–40. Leavy, S. A. (1985). Hitler's "table talk" as psychoanalytic source material. Contemporary Psychoanalysis, 21, 609–616. [Discusses primary material in analyzing Hitler's unconscious fantasies.] Freudian Principles in Everyday Life Students may be interested to discuss Freudian principles that can be observed in everyday life. Examples are given in the following reference. SUGGESTED READING: Miserandino, M. (1994). Freudian principles in everyday life. Teaching of Psychology, 21, 93–95. Historical and Current Status of Psychoanalytic Theory Though many have criticized Freud’s errors, his theory was part of an evolution in thought about personality, as Ellenberger describes, and modern advances such as those described by Westen strive to build on Freud’s strengths while using empirical studies to prune its errors. SUGGESTED READING: Ellenberger, H. F. (1970). The discovery of the unconscious: The history and evolution of dynamic psychiatry. New York: Basic Books. Westen, D. (1998). The scientific legacy of Sigmund Freud: Toward a psychodynamically informed psychological science. Psychological Bulletin, 124, 333–371.

Chapter 3: Jung: Analytical Psychology Psychological Type and Interpersonal Relationships If time permits, students enjoy testing their psychological type. The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator is the most frequently used research instrument for this purpose. A briefer test is published in Keirsey and Bates (1978), and several variations are available on the web (e.g., The Keirsey Temperament and Character Web Site at http://www.keirsey.com/). The Myers-Briggs test is widely used in businesses for personnel training, and this practical use is an interesting application for many students, who may find parallels to their own experience at work, in class group projects, or in social interactions. For consideration of intimate relationships, Jung’s essay on marriage is interesting. SUGGESTED READING: Jung, C. G. (1954). Marriage as a psychological relationship. In C. G. Jung, The development of personality (pp. 187–201) (W. McGuire, Ed,: R. F. C. Hull, Trans.). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. (Original work published 1931) Keirsey, D., & Bates, M. (1984). Please understand me (5th ed.). Del Mar, CA: Prometheus Nemesis. [Contains a brief and popular measure of psychological types and offers extensive discussion of the various psychological types. This book is quite readable for undergraduates, and rich enough in detail to provide extensive discussion material.] Levy, N., & Ridley, S. E. (1987). Stability of Jungian personality types within a college population over a decade. Psychological Reports, 60, 419–422. [Gives norms on the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator based on a cross-sectional study of 1,764 black female college students over a 10 to 12 year time span. Frequencies of each psychological type are reported. Similar distributions were found across time.] Belief in Paranormal Phenomena Many people believe in paranormal phenomena, though scientific psychology is skeptical. Jung's concept of synchronicity is likely to appeal to many students, who may offer personal testimonials of paranormal phenomena if the atmosphere is conducive to such disclosure. One approach to this issue is to suggest procedures which would permit a scientific test of paranormal phenomena, based upon the hypothesis-testing model of science. Another approach is to consider individual differences in belief in the paranormal. SUGGESTED READING: Cartwright, D. S. (1989). Concurrent validation of a measure of transcendental powers. Journal of Parapsychology, 53, 43–59. [Contains a measure of Transcendental Mental Powers, based on Carl Rogers's theory, and describes validity evidence. Although Cartwright derives this measure from Rogers's theory, the topic of paranormal beliefs is usually associated with Jung's theory, and so the topic is suggested here.] Lamal, P. A. (1989). Attending to parapsychology. Teaching of Psychology, 16, 28– 30. [Reviews studies suggesting that there is widespread belief in extrasensory perception (ESP) among students and in the population at large, and contrasts this attitude with the omission of parapsychology in most introductory 15

