Essentials of Educational Psychology Big Ideas To Guide Effective Teaching, 6th Edition Jeanne Ellis

Instructor’s Manual Brett D. Jones

Essentials of Educational Psychology Big Ideas to Guide Effective Teaching Sixth Edition

Jeanne Ellis Ormrod University of Northern Colorado, Emerita

Brett D. Jones Virginia Tech

Table of Contents

Chapter 1: Introduction to Educational Psychology ............................................................................. 1 Chapter 2: Learning, Cognition, And Memory ...................................................................................... 9 Chapter 3: Complex Cognitive Processes ......................................................................................... 26 Chapter 4: Learning in Context .......................................................................................................... 41 Chapter 5: Motivation and Emotions .................................................................................................. 49 Chapter 6: Cognitive Development .................................................................................................... 59 Chapter 7: Personal, Social, and Moral Development ....................................................................... 67 Chapter 8: Instructional Strategies ..................................................................................................... 75 Chapter 9: Strategies for Creating Effective Classroom and School Environments .......................... 83 Chapter 10: Assessment Strategies ................................................................................................... 89 Appendix A: Supplementary Lectures .............................................................................................. 100 Appendix B: Handouts ...................................................................................................................... 204 Appendix C: Additional Resources ................................................................................................... 231 Appendix D: Commercial Videos ...................................................................................................... 245 References for the Instructor’s Manual and Accompanying Instructor’s Manual Slides .................. 247

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Preface

PREFACE I would like to thank the authors of the previous editions of this Instructor’s Manual for their contributions; they are listed below along with the text they included in their Prefaces. As an educational psychologist, I enjoy sharing our interesting field with others. I hope that you find many useful tips and activities in this manual that will help you in your teaching.

— Brett D. Jones (author for third, fourth, fifth, and sixth editions) I have been a faculty member in the College of Education for over 20 years. During that time, I have taught undergraduate courses in Special Education, Human Growth and Development, and Educational Psychology. For the past decade or so, I have taught graduate courses in Human Growth and Development and undergraduate courses in Educational Psychology. In addition to teaching traditional, face-to-face courses, I also have designed and teach online sections of Human Growth and Development and Educational Psychology. I am pleased to have the opportunity to work with Jeanne Ormrod in the development of this Instructor’s Manual for the second edition of the Essentials text, which I think is the best textbook available for undergraduate students who aim to become teachers. The content of this manual incorporates activities and assignments that are included in MyEducationLab, a valuable resource to complement instruction and enhance student learning.

— Rhoda Cummings (author for the second edition) I count the opportunity to teach courses in Educational Psychology as one of the highlights of my career as a faculty member in Education. It has been a wonderful challenge to find creative ways to introduce prospective teachers to the fascinating world of what it means to teach and to learn. In the pages that follow Jeanne and I have brought together a variety of ideas that we hope will serve you well as you work with your prospective teachers.

— Jayne A. Downey (co-author for the first edition) I first taught a course called “Educational Psychology” in the fall of 1974. At this point, I have probably taught the course in one form or another at least 50 times. Yet each time I teach students about educational psychology, I do it somewhat differently than I have before, partly because the field changes so rapidly and partly because, with every new group of students, I continue to discover how I can do something just a little bit better than I have done it in the past.

Much of this manual has been derived from my own experiences teaching and writing about educational psychology. I have raided my file cabinets for the many hands-on activities, discussion topics, handouts, transparencies, and homework assignments I have used successfully over the years. I have pulled together some of the misconceptions that my own students tend to have when they first appear in my classroom. I have developed supplementary lectures concerning topics I have included in my own course at one time or another when instructional objectives required them. Whenever I have removed or condensed discussions of certain topics in order to make room for new material, I have used the deleted subject matter to create new lectures and activities. In a few instances, I have also drawn on the experiences of former and present colleagues; I give them credit when I have done so.

If you are teaching educational psychology for the first time, I hope that the suggestions and materials I provide here will help you develop a course that not only is informative and useful for your students but also promotes their interest, engagement, and excitement. If you are an experienced teacher, I hope you will find a few intriguing ideas for diversifying your teaching strategies.

I am always eager to hear about the things that do and don’t work for you. Keep in touch.

— Jeanne Ellis Ormrod (co-author for the first edition)

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Features of the Manual

FEATURES OF THE MANUAL This instructor’s manual includes resources to accompany the content presented in the Essentials of Educational Psychology textbook. It has been designed to help instructors show their students the usefulness of educational psychology principles. The manual content can be helpful to instructors in any type of course related to educational psychology, regardless of the course format (e.g., small, large, seminar, lecture, online). Instructors should feel free to select the resources that are most applicable to their course; there is something in this manual for everyone!

Organization of the Manual All of the chapters in this manual are organized similarly in that they each contain the following sections: •

a Chapter Overview paragraph that briefly explains the purpose of the chapter;

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an Introduction section that includes the textbook chapter outline;

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a Big Ideas section that contains the big ideas for the textbook chapter; and

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a Case Study section that provides the questions and answers to the case study presented at the beginning of the textbook chapter.

After these four sections, each chapter in this manual is divided into the same sections that are presented in the textbook. Each of these sections contains most or all of the following resources: •

Outline—The outline provides a list of the main headings within the corresponding section of the textbook.

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Textbook Slides—The textbook slides are PowerPoint slides available as files separate from this document. The slides contain text that is consistent with, and often directly from, the content in the textbook. All of the slides are numbered with the chapter number and slide number. For example, “Textbook Slide 6.2” indicates that the slide corresponds to the second slide in Chapter 6. There are no directions for using these slides; they are provided primarily to save instructors the time needed to create their own slides from the textbook content. These slides are best used in combination with the activities presented in this manual and the Instructor’s Manual Slides.

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Instructor’s Manual Slides—The instructor’s manual slides are PowerPoint slides available as files separate from this document. These slides correspond to activities or lectures in this manual and are typically not referenced in the textbook. The instructions for using these slides are provided in this manual. These slides are individually numbered similar to the style used for the Textbook Slides.

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Discussion Topics—The discussion topics are questions intended to generate discussion among the students. Some of these questions have clear-cut answers, whereas others do not. The questions provide a way of eliciting important ideas from the students.

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Activities—Almost all of the activities have been used in educational psychology courses and have been found to be engaging and enlightening for students.

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Out-of-Class Activities—The out-of-class activities are designed to be conducted outside of regular class time due to their length, the resources needed to complete them, and/or the fact that they require an observation component (e.g., observing in a classroom).

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Supplementary Lectures—The titles of the supplementary lectures are listed within the relevant manual section, but are provided in Appendix A.

To support the content in the resources above, the following appendices are provided at the end of this manual: •

Supplementary Lectures (Appendix A)—The supplementary lectures either expand on topics presented in the textbook or introduce topics not specifically addressed in the textbook. Some of the lectures are based on material that was deleted from the textbook due to lack of space. Others v ..

