Speech Science An Integrated Approach to Theory and Clinical Practice, 2E Carole T. Ferrand Test Ban

Instructor’s Manual and Test Bank for

Ferrand

Speech Science An Integrated Approach to Theory and Clinical Practice Second Edition

prepared by

Edward C. Ferrand

TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE

Preface

Chapter 2………………………………………………...…… 3 The Nature of Sound Chapter 3………………………………………………...…… 15 Clinical Application: Frequency and Intensity Variables Chapter 4………………………………………………...…… 23 The Respiratory System Chapter 5…………………………………………………...… 33 Clinical Application: Respiratory Breakdowns that Affect Speech Production Chapter 6………………………………………………...…… 41 The Phonatory System Chapter 7………………………………………………...…… 53 Clinical Application: Measures of Jitter, Shimmer and Quality Chapter 8……………………………………………...……… 59 The Articulatory System Chapter 9………………………………………………...…… 71 Clinical Application: Breakdowns in Production of Vowels and Consonants Chapter 10…………………………………………………… 79 The Auditory System Chapter 11……………………………………………….…… 91 Clinical Application: Perceptual Problems in Hearing Impairment, Language and Reading Disability, and Articulation Deficits Chapter 12…………………………………………………… 99 The Nervous System Chapter 13………………………………………………….… 119 Clinical Application: Brain Function Measures Chapter 14……………………………………………………. 127 Models and Theories of Speech Production and Perception

Chapter 2: The Nature of Sound Chapter Summary Sound consists of increases and decreases in air pressure, caused by the movement of a source such as a tuning fork. Sound waves are characterized by different dimensions of frequency, period, wavelength and intensity. Sound waves can consist of one frequency (pure tone), or many frequencies (complex waves). Sound waves can be visually depicted on waveforms and spectra, while amplitude and intensity of sounds can be measured conveniently on the dB scale.

Resonance involves forced vibration in which an object or container of air is set into vibration by the action of another vibration. Acoustic resonators act as filters, and may be sharply or broadly tuned. Acoustic resonators have different center frequencies, and different upper and lower cutoff frequencies.

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Speech Science: An Integrated Approach to Theory and Clinical Practice

Key Concepts Absorption Amplitude Aperiodic Applied frequency Attenuation rate Bandwidth Band-pass filter Boyle’s law Broadly tuned cgs system Complex sound Compression Cutoff frequency Damping Decibel

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Chapter 2

The Nature of Sound

Driving pressure Dynes Elasticity Envelope of wave Ergs Fourier analysis Free vibration Forced vibration Frequency Fundamental frequency Harmonics High pass filter Human auditory area Incident wave Intensity Inertia Interference 5

Speech Science: An Integrated Approach to Theory and Clinical Practice

Joules Laminar flow Linear scale Logarithmic scale Low-pass filter Microbar MKS system Pascal Passband Period Pressure Pure tone Rarefaction Ratio scale Reflection Rejection rate Resonance curve 6

Chapter 2

The Nature of Sound

Resonant frequency Resonator Roll-off rate Simple harmonic motion Sinusoid Slope Spectrum Transfer function Turbulent flow Volume velocity Watts Waveform Wave front Wavelength Wave motion

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Speech Science: An Integrated Approach to Theory and Clinical Practice

Lecture and discussion outline I. Air pressure A. Measurement of air pressure B. Movement of air C. Air pressure, volume, and density D. Sound: Changes in air pressure E. Characteristics of sound waves F. Waveforms and spectra

II. Attributes of sounds A. Frequency and pitch B. Amplitude and intensity C. The dB scale

III. Resonance A. Free and forced vibration B. Types of resonators C. Acoustic resonators as filters

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Chapter 2

The Nature of Sound

Questions 2.1

Volume velocity refers to (a) Laminar airflow (b) Driving pressure of a closed system (c) The rate of flow of a gas (d) Turbulent airflow

2.2 Boyle’s Law states that under conditions of a constant temperature, the pressure of a gas (a) increases as the volume of the space it occupies increases (b) remains constant despite changes in the volume of the space it occupies (c) decreases as the space it occupies increases (d) all of the above (e) none of the above 2.3 The damping of a vibration (a) refers to a decrease in the amplitude of vibration (b) occurs as molecules return to a position of rest (c) occurs naturally due to friction between vibrating molecules (d) all of the above (e) none of the above 2.4 Inertia (a) is a property that causes objects at rest to tend to remain at rest (b) must be overcome in order to set an object in motion (c) is a property that causes an object in motion to tend to stay in motion unless acted upon by an outside force (d) all of the above (e) none of the above 2.5 The frequency of a sound (a) is proportional to the amplitude of the sound (b) refers to the number of vibrations during a given period of time (c) is the same as the period of the sound (d) is measured in decibels (e) none of the above

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Speech Science: An Integrated Approach to Theory and Clinical Practice

2.6 Destructive Interference (a) occurs when the combination of sound waves result in an increase in amplitude (b) occurs when the combination of sound waves results in a decrease in frequency (c) occurs when the combination of sound waves results in a increase in frequency (d) occurs when the combination of sound waves results in a decrease in amplitude (e) none of the above 2.7 The period of a vibration is (a) the time it takes for vibrating molecules to arrive at a position of rest (b) the number of vibrations during a given period of time (c) the time it takes for one complete cycle of vibration (d) measured in decibels (e) none of the above 2.8 Harmonic frequencies (a) are those frequencies present in an aperiodic complex sound (b) are those frequencies present in pure tones (c) are whole number multiples of a fundamental frequency (d) are odd number multiples of a fundamental frequency (e) none of the above 2.9 Which statement is not true of the decibel scale (a) it is a logarithmic scale (b) it is a linear scale (c) it is designed so that a 1dB change represents the smallest increment ordinarily perceptible (d) a doubling of intensity of a sound results in a 3dB increase (e) a sound can be less than 0 dB 2.10 Which is NOT true of acoustic resonators (a) may filter out some sound frequencies (b) have a natural resonant frequency that is determined by their physical characteristics (c) are air filled containers (d) are more broadly tuned if they have an irregular shape (e) are more broadly tuned if they are regularly shaped

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Chapter 2

The Nature of Sound

2.11 The bandwidth of an acoustic resonator is determined by (a) the applied frequency (b) the resonant frequency (c) the time required for a cycle of vibration (d) both the resonant and applied frequencies (e) none of the above 2.12 Which statement best describes a resonance curve? (a) It is a point at which a resonant system becomes unresponsive. (b) It is a broadly tuned resonator (c) It is a graph which describes the way a resonator vibrates in response to an applied frequency (d) all of the above (e) none of the above 2.13 A low pass filter (a) passes energy above a designated lower cutoff frequency (b) passes energy below a designated upper cutoff frequency (c) passes energy in a particular range of frequencies (d) all of the above (e) none of the above 2.14

True or False Rarefaction corresponds to a decrease in the density of air molecules and an increase of air pressure.

2.15

True or False A force of one dyne applied over a surface of one square centimeter is equal to one microbar of pressure.

2.16

True or False Atmospheric pressure at sea level is approximately 14.7 pounds per square inch.

2.17

True or False Atmospheric pressure at sea level is approximately 1,000,000 microbar.

2.18

True or False The relationship between air pressure and air volume is inverse.

2.19

True or False The relationship between air density and pressure is inverse.

2.20

True or False Sound is perceived when air molecules travel from the source of the sound to the tympanic membrane of the listener.

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Speech Science: An Integrated Approach to Theory and Clinical Practice

2.21

True or False The outermost area of air compression caused by a sound event is called the wave front.

2.22

True or False A sound frequency of 1000 hertz means that the rate of vibration is 10 cycles per second.

2.23

True or False The period of a sound with a frequency of 10,000 hertz is .0001 seconds.

2.24

True or False If the frequency of a vibration is 10 cycles per second, the period of that vibration is half a second.

2.25

True or False A complex aperiodic sound would most likely be perceived as a musical note.

2.26

Increasing the tension on a vibrating will cause an ____________ in the frequency of vibration and a corresponding ____________ in the pitch of the perceived sound.

2.27

The range of frequencies that a resonator will transmit is called _____________________.

2.28

The point at which the intensity of transmission of a sound of a resonant system is reduced by half is called the _______________________________.

2.29

Pitch is measured in units called ______________________________.

2.30

Explain how the sound that a coin dropped on desk makes, is transmitted and perceived by a human listener. Include a description of the transmission of the sound through air and the pathway and events involved in conversion of the sound to information that is available to the brain of the listener.

2.31

With regard to sound waves, define and describe the relationship between the following: frequency, amplitude, period. Include information about the commonly used units of measure for all three.

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Chapter 2

The Nature of Sound

2.32

Discuss the speed of sound in air and other media. Include at least one specific value for the speed of sound in a particular medium under particular circumstances. Include a discussion of the factors that affect the speed of sound.

2.33

With regard to sound, explain constructive and destructive interference. You may use diagrams to help clarify your explanation.

2.34

With regard to sound, explain pure tones and complex waves. You may use diagrams to help clarify your explanation.

2.35

Waveforms and spectra both display amplitude on a vertical axis. However, the information that is presented on the horizontal axis of a waveform diagram is totally different from the information presented on the horizontal axis of a spectrum diagram. Explain the difference between the two. Use diagrams to help clarify your answer.

2.36

Explain resonant frequency. Include factors that affect the resonant frequency of an object and use examples to help clarify your answer.

2.37

With regard to sound, explain the concept of bandwidth. Include factors which affect the sound produced by an acoustic resonator and explain why this is important in the production of speech.

2.38

Explain the decibel scale. Include the relationship between the increments of the scale and human hearing perception. Give specific examples of the approximate decibel levels associated with speech and with several environmental sounds.

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Chapter 3: Clinical Application of Frequency and Intensity Variables Chapter summary Frequency measures typically used in clinical settings include average FO, speaking FO, FO range, and maximum phonational frequency range. Typically used amplitude measures include average amplitude, amplitude variability, and dynamic range. The voice range profile plots a person’s maximum phonational frequency range against their dynamic range at different frequencies, and acts as a “snapshot” of phonatory behavior.

Frequency and amplitude variables related to voice are used in clinical situations to make diagnostic decisions, supplement perceptual judgments of voice, and assess outcomes of treatment. Neurological diseases are often characterized by problems in the control of vocal frequency and amplitude.

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Speech Science: An Integrated Approach to Theory and Clinical Practice

Key concepts

Amplitude variability

Average amplitude

Average fundamental frequency

Dynamic range

Frequency variability

Maximum phonational frequency range

Pitch sigma

Standard deviation of fundamental frequency

Voice range profile

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Chapter 3

Clinical Application of Frequency and Intensity Variables

Lecture and discussion outline I. Vocal frequency and amplitude A. Frequency variables B. Amplitude and intensity variables

II.

Breakdowns in control of vocal frequency and amplitude A. Voice disorders B. Neurological disorders

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Speech Science: An Integrated Approach to Theory and Clinical Practice

Questions 3.1 Established norms of acoustic variables (a) Have been established through objective measurements of many individuals (b) Do not differentiate between adult speakers at various stages of life (c) Serve as benchmarks against which objective measures can be compared (d) A and c are valid (e) B and c are valid 3.2 Average fundamental frequency refers to (a) The range of frequencies an individual is able to generate (b) The average frequency of a consonant sound (c) The average frequency of ambient background noise (d) All of the above (e) None of the above 3.3

Average fundamental frequency (a) Often increases for males and decreases for females during later years (b) Generally remains fairly constant after the age of twelve (c) Generally decreases gradually after the age of twelve (d) all of the above (e) none of the above

3.4

Maximum phonational frequency range (a) often increases in later years (b) cannot generally be increased through therapy or voice training (c) may decrease in a person in poor health or physical condition (d) all of the above (e) none of the above

3.5

The average amplitude level of an adult speaker (a) is generally constant despite situational changes (b) generally differs from situation to situation (c) generally decreases in emotionally charged speech (d) all of the above (e) none of the above

3.6

Speech that has little amplitude variability (a) may tend to be perceived as monotonous (b) is appropriate for most conversations (c) is indicative of a trained speaking voice (d) is often the goal of speech therapy (e) none of the above 18

Chapter 3

3.7

Clinical Application of Frequency and Intensity Variables

A voice range profile (a) may be displayed as a phonetogram (b) is also referred to as a FO/SPL profile (c) may be useful in planning treatment (d) all of the above (e) none of the above

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Speech Science: An Integrated Approach to Theory and Clinical Practice

3.8

True or False The FO of an infant is very high because its vocal folds are short and thin.