psychology textbooks. A class exercise is described that empirically tests some parapsychological ideas. The article summarizes some literature on individual differences in the belief in the paranormal.] Roig, M., Icochea, H., & Cuzzucoli, A. (1991). Coverage of parapsychology in introductory psychology textbooks. Teaching of Psychology, 18, 157–160. [Presents data on coverage of parapsychology in 64 introductory psychology textbooks and argues that there is bias against parapsychology. This article may be of interest to instructors who wish to document the attitude of mainstream psychology regarding parapsychology, to contrast this attitude with Jung's acceptance of psychic phenomena.] Tobacyk, J. J., & Wilkinson, L. V. (1990). Magical thinking and paranormal beliefs. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 5, 255–264. [Reports a study of 282 college students, showing positive correlations among various measures of paranormal beliefs. Two scales are included: a 25-item Paranormal Belief Scale and a 30-item Magical Ideation Scale.] Symbols of the Collective Unconscious It is not necessary to consider dreams in order to discuss symbolism. Symbols abound in fairy tales, myths, literature, and religion. One well-known symbol is water, interpreted as a symbol of the unconscious. Dreaming of drowning, for example, can be interpreted as being overcome by the unconscious. Great things can come from the unconscious; for example the frog who later became a prince came first from a well, symbolizing the unconscious, in the Grimm brothers' fairy tale, "The Frog Prince." Baptism is a religious ritual in which the great forces of the unconscious, spiritually understood, touch and transform an individual. Crossing water symbolizes change; Hansel and Gretel, for example, crossed water returning home from their encounter with the wicked witch. SUGGESTED READING: Chetwynd, T. (1982). A dictionary of symbols. London: Paladin. Bettelheim, B. (1976). The uses of enchantment: The meaning and importance of fairy tales. New York: Knopf. Campbell, J. (1968). The hero with a thousand faces (2nd ed). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Mayes, C. (1999). Reflecting on the archetypes of teaching. Teaching Education, 10(2), 3-16. [Projection of the archetype may be a difficult concept for students to understand. This article discusses various kinds of projection that occur in the classroom, onto the teacher, and this may make the concept easier to understand.] Rosen, D., & Luebbert, M. (Eds.). (1999). The evolution of the psyche. Westport, CT: Praeger. Stannard, K. (1988). Archetypal images in contemporary television: The mythology of Dr. Who. Humanistic Psychologist, 16, 361–367. Scientists' Skepticism About Jung's Theory Jung's theory arouses objections from the perspective of science. A strongly worded criticism of Jung's theory as “pseudoscience” is contained in the following reference, which could form the basis for lecture and discussion. This would provide a good opportunity to review the scientific method and criteria of a sound theory (Chapter 1).

SUGGESTED READING: McGowan, D. (1994). What is wrong with Jung. Buffalo, NY: Prometheus Books.

PART II: The Psychoanalytic-Social Perspective Chapter 4: Adler: Individual Psychology Many excellent resources are available on the web at the Alfred Adler Institutes of San Francisco and Northwestern Washington (http://www.adlerian.us). Birth Order The concept of birth order as a determinant of personality is one that students generally find quite interesting. A quick and easy introduction to the concept of birth order and achievement would be to ask how many of them have gone farther or achieved higher in school than their siblings, and how many are first-borns, second borns, and so forth. Undoubtedly, their experiences will be diverse, emphasizing Adler's admonition that individual circumstances must be considered. SUGGESTED READING: Parrott, L. (1992). Earliest recollections and birth order: Two Adlerian exercises. Teaching of Psychology, 19, 40–42. [Describes two class exercises to illustrate the Adlerian concepts of early recollections and birth order. The article gives detailed guidelines for the instructor, and it describes results of an evaluation of the exercises by students.] Sulloway, F. J. (1996). Born to rebel: Birth order, family dynamics, and creative lives. New York: Vintage Books. [Discusses birth order of famous people, offering an opportunity to illustrate family constellation ideas.] Early Memories Adler's suggestion that early memories provide keys to understanding an individual's personality is an idea that readily triggers class discussion. What do students remember? How early are these memories? What do they seem to mean? SUGGESTED READING: Bruhn, A. R. (1992a). The Early Memories Procedure: A projective test of autobiographical memory, Part 1. Journal of Personality Assessment, 58, 1–15. Bruhn, A. R. (1992b). The Early Memories Procedure: A projective test of autobiographical memory, Part 2. Journal of Personality Assessment, 58, 326– 346. Watkins, C. E. (1983). An Adlerian exercise for use in the personal growth class: Early recollections. Individual Psychology, 39, 195–199. [Describes a class exercise on early recollections.] Social Interest versus Individualism Adler suggested that mental health requires "social interest." His community orientation runs counter to the value of individualism, which is prevalent in our culture. This might be a good time to consider how values influence the judgment of mental health.

Theories of Personality Understanding Persons, 6E Susan C Cloninger Instructor Manuals_Combine