Features of the Manual

originate from general educational psychology courses or advanced courses in learning, cognition, and measurement. The lectures allow instructors to supplement textbook material in directions appropriate for their objectives. Please note, however, that the lecture content is not reflected in the test bank for the textbook.

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Handouts (Appendix B)—Referenced in each chapter of this manual are handouts that accompany some of the activities and lectures described in the manual. The handouts can be printed and copied as needed for distribution in classes that use the Essentials of Educational Psychology textbook.

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Additional Resources (Appendix C)—The additional resources appendix includes references to other books, chapters, and articles related to the content in the textbook and is provided for instructors interested in learning more about the topics in the textbook.

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Commercial Videos (Appendix D)—The commercial videos appendix includes a list of some companies that sell commercial videos.

Pearson eText and Learning Management System (LMS)–Compatible Assessment Bank Pearson eText The Pearson eText is a simple-to-use, mobile-optimized, personalized reading experience. It allows you to easily highlight, take notes, and review key vocabulary all in one place—even when offline. Seamlessly integrated videos and other rich media will engage you and give you access to the help you need, when you need it. To gain access or to sign-in to your Pearson eText, visit: https://www.pearson.com/pearson-etext.

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Video Examples: One of the features in each chapter is the Video Examples that illustrate principles or concepts aligned pedagogically with the chapter. Some videos provide examples of educational psychology principles or concepts in action by showing students and teachers in classrooms. Other videos show students or teachers describing their teaching strategies or experiences.

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Content Extensions: Some of the chapters include Content Extensions that provide more information about a specific topic or foundational theory. This feature is intended to supplement the information in the text, often by providing additional details, background, or context for the topic or theory.

LMS-Compatible Assessment Bank With this new edition, assessments are included in LMS-compatible banks for the following learning management systems: Blackboard (9780136817758), Canvas (9780136817703), D2L (9780136817918), and Moodle (9780136817871). These packaged files allow maximum flexibility to instructors when it comes to importing, assigning, and grading. Assessment types include: •

Learning Outcome Quizzes: Each chapter Big Idea is the focus of a Learning Outcome Quiz that is available for instructors to assign through their Learning Management System. The Big Ideas identify chapter content that is most important for learners and serve as the organizational framework for each chapter. The quiz questions focus almost exclusively on meaningful learning and, often, on application of key concepts and principles related to scenarios and problems. In general, the quizzes have been written with a particular principle in mind: When used in the LMS environment, these multiple-choice questions are automatically graded and include feedback for the correct answer and for each distractor to help guide students’ learning. As we say in Chapter 10, Assessment activities can be learning experiences in and of themselves.

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Application Exercises: Each chapter provides opportunities for students to apply what they have learned through Application Exercises. One Application Exercise is available for each Big Idea within the chapter. The exercises require students to watch short videos, read scenarios, or think about situations and then answer open-ended questions. When used in the LMS environment, a model response written by experts is provided after students submit the exercise. This feedback helps guide students’ learning and can assist the instructor in grading.

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Chapter Tests: Suggested test items are provided for each chapter and include questions in multiple choice and short answer/essay formats.

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Chapter 1—Introduction to Educational Psychology

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY Chapter Overview As the introductory chapter, Chapter 1 includes three primary topics, one related to each of the chapter’s three big ideas. The first two topics relate to teachers’ professional knowledge and skills, as well as how teachers can use research findings to enhance their knowledge, skills, and practices. The third topic involves study strategies that readers can use as they study the material in this textbook. The broader aim of this topic is to ensure that teachers understand how to study so that they can teach their own students how to use effective study strategies.

Introduction This chapter of the Instructor’s Manual follows the outline of the textbook topics. This manual does not include information related to the Summary or for your Case Study Practice Exercises listed in the outline that follows.

Chapter Outline from the Textbook •

Big Ideas to Master in This Chapter

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Case Study: The “No D” Policy

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Big Idea 1.1: Developing Expertise as a Teacher

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Big Idea 1.2: Using Research Findings to Make Instructional Decisions

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Big Idea 1.3: Strategies for Learning and Studying Effectively

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Summary

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Case Study Practice Exercises: New Instructional App

Big Ideas to Master in This Chapter 1.1 Effective teachers continually work to enhance their professional knowledge and skills.

1.2 Effective teachers use research findings and research-based theories to make decisions about instructional strategies, classroom management, and assessment practices.

1.3 Students read, study, and learn more efficiently when they plan appropriately and use effective strategies.

Textbook Slide: 1.2 Case Study: The “No D” Policy Questions and Answers •

The questions presented at the end of the case study in the textbook are as follows and the answers are provided below each question.

1. What strategies does Ms. Smith use to develop her students’ writing skills?

o She gives them feedback and individualizing instruction when needed to help them improve their skills.

o She allows students to revise and resubmit assignments. o She gives all students the chance to improve and demonstrates her commitment to helping them learn and develop their writing abilities.

2. How might Ms. Smith’s policies and behaviors motivate her students?

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Chapter 1—Introduction to Educational Psychology

o Her policies help students to succeed. Students’ successes, even minor ones, can motivate them to continue to succeed and improve their writing.

o By surveying students and listening to their feedback, she demonstrates that she respects and cares about students’ opinions and their development as writers. If students trust Ms. Smith and feel a connection with her, they’re more likely to listen to her and be motivated to participate in class activities.

Textbook Slides: 1.3 and 1.4 Introduction Learner-Centered Instruction and Educational Psychology o

The brief introduction in this chapter discusses learner-centered instruction and defines educational psychology.

Textbook Slides: 1.5 and 1.6 Big Idea 1.1. Developing Expertise as a Teacher 1.1.a. Outline Big Idea 1.1 Effective teachers continually work to enhance their professional knowledge and skills.

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Learn as much as you can about the subject matter you teach, about teaching strategies, and about learners and their development.

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Believe that you can make a difference in students’ lives.

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Continually reflect on and critically examine your assumptions, inferences, and teaching practices.

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Communicate and collaborate with colleagues.

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Learn as much as you can about the culture(s) of the community in which you are working.

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Keep up to date on research findings and innovative evidence-based practices in education.

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Integrate action research into your ongoing classroom practices.

1.1.b. Textbook Slides: 1.7 to 1.11 1.1.c. Discussion Topics

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What are the potential advantages and challenges in including students with disabilities in general education classrooms?

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What are some practical ways in which you can engage in reflective teaching as a teacher?

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What type of things can you do now and in the next few years to begin to network and share ideas with other teachers?

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What are some practical ways that you can learn about the culture(s) in the community in which you will work?

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When you become a teacher, what are some ways in which you can keep up-to-date on research findings and innovative practices related to your teaching area?

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What are some examples of topics that a teacher could identify as being appropriate topics to study using action research?