3.9

True or False The relationship between FO frequency and size (mass) of a person’s vocal folds could be said to be inverse.

3.10

True or False Both males and females undergo the same amount of enlargement of the vocal folds at puberty.

3.11

True or False Hormonal changes in males and females late in life generally result in an increase in F0.

3.12

True or False For adult patients, clinical strategies with regard to pitch can be developed based on the F0 without regard to age.

3.13

True or False Prosody is another name for speech inflection.

3.14

True or False Pitch sigma refers to frequency variability measured in Hz.

3.15

True or False The difference between the highest and lowest F0 in a speech sample is the range.

3.16

True or False The greatest range of frequencies occurs in children between three and five years old.

3.17

True or False F0 for normal conversational speech of children between four and eight years old could be expected to be in the range of 150 – 200 Hz.

3.18

True or False Vowel production ordinarily displays little variation in F0.

3.19

True or False Measures of MPFR include normal speech and exclude falsetto registers

3.20

True or False A person’s health and physical condition often have more impact on MPFR than do age and gender.

3.21

True or False The normal amplitude level for adult conversational speech is about 40 dB.

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Chapter 3

Clinical Application of Frequency and Intensity Variables

3.22

Explain the value of using objective norms to compare different groups of people and individuals.

3.23

Compare the measures of average FO and FO variability and explain how they might be used in a clinical situation.

3.24

Describe the anatomical reasons why average FO is different for children, adult women, and adult men.

3.25

Explain why FO variability can be an important indicator of normal and disordered speech.

3.26

Define and describe the following: maximum phonational frequency range, dynamic range, voice range profile.

3.27

Identify and describe two ways in which objective measures can help a clinician make decisions about voice characteristics that may be difficult to verify perceptually.

3.28

Why has the voice range profile been called a “snapshot of phonatory behavior”?

3.29

Identify and explain the connection between pitch sigma, FOSD, and FO range.

3.30 Discuss the reasons why a reduced ability to vary loudness can be very upsetting to a person.

3.31 Identify three ways in which objective measures of frequency and intensity can assist clinicians in evaluating and treating patients with neurological disorders.

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Chapter 4: The Respiratory System Chapter Summary The respiratory system consists of the pulmonary system (lungs and airways), and the chest wall system (ribcage, abdomen and diaphragm).

Inhalation and exhalation occur when alveolar pressure in the lungs decreases and increases, forcing air into and out of the system. Four important changes occur when breathing for speech rather than for life, including location of air intake, ratio of inhalation and exhalation time, volume of air per cycle, and muscle activity for exhalation.

Breathing patterns for speech are influenced by linguistic considerations, including speaking task complexity, clause boundaries, and loudness of the intended utterance.

Speech breathing changes over the lifespan, due to changes in the structure and function of the respiratory system.

Lung volumes and capacities refer to different amounts of air in the lungs at a given time; these amounts change over the lifespan.

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Speech Science: An Integrated Approach to Theory and Clinical Practice

Key concepts Accessory muscles of respiration

Alveolar pressure

Alveoli

Bronchi

Bronchial tree

Bronchioles

Chest-wall system

Dead air

Diaphragm

Expiratory reserve volume

Functional residual capacity

Inspiratory reserve volume

Intercostals muscles 24

Chapter 4

The Respiratory System

Linearized magnetometers

Parietal pleura

Plethysmograph

Pleural fluid

Pleural linkage

Pneumotachograph

Prephonatory chest wall movements

Pulmonary system

Relaxation pressures

Residual volume

Respiratory kinematic analysis

Resting expiratory level

Spirometer 25

Speech Science: An Integrated Approach to Theory and Clinical Practice

Thoracic cavity

Tidal volume

Total lung capacity

Visceral pleura

Vital capacity

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Chapter 4

The Respiratory System

Lecture and discussion outline I. The structure and mechanics of the respiratory system A. Structure of the lower respiratory system B. Muscles of respiration C. Pleural linkage D. Moving air into and out of the lungs

II. Lung volumes and capacities A. Lung volumes B. Lung capacities

III. Differences between life and speech breathing A. Location of air intake B. Ratio of time for inhalation and exhalation C. Volume of air inhaled per cycle D. Muscle activity for exhalation

IV. Air pressures and flows A. Air pressures B. Air flows C. Lung volume and chest wall shape

V. Breathing patterns for speech A. Linguistic consideration B. Changes over life span

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Speech Science: An Integrated Approach to Theory and Clinical Practice

Questions 4.1

The pulmonary system refers to (a) the ribcage, abdomen, lungs and diaphragm (b) the lower respiratory system (c) the lungs and airways (d) all of the above (e) none of the above

4.2

The trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles make up the (a) upper respiratory system (b) lower respiratory system (c) bronchial tree (d) pulmonary system (e) none of the above

4.3

Which statement is not true of the diaphragm muscle (a) it makes up the floor of the abdominal cavity (b) it enlarges the thoracic cavity when it contracts (c) it attaches along the rib cage, sternum, and vertebral column (d) it is the main muscle of respiration (e) none of the above

4.4

Tracheal air pressure (a) is difficult to measure directly. (b) is unimportant in the production of speech. (c) can be inferred from measurements of oral pressure. (d) all of the above. (e) a and c.

4.5

During inhalation a) Alveolar pressure is positive. b) Alveolar pressure is negative. c) The thorax contracts. d) The diaphragm relaxes. e) None of the above.

4.6

Which statement best describes resting expiratory level (a) it is the volume of air expelled during exhalation (b) it is the volume of air that can be expelled after maximum inhalation (c) it is a state of equilibrium; air neither enters nor exits the system (d) all of the above (e) none of the above 28

Chapter 4

The Respiratory System

4.7

The volume of air that can be inhaled in addition to tidal volume is called (a) expiratory reserve volume (b) residual volume (c) inspiratory reserve volume (d) total lung capacity (e) none of the above

4.8

The percentage of vital capacity that adults use for quiet life breathing is about (a) 5% (b) 10% (c) 15% (d) 20% (e) 25%

4.9

Normal adult conversational speech uses about what percent of vital capacity (a) 10 – 15 % (b) 15 – 20% (c) 20 – 25% (d) 25 – 30% (e) 30 – 35%

4.10

Exhalation is caused by (a) gravity (b) muscle relaxation (c) torque of the ribs (d) all of the above (e) none of the above

4.11

The level of positive pressure required for normal conversational speech is about (a) 5 – 10 cm H2O (b) 10 – 15 cm H2O (c) 15 – 20 cm H2O (d) 20 – 25 cm H2O (e) 25 – 30 cm H2O

4.12 A pneumotachograph is a device that measures (a) air volume (b) air flow (c) air pressures (d) all of the above (e) none of the above

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Speech Science: An Integrated Approach to Theory and Clinical Practice

4.13 Respiratory kinematic analysis is used to (a) estimate airflows during connected speech (b) estimate airflows during static breathing (c) estimate lung volumes from ribcage and abdominal movement (d) all of the above (e) none of the above 4.14 Which of the following factors does not influence speech breathing patterns (a) lung volume at which the utterance is initiated (b) specific language of the speaker (c) type of phoneme being produced (d) all of the above (e) none of the above 4.15 Which of the following changes has been shown to occur in speech breathing patterns as an individual becomes elderly (a) deeper inhalation to higher lung volumes (b) more frequent inhalation (c) increased waste of air at the beginning of utterances (d) all of the above (e) none of the above

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Chapter 4

The Respiratory System

4.16

True or False As the bronchial tree branches, the total surface area available for exchange of gases is greatly increased.

4.17

True or False Resting tidal breathing employs all the muscles of the thoracic cavity and the neck.

4.18

True or False Pleural pressure is negative during inhalation and positive during exhalation.

4.19

True or False Inhalation occurs when lung volume increases and alveolar pressure becomes negative.

4.20

True or False Breathing rate is affected by level of exertion, gender, and age.

4.21

True or False Gravity and rib torque help to generate positive air pressures required for exhalation.

4.22

The volume of air that can be inhaled beyond tidal volume is called

_____________________________________.

4.23 The volume of air remaining in the lungs after normal quiet exhalation is called _____________________________________.

4.24

An instrument that measures static airflows is called

__________________________________________________.

4.25

Two different instruments that can be used to measure movements of the rib

cage and abdomen are a _________________________ and a _______________________________.

4.26 Describe the following structures: trachea, bronchioles, alveoli.

4.27 Compare the function of the diaphragm muscle and the internal and external intercostal muscles in respiration.

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Speech Science: An Integrated Approach to Theory and Clinical Practice

4.28 Explain the role of pleural linkage in the expansion and contraction of the lungs during respiration.

4.29 Describe the way in which alveolar pressure is increased and decreased during respiration, and the results of these changing pressures.

4.30 Define and describe the following: resting expiratory level, tidal volume, residual volume.

4.31 Describe the changes in total lung capacity from infancy to old age.

4.32 Identify and describe the four changes that take place when switching from life to speech breathing.

4.33 Explain the relationships between air pressures, airflows, volume, and chest wall shape in respiration.

4.34 Compare the type of information obtained with a manometer and with respiratory kinematic analysis, and explain how each can be useful.

4.35 Identify and discuss three linguistic factors that influence patterns of breathing for speech.

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Chapter 5: Respiratory Breakdowns that Affect Speech Production Chapter summary Two general principles apply in the clinical management of respiratory function: first, the patient’s static and dynamic respiratory ability must be measured; second, the treatment must be tailored to the patient’s specific breathing difficulty.

Patients with Parkinson’s disease may have a different chest wall shape than normal because of the rigidity of the chest wall muscles. Patients with cervical spinal cord injury may not be able to breathe on their own and need mechanical ventilation; if the person can breathe, they may have difficulty generating adequate pressures and flows for speech. Many children and adults with cerebral palsy face problems with respiratory function that may affect pressure, flow, volume and chest wall shape. Several problems exist in speaking on a mechanical ventilator, including the abnormally high tracheal pressures generated, and the rapidly changing pressures. Subtle problems in respiratory function may occur in some voice disorders and in hearing impairment.

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Speech Science: An Integrated Approach to Theory and Clinical Practice

Key concepts Abdominal trussing

Cannula

Cerebellar disease

Cerebral palsy

Cervical spinal cord injury

Clavicular breathing

Mechanical ventilation

Parkinson’s disease

Speaking valve

Stoma

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Chapter 5

Respiratory Breakdowns that Affect Speech Production

Lecture and discussion outline I General principles of treatment

II Conditions that affect speech breathing A. Parkinson’s disease B. Cerebellar disease C. Cervical spinal cord injury D. Cerebral palsy E. Mechanical ventilation F. Voice disorders G. Hearing impairment

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Speech Science: An Integrated Approach to Theory and Clinical Practice

Questions 5.1

Breathing for speech may be compromised by (a) Impaired function of the respiratory muscles (b) poor posture (c) peripheral nerve damage (d) central nervous system damage (e) all of the above

5.2

Speech breathing is most likely to be compromised in Parkinson’s disease because of (a) muscle rigidity (b) muscle atrophy (c) muscle flaccidity (d) poor muscle coordination (e) all of the above

5.3

Speech in which syllables are produced with excessive yet equal stress is called (a) robotic speech (b) scanning speech (c) halting speech (d) disjointed speech (e) none of the above

5.4

Which of the following can be a factor in a variety of speech disorders (a) larger rib cage volumes than abdominal volumes during speech (b) equal rib cage and abdominal volumes (c) smaller rib cage volumes than abdominal volumes during speech (d) all of the above (e) none of the above

5.5

Which of the following is most likely to be evident in the speech of a person who has difficulty generating adequate air pressures and air flows. (a) reduced loudness (b) poor consonant production (c) shortened breath groups (d) poor vowel production (e) none of the above

5.6

Which of the following is likely to be evident in a child with cerebral palsy? (a) smaller than normal vital capacity (b) difficulty accessing expiratory reserve volume (c) difficulty accessing inspiratory reserve volume (d) all of the above 36

Chapter 5

Respiratory Breakdowns that Affect Speech Production

(e) none of the above

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Speech Science: An Integrated Approach to Theory and Clinical Practice

5.7

A person breathing with a mechanical ventilator is likely to have problems speaking due to (a) high and rapidly changing tracheal pressures (b) low and slowly changing tracheal pressures (c) variability of tracheal pressures (d) inability to produce laryngeal air pressures (e) none of the above

5.8

Voice problems may sometimes be mitigated through (a) reduction in tensions that are generalized throughout the chest , pharynx, and larynx (b) an increase in tension in abdominal muscles (c) shortening breath groups (d) all of the above (e) none of the above

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Chapter 5

5.9

Respiratory Breakdowns that Affect Speech Production

True or False A subglottal pressure of 2 cm H20 for 2 seconds is probably adequate to support speech.

5.10 True or False During speech breathing, a person with Parkinson’s disease is likely to have less problems with rib cage movement than with abdominal movement.

5.11 True or False By improving the strength of the chest wall muscles, a child with cerebral palsy may be able to generate greater tracheal pressures and louder speech.

5.12 True or False The volume of air required for speech is about 50% more than that required for life breathing.

5.13 True or False Patients with excessive tension in respiratory muscles and patients with too little muscle tone in respiratory muscles require the same type of therapy.

5.14 True or False Parkinson’s disease is characterized by flaccidity of respiratory muscles.

5.15 True or False Weak speech is typical of those afflicted with Parkinson’s disease.

5.16 True or False PD patients may have a reduced VC due to limited rib cage movement.

5.17 True or False PD patients generally have lower Poral than normal speakers.

5.18 True or False Of all the subsystems involved in speech, the breathing subsystem is generally the last to be affected by PD. 5.19 True or False Jerky, movements that lack coordination are typical of patients afflicted with a cerebellar injury.

5.20 True or False Research has shown that some patients with cerebellar disease have normal total lung capacities but reduced vital capacities.

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Speech Science: An Integrated Approach to Theory and Clinical Practice

5.21 Identify and explain the two general principles that apply to the clinical management of speech breathing problems.

5.22 Describe the chest wall posture for speech in normal speakers and contrast it with that of patients with Parkinson’s disease.

5.23 Explain why reduced volume is a characteristic of Parkinson’s disease.

5.24 Explain how an underlying respiratory disorder may contribute to the scanning speech that is characteristic of cerebellar disease.

5.25 Explain why respiratory difficulties could result in imprecise consonant production.

5.26 Identify and describe three aspects of respiratory function that might be affected in children and adults with cerebral palsy.

5.27 Explain why improving posture may be an effective way of improving speech breathing in individuals with neurological disorders.

5.28 Identify and describe three differences in respiratory function between normal speakers and those who are mechanically ventilated.

5.29 Discuss the link between hyperfunctional voice production and respiratory function.

5.30 Describe three of the respiratory differences that have been reported between hearing impaired and normally hearing speakers.

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Chapter 6: The Phonatory System Chapter summary The larynx is composed of one bone, nine cartilages, two pairs of joints, three sets of folds, extrinsic and intrinsic muscles, connected by membranes and ligaments. The myoelastic aerodynamic theory of phonation describes one cycle of vocal fold vibration in terms of muscular forces, elastic recoil, and aerodynamic forces.

The sound generated by the larynx is complex and nearly periodic, and is characterized by a certain amount of jitter and shimmer. The vocal folds vibrate differently in different frequency ranges, giving rise to modal, pulse and falsetto frequency ranges.

Voice quality is a multidimensional entity that is influenced by degree of adduction of the vocal folds during vibration, by FO and intensity, as well as by the vocal tract structures above the larynx. Breathiness and hoarseness can be characterized acoustically as additive noise in different areas of the voice spectrum. Some ways of measuring vocal quality acoustically include harmonics-to-noise ratio and electroglottography.

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Speech Science: An Integrated Approach to Theory and Clinical Practice

Key concepts Additive noise Amplitude perturbation Anterior commissure Aryepiglottic folds Arytenoid cartilages Biphasic closure Breathiness Closed quotient Closed-to-open ratio Contact index Cover body model Cricoarytenoid joints Cricoid cartilage Cricothyroid muscle Cricothyroid joints Dysphonia 42

Chapter 6

The Phonatory System

Electroglottography Epiglottis Falsetto False vocal folds Frequency perturbation Glottal spectrum Glottis Harmonic spacing Harmonics-to-noise ratio Hoarseness Hyoid bone Hyperadduction Hypoadduction Infrahyoid muscles Interarytenoid muscle Jitter Lamina propria 43

Speech Science: An Integrated Approach to Theory and Clinical Practice

Lateral cricoarytenoid muscle Lx wave Medial compression Mucosal wave Modal register Muscular processes Myoelastic aerodynamic theory Phonation threshold pressure Posterior cricoarytenoid muscle Pulse register Roughness Shimmer Spectral noise Suprahyoid muscles Thyroarytenoid muscle Thyroid cartilage

44

Chapter 6

The Phonatory System

Transglottal pressure Vocal folds Vocal register Vocal processes Voice quality

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Speech Science: An Integrated Approach to Theory and Clinical Practice

Lecture and discussion outline

I The vocal mechanism A. Laryngeal skeleton B. Valves within the larynx C. Muscles of the larynx D. Myoelastic aerodynamic theory E. The complex sound wave of the human voice

II Vocal registers and vocal quality A. Vocal registers B. Physiologic and acoustic bases of pulse and falsetto C. Voice quality D. Acoustic characteristics of breathy and hoarse voice E. Ways of measuring register and quality

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Chapter 6

The Phonatory System

Questions 6.1

The hyoid bone (a) is connected by ligaments to the thyroid cartilage (b) is U shaped (c) supports the larynx (d) is the only bone of the laryngeal skeleton (e) all of the above

6.2

The arytenoid cartilages (a) are located inferior to the cricoid cartilage (b) are attached to the thyroid cartilage (c) are connected to the vocal folds (d) all of the above (e) none of the above

6.3

The largest part of the laryngeal skeleton (a) cricoid cartilage (b) arytenoid cartilages (c) thyroid cartilage (d) hyoid bone (e) none of the above

6.4

The “Adams apple” is formed by the (a) cricoid cartilage (b) arytenoid cartilages (c) thyroid cartilage (d) hyoid bone (e) none of the above

6.5

The joints involved in the regulation of pitch (a) cricothyroid joints (b) cricoarytenoid joints (c) cricohyoid joints (d) all of the above (e) none of the above

6.6

Muscle that opens the vocal folds (a) lateral cricoarytenoid (b) posterior cricoarytenoid (c) transverse interarytenoid (d) cricothyroid (e) all of the above 47

Speech Science: An Integrated Approach to Theory and Clinical Practice

6.7

The mucosal wave (a) occurs in a top to bottom opening and closing of the vocal folds (b) occurs in a bottom to top opening and closing of the vocal folds (c) is the wave of lubricant generated by mucous membranes (d) all of the above (e) none of the above

6.8

Phonation threshold pressure (a) ranges from about 3 cm H2O at low frequencies to about 6 cm H2O at higher frequencies (b) is lower for softer speech and higher for louder speech (c) is the minimal amount of subglottal pressure needed to set the vocal folds in motion (d) all of the above (e) none of the above

6.9

Voice quality can be described as the (a) relationship between the fundamental frequency and pitch of the voice (b) relationship between the fundamental frequency, pitch and amplitude of the voice (c) relationship between the fundamental and harmonic frequencies and amplitudes of the voice (d) all of the above (e) none of the above

6.10 Frequency perturbation results from (a) differences in the period of each cycle of vocal fold vibration (b) differences in the amplitude of each cycle of vocal fold vibration (c) differences in the tension of the two vocal folds (d) all of the above (e) none of the above 6.11 A key characteristic of vocal registers is that (a) each is associated with a different range of intensities (b) each is produced by a different manner of vocal fold vibration (c) each has a similar vocal quality that is perceptually difficult to distinguish (d) each has the same vocal fold vibration but different ranges of fundamental frequency (e) none of the above

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6.12 Which is not true of additive noise (a) it may result in the perception of dysphonia (b) it always indicates a vocal problem (c) it can occur in any frequency of the vocal spectrum (d) in the higher frequencies, it is a characteristic of breathiness (e) none of the above 6.13 An electroglottograph (a) generates a waveform that corresponds to vocal fold movement (b) depends upon the changing resistance to the flow of current between the vocal folds (c) measures the cycle of vocal fold vibration (d) all of the above (e) none of the above 6.14 An Lx waveform displaying biphasic or multiphasic closure is characteristic of which register (a) falsetto (b) modal (c) pulse (d) whistle (e) none of the above 6.15 The closed quotient reflects (a) degree of medial compression of the vocal folds (b) range of fundamental frequencies of the vocal folds (c) compliance of the mucosal wave during vocal fold vibration (d) longitudinal tension of the vocal folds (e) all of the above 6.16 The harmonics to noise ratio is an indication of (a) appropriateness of fundamental frequency (b) additive noise in the vocal signal (c) duration of various phases of the duty cycle (d) all of the above (e) none of the above

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Speech Science: An Integrated Approach to Theory and Clinical Practice

6.17 True or False The myoelastic-aerodynamic theory of voice production is the most widely accepted model of voice production.

6.18 True or False The vocal folds are opened by medial compression of the LCA muscles.

6.19 True or False Vocal folds that have been forced apart by air pressure, recoil back to their midline position due to their natural elasticity.

6.20 True or False Vocal folds open from the bottom to the top and close from the top to the bottom.

6.21 True or False The time difference between the opening and closing of the superior and inferior margins of the vocal folds is called the vertical phase difference.

6.22 True or False Voiceless sounds do not involve vibration of the vocal folds.

6.23

True or False Voice intensity is controlled by regulating subglottal pressure.

6.24 True or False Tracheal pressure minus supraglottal pressure equals transglottal pressure.

6.25 True or False Phonation threshold pressure is the minimum transglottal pressure required for phonation.

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6.26 Compare the structure and function of the true and false vocal folds.

6.27 Describe the following: thyroid cartilage, aryepiglottic folds, cricoarytenoid joint, suprahyoid muscles, laryngeal ventricle.

6.28 Identify and describe one vocal fold adductor and one vocal fold abductor.

6.29 Discuss the role of air pressure in vocal fold opening and closing, as described by the myoelastic-aerodynamic theory.

6.30 Describe how vocal pitch and loudness are regulated.

6.31 Why is the human voice nearly periodic but not completely periodic?

6.32 Explain the physiologic and acoustic characteristics of pulse and falsetto registers.

6.33 Identify and describe three of the six parameters of normal voice suggested by Zemlin.

6.34 Define and describe the following: spectral noise, Lx wave, electroglottographic slope quotients.

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Chapter 7: Measures of Jitter, Shimmer, and Quality Chapter summary Jitter and shimmer measures can be a valuable tool in screening programs, in referrals to ENTs, in supplementing diagnostic evaluations, and in monitoring voice changes over time. In addition, jitter and shimmer measures may provide a means by which early laryngeal signs of certain neurological diseases may be detected. Jitter and shimmer values have been used to access the results of surgical procedures in patients with Parkinson’s disease, medical procedures in patients with advanced laryngeal cancer, and behavioral techniques in patients with functional voice disorders.

Electroglottographic measures are helpful in evaluating hyper and hypoadduction of the vocal folds, and have been used to access laryngeal changes in adductor spasmodic dysphonia and Parkinson’s disease.