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Chapter 1—Introduction to Educational Psychology

1.1.d. Activities •

Activity: Video Example 1.3 Show the video used in the textbook Application Exercise 1.2 and ask students to describe the types of data that the teacher could collect to answer her research question.

Big Idea 1.2. Using Research Findings to Make Instructional Decisions 1.2.a. Outline Big Idea 1.2 Effective teachers use research findings and research-based theories to make decisions about instructional strategies, classroom management, and assessment practices.

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The effectiveness of various classroom practices can best be determined through systematic research.

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Educational psychologists focus on the scientific study of psychological principles that are relevant to education.

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Research can provide quantitative information, qualitative information, or both.

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Different kinds of research lead to different kinds of conclusions.

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Drawing conclusions about cause-and-effect relationships requires that all other possible explanations for an outcome be eliminated.

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Principles and theories can help synthesize, explain, and apply research findings.

1.2.b. Textbook Slides: 1.12 to 1.22 1.2.c. Discussion Topics •

What is educational psychology and when did it become a discipline?

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Think about other courses you’ve completed. Which courses have included concepts related to educational psychology?

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What other disciplines include concepts related to educational psychology?

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Think about what it will be like when you are a teacher; or if you already have teaching experience, reflect on your teaching experiences. What are three questions that you would like to ask an educational psychologist? Make sure that your questions are within the scope of topics studied by educational psychologists.

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What principles and theories of learning, child development, and/or motivation have you learned in your previous courses? Does the textbook discuss these principles and theories? If not, why do you think they may have been omitted?

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What kinds of diversity are you likely to see in any single group of students? Brainstorm ideas related to personality, motivation, culture, religion, and family income level. What implications might such diversity have for classroom practice?

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In educational research, what are the advantages of having control groups that receive either no intervention or a placebo intervention that is unlikely to have much of an effect? What are the disadvantages? Consider the perspectives of research participants, teachers, and society at large.

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Chapter 1—Introduction to Educational Psychology

1.2.d. Activities •

Activity: Getting to Know Students’ Names If you have a small class (no more than 35 students), you can use this activity to help you and your students get to know one another on the first day of class.

1. Have the students form groups of three or four. The exercise is most effective if the students in each group don’t know one another. For example, you might: •

Divide the number of students in the class by three and have students count off by that number. For example, if there are 30 students in the class, have them count off by 10 (30/3) and group all the 1s together, 2s together, etc.

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Assign groups by using your class roll, so that the first three students on your roll are in one group, the next three are in the second group, etc.

2. Ask the students to find out the following information about each member of their group: •

Name

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Birthplace and/or hometown

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Career goals

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A unique characteristic or pastime (something that will “individualize” each student)

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(Allow about 5 or 10 minutes for groups to interact.)

3. Choose one group and ask each group member to introduce another group member to the entire class, providing information about name, birthplace/hometown, career goals, and unique characteristic/pastime. Do likewise with one or more additional groups, until about half of the groups have spoken.

4. Stop to review and “test” the class on the names of the students who have been introduced up to this point.

5. Repeat steps 3 and 4 with the remaining groups.

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Activity: Ormrod’s Own Psychological Survey (OOPS Pretest) On the first day of class, you may want to introduce the idea that your students probably have many misconceptions about the subject matter they will be studying in your course. If so, you may want to administer Ormrod’s Own Psychological Survey (OOPS Pretest) as an in-class activity. This is the same survey that is presented in the textbook. You can copy and give students Handout 1.1 (located in Appendix B), or you can present Textbook Slide 1.14 in class if you prefer to show it in PowerPoint instead of copying the handout.

1. Distribute copies of (or show the slide of) the OOPS items and give students about 2 minutes to complete it.

2. Ask for a show of hands to indicate how many students think each statement is true and how many think it is false. Record the number of “trues” and “falses” for each item on the board.

3. Briefly explain why each of the statements is true or false (you can use Textbook Slide 1.15 to show the correct answers and the textbook’s discussion of the OOPS items for guidance).

4. Point out that adults often have misconceptions about learning, development, and motivation, as well as about effective instruction, classroom management, and assessment practices. Urge your students to be continually on the lookout for ideas presented in the course that conflict with their existing beliefs. Encourage them to express their concerns 4 ..

Chapter 1—Introduction to Educational Psychology

about any new ideas that seem counterintuitive or illogical based on what they already know and believe.

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Activity: Bad and Better Research This activity illustrates the importance of separating and controlling variables in a research study. It is accompanied by Handouts 1.2 and 1.3 (located in Appendix B). Each student will need only one handout; shuffle your copies of the two handouts so that they are mixed in a more or less random fashion.

Describe the activity as one that will give students a feeling for how a researcher might conduct an experiment to study how people learn.

1. Divide the class into two halves based on their seating in the room (left half vs. right half).

2. Tell the right half to “ignore” what you say to the left half.

3. Tell the left half that you are going to read them a list of 15 words and that they will have to write down as many words as they can remember once you have finished the list. Read these words at a rate of about one word per second: kitchen

bandage

ribbon

telephone

violin

brush

key

fan

plate

ketchup

sink

blanket

broom

rose

picture

4. Tell the left half to write down as many words as they can remember and to “ignore” you while you speak to the right half of the room.

5. Tell the right half that you are going to read them a list of 15 words and that they will have to write down as many words as they can remember once you have finished the list. Read these words at a rate of about one word per second: fork

salt

table

chair

cup

pepper

saucer

plate

knife

spoon

placemat

glass

candle

butter

napkin

6. Tell the right half to write down as many words as they can remember and give them sufficient time to do so.

7. Have students count the number of words they remembered correctly by either reading both lists again or by showing Instructor’s Manual Slide 1.2. Write the final scores on the board, and compute separate means for left half v s right half (you may simply want to estimate the mean by looking at the scores). The mean for the right half will almost certainly be larger. ersu

8. Ask both groups to describe strategies that they used. Among other things, the right half will probably tell you that they associated the words with a table setting. Discuss the hypothesis tested in the experiment: Interrelatedness facilitates recall.

9. Have the class identify confounding variables that prohibit one from drawing any sound conclusion about why the right half did better. There are many, including these: 5 ..

Chapter 1—Introduction to Educational Psychology •

The right half got a preview of the task by observing what the left half was asked to do (i.e., they probably ignored your instructions to “ignore” what you said to the left half).

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The right half heard the word plate twice (it appears in both lists).

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The left half was recalling the words under noisier conditions (i.e., you were talking).

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There was no random assignment to groups. Perhaps people who sit on the right side of the classroom are more motivated to learn or are just naturally better learners.

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Perhaps someone coughed during the first list, making some words difficult to hear.

10. Now tell the class that you are going to conduct a second experiment on learning. Place a copy of either Handout 1.2 or Handout 1.3 upside down on each student’s desk, with the two handouts being distributed in a more or less random fashion.