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Speech Science: An Integrated Approach to Theory and Clinical Practice

Key concepts

Adductor spasmodic dysphonia

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis

Aphonia

Botox injection

Dopamine

Endotracheal intubation

Fetal cell transplantation

Laryngectomy

Laryngospasms

Manual circumlaryngeal therapy

Optimum pitch level

Strained-strangled voice quality

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Chapter 7

Measures of Jitter, Shimmer and Quality

Lecture and discussion outline

I Jitter and shimmer measures A. Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis B. Parkinson’s disease C. Endotracheal intubation D. Laryngeal cancer E. Functional voice problems

II Measures of voice quality A. Aging B. EGG and vocal disorders C. EGG and spasmodic dysphonia D. EGG and Parkinson’s disease

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Speech Science: An Integrated Approach to Theory and Clinical Practice

Questions 7.1

Acoustic measures such as jitter and shimmer (a) may be used as a screening tool (b) may be used to detect early changes in voice that may not be perceptible by ear (c) may be used to monitor voice changes over time (d) all of the above (e) none of the above

7.2

The underlying pathophysiology in Parkinson’s disease is (a) abnormal levels of jitter and/or shimmer (b) subnormal levels of dopamine (c) above normal levels of dopamine (d) all of the above (e) none of the above

7.3

Endotracheal intubation sometimes results in (a) damage to the laryngeal mechanism (b) elevated levels of jitter and shimmer (c) dysphonia (d) all of the above (e) none of the above

7.4

A marked reduction in jitter level could indicate (a) reduced vocal stability during vocal fold vibration (b) increased vocal stability during vocal fold vibration (c) the onset of dysphonia (d) all of the above (e) none of the above

7.5

Normally developing children generally exhibit (a) increased levels of jitter and shimmer with maturation (b) decreased levels of jitter and shimmer with maturation (c) increased jitter and decreased shimmer with maturation (d) all of the above (e) none of the above

7.6

Objective measures of voice quality are critical because they can help to (a) identify the aspects of voice involved in voice problem (b) justify the cost of treatment (c) assess the effectiveness of treatment (d) all of the above (e) none of the above 56

Chapter 7

Measures of Jitter, Shimmer and Quality

7.7

Electroglottographic data have shown that (a) aging affects male and female vocal mechanisms equally (b) aging effects male and female vocal mechanisms differently (c) most elderly people have comparable vocal function to younger adults (d) all of the above (e) none of the above

7.8

The Lx wave form is helpful in quantifying vocal hyper or hypo function because (a) it mirrors an acoustic waveform (b) it documents subglottal pressures (c) it reflects vocal fold contact areas (d) all of the above (e) none of the above

7.9

EGG slope quotients of a person with adductor spasmodic dysphonia are likely to show (a) an increased closed-to-open ratio (b) a decreased closed-to-open ratio (c) normal closed-to-open ratios (d) all of the above (e) none of the above

7.10

True or False Muscle spasms of the larynx can sometimes be treated with injections of botulinum toxin.

7.11

True or False EGG reflects contact area of the vocal folds.

7.12

True or False Reinke’s edema is an overall swelling of the cover of the vocal folds.

7.13

True or False Aphonia is a complete lack of voice.

7.14

True or False Frequency perturbation is the same thing as jitter.

7.15

True or False Amplitude perturbation is the same thing as shimmer.

7.16

True or False Frequency perturbation and amplitude perturbation refer to cycle to cycle variability.

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Speech Science: An Integrated Approach to Theory and Clinical Practice

7.17 Identify four ways that acoustic measures such as jitter and shimmer are valuable in assessment and treatment of neurological and voice disorders.

7.18 Explain how jitter and shimmer measures can help detect early changes in some neurological diseases before such signs are perceptible.

7.19 Discuss the relationship between health status and voice, as indicated by jitter values.

7.20 Identify the effects of endotracheal intubation on the larynx.

7.21 Compare how jitter measures have been used in laryngeal cancer cases and in stuttering.

7.22 Explain the following statement: “Voice quality is a multidimensional entity”.

7.23 Why is it important to obtain objective measures of voice in different age groups?

7.24 Discuss the use of electroglottography in disorders such as spasmodic dysphonia.

7.25 Describe how the use of EGG quotients can yield information about vocal fold function in two types of disorders.

7.26 Choose a vocal disorder and compare the type of information that could be obtained about vocal function with jitter, shimmer, harmonics-to-noise ratio, and electroglottography.

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Chapter 8: The Articulatory System Chapter summary The articulatory system includes the vocal tract and the structures within it. The articulators act as a series of valves that regulate the flow of air through the vocal tract to produce different speech sounds.

In the traditional classification system, consonants are categorized according to place of articulation, manner of articulation, and voicing; vowels are classified in terms of tongue height and tongue advancement.

The vocal tract is a variable quarter-wave resonator with multiple resonant frequencies.

The source-filter theory explains vowel production in terms of the laryngeal source function, the vocal tract transfer function, and the output function.

Acoustic characteristics of vowels and consonants depend on their articulation, and can be seen on spectrograms. Connected speech is characterized by coarticulation and suprasegmentals.

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Speech Science: An Integrated Approach to Theory and Clinical Practice

Key concepts Affricates Alveolar ridge Anticipatory coarticulation Antiformants Aspiration Backwards coarticulation Breath groups Coarticulation Diphthong Distocclusion Extrinsic tongue muscles F1/F2 plots Formants Formant transitions Frication Fricatives

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Chapter 8

The Articulatory System

Glides Heteronyms Hypernasality Hyponasality Intonation Intrinsic tongue muscles Labial valve Laryngeal valve Laryngopharynx Levator veli palatine muscle Lingual valve Liquids Malocclusion Manner of articulation Mesiocclusion Muscular hydrostat Musculus uvuli 61

Speech Science: An Integrated Approach to Theory and Clinical Practice

Nasals Nasal formant Nasopharynx Neutrocclusion Occlusion Orbicularis oris muscle Oropharynx Palatoglossus muscle Palatopharyngeus muscle Place of articulation Quarter-wave resonator Release burst Rhotic Silent gap Sonorants Source-filter theory Stops 62

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Suprasegmentals Tensor veli palatine muscle Variable resonator Velum Velopharyngeal closure Velopharyngeal passage Velopharyngeal valve Vocal tract Voice bar Voice onset time Voicing Vowel quadrilateral Vowel reduction Vowel space White noise

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Speech Science: An Integrated Approach to Theory and Clinical Practice

Lecture and discussion outline

I Articulators of the vocal tract A. Oral cavity B. Pharynx C. Nasal cavities D. Valves of the vocal tract

II Traditional classification system of consonants and vowels A. Place B. Manner C. Voicing D. Vowel classification

III Vocal tract resonance A. Characteristics of the vocal tract B. Vocal tract filtering of the glottal sound wave C. Source-filter theory of vowel production D. Vowel formant frequencies E. Spectrographic analysis of sounds

IV Production of speech sounds in context A. Coarticulation B. Suprasegmentals

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Questions 8.1 The normal occlusal relationship between the upper and lower teeth is called (a) malocclusion (b) distocclusion (c) neutrocclusion (d) mesiocclusion (e) orthocclusion 8.2 When the mandible projects too far forward the occlusive relationship is called (a) malocclusion (b) distocclusion (c) neutrocclusion (d) mesiocclusion (e) orthocclusion 8.3 When the mandible is too far back the occlusive relationship is called (a) malocclusion (b) distocclusion (c) neutrocclusion (d) mesiocclusion (e) orthocclusion 8.4 The soft palate (a) is made of bone covered with muscle and epithelial tissue (b) is immovable (c) is moveable and can form a barrier between the oral and nasal cavities (d) is also known as the velum (e) c and d, are correct 8.5 The velopharyngeal passage (a) is controlled by movements of the epiglottis (b) is open except during swallowing (c) is controlled by movements of the velum and pharyngeal walls (d) is closed for consonants and open for vowels (e) both c and d 8.6 A person with a hypernasal voice quality may also misarticulate (a) /g/ and /k/ sounds (b) /s/ and /f/ sounds (c) low pitched sounds (d) /m/ and /n/ sounds (e) a and b 65

Speech Science: An Integrated Approach to Theory and Clinical Practice

8.7 The major muscle of velopharyngeal closure is the (a) tensor veli palatini (b) musculus uvuli (c) palatoglossus (d) levator veli palatini (e) palatopharyngeus 8.8 The inner surface of the upper lip is connected at its midline to the area above the upper teeth by the (a) palatus levatorus (b) superior labial frenulum (c) faucial pillar (d) inferior labial frenulum (e) velini palates 8.9 The muscle that surrounds both the upper and lower lips is called the (a) mentalis (b) depressor anguli (c) orbicularis oris (d) risorius (e) none of the above 8.10 A class III malocclusion is one in which the mandible is (a) too far forward (b) too far back (c) correctly positioned (d) laterally offset (e) none of the above 8.11 Which muscle is not an elevator of the lips (a) mentalis (b) zygomaticus major (c) labii superioris (d) risorius (e) none of the above 8.12 The hard palate is (a) anterior to the soft palate (b) formed by the palatine process of the maxilla and a portion of the palatine bones (c) lined with epithelial tissue (d) all of the above (e) none of the above 66

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8.13 The soft palate is (a) anterior to the hard palate (b) formed by the palatine process of the maxilla and a portion of the palatine bones (c) attached to the hard palate by the palatal aponeurosis (d) all of the above (e) none of the above 8.14 All of the following are muscles of the velum except (a) levator veli palatini (b) genioglossus (c) musculus uvuli (d) palatoglossus (e) tensor veli palatini 8.15 The extrinsic muscles of the tongue (a) control fine movements of the tongue (b) run parallel to the length of the tongue (c) attach the tongue to other structures (d) all of the above (e) none of the above 8.16 Which of the following is an intrinsic muscle of the tongue (a) hyoglossus (b) stylopharyngeus (c) risorius (d) hamulus (e) none of the above 8.17 The six stops of English are made by (a) allowing air to escape around a partial blockage in the vocal tract (b) gradually releasing pressurized air from a constriction in the vocal tract (c) suddenly releasing pressurized air from a constriction in the vocal tract (d) suddenly releasing pressurized air from the nasal cavity (e) none of the above

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Speech Science: An Integrated Approach to Theory and Clinical Practice

8.18 Which of the following is not true of fricatives (a) there are five voiceless and four voiced fricatives in English (b) they are formed by forcing pressurized air through a narrow channel in the vocal tract (c) they can be formed when the velopharyngeal passage is either closed or open (d) two articulators approximate but do not touch each other during fricative production (e) all of the above are true of fricatives 8.19 When the tongue shifts very rapidly from a position for a front vowel to a position for a back vowel, the sound that emerges is a (a) diphthong (b) glide (c) nasal (d) liquid (e) none of the above 8.20 The acoustic features of silent gap, release burst, and voice onset time occur in (a) stops (b) affricates (c) diphthongs (d) nasals (e) none of the above

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8.21 Compare and contrast the structure and function of the lips and the structure and function of the tongue.

8.22 Compare and contrast the structure and function of the hard palate and the structure and function of the soft palate.

8.23 Identify and describe the four valves of the vocal tract, and explain how each is involved in speech production.

8.24 Explain the similarities and differences in the production and resulting acoustic characteristics of stops and fricatives.

8.25 Describe the characteristics of the vocal tract as an acoustic resonator.

8.26 Referring to the three spectra describe the source-filter theory of vowel production.

8.27 Why is there an inverse relationship between F1 and tongue height, in the production of vowels?

8.28 Describe the acoustic similarities and differences between vowels, diphthongs, and nasals, as seen on a spectrogram.

8.29 Explain how coarticulation results in the rapid and efficient transmission of speech.

8.30 Identify and describe the three primary features of suprasegmentals.

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Chapter 9: Clinical application: Breakdowns in production of vowels and consonants Chapter summary Acoustic analysis can provide information about a speaker’s articulatory movements.

For instance, measures of duration of vowels and consonants can distinguish between normal and dysarthric speakers. Charts of vowel space can show changes in the speaker articulatory patterns before and after treatment, or over the course of time.

Other measures such as the slope index reflect tongue movement, and can reveal differences between normal and neurologically disordered speakers. Spectral analysis of stops and fricatives can reveal distinctions in a speaker’s articulatory positions. For example, spectral analysis can show how hearing impaired children produce consonants and vowels, and can suggest a physiologically based starting place for intervention.

Acoustic analysis has been helpful in determining productive knowledge in phonologically disordered children, as well as showing reduced vowel space in children who received early tracheotomies.

Other measures such as palatometry and glossometry can also be valuable aids in achieving more precise articulatory targets for hearing impaired speakers, as well as remediating articulatory problems in children with cleft palate.