11. Tell the students that they will study the list for 2 minutes, and that they will then have to recall the words in order.

12. Have them study their lists for 2 minutes, and then allow them time for written recall.

13. Have the students score their own lists. Then ask them to describe strategies they used in learning their lists. At this point, it should become evident that Handout 1.2 was organized alphabetically (with the first letters beginning with A, B, C, etc.) and that the alphabet could serve as a retrieval cue. Handout 1.3 had the same words, but in random arrangement.

14. Put scores for the two lists on the board, and compute or estimate the mean for each group. You may also wish to distinguish between two subgroups in the “Handout 1.2” group—those who noticed the alphabetic scheme and those who did not—and compute or estimate separate means for these two subgroups.

15. Ask students to identify those confounding variables in the “bad” experiment that were eliminated in this “better” experiment.

16. Discuss the need for control in educational research and the fact that confounding variables preclude conclusions about cause-effect relationships. When students read research, they should be thinking about other possible explanations for the observed results. Caution students to be critical of what they read.

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Activity: Classifying and Analyzing Research Studies Find several examples of research studies in recent professional journals. Divide the class into groups of a few students each and give a different study to each group (alternatively, give each group an abstract or summary from several different articles). Ask group members to identify whether the study is descriptive, correlational, or experimental in nature, and to determine what conclusions can appropriately be drawn from the results.

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Activity: Classifying Research Studies This activity gives students practice in distinguishing among descriptive, correlational, and experimental research. It can be completed in class either individually or in cooperative groups; it can also be completed as a homework assignment. It is accompanied by Handout 1.4 (located in Appendix B) or Instructor’s Manual Slides 1.3 to 1.12.

1. Distribute Handout 1.4. Ask students to consider whether each of the results described reflects a descriptive, correlational, or experimental study. In each case, students should explain their reasoning. Alternatively, show Instructor’s Manual Slides 1.5 to 1.12 one at a time and discuss each one.

2. Solicit students’ conclusions and their rationales within a whole-class discussion. You might want to show Textbook Slide 1.19 as an example of variables that are correlated. Correct answers are as follows: 6 ..

Chapter 1—Introduction to Educational Psychology •

Study #1: Descriptive—It describes the most common strategy used to learn spelling words, but it does not relate this strategy to another variable.

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Study #2: Correlational—Teachers’ beliefs at the beginning of the school year (either that girls and boys read equally well, or that girls are better readers) are consistent with the pattern of reading achievement test scores at the end of the year. The experimenter does not specifically manipulate teachers’ beliefs but examines them as they already exist.

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Study #3: Correlational—There is a relationship between parental education and the amount of reading to children, but the educational level of the parents is not manipulated by the experimenter.

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Study #4: Experimental (Quasi-experimental)—The classes were assigned to an experimental or control condition.

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Study #5: Descriptive—The amount of wait time after teacher questions is reported, but it is not related to another variable.

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Study #6: Correlational—Perceptions of teacher caring and student effort are positively related. Teacher caring is not manipulated, so it’s not an experiment..

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Study #7: Experimental—The experimenters determine which students get the training and which do not.

Question for students: Why do researchers sometimes conduct correlational studies rather than experimental studies, even though only experimental studies allow conclusions about cause-effect relationships?

Answer: There are often legal, ethical, or practical considerations that make experimental studies impossible. For example, an experimenter who is studying the effect of parent-child reading sessions on cognitive development cannot, either realistically or ethically, ask parents to read to their children less frequently than they might otherwise do.

1.2.e. Out-of-Class Activities •

Summarize the mission statements of three organizations that represent educational psychology (e.g., American Educational Research Association, American Psychological Association). Answer questions such as: What is the purpose of the organization? Is the organization relevant for teachers? How can teachers become involved with the organization?

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Find out how to access and use databases (such as E RIC or PsycINFO) through your university’s online library catalog.

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Locate three different professional journals that publish research articles related to human learning, child development, motivation, and/or classroom practice. Describe the kinds of research studies that each of these journals publishes.

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Browse through professional research journals to find one example each of descriptive, correlational, and experimental studies related to psychology and/or education.

1.2.f. Supplementary Lectures (located in Appendix A) •

Lecture 1.1: Why Do We Need Research?

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Lecture 1.2: Variables, Constants, and Control

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Lecture 1.3: Basic and Applied Research

Big Idea 1.3. Strategies for Learning and Studying Effectively 7 ..

Chapter 1—Introduction to Educational Psychology

1.3.a. Outline Big Idea 1.3 Students read, study, and learn more efficiently when they plan appropriately and use effective strategies.

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Before you study, prepare for your study session.

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During your study session, use effective study strategies.

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At the end of your study session, evaluate your progress and schedule additional study sessions as needed.

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Be an active participant and put forth mental effort in your learning and studying processes.

1.3.b. Textbook Slides: 1.23 to 1.28 1.3.c. Discussion Topics •

What are the most effective study strategies that you use as a student? (You can also group the strategies into categories to show the similarities between the strategies. Possible groups include those that involve relating new information to what you already know, organization, visualization, elaboration, and rehearsal.)

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What strategies do you use that are not very effective? Why do you use them if they are not very effective? (Students might say that the less effective strategies require less effort and that these strategies are good enough to help them pass a test. This could lead to a discussion of how assessments can affect the ways in which students study and learn.)

1.3.d. Out-of-Class Activity •

Teach a fellow student one or more effective learning strategies from this chapter (strategies that they don’t already know or use). Have them try the strategy in one of their courses and report back to you about how it worked. You can ask them questions such as: Did the strategies help you to remember the information better? Did the strategies increase your longterm memory of the material? Did your grade improve?

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Chapter 2—Learning, Cognition, and Memory

CHAPTER 2: LEARNING, COGNITION, AND MEMORY Chapter Overview This chapter focuses on learning, which is the major aim of most instructional approaches. Most students, regardless of age or experience, will find this chapter interesting because it addresses issues related to learning and memory that they have experienced throughout their lifetime. These ideas complement the ideas and strategies provided in Chapter 1 (Section 1.3, Strategies for Learning and Studying Effectively), and it can be helpful for the instructor to make connections between the ideas in this chapter and the ideas in Section 1.3.

Introduction This chapter of the Instructor’s Manual follows the outline of the textbook topics. This manual does not include information related to the Summary or the Case Study Practice Exercises listed in the outline that follows.