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Speech Science: An Integrated Approach to Theory and Clinical Practice

Key concepts Accelerated speech Articulatory undershoot Changing contour Flat contour Final consonant deletion Formant trajectories Fronting Glossometry Identification tasks Palatometry Productive knowledge Pseudopalate Scaling procedures Slope index Tracheal cannula Tracheotomy 72

Chapter 9 Breakdowns in Production of Vowels and Consonants

Lecture and discussion outline

I. Source filter theory and problems in speech production

II. Dysarthria A. Vowel duration measurements B. Vowel formant measurements C. Consonant measures

III. Hearing impairment A. Segmental problems B. Suprasegmental problems C. Instrumentation in treatment programs for deaf speakers D. Palatometry and glossometry

IV. Phonological disorders

V. Tracheotomy

VI. Cleft palate

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Speech Science: An Integrated Approach to Theory and Clinical Practice

Questions 9.1 A reduced vowel space means that (a) formant values for non-neutral vowels shift to a more neutralized pattern (b) formant values for neutral vowels shift to a more consonant like articulatory space (c) formant values for all vowels become more similar to diphthongs (d) all of the above (e) none of the above 9.2 An F2 frequency that is higher or lower than normal indicates that (a) the tongue is not achieving the appropriate height for that particular vowel (b) the tongue is not achieving the appropriate shape for that particular vowel (c) the tongue is too far forward or too far back for that particular vowel (d) none of the above (e) all of the above 9.3 Which of the following statements is not true of F2 transitions (a) F2 transitions are related to place of articulation (b) A slope index can be derived from F2 transitions (c) F2 transitions are often absent in the speech of people with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (d) A longer and shallower F2 transition reflects a tongue movement that is slower with less range of motion (e) all of the above are true 9.4 Many people with dysarthria have particular difficulty in producing (a) diphthongs and glides (b) fricatives and stops (c) liquids and nasals (d) all of the above (e) none of the above 9.5 Articulatory undershoot occurs when (a) Articulators take longer than normal to reach their target (b) Articulators take a shorter time than normal to reach their target (c) Articulators reach their target with an exaggerated range of motion (d) Articulators do not reach their target before they begin the following sound (e) both b and d

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Chapter 9 Breakdowns in Production of Vowels and Consonants

9.6 Which of the following is an advantage of using instrumentation in speech training of deaf speakers (a) It disassociates residual hearing and visual clues (b) It provides instantaneous feedback (c) it makes it less stressful for the patient (d) all of the above (e) none of the above 9.7 Phonological processes refer to (a) articulatory gestures used by adults in the processing of phonology (b) developmental changes in the phonemic processing of children (c) children’s use of simpler articulatory gestures in place of the adult model (d) all of the above (e) none of the above 9.8 Which of the following is not true of phonological processes (a) they are restricted to children below the age of two years (b) they include fronting and final consonant deletion (c) they are typical of normally developing children (d) they can have an effect on intelligibility (e) all of the above are true 9.9 Speakers with cleft palate typically have particular difficulty producing (a) voiced sounds (b) voiceless sounds (c) stops and fricatives (d) nasals and liquids (e) all of the above 9.10 Long term tracheotomy in very young children can result in (a) limitations in tongue movement (b) reduced number of articulatory movements (c) distortion of newly acquired speech sounds by old patterns of articulatory movements (d) all of the above (e) none of the above 9.11 Deaf and hearing impaired speakers are likely to have difficulty (a) coarticulating speech sounds (b) producing vowels (c) producing consonants (d) controlling suprasegmentals (e) all of the above 75

Speech Science: An Integrated Approach to Theory and Clinical Practice

9.12 Measurement of vowel durations in dysarthric patients produces evidence that (a) dysarthric patients typically have respiratory problems (b) some dysarthric patients have longer and more variable vowel durations (c) many dysarthric patients have very short vowel durations (d) all of the above (e) none of the above 9.13 Showing spectrographic displays to young children (a) is inappropriate because children cannot interpret them (b) is not inappropriate but rarely helpful (c) is often helpful in aiding children to perceive differences between sounds (d) is often intimidating to children (e) none of the above 9.14 The speech of patients with Parkinson’s disease is often perceived to be (a) slower than normal (b) faster than normal (c) louder than normal (d) softer and slower than normal (e) none of the above 9.15 A measure of F2 transitions in Hz per millisecond can aid in the determination of tongue advancement. The resulting graph is known as (a) formant rate index (b) tongue advancement graph (c) slope index (d) F2 range index (e) none of the above 9.16 A second formant for /e/ that is significantly higher or lower than normal suggests (a) the tongue is too far forward (b) the tongue is too far back (c) the tongue is too high (d) the tongue is too low (e) none of the above 9.17 A person with dysarthria is likely to (a) produce vowels and consonants that are sustained for a shorter than normal time (b) produce vowels and consonants that are sustained for a longer than normal time (c) produce vowels and consonants that are within the normal time range (d) produce shorter duration vowels and longer duration consonants than normal (e) produce shorter duration consonants and longer duration vowels than normal 76

Chapter 9 Breakdowns in Production of Vowels and Consonants

9.18 Glossometry (a) may be used to train deaf speakers to produce vowels (b) may be used to train deaf speakers to produce consonants (c) displays the position and shape of the tongue (d) all of the above (e) b and c only 9.19 Palatometry (a) may be used to train deaf speakers to produce consonants (b) may be used to train deaf speakers to produce vowels and consonants (c) displays contact patterns of the tongue with palate and upper teeth (d) displays contact patterns of the tongue with hard palate and soft palate (e) a and c 9.20 Explain the characteristics of dysarthria. Include conditions and diseases that can lead to dysarthria.

9.21 Explain why it is important to understand the underlying articulatory function that is producing the dysarthria.

9.22 Explain tests and measures that may aid in determining the nature of a particular articulation problem.

9.23 Define and describe the following: intelligibility, scaling procedures, identification tasks.

9.24 Explain how the source-filter theory can be used to conceptualize problems of speech production, and provide examples.

9.25 Identify and explain two ways in which vowel formants can be used to infer articulatory function in normal speakers and those with various types of disorders.

9.26 Discuss how spectral analysis of stops and fricatives can reveal underlying patterns of articulatory movement.

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Speech Science: An Integrated Approach to Theory and Clinical Practice

9.27 Based on acoustic analysis, give your opinion as to whether segmental or suprasegmental aspects of speech production should be emphasized in training programs for deaf and hearing impaired children.

9.28 Identify and describe three different types of instrumental measures that have been used to improve speech production in deaf and hearing impaired children.

Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each.

9.29 Describe the use of acoustic analysis in deciding whether a child has a productive knowledge of a particular phonological contrast.

9.30 Explain how long-term tracheotomy may affect filtering characteristics of the vocal tract in very young children.

9.31 Discuss the kinds of spectrograms you might expect to see for vowels, nasals, and stops, in speakers with cleft palate.

9.32 If you had to choose between spectrography and palatography for visual feedback for a speaker with cleft palate, which would you choose and why?

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Chapter 10: The Auditory System Chapter summary The auditory system includes the outer, middle and inner ears, as well as the auditory nerve pathway. The middle ear functions to overcome the impedance mismatch between the middle and inner ears, to attenuate loud sounds by means of the acoustic reflex, and to maintain equal air pressures inside and outside the middle ear via the auditory tube. The inner ear transduces the mechanical vibrations of the middle ear to fluid vibrations and to electrical energy via the organ of Corti. Within the inner ear, the structure of the basilar membrane facilitates a frequency analysis of all incoming sounds to the cochlea.

Speech perception is a search for meaning, which is based on the ability to discriminate and identify acoustic/phonetic features of the speech waveform. Vowels and consonants are perceived in terms of multiple acoustic cues which trade off with each other depending on contextual conditions.

Immittance audiometry and otoacoustic emissions have become valuable diagnostic tools in the assessment of middle and inner ear function. Cochlear implants are designed to bypass diseased or damaged cochlea and directly stimulate the auditory nerve.

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Speech Science: An Integrated Approach to Theory and Clinical Practice

Key concepts

Acoustic reflex

Basilar membrane

Categorical perception

Cerumen

Cochlea

Cochlear duct

Cochlear implants

Conductive hearing loss

Endolymph

External auditory meatus

F0F1F2 strategy

F1 cutback

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The Auditory System

Fixed channel strategy

Helicotrema

Tympanic membrane

Tympanogram

Tympanometer

Vestibular membrane

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Speech Science: An Integrated Approach to Theory and Clinical Practice

Lecture and discussion outline

I Parts of the ear A. Outer ear B. Middle ear C. Inner ear

II Perception of speech A. Segmentation problem B. Instrumental analysis of vowel and consonant perception C. Perception of vowels and diphthongs D. Perception of consonants E. The role of context in speech perception

III Immittance audiometry A. Tympanograms B. Tympanometric procedure C. Tympanogram shapes D. Advantages of tympanometry

IV Otoacoustic emissions A. Spontaneous OAEs B. Evoked OAEs V Cochlear implants

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The Auditory System

Questions 10.1 The ear is a transducer because it (a) converts electrical energy to acoustic energy (b) converts acoustic energy to mechanical and electrical energy (c) it converts mechanical energy to acoustic energy (d) all of the above (e) none of the above 10.2 The external auditory meatus (a) leads from the tympanic membrane to the inner ear (b) contains the cochlea (c) contains the malleus, stapes, and incus (d) all of the above (e) none of the above 10.3 The tympanic membrane (a) is flat like the head of a drum (b) is convex on its lateral surface (c) is concave on its lateral surface (d) all of the above (e) none of the above 10.4 The middle ear (a) is filled with endolymph (b) contains bones (c) contains no bones (d) includes the cochlea (e) is the site of frequency analysis 10.5 The stapedius muscle (a) connects the middle and inner ear (b) forms a sling for the manubrium of the malleus (c) is involved in the acoustic reflex (d) all of the above (e) none of the above

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10.6 Which statement ( if any ) is not true of the auditory tube (a) it is normally closed (b) it leads into the pharynx (c) opening the tube equalizes pressure in the middle ear to that of the external atmosphere (d) it serves to drain mucus from the middle ear (e) all of the above are true 10.7 The cochlea (a) is connected to the stapes at the oval window (b) is located in the middle ear (c) contains the organ of Corti (d) all of the above (e) a and c only are correct 10.8 The vestibular membrane (a) forms the base of the cochlear duct (b) forms the roof of the cochlear duct (c) is the sensory nerve receptor of the cochlea (d) a and c only are correct (e) none of the above 10.9 The organ of Corti (a) is located on the basilar membrane (b) includes the tectorial membrane (c) is ciliated (d) all of the above (e) none of the above 10.10 The basilar membrane (a) is stiffer and thinner at its basal end (b) is thicker and more flexible at its apical end (c) is the site of frequency discrimination (d) all of the above (e) none of the above

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10.11 The tympanic membrane is connected to the (a) incus (b) malleus (c) stapes (d) all of the above (e) none of the above 10.12 The acoustic or stapedial reflex (a) reduces pressure applied to the oval window (b) becomes less effective in an environment of continuous loud noise (c) helps to protect hearing (d) all of the above (e) none of the above

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10.13 Name the three bones of the middle ear beginning with the outermost and working inward 1___________________________________ 2___________________________________ 3___________________________________

10.14 Another name for the ear drum is ________________________________________

10.15 The structure that connects the middle ear to the pharynx is the __________________________________________

10.16 The sensory nerve receptor that lies within the cochlear duct is called ________________________________________

10.17 The hair cells of this organ are embedded within the _____________________________________ membrane.

10.18 The substance secreted by glands located within the walls of the external auditory meatus is called ______________________

10.19 The external part of the outer ear is called the ____________________________

10.20 Something that changes energy from one form to another is known as a _________________________________

10.21 The structures of the inner ear that are associated with balance are the ___________________and the ___________________ 86

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10.22 The snail shaped structure of the inner ear is called the _______________________________

10.23 The membrane that lies within the above structure is surrounded by a fluid known as __________________________________

and contains a fluid known as _______________________________

10.24 The basilar membrane is wider at its ______________________end and narrower at its _______________________ end.

10.25 The end which is the stiffer of the two is the _____________________________end.

10.26 The end which responds to higher frequencies is the ___________________________ end.

10.27 The ability of the basilar membrane to respond to different frequencies along different portions of its length is known as ____________________ organization.

10.28 List two acoustic features which listeners use to categorize consonants __________________________________________ __________________________________________

10.29 The measure of how much force is needed to set something into vibration is a measure of _________________________

10.30 ______________________ is a measure of how easily energy is transmitted through a system 87

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10.31 The reciprocal of the above measures the resistance to energy transmission and is called ____________________________

10.32 Explain the tympanometric procedure, what it measures and its uses.

10.33 Discuss a theory that seeks to explain why inconsistencies in formant frequencies for vowels do not prevent listeners from distinguishing between vowels.

10.34 Compare the function of the ear canal and the tympanic membrane.

10.35 Describe the structure of the middle ear, and explain how it functions to overcome the impedance mismatch between the middle and inner ears.

10.36 Discuss the role of the auditory tube in maintaining middle ear pressures.

10.37 Explain how the basilar membrane plays an important role in the cochlea’s ability to perform frequency analysis of incoming sounds.

10.38 What is meant by the term segmentation problem in relation to speech perception?

10.39 Identify two theories that have been proposed to explain why the lack of consistent formant values for particular vowels is not a problem for speakers.

10.40 Describe categorical perception, and explain its role in the recognition and identification of consonants.

10.41 How does coarticulation influence the perception of vowels and consonants?

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10.42 Compare the acoustic cues that are important in the perception of stops and consonants.

10.43 Explain the role of context in speech perception.

10.44 Immittance includes the reciprocal concepts of admittance and impedance.

Explain the differences between these two concepts.

10.45 Describe the procedure for obtaining tympanograms.

10.46 Discuss the three major categories of tympanogram shapes, and explain how each shape relates to middle ear function.

10.47 Explain the nature of otoacoustic emissions, and describe their use in diagnosis of hearing loss.

10.48 Identify two types of strategies used in different cochlear implants to represent the acoustic information in the speech signal.

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Chapter 11 Clinical Application: Perceptual Problems in Hearing Impairment, Language and Reading Disability, and Articulation Defects Chapter summary Individuals with hearing impairment do not have access to the multiple acoustic cues used by normally hearing speakers to identify phonemes. Hearing impaired listeners are often able to discriminate vowels, but have problems in identifying consonants, particularly fricatives.

Otitis media is the most common cause of conductive hearing loss. In addition, otitis media can be considered to be a form of early sensory deprivation that has been linked to subtle speech perception and linguistic problems.

Cochlear implants are becoming increasingly accepted as a viable means of enhancing the speech recognition of individuals with severe and profound sensorineural hearing loss. However, training in auditory discrimination using visual feedback is essential for cochlear implant users to receive the greatest benefit from their device.

Children with language and/or reading disabilities may have a temporal processing problem which hinders them from perceiving the phonemes of their language. On the other hand, children with articulation problems may or may not have speech perception difficulties related to their specific misarticulations.

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Key concepts

Audibility

Consonant-to-vowel amplitude ratio

Developmental dyslexia

Otitis media with effusion

Specific language impairment

Suprathreshold discriminability

Suprathreshold level

Temporal processing problem

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Lecture and discussion outline

I Perceptual problems in hearing loss A. Vowel perception B. Consonant perception C. Cochlear implants D. Otitis media

II Perceptual problems in language and reading disability

III Perceptual problems related to articulation

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Questions 11.1 In phoneme recognition, young children assign most importance to (a) static spectral information (b) dynamic formant transition information (c) contextual information (d) visual cues (e) none of the above 11.2 Spectral cues are often inaudible to a person with high a frequency hearing loss because (a) Formant transitions are greatest in intensity in the higher frequencies (b) Spectral energy of stops and fricatives is greatest in the higher frequencies (c) Spectral energy of stops and fricatives is greatest in the lower frequencies (d) Formant transitions are greatest in intensity in the lower frequencies (e) none of the above 11.3 The difficulty that many hearing impaired people have in detecting the /s/ sound can be particularly detrimental to the comprehension of speech because (a) /s/ is the most common sound in English (b) /s/ is the most commonly misarticulated sound (c) /s/ has many linguistic functions such as plural and possessive (d) all of the above (e) none of the above 11.4 Hearing impaired people may have difficulty in discriminating between fricatives due to (a) the lack of ability to use dynamic information from formant transitions (b) poor frequency resolution (c) the high frequency acoustic energy of fricatives (d) all of the above (e) none of the above 11.5 Which of the following, if any, is not true of otitis media (a) it is prevalent among young children (b) it can be caused by an upper respiratory infection (c) it can result in a fluid build-up in the middle ear (d) it often results in a temporary sensorineural hearing loss (e) all of the above are true

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11.6 Specific language impairment is a disorder in which (a) an emotional disorder interferes with language (b) a hearing loss interferes with language (c) a cognitive disorder interferes with language (d) all of the above (e) none of the above 11.7 Children with a functional articulation disorder (a) almost always have speech perception problems (b) rarely have speech perception disorders (c) may or may not have speech perception disorders (d) almost always have speech perception problems but usually outgrow them (e) none of the above 11.8 A person with a cochlear implant (a) is likely to require significant training to take full advantage of its benefits (b) can often be aided by the use of spectrography and electroglottography (c) should receive training in the use of suprasegmental aspects (d) all of the above (e) none of the above 11.9 Children learn to produce phoneme contrasts and phoneme sequencing (a) by matching their own productions to the specific acoustic models of their particular language (b) in a way that is independent of any particular language (c) by parental correction of misarticulated sounds (d) all of the above (e) none of the above 11.10 For hearing impaired individuals (a) vowels and consonants are generally equally difficult to perceive (b) vowels are generally more difficult to perceive (c) consonants are generally more difficult to perceive (d) all of the above (e) none of the above 11.11 /i/ and /u/ often present a problem for the hearing impaired speaker (a) because they are commonly misarticulated in many words (b) because they are often spoken very softly by some speakers (c) because they are very close in frequency (d) all of the above (e) none of the above

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11.12 The term that applies to the structure of a word is (a) syntax (b) semantics (c) morphology (d) phonology (e) none of the above 11.13 In otitis media, (a) middle ear pressure can be lower than normal (b) the tympanic membrane may be drawn inward (c) auditory tube blockage can prevent pressure equalization of the middle ear (d) all of the above (e) none of the above 11.14 OME stands for (a) otitis media with efflorescence (b) otitis media of the Eustachian tube (c) otitis media with edema (d) otitis media with effusion (e) none of the above 11.15 Persons with high frequency hearing loss (a) generally hear speech in the same way as normally hearing individuals but at a lower volume (b) may hear speech but be unable to make meaning of the sounds they hear (c) generally have little difficulty in understanding conversation because most of it occurs at lower frequencies (d) all of the above (e) none of the above 11.16 For children with language learning problems, discrimination of small acoustic differences (a) is less significant in language learning than it is for normally developing children (b) is more significant in language learning than it is for normally developing children (c) is of the same importance in language learning as it is for normally developing children (d) is often neglected in therapeutic situations (e) none of the above

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11.17 Temporal processing problem refers to (a) a dysfunction in the temporal lobe of the brain (b) a problem making meaning of a rapid stream of acoustic signals (c) a problem understanding the process of therapeutic remediation (d) all of the above (e) none of the above 11.18 Seven year old children (a) generally rely less on acoustic discrimination than do ten year olds (b) generally rely more on acoustic discrimination than do four year olds (c) generally rely less on acoustic discrimination than do five year olds (d) all of the above (e) none of the above 11.19 Children who misarticulate sounds generally (a) do so because they cannot correctly perceive these sounds (b) can perceive the sounds but not articulate them (c) may or may not be able to perceive the sounds they misarticulate (d) almost always have a hearing deficit (e) none of the above 11.20 People with dyslexia (a) often have difficulty processing the order of acoustic information (b) have reading skills below the expected level with respect to age and IQ (c) often have difficulty perceiving the contrasts between consonants (d) all of the above (e) none of the above

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11.21 Explain why people with high frequency hearing losses have particular difficulty in perceiving fricatives.

11.22 Discuss the role of synthetic speech continua in exploring perceptual processing in different groups of speakers.

11.23 Explain why children with high frequency hearing loss may confuse different vowel sounds.

11.24 Describe the concept of frequency selectivity, and comment on its relationship to hearing loss.

11.25 Define the following terms and explain their relationship to each other: audibility, suprathreshold level, suprathreshold discriminability.

11.26 Discuss why a person with moderate to severe hearing loss who wears a hearing aid might still have problems in perceiving fricatives.

11.27 Identify at least two reasons why training using visual feedback is important for cochlear implant users.

11.28 Describe the relationship between otitis media and language function in children.

11.29 Explain how perceptual processing problems may be linked to morphological difficulties in children with SLI. 11.30 Identify the possible link between perceptual processing problems and articulatory function in young children.

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Chapter 12: The Nervous System Chapter summary The nervous system is divided into the central nervous system which includes the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system which includes the cranial and spinal nerves. Neurons are the basic building blocks of the nervous system, and consist of cell body, dendrites and an axon; glial cells perform many metabolic functions.

Neurons work through a complex electrochemical process by which an action potential is generated and transmitted to other neurons at the synapse.

The brain is contained within the meninges, and is given buoyancy by the cerebrospinal fluid which is manufactured in the ventricles and circulates around the brain and spinal cord. The brain is divided into two hemispheres, connected by the corpus callosum. The cortex of the brain is highly convoluted, and is divided into frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital, and limbic lobes.

Within the white matter of the cerebrum are several subcortical structures including the basal nuclei, thalamus, and hypothalamus. The brainstem includes the midbrain, pons, and medulla, which connects to the spinal cord; cranial nerves have their points of origin in various regions of the brainstem. The cerebellum is an important structure for coordinating different aspects of movement such as direction, force, and speed.

Motor control systems involved in speech production include the motor cortical areas, as well as the upper and lower motor neurons; feedback and feedforward are important components of motor control.

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Key concepts Action potential Afferent neurons Amygdaloid nucleus Arachnoid mater Astrocytes Axon Brain stem Caudate nucleus Central nervous system Central sulcus Cerebellum Cerebral cortex Cerebrospinal fluid Cerebrum

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Circle of Willis Corona radiate

Corpus callosum Cortex Cranial nerves Dendrites Depolarization Dura mater Efference copy Efferent neurons Excitatory post-synaptic potential Feedback Feedforward Fornix Frontal lobe

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Glial cells Golgi apparatus Gyri Hippocampus Hypothalamus Inhibitory post synaptic potential Internal capsule Interneurons Ions Lateral fissure Lenticular nucleus Longitudinal cerebral fissure Medulla Meningeal layer

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Meninges Midbrain Mitochondria Myelin sheath Neocortex Neurons Neurotransmitters Nissl bodies Nodes of Ranvier Nucleus Occipital lobe Oligodendrocytes Parietal lobe Periosteal layer Peripheral nervous system

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Pia mater Pituitary gland Pons Precentral gyrus Putamen Pyramid Receptor sites Refractory period Repolarization Resting membrane potential Schwann cells Soma Somatotopic Spatial summation

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Spinal cord Spinal nerves Subarachnoid space Subdural space Sulci Synapse Synaptic space Temporal lobe Temporal summation Terminal buttons Thalamus Ventricles

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Lecture and discussion outline I. Brain Tissue A. Glial cells B. Neurons II. Neuronal Function A. Resting membrane potential B. Action potential C. Excitatory/inhibitory post-synaptic potentials D. Conduction velocity III. Meninges A. Dura mater B. Arachnoid C. Pia mater D. Ventricles IV. Functional Brain Anatomy A. Cortex B. Lobes C. Cortical connections D. Basal nuclei E. Thalamus F. Hypothalamus G. Brainstem H. Cerebellum I. Spinal cord V. Cranial Nerves A. Trigeminal B. Facial C. Vestibulocochlear D. Glossopharyngeal E. Vagus F. Hypoglossal

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VI. Blood Supply A. Circle of Willis VII. Motor Control Systems Involved in Speech Production A. Motor cortex B. Upper and lower motor neurons C. Direct and indirect systems D. Motor units VIII. Principles of Motor Control A. Feedback B. Feedforward C. Efference copy

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Questions 12.1 In the adult, the brain weighs approximately (a) 400 grams (b) 1400 grams (c) 2400 grams (d) 4000 grams (e) none of the above 12.2 Glial cells are important in (a) metabolic support (b) secretion of cerebrospinal fluid (c) response to injury (d) insulation (e) all of the above 12.3 Nissl bodies and mitochondria are examples of (a)organelles within the cytoplasm of a neuron (b) glial cells (c) types of axonal endings (d) types of neurotransmitter (e) none of the above 12.4 Which of the following statements (if any) is not true of axons? (a) axons project nerve impulses away from the cell body (b) axons vary in length from less than one millimeter to more than one meter (c) axons are always wrapped in a continuous sheet of myelin (d) axons end in terminal buttons (e) all the above are true of axons