Chapter Outline from the Textbook •

Big Ideas to Master in This Chapter

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Case Study: Studying for a Test

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Big Idea 2.1: Thinking and Learning in the Brain

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•

•

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Functions of the Brain

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Teaching Strategies: Supporting Optimal Brain Functioning

Big Idea 2.2: A Model of Human Memory o

Sensory Register, Attention, and Working Memory

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Teaching Strategies: Remembering the Limitations of Attention and Working Memory

Big Idea 2.3: Long-Term Memory o

The Nature of Long-Term Memory

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Storing Information in Long-Term Memory

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Teaching Strategies: Encouraging Effective Long-Term Memory Storage Processes

Big Idea 2.4: Learning as Active Construction o

Knowledge Construction

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Teaching Strategies: Encouraging Effective Long-Term Memory Storage Processes

Big Idea 2.5: Why Learners May or May Not Remember What They Have Learned o

Recalling Information

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Teaching Strategies: Facilitating Retrieval

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Summary

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Case Study Practice Exercises: Vision Unit

Big Ideas to Master in This Chapter 2.1 The brain continues to change and learn over the course of a lifetime.

2.2. Attention and working memory limit the amount of information that learners can process and remember.

2.3 Learners can use strategies intentionally to store information in long-term memory.

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Chapter 2—Learning, Cognition, and Memory

2.4 Learners actively create much of what they know and believe about the world based on their existing knowledge and beliefs.

2.5 Human memory is fallible: Learners don’t remember everything they learn, and sometimes they misremember what they’ve learned.

Textbook Slide: 2.2 Case Study: Studying for a Test Questions and Answers •

The questions presented at the end of the case study in the textbook are as follows and the answers are provided below each question.

1. What strategies did Kayla use to study for the test? o

She paid attention and took notes during class, skimmed the textbook, and made flashcards on her phone.

2. What other strategies could Kayla have used to prepare for the test? o

She could have started studying earlier in the week and begun reading the textbook the prior week when the teacher assigned it.

o

She could have related the information to her existing knowledge and experiences, organized it, used visual images, and elaborated on it.

3. Do you think that Kayla is likely to remember most of what she learned in the future, such as in 2 months or next year? Why or why not? o

Because Kayla learned the material mainly by repeating the information on the flashcards and not by using other strategies to any significant extent, she is unlikely to remember what she learned for very long. She may be able to get a good grade on her test the next day, but without reviewing the material again or using other strategies, she probably won’t remember much of the information in 2 months or a year.

Textbook Slides: 2.3 and 2.4; Slides 2.5 and 2.6 appear in the Introduction before Big Idea 2.1 Big Idea 2.1. Thinking and Learning in the Brain 2.1.a. Outline Big Idea 2.1 The brain continues to change and learn over the course of a lifetime.

Functions of the Brain •

The various parts of the brain work closely with one another.

•

Most learning probably involves changes in neurons, astrocytes, and their interconnections.

•

The brain functions in close collaboration with—rather than in relative isolation from—the rest of the body.

•

Knowing how the brain functions and develops tells us only so much about learning and instruction.

Teaching Strategies: Supporting Optimal Brain Functioning •

Provide ongoing intellectual stimulation, but don’t overdo it.

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Chapter 2—Learning, Cognition, and Memory •

Encourage physical exercise.

•

Encourage students to get plenty of sleep.

2.1.b. Textbook Slides: 2.7 to 2.11 2.1.c. Discussion Topics •

Do you think that it is important for teachers to understand the anatomy of the brain? Why or why not?

•

What specific activities have you seen teachers implement that would support students’ optimal brain functioning?

Big Idea 2.2. A Model of Human Memory 2.2.a. Outline Big Idea 2.2 Attention and working memory limit the amount of information that learners can process and remember.

Sensory Register, Attention, and Working Memory •

Sensory input stays in a raw form only briefly.

•

Attention is essential for most learning and memory.

•

Working memory has a short duration and limited capacity.

Teaching Strategies: Remembering the Limitations of Attention and Working Memory •

Grab and hold students’ attention.

•

Keep the limited capacity of working memory in mind.

2.2.b. Textbook Slides: 2.12 to 2.14 2.2.c. Discussion Topics •

What strategies do you use to help you pay attention during class?

•

What do your teachers do to help you pay attention during class?

2.2.d. Activities •

Activity: Sensory Register This simple activity illustrates the role of the sensory register by showing how a visual memory trace persists for a fraction of a second.

Before class, you will need to construct a thaumatrope, a gadget that is spun quickly so that your mind combines two images into one. Cut a circle out of a piece of cardboard that is the same color (ideally white) on both sides. Draw a picture on each side of the cardboard. As a simple illustration, the circles below show a birdcage on one side of a circle and a bird on the other. Note how the bird is upside-down relative to the birdcage because you will need one image to be upside-down relative to the other to get the desired effect. Punch a small hole on each side of the circle as shown in the illustration below and attach a piece of string several inches long at these two holes. (Long rubber bands work as well.)

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Chapter 2—Learning, Cognition, and Memory

1. In class, show both sides of the thaumatrope.

2. Ask a student to assist you and have your assistant hold the ends of the two strings such that the cardboard circle and strings are horizontal and somewhat (but not overly) taut. Then rotate the circle over and over numerous times (at least 20, perhaps more) so that the two strings are well twisted.

3. Ask your assistant to pull on the two sides of the thaumatrope in opposing directions, allowing the strings to untwist and the cardboard circle to spin. If your students are sitting close enough, they should see the two images as a single picture (e.g., a bird inside a birdcage).

4. Ask your students to explain this illusion using what they have learned about human memory. (Explanation: The sensory register maintains an image for a fraction of a second. The two pictures are being seen close enough in succession that traces of both are in the sensory register at the same time.)

Note: Thanks to Fred Bloise for the reminder of these simple gadgets.

•

Activity: Cocktail Party This activity is designed to illustrate the effects of attention in a “cocktail party” situation.

1. Introduce the activity only as a means to enable students to get to know one another better.

2. Give each student a scavenger hunt-like task, asking them to find a classmate who: •

Has run a marathon

•

Has a pet bird

•

Can skateboard

•

•

Has a child

Prefers butterscotch to hot fudge

•

Has been to France

•

Can’t swim

•

Grows flowers

•

Has at least four siblings

•

Is a Glee fan

3. After a reasonable amount of time, have students return to their seats. Ask them questions such as these: •

How much of other people’s conversations did you hear?

•

What specific things attracted your attention to conversations other than yours?

•

Were there times when you were not attending to the person speaking to you because of something another group was talking about?

4. Follow up on their answers by making these points: •

It is difficult to pay attention to more than one message at a time.

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Chapter 2—Learning, Cognition, and Memory

•

•

You don’t always pay attention to the person speaking to you, especially if that person’s message is less interesting than another message being presented at the same time.

•

What’s true for you with respect to attention will also be true for your students.

Activity: Limited Capacity of Working Memory This activity illustrates the limited capacity of working memory via a classic digit span task.

1. Tell students that you are going to present a series of number strings and that they are to write down each string as soon as you have finished reading it (stress that they are not to write the numbers down while you read them) (see Instructor’s Manual Slide 2.2 and then go to blank Manual Slide 2.3). Then read the first number string below, presenting the digits at a rate of about one per second. Allow students time to write what they remember. Follow the same procedure for the remaining strings.