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12.5 Most neurons in the human nervous system are (a) unipolar (b) bipolar (c) multipolar (d) hemipolar (e) none of the above 12.6 Neurons (a) have a negative electrical charge in the interior relative to the extracellular space (b) depend on the difference in electrical charge in order to transmit impulses (c) are stimulated to fire by an electrochemical process (d) undergo depolarization and repolarization (e) all of the above 12.7 Repolarization refers to (a) the interior of the neuron becoming positively charged in relation to the extracellular space (b) the cell membrane maintaining a constant charge of + 30 millivolts (c) the cell membrane reverting to a negatively charged state (d) a and b (e) b and c 12.8 In order for an action potential to be generated, the cell membrane must reach a critical threshold at the axon hillock of approximately (a) - 40 mV (b) 0 mV (c) + 40 mV (d) - 70 mV (e) + 70 mV 12.9 Which of the following statements (if any) is NOT true of the meninges? (a) they are composed of three layers of connective tissue separated by two spaces (b) the dura mater is the innermost layer which closely follows the grooves of the brain (c) cerebrospinal fluid is contained within the subarachnoid space (d) the meninges form a layer of protection for the brain and spinal cord (e) all the above are true of the meninges

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12.10 The first motor units to fire when stimulated are (a) Type S (b) Type FR (c) Type FF (d) Type B (e) none of the above 12.11 Fibers of the corticospinal tract (a) synapse directly with the spinal cord (b) decussate at the level of the medulla (c) help to control posture and balance (d) a and b (e) b and c 12.12 The ventricles of the brain (a) allow blood to circulate through the brain providing oxygen to all neurons (b) are located within the meninges (c) contain choroid plexus cells which manufacture cerebrospinal fluid (d) a and b (e) a and c 12.13 Which of the following functions is mediated by the frontal lobes? (a) abstract reasoning (b) language expression (c) spoken comprehension (d) a and b (e) a, b, and c 12.14 The parietal lobes (a) are located on the precentral gyrus and deal with bodily sensation (b) are located on the postcentral gyrus and deal with bodily sensation (c) are located on the precentral gyrus and deal with comprehension (d) are located on the postcentral gyrus and deal with comprehension (e) none of the above

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12.15 The temporal lobes (a) are made up of primary and secondary auditory cortex (b) contain Wernicke’s area (c) contain area 41 which is mapped tonotopically (d) are important for auditory comprehension (e) all the above 12.16 Structures of the limbic lobe include (a) thalamus and hypothalamus (b) basal nuclei and cerebellum (c) cortex and cerebrum (d) hippocampus and amygdala (e) none of the above 12.17 The corpus callosum (a) is made up of association fibers (b) links the right and left sides of the brain (c) runs from anterior to posterior (d) a and b (e) b and c 12.18 A major sensory pathway of the spinal cord is the (a) corticonuclear tract (b) rubrospinal tract (c) vestibulospinal tract (d) corticospinal tract (e) spinothalamic tract 12.19 Damage to the indirect or extrapyramidal system results in (a) weak or spastic muscles (b) postural deficits (c) abnormal involuntary movements (d) a and b (e) b and c 12.20 The innervation ratio refers to (a) the synapse between an axon and the muscle fiber it innervates (b) the degree of intensity of the end-plate potential (c) the number of fibers innervated by a single motor neuron (d) the amount of acetylcholine released into the synapse (e) all the above

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12.21 Which of the following statements (if any) is not true of the basal nuclei? (a) the basal nuclei are located between the brainstem and the spinal cord (b) the basal nuclei includes the caudate, globus pallidus, putamen, and substantia nigra (c) a primary function of the basal nuclei is regulation of posture, balance, and background muscle tone (d) the basal nuclei function as an inhibitory system (e) all the above are true of the basal nuclei 12.22 The thalamus (a) is linked to the limbic system (b) includes the medial and lateral geniculate bodies (c) channels all sensory information aside from olfaction to the brain (d) receives information from the cerebral cortex (e) all of the above 12.23 The reticular activating system (a) forms the core of the hypothalamus (b) connects the pons to the cerebellum (c) controls level of alertness and consciousness (d) all of the above (e). none of the above 12.24 The brainstem (a) is involved in respiration, body temperature and digestion (b) is the site of origin of many cranial nerves (c) is formed by the pons, medulla, and cerebellum (d) a and b (e) b and c 12.25 The cerebral peduncles refer to (a) swellings on the cerebrum that essentially serve no purpose (b) pathways that form a bridge between the right and left hemispheres of the brain (c) pathways that travel via the cerebrum and midbrain to the spinal cord, medulla, and pons (d) b and c (e) none of the above

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12.26 Which of the following statements (if any) is not true of the cerebellum? (a) it connects to the brainstem by means of the inferior, middle, and superior cerebellar peduncles (b) it is divided into lobes which exert contralateral movement control (c) it has a cortex and subcortical structures (d) the two hemispheres are connected by the vermis (e) all the above are true of the cerebellum 12.27 The cerebellum (a) coordinates movements in terms of direction, force, speed, and displacement (b) receives extensive sensory input from other structures of the nervous system (c) acts to correct differences between intended and actual movement patterns (d) monitors sensory and motor information (e) all of the above 12.28 The trigeminal nerve (a) contains only sensory fibers (b) is made up of ophthalmic, maxillary, and mandibular branches (c) transmits information about touch, pressure, and pain from various facial regions (d) a and b (e) b and c 12.29 The cranial nerve that innervates most of the muscles of the soft palate is the (a) trigeminal (b) facial (c) vestibulocochlear (d) vagus (e) hypoglossal

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12.30 The pharyngeal nerve is a branch of the (a) trigeminal nerve (b) facial nerve (c) vestibulocochlear nerve (d) vagus nerve (e) hypoglossal nerve 12.31 The arteries that form the Circle of Willis include (a) internal carotid (b) vertebral (c) basilar (d) anterior communicating (e) all the above 12.32. Which of the following statements (if any) is NOT true of primary motor cortex? (a) it receives extensive sensory input from the thalamus (b) it is involved in generating movement patterns (c) it controls single muscles or small groups of muscles working synergistically (d) it regulates the amount of force and direction of movement (e) all the above statements are true

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12.33 True or False The facial nerve functions both ipsilaterally and contralaterally.

12.34 True or False The premotor and supplementary motor areas are located in area 4 in the frontal lobe.

12.35 True or False Pyramidal decussation, whereby most fibers that originate at the cerebral cortex cross over to the opposite side of the body, occurs at the inferior colliculus of the midbrain 12.36 True or False The upper motor neuron includes nerve cell bodies and axons of cranial and spinal nerves.

12.37 True or False Temporal and spatial summation increase the strength of impulses arriving at a neuron 12.38 True or False In general, neurotransmitters make it easier for the post-synaptic neuron to fire.

12.39 True or False Inhibitory post synaptic potentials occur when the threshold of the cell membrane of a post synaptic neuron is increased.

12.40 True or False Afferent neurons transmit impulses from the brain to the periphery, while efferent neurons transmit impulses from the periphery toward the brain.

12.41 True or False Neural function depends on the changing balances between sodium and potassium ions.

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12.42 True or False The limbic lobe is made up of the medial margins of the frontal, parietal and temporal lobes.

12.43 True or False The cortex of the brain is divided by sulci and fissures into frontal, temporal, parietal, and occipital lobes.

12.44 True or False The spinal cord contains the cell bodies for the 31 pairs of spinal nerves that supply all the muscles of the body aside from those of the head and neck.

12.45 True or False Similar to the brain, the spinal cord is composed of an outer layer of grey matter and an inner layer of white matter.

12.46 True or False General somatic afferents found in some spinal nerves transmit impulses to skeletal muscles.

12.47 True or False The corona radiata and internal capsule form the major link between the right and left hemispheres of the brain.

12.48 True or False Type S motor units are associated with dark red muscle fibers and have the smallest cell bodies.

12.49 True or False Neurons consist of a soma, dendrites, and axon.

12.50 True or False The central nervous system is composed of approximately five million neurons.

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12.51 Explain the differences between glial cells and neurons, and provide examples of each.

12.52 Describe the process whereby neurons fire and generate an action potential.

12.53 Explain the following: temporal summation, spatial summation, absolute refractory period, relative refractory period.

12.54 What is the difference between an excitatory post synaptic potential and an inhibitory post synaptic potential?

12.55 Describe the structure of the meningeal system, and explain how it forms protection for the brain and spinal cord.

12.56 Discuss the cortex of the brain, including a description of the lobes and their functions.

12.57 Compare and contrast commissural fibers, association fibers, and projection fibers.

12.58 Describe the structure and functions of the following subcortical areas of the brain: basal nuclei, thalamus, hypothalamus.

12.59 Identify the structures that make up the brainstem, and describe their functions.

12.60 Compare the structure and functions of the cerebellum and the cerebral cortex.

12.61 Describe the spinal cord, including the major motor and sensory pathways.

12.62 Identify the cranial nerves most important for speech and hearing.

Categorize them in terms of their sensory and motor components.

12.63 What is the Circle of Willis, and why is it important?

12.64 Compare and contrast the upper and lower motor neurons in terms of their structure and relevance to speech and hearing.

12.65 Describe the concept of motor units and relate it to the size principle.

12.66 Explain the following: feedback, feedforward, efference copy.

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Chapter 13: Brain Function Measures Chapter Summary Current imaging techniques that depict brain structure include computerized tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).

Brain function can be imaged with functional MRI (fMRI), positron emission tomography (PET), single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) and quantitative electroencephalography (qEEG)

PET and SPECT studies demonstrate differences in neural function between people who stutter and normally fluent speakers. PET studies have been used to identify Parkinson’s disease before the appearance of clinical symptoms, as well as to show the progression of the disease.

The P300 potential has been used extensively in Alzheimer’s disease as a marker of cognitive function.

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Key concepts

Computerized tomography

Electroencephalography

Evoked potentials

Functional magnetic resonance imaging

Hemodynamic response

Magnetic resonance imaging

Positron emission tomography

Single photon emission computerized tomography

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Lecture and discussion outline

I. Techniques for Imaging Brain Structure A. Computerized tomography B. Magnetic resonance imaging

II. Techniques for Imaging Brain Function A. Functional magnetic resonance imaging B. Positron emission tomography C. Single photon emission computed tomography D. Electroencephalography and evoked potentials

III. Use of Brain Imaging Techniques in Communication Disorders A. Stuttering B. Parkinson’s disease C. Multiple sclerosis D. Alzheimer’s disease

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Questions 13.1 Computerized tomography (a) is based on measurement of hydrogen atoms in water (b) assesses increases in blood flow to a particular area (c) records electrical potentials generated by the brain (d) is based on x-ray technology that measures tissue density (e) none of the above 13.2

Which of the following statements best characterizes magnetic resonance imaging? (a) it is based on the behavior of hydrogen atoms in the body in response to a radio frequency wave (b) it is based on the amount of radiation energy absorbed by body tissues (c) it is based on the hemodynamic response within the brain (d) it is based on identifying the distribution of a tracer in the brain (e) none of the above

13.3. Functional magnetic resonance imaging is based on (a) changes in the oxygen content of the blood in a particular brain area (b) the notion that the performance of any task places specific information processing demands on the brain (c) measurement of the hemodynamic response (d) all the above (e) none of the above 13.4. The measurement of the distribution of a radioactive tracer in a brain is used in (a). functional magnetic resonance imaging (b) electroencephalography (c) positron emission tomography (d) computerized tomography (e) none of the above 13.5. The collision of positrons and electrons in PET scans produces (a) alpha rays (b) beta rays (c) delta rays (d) gamma rays (e) omega rays

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13.6. The dominant brain electrical frequency when an individual is very relaxed is (a) alpha (b) beta (c) delta (d) theta (e) none of the above 13.7. An evoked potential which is considered to be an index of mental alertness and cognitive activity is the (a) P200 (b) N200 (c) P300 (d) N300 (e) N400 13.8. Research in the area of stuttering has found (a) differences in hemispheric lateralization of verbal function between normal speakers and speakers who stutter (b) differences in auditory monitoring between normal speakers and speakers who stutter (c) less intense cerebellar activation in speakers who stutter for solo and choral reading (d) a and b (e) b and c 13.9. Research findings related to people with Parkinson’s disease include (a) increased activity in the striatum and globus pallidus (b) decreased activity in the supplementary motor area (c) increased activity in the lateral premotor cortex (d) all of the above (e) none of the above.