2961 83591 614729 3816527 41758362 572634981 2. Ask students to cover up their answers and once again write down the third string you read. Because almost no one will be able to do this, you can point out that the task definitely involves “working/short-term” memory.

3. Read the number strings again (or show Instructor’s Manual Slide 2.4), asking students to check their answers. Ask students to indicate by a show of hands how many got the four-digit string correct, the five-digit string correct, and so on, each time writing the number of hands raised on the chalkboard. Virtually all of them should have recalled the first two strings correctly, but very few should have gotten the nine-digit string correct.

4. Describe George Miller’s magic number 7 ± 2—the idea that we can typically remember from five to nine digits at one time (G. A. Miller, 1956). Point out that it is probably impossible to describe the exact capacity of working memory (e.g., Simon, 1974); nevertheless, it is clear that working memory can hold only a relatively small amount of information at once. Relate students’ performance on the digit span task to the limited capacity of working memory (see Instructor’s Manual Slide 2.5).

5. If a few students correctly recalled the nine-digit string, ask them to describe the strategies that they used. They will typically describe grouping (chunking) the digits into threes or some similar organizational strategy.

6. Ask for a student volunteer to do another number memory task. Tell the student that you will read a second series of number strings and that he or she must recall them in reverse order. Read the first number string below (one digit per second), have the student respond, read the second string, and so on, until the student has incorrectly recalled two strings in a row. The student will probably have difficulty remembering as many digits as he/she did before.

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Chapter 2—Learning, Cognition, and Memory

35861249 618592473 7. Discuss the “working” component of working memory—that there may be a tradeoff between how much information we can store in working memory and how much we must process that information.

•

Activity: The Limits of Working Memory Put students in a group with two other students. Give the groups a list of several different examples of tasks that teachers might give their students. Ask students to decide whether the task imposes a reasonable or unreasonable cognitive load. A variation on this activity is to have the groups develop their own tasks, share them with the rest of the class, and have the class discuss whether the task imposes a reasonable or unreasonable cognitive load.

Some examples of tasks are as follows: •

A third-grade teacher asks his students to put down their pencils and solve the following math problem in their head: 284–96.

•

An English teacher shows some vocabulary words in a PowerPoint slide show and students copy the words and definitions using a pen and paper. While the students are writing, the teacher provides examples of how the words can be used in sentences.

2.2.e. Supplementary Lectures (located in Appendix A) •

Lecture 2.1: Attention (includes Instructor’s Manual Slide 2.6)

Big Idea 2.3. Long-Term Memory 2.3.a. Outline Big Idea 2.3 Learners can use strategies intentionally to store information in long-term memory.

The Nature of Long-Term Memory •

Long-term memory is composed of declarative and procedural knowledge.

•

Long-term memory has a long duration and virtually limitless capacity.

•

Some declarative knowledge is stored as concepts.

•

Information in long-term memory is interconnected and organized to some extent.

Storing Information in Long-Term Memory •

Some long-term memory storage processes are more effective than others.

•

Practice makes knowledge more automatic and durable.

•

Automaticity frees up working memory capacity for other tasks.

•

With age and experience, children acquire more effective learning strategies and use them more intentionally.

Teaching Strategies: Encouraging Effective Long-Term Memory Storage Processes •

Help students learn concepts through the use of defining features, examples, and nonexamples.

•

Help students organize ideas by making connections among them.

•

Facilitate visual imagery.

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Chapter 2—Learning, Cognition, and Memory •

Present questions and tasks that encourage elaboration.

•

Suggest mnemonics for hard-to-remember facts.

•

Focus assessments on meaningful learning rather than rote

•

learning.

•

Provide many opportunities to practice important knowledge and skills.

•

Be on the lookout for students who have unusual difficulty with certain cognitive processes.

2.3.b. Textbook Slides: 2.15 to 2.23 2.3.c. Discussion Topics •

What strategies do you use to help you learn and remember the things that you read in your textbooks and hear in your lecture classes?

•

What do your teachers do to help you learn and remember course information?

•

What common misconceptions do children (and possibly adults as well) have related to the subject domain(s) you will be teaching?

2.3.d. Activities •

Activity: Developing a Mnemonic

Give one or more of the paired-associate or serial learning tasks on Handout 2.1 (located at the end of this manual in Appendix B) to each group. Ask the group to develop a mnemonic to facilitate learning of the information.

•

Activity: Identifying Effective Learning Strategies

Photocopy passages from various introductory college textbooks and give one passage to each group. (You may want to choose textbooks that are relatively dry and boring.) Ask the group to identify strategies for helping learners process the material in ways that should facilitate effective storage and retrieval.

•

Activity: Meaningful Learning

This activity illustrates the importance of being able to relate new information to the things we already know.

1. Ask students to take out a pen and piece of scrap paper (see Instructor’s Manual Slide 2.8). Tell them that you are going to read them two 20-word sentences. As soon as you have finished reading each one, they should write down as much of the sentence as they can remember. Read the first sentence below, then give students sufficient time to write what they remember. Do the same thing with the second sentence.

(1). After walking a long time in the hot sun, we felt thirsty, so began to look for a cool stream.

(2). An important coordinating center in the hypothalamus integrates the involuntary nervous system, which enervates smooth muscles, cardiac muscles, and glands.

Your students will probably write the first sentence without complaint, but many will make little if any attempt to recall the second sentence.

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Chapter 2—Learning, Cognition, and Memory

2. Ask students which sentence was easier to recall (they will invariably tell you that the first was easier). Then ask them why the first sentence was easier. Their responses can provide a lead-in to a discussion of meaningful learning: Things are easier to remember when we can relate them to things we already know (see Instructor’s Manual Slide 2.9).

You might also ask if any students have taken a course in human physiology. If so, ask them whether they found the second sentence easier to remember than their classmates did.

3. Explain that you will now read a list of 10 little-known facts (see Instructor’s Manual Slide 2.10). When you are finished reading the entire list, they should write down as many of the facts as they can remember. Read the sentences on Instructor’s Manual Slide 2.11 and give students enough time to write what they can recall.

4. Show Instructor’s Manual Slide 2.11 to the students and ask them to score their responses (giving themselves half points for remembering parts of items). Then ask how many students remembered the first sentence (counting two halves as one), the second sentence, etc. Use the chalkboard/whiteboard to record the number of students remembering each sentence.

5. Ask students why some facts were more memorable than others. You can interpret their responses in terms of the ideas on Instructor’s Manual Slides 2.12 and 2.13.

6. Explain that some early learning theorists preferred to study how people learn things that they can’t make sense of; therefore, they devised learning tasks involving nonsense syllables. Tell students that you will present five pairs of such nonsense syllables.

Afterward, you will give the first “word” in each pair and ask them to recall the second.