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13.10. MRI imaging of brain structure in multiple sclerosis (a) provides a satisfactory picture of the patient’s neural function (b) provides an objective and direct assessment of structural changes that occur in the course of the disease (c) provides an explanation of how brains in people with the disease adapt to the brain damage (d) a and b (e) b and c 13.11. Use of the P300 potential in studies of patients with Alzheimer’s disease has shown that (a) P300 latency is correlated with degree of severity of the disease (b) latency of the P300 potential is reliable in assessing cognitive response to pharmacological treatments (c) P300 latency provides useful information on the progression of the disease (d) all of the above (e) none of the above

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Chapter 13 Brain Function Measures

13.12. True or False Current brain imaging techniques can be categorized as depicting brain structure or brain function 13.13. True or False Functional MRI studies can help to diagnose Alzheimer’s disease before the onset of severe symptoms 13.14. True or False MRI has the advantage of distinguishing fine differences between grey and white matter, cerebrospinal fluid, and vascular structures 13.15. True or False PET scans are based on the fact that areas of the brain which are more active absorb more of the radioactive tracer than those which are less active 13.16. True or False PET provides finer resolution and therefore more detailed images of structures than MRI 13.17. True or False Recent research has led to the hypothesis that an excessive amount of dopamine in the nervous systems of some people who stutter results in a problem in motor control 13.18. True or False PET and SPECT techniques have been helpful in detecting loss of neurotransmitter function in individuals with Parkinson’s disease 13.19. True or False The N400 evoked potential signals an upcoming motor response 13.20. True or False In multiple sclerosis the amount of loss of motor function corresponds to the degree of the demyelinization

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13.21 Describe the advantages and disadvantages of computerized tomography and magnetic resonance imaging.

13.22 Explain the principles of functional magnetic resonance imaging.

13.23 Compare and contrast positron emission tomography and single photon emission computed tomography.

13.24 Identify three advantages of using electroencephalography to record brain potentials of people with neurological disorders.

13.25 Summarize the research showing that brain function in people who stutter is often different to that of normally fluent speakers.

13.26 Explain why brain imaging can be helpful in individuals with Parkinson’s disease, multiple sclerosis, and Alzheimer’s disease.

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Chapter 14: Models and Theories of Speech Production and Perception Chapter summary A theory is a statement about a particular phenomenon, incorporating underlying principles, facts and assumptions. Theories change based on incoming research, and often have an impact on clinical practice.

A model is a simplification of a system which can be manipulated in a controlled manner. Models can be mechanical, physiological, mathematical, or computer based.

Speech production theories attempt to account for serial order, degree of freedom, context sensitivity, and other issues. Numerous theories of speech production have been proposed, including target models, feedback and feedforward models, dynamic systems models, connectionist models, and others.

Speech perception theories attempt to account for linearity, segmentation, speaker normalization, basic unit of perception, specialization of speech perception, and other issues. Theories of speech perception can be categorized as active versus passive, bottom up versus top down, and autonomous versus interactive. Most theories of perception focus on acoustic-phonetic or phonemic aspects, including motor theory, acoustic invariance theory, direct realism, fuzzy logical models, and connectionist theories; recent theories also attempt to explain word recognition, including logogen theory and cohort theory.

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Key concepts

Acoustic invariance theory Cohort theory Connectionist models Context sensitivity Coordinative structure Degrees of freedom Direct realism Dynamic systems models Feedback Feedforward Fuzzy logical model Linearity Logogen theory Model Motor theory Native language magnet theory 128

Chapter 14: Models and Theories of Speech Production and Perception

Parallel distributed processing models Perceptual magnet effect Segmentation Serial-order issue Speaker normalization Spreading activation models Synergy Target models Theory TRACE model

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Lecture and discussion outline I. Differences between theories and models A. Theories B. Models

II. Speech production A. Serial-order issue B. Degrees of freedom C. Context sensitivity problem

III. Theories of speech production A. Target models B. Feedback and feedforward models C. Dynamic systems models D. Connectionist models

IV. Speech perception A. Linearity and segmentation B. Speaker normalization C. Basic unit of perception D. Specialization of speech perception

V. Categories of speech perception theories A. Active versus passive B. Bottom-up versus top-down C. Autonomous versus interactive

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VI. Theories of speech perception A. Motor theory B. Acoustic invariance theory C. Direct realism D. TRACE model E. Logogen theory F. Cohort theory G. Fuzzy logical model of perception H. Native language magnet theory

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Questions 14.1

A theory (a) is a simplification of a system or any of its parts (b) is an unchanging statement of fact about a particular phenomenon (c) is a statement about a particular phenomenon that is subject to change based on incoming information (d) all of the above (e) none of the above

14.2

Theories (a) help explain observed data and information (b) can be used to make predictions about events related to the phenomenon (c) can cause changes in practice to be instituted (d) all of the above (e) none of the above

14.3

Which of the following statements is not true of models (a) they tend to be more complicated than the systems they represent (b) they represent a system in some way that can be manipulated in a controlled manner (c) they can be physical, mathematical, physiological, amongst others (d) they can be used to test theories (e) all of the above are true

14.4

The degrees of freedom issue relates to (a) the relationship between the acoustic and linguistic elements of speech (b) the fact that sounds are influenced by speaking rate, clarity and context (c) the need for speech motor systems to regulate all the muscle contractions of all the speech subsystems (d) all of the above (e) none of the above

14.5

Which of the following statements best characterizes target models of speech production (a) target models propose that a speaker attempts to attain a sequence of spatial or auditory-acoustic goals. (b) target models propose that muscles are grouped into coordinative structures to achieve a particular speech production goal (c) target models do not take context and suprasegmental aspects of speech production into consideration. (d) all of the above (e) none of the above 132

Chapter 14: Models and Theories of Speech Production and Perception

14.6

Feedback models of speech production do not take into consideration the fact that (a) feedback channels are slow in comparison with speech production movements (b) interference with feedback has a minimal effect on speech production (c) feedforward signals are likely used in speech production (d) all of the above (e) none of the above

14.7

Models that simulate the neural processing of the human brain are called (a) dynamic systems models (b) parallel-distributed processing models (c) complexity-formulated models (d) feedforward models (e) none of the above

14.8

The linearity principle in speech perception asserts that (a) the basic unit of perception is the phoneme (b) a specific set of acoustic cues in a word corresponds to a specific phoneme (c) listeners focus on features that characterize a given sound as a particular phoneme and ignore irrelevant features (d) all of the above (e) none of the above

14.9

The fact that f2 transitions for /d/ rise for /di/ but fall for /du/ suggest that (a) speech perception is based on a linear correspondence between the acoustic speech signal and the linguistic phonemic units (b) speech perception is not based on a linear correspondence between the acoustic speech signal and the linguistic phonemic units (c) F2 transitions play no role in speech perception (d) all of the above (e) none of the above

14.10 The concept of speaker normalization implies that (a) most speakers produce phonemes in a normal manner. (b) most normal listeners use phonemes as the normal unit of perception (c) most listeners ignore irrelevant differences between productions of the same phoneme (d) all of the above (e) none of the above

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14.11 The basic unit of perception (a) is consistent between infants, children and adults. (b) changes depending upon the phonological rules of one’s native language (c) is independent of age and context (d) all of the above (e) none of the above 14.12 Which of the following statements is not true of the motor theory of speech perception (a) the theory stresses the dominant role of the perceptual filtering mechanisms of the listener (b) the theory stresses the links between perception and production of speech (c) the theory assumes that speech perception is different to other forms of auditory perception (d) the theory assumes that speech is perceived in terms of articulatory gestures (e) all of the above are true 14.13 The assumption that each phoneme possesses a core of acoustic properties that is always present regardless of context is characteristic of which theory of speech perception (a) acoustic invariance theory (b) direct realism (c) native language magnet theory (d) cohort theory (e) none of the above 14.14 The fuzzy logical model of perception (a) assumes that acoustic features are either present or absent in a particular signal (b) depends on the notion of specialized perceptual processes for speech perception (c) suggests that speech perception occurs through the integration of continuously evaluated features (d) all of the above (e) none of the above 14.15 A theory of speech perception that focuses on word recognition rather than phoneme recognition is (a) native language magnet theory. (b) cohort theory (c) direct realism (d) motor theory (e) none of the above 134

Chapter 14: Models and Theories of Speech Production and Perception

14.16 True or False A theory is a way of interpreting facts by simplifying a system or any of its parts 14.17 True or False Theories are always subject to change because they are based on ongoing research 14.18 True or False Mechanical, physiological, and mathematical models are often used to test theories.

14.19 True or False Connectionist models propose that muscles work in coordinated synergies to achieve speech production goals 14.20 True or False Acoustic invariance theory is based on a template of acoustic features against which a listener compares incoming sounds

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14.21 Explain the difference between a model and a theory.

14.22 Identify three types of models and give an example of each that is not described in the chapter.

14.23 Describe two of the issues in speech production and two in speech perception that theories attempt to take into account.

14.24 Discuss the critical elements in target models of speech production.

14.25 Compare and contrast connectionist models and dynamic systems models of speech production.

14.26 Identify two reasons why feedback models cannot adequately account for speech production.

14.27 Present one argument for and one against the specialization of speech perception.

14.28 Explain the following terms in relation to theories of speech perception: bottomup, interactive, passive.

14.29 Discuss the primary elements of motor theory, and explain how research does or does not support this theory.

14.30 Identify a theory of word recognition, and discuss how it compares with theories of phoneme recognition.

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Answer Key

Chapter 2 1 C 2 C 3 D 4 D 5 B 6 D 7 C 8 C 9 B 10 E 11 E 12 C 13 B 14 F 15 T 16 T 17 T 18 T 19 F 20 F 21 T 22 F 23 T 24 F 25 F 26 increase increase 27 bandwidth 28 cut off frequency or 3dB down point

29

mels

Chapter 3 1 D 2 E 3 A 4 C 5 B 6 A 7 D 8 T 9 T 10 F 11 F 12 F 13 F 14 F

15 16 17 18 19 20 21

T F F T F T F

Chapter 4 1 C 2 C 3 A 4 E 5 B 6 C 7 C 8 B 9 C 10 D 11 A 12 B 13 C 14 B 15 C 16 T 17 F 18 F 19 T 20 T 21 T Chapter 5 1 E 2 A 3 B 4 C 5 A 6 D 7 A 8 D 9 F 10 F 11 T 12 F 13 F 14 F 15 T

16 17 18 19 20

T T F T T

Chapter 6 1 E 2 C 3 C 4 C 5 A 6 B 7 B 8 D 9 C 10 A 11 B 12 B 13 D 14 C 15 A 16 B 17 T 18 F 19 T 20 F 21 T 22 T 23 T 24 T 25 T Chapter 7 1 D 2 B 3 D 4 B 5 B 6 D 7 C 8 C 9 A 10 T 11 T 12 T 13 T

14 15 16

T T T

Chapter 8 1 C 2 D 3 B 4 E 5 C 6 E 7 D 8 B 9 C 10 A 11 A 12 D 13 C 14 B 15 C 16 E 17 C 18 C Chapter 9 1 A 2 C 3 C 4 B 5 D 6 B 7 C 8 A 9 C 10 D 11 E 12 B 13 C 14 D 15 C 16 B 17 B 18 D 19 E

Speech Science: An Integrated Approach to Theory and Clinical Practice

Chapter 10 1 B 2 E 3 C 4 B 5 C 6 E 7 C 8 B 9 D 10 D 11 B 12 D 13 malleus, incus stapes

14 tympanic membrane 15 eustachian or auditory tube

16 organ of Corti 17 basilar membrane 18 cerumen 19 pinna 20 transducer 21 semicircular canals vestibule

22 cochlea 23 perilymph, endolymph

24 apical, basal 25 basal 26 basal 27 tonotopic 28 VOT, onset of F1 29 immitance 30 admitance 31 impedance Chapter 11 1 B 2 B 3 C 4 D 5 D 6 E 7 C 8 D

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

A C C C D D B B

Chapter 12 1 B 2 E 3 A 4 C 5 C 6 E 7 C 8 A 9 B 10 A 11 D 12 C 13 D 14 B 15 E 16 D 17 E 18 E 19 E 20 C 21 A 22 E 23 C 24 D 25 C 26 B 27 E 28 E 29 D 30 D 31 E 32 D 33 T 34 F 35 F

36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50

F T F T F T T T T F F F T T F

Chapter 13 1 D 2 A 3 D 4 C 5 D 6 A 7 C 8 D 9 D 10 B 11 D 12 T 13 T 14 T 15 T 16 F 17 T 18 T 19 F 20 F Chapter 14 1 C 2 D 3 A 4 C 5 A 6 D

7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

B B B C D A A C B F T T F T