Present the paired-associate on Instructor’s Manual Slide 2.14 for 6 seconds. Then present the paired-associate on slide 2.15 for 6 seconds and continue in a similar manner for slides 2.16, 2.17, and 2.18. You will end on the blank slide 2.19.

7. Tell students that you are going to present the first word in each pair and ask students to write down the word that goes with it. Start with Instructor’s Manual Slide 2.20 and continue until you end at slide 2.25. Show each slide until students are finished writing down their answers. Once they have attempted to recall all five paired-associates, present slide 2.26 so that they can score their responses.

8. Ask students how easy they found the task to be. Then ask them if anyone was able to make the pairs meaningful in some way (e.g., “The CAFe was SIMply elegant”). Explain that people often try to impose meaning where none exists—that meaningful learning is a very “natural” learning process.

•

Activity: Organization Facilitates Memory

This activity illustrates organization as a process that facilitates memory storage and retrieval. It is accompanied by Instructor’s Manual Slides 2.28 to 2.36.

1. Tell students that you will be giving them two learning tasks and ask them to take out a piece of scrap paper. Tell them that in the first task, you will present a list of 20 words; once you have finished the list, they should write down as many of the words as they can remember, in any order that they choose. Read the following list of words at a rate of about one word per second. pumpkin

shirt

barber

doctor

spoon

bowl

carrot

lettuce 16

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Chapter 2—Learning, Cognition, and Memory

sock

pants

knife

fork

Lawyer

shoe

squash

cup

belt

cabbage

secretary

nurse

Give students sufficient time to write down all the words they remember. Do not discuss this task just yet.

2. Tell students that the second learning task involves remembering where the white and black dots are in a configuration of 25 dots. Show Instructor’s Manual Slide 2.28 for 10 seconds, then show blank slide 2.29 and ask students to draw the 25 white and black dots in the relative locations they remember seeing them. Do the same thing for Instructor’s Manual Slide 2.30 and then go to blank Slide 2.31 and ask them to draw again.

3. Show students Instructor’s Manual Slide 2.32 so that they can check their answers. Ask them which set of dots was easier to remember, and why. They should tell you that the second set was easier because it looked like the letter M. 4. Returning to the first learning task, ask two students to read their lists of words.

Students will likely recall the words in categories (i.e., as clothing, eating utensils, vegetables, and professions.) Ask students if they notice a common pattern in how different people remembered the words (see Instructor’s Manual Slide 2.33). They will probably recognize the category-related recall. Show them Instructor’s Manual Slide 2.34 and have them check their answers. Then ask them if they would have remembered the list better if you had read it in the order shown on the right side of Instructor’s Manual Slide 2.35. And maybe many of them recalled them in categories similar to those shown on the right side of the slide.

5. Ask students to derive a principle of learning from their performance on the two learning tasks. Eventually, the class should express the idea that memory is easier when information can be organized in some way (see Instructor’s Manual Slide 2.36).

•

Activity: Elaboration

This activity illustrates how we often impose the things we know on new information. It was originally published in Ormrod (1989, pp. 68–70) and was modeled after Haney (1973). It is accompanied by Handout 2.2 in Appendix B. 1. Introduce the activity by telling students that you want to find out how good their memories are for details. Tell them that you will read a short story and then have them take a true-false test about some of the details presented in the story. Read the following story: John had had a busy day at the office. As he was driving home late that night, he stopped at a neighborhood convenience store to pick up a pack of cigarettes. After completing his errand, John stayed on for a few minutes to talk with the pretty store clerk. A heavyset man entered the store and, brusquely pushing John aside, walked up to the counter. He handed the clerk a large canvas bag and insisted that the contents of the cash register be placed into it.

The clerk reluctantly obeyed his order. The man then sped away with the filled 17 ..

Chapter 2—Learning, Cognition, and Memory

bag under his arm, leaving the clerk in tears, the empty cash register drawer still open, and John looking on helplessly.

2. Distribute Handout 2.2 and go over the instructions with the students. Then give them sufficient time to respond to all of the items.

3. Ask students whether the first statement about the story—John had worked hard at the office that day—is true. Many of them will probably tell you that it is true, but in fact it is questionable—the story says only that John had had a busy day. Continue with each remaining item, soliciting students’ responses and giving the correct answers: 1. ?

2. ?

3. F 4. ?

5. ?

6. F 7. ?

8. T 9. ?

10. T 11. ?

12. ?

13. ?

4. Ask students why they had difficulty separating fact from fiction. You might also ask what specific assumptions they brought to their interpretation of the story. Their responses should provide the basis for a discussion about how elaboration is involved in long-term memory storage. Explain that learners store both the information they receive and their elaborations of it, such that they often have difficulty later on telling which was which.

•

Activity: Effectiveness of Visual Imagery

This activity illustrates the effectiveness of visual imagery using the “One Is a Bun” technique (G. A. Miller, Galanter, & Pribram, 1960, p. 135). It is accompanied by Instructor’s Manual Slide 2.38.

1. Tell students that you are going to read the following word list and that you expect them to remember exactly where each word appears in the list. Then read the words like this: “One. . .camel. Two...banana...” and so on.

1. camel 2. banana 3. glove 4. river 5. telephone 6. star 7. bread 8. pencil 18 ..

Chapter 2—Learning, Cognition, and Memory

9. tulip 10. truck 2. Ask students: What was word #5? #8? #3? #6? #2? They will probably have difficulty identifying the specific position in which various words appeared.

3. Tell students that you are now going to read another list of 10 words, but this time you will give them a strategy that should help them remember the words. Show Instructor’s Manual Slide 2.38. Instruct students to form a visual image of each word you read with the corresponding object in the poem. For example, with the previous list of words, they might have pictured a large sliced bun with a camel inside, a banana sticking out of a shoe, etc.

4. Read the following word list in the same manner that you read the previous list: 1. hat 2. marshmallow 3. giraffe 4. volcano 5. envelope 6. statue 7. typewriter 8. yarn 9. piano 10. sandwich 5. Ask students: What was word #4? #7? #2? #10? #8? #1? #3? #6? #5? #9? You can have them either shout out answers or write them on a piece of scrap paper. They should find the second list easier to recall than the first list.

6. Talk about visual imagery as an effective means of encoding information. You may also want to describe the keyword mnemonic.

7. Ask if some students had difficulty forming visual images for the second list of words. If so, their responses provide a lead-in to a discussion of individual differences—the idea that some people form images more easily than others do.

8. Ask students: How might you adapt this strategy for students who are deaf? One possible strategy is to use a poem in which each number is associated with a word that resembles the number visually in terms of hand formations in American Sign Language (AS L). Natalie Powell, who for many years worked at Gallaudet College (a college for students who are deaf), passed along this version of the “One is a Bun” mnemonic: One is you.

Two is vegetable.

Three is rooster.

Four is football.

Five is paper.

Six is water.

Seven is smoking.

Eight is pumpkin.

Nine is Indian.

Ten is nut.

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Chapter 2—Learning, Cognition, and Memory

Note: If you have students in your class who know ASL, you might ask them to demonstrate the signs for the number 1–10 and their corresponding “look-alikes” in the poem.

•

Activity: Rote Learning Compared to Meaningful Learning with Elaboration

This activity demonstrates the difference between meaningful learning and rote learning.

1. Tell the students the following: “I’m going to read a list of digits and when I’m finished, I’m going to ask you to write down as many digits as you can remember.”

2. Read the following digits at the rate of one per second: 3, 9, 4, 16, 5, 25, 6, 36, 7, 49.

Then, say: “Okay, now write down as many of the numbers as you can remember in the order in which I read them.”

Show students the numbers (shown on Instructor’s Manual Slide 40) and ask them to count how many numbers they got correct in order. Ask students to raise their hands if they got 10 correct, then 9 correct, then 8 correct, etc. Ask the students who got a lot of them correct what they did to remember the numbers. Maybe they found a pattern in the numbers or did something else. Then ask them if they would have remembered the numbers if you told them to start with the number 3 and square it (9), then add one (4) and square it (16), then add another one (5) and square it (25), etc. By knowing the pattern, they could have elaborated on the information by using their prior mathematical knowledge of squaring.

Doing so makes it a lot easier to remember the string of numbers.

Trying to remember each digit individually without relating it to anything in your prior knowledge is called “rote learning.” Rote learning using rehearsal involves learning primarily through repetition and practice, with little or no attempt to make sense of what is being learned. Rehearsal is not a very effective way of storing information in long-term memory.

• Activity: Levels of Processing This activity illustrates the effects that different levels of processing have on our memory for information. It is accompanied by Instructor’s Manual Slides 2.42 to 2.76.

1. Introduce the task only as an “experiment” and ask students to take out a piece of scrap paper. Draw an invisible line down the middle of the classroom. Students on one side are Group 1; students on the other side are Group 2.

2. Tell Group 1 that you are going to show them a list of 17 words, one word at a time.

Their task is to write down the number of letter Es in each word as quickly as they can.

Ask Group 2 to look away as you present the words to Group 1. Using Instructor’s Manual Slides 2.42 to 2.75, show the word (September) on Instructor’s Manual Slide 2.42 for approximately one second, then go to the blank Instructor’s Manual Slide 2.43 and ask students to write their answer. Show the second word for a second (Instructor’s Manual Slide 2.44), then go to the blank Instructor’s Manual Slide 2.45 and ask students to write their answer. Continue this process until you have shown all 17 words and are on the blank Instructor’s Manual Slide 2.75.

3. Tell Group 2 that you are also going to show them 17 words, one word at a time. Their task is to write down the first word that comes to mind when they see the word. Ask Group 1 to look away as you present the words to Group 2. Using Instructor’s Manual Slides 2.42 to 2.75 again repeat the process that you used for Group 1.

4. Now ask students in both groups to cover their answers and write down as many of the words that they saw on the slides as they can remember. Once they have done so, show the Instructor’s Manual Slide 2.76 (a list of all of the words) and ask them to count the number of words that they recalled correctly (they can give themselves half points if they remember manipulation as “manipulate” or investigate as “investigation”).

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Chapter 2—Learning, Cognition, and Memory

5. Write the scores of each student in each group on the chalkboard. Group 2 should have remembered noticeably more words than Group 1.

6. Ask students to speculate on why Group 2 did better. The reason is that Group 1s task required them to attend to superficial characteristics, whereas Group 2s task required them to process the words’ meanings. Point out that students in neither group intended to remember the words because they didn’t anticipate that they would have to remember them. The differences in recall between the groups is presumably a function of the degree to which they mentally processed the words.

2.3.e. Out-of-Class Activity •

Ask fellow students in various majors about specific mnemonics they use to remember particular ideas in their discipline.

•

Ask fellow students which strategies work best and worst for helping them remember information in the short-term and long-term.

Big Idea 2.4. Learning as Active Construction 2.4.a. Outline Big Idea 2.4 Learners actively create much of what they know and believe about the world based on their existing knowledge and beliefs.

Knowledge Construction •

Learners use what they already know and believe to help them make sense of new experiences.

•

Prior knowledge and beliefs affect new learning, usually for the better but sometimes for the worse.

•

Learners differ in the factors that influence their ability to learn and remember.

Teaching Strategies: Helping Students Construct Knowledge •

Relate new ideas to students’ prior knowledge and experiences.

•

Take advantage of students’ diverse background knowledge in designing instruction.

•

Provide experiences on which students can build.

•

Identify and address students’ misconceptions.

•

Regularly assess students’ understandings.

2.4.b. Textbook Slide: 2.24 to 2.27 2.4.c. Discussion Topics •

Some people think of the mind as a container into which teachers can simply pour knowledge. What implications would such a metaphor have for teaching practice? Is the view that learning is constructive consistent or inconsistent with the mind-as-container metaphor? What metaphors might better reflect the constructive nature of learning?

•

What are some possible advantages of humans’ ability to construct meaning from their environment, rather than simply absorbing the information exactly as it is presented?

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2.4.d. Activity •

Activity: Construction in Perception

This activity is designed to illustrate the constructive nature of human perception.

1. Tell students that you are going to show them two phrases on the large screen and that they should simply make a mental note of what they read each time. Show the triangle on Instructor’s Manual Slide 2.78 for approximately one second (in other words, don’t give students enough time to look very carefully at it) and then switch to Instructor’s Manual Slide 2.79 (the blank slide). Repeat the process for the triangle on Instructor’s Manual Slide 2.80 and the blank slide 2.81.

2. Ask students what they read in the first and second triangles. Most will tell you that they read “Once in a while” and “Shot in the dark” (shown on Instructor’s Manual Slide 2.82), although a few will tell you the actual phrases.

3. Show students Instructor’s Manual Slide 2.83 and ask them to explain why most of them didn’t notice the repeated words. Their responses can lead you into a discussion of how perception is often constructive in nature: We observe bits and pieces and construct a meaningful whole from them (see Instructor’s Manual Slide 2.84).

4. Present Instructor’s Manual Slide 2.85 and ask students to figure out what the phrase says. Instruct them to remain silent when they know the answer. Then present Instructor’s Manual Slide 2.86, Instructor’s Manual Slide 2.87, and Instructor’s Manual Slide 2.88, until all students recognize “Picking flowers.” Ask students to identify those pieces of information that gave away the phrase. As before, use their responses to talk about the constructive nature of perception.

2.4.e. Out-of-Class Activity •

Ask your students to have three of their friends read the “Rocky” passage (this is a “See for Yourself” exercise presented in Chapter 2 of the textbook) and summarize what it is about. Have your students hand-in, or report to the rest of the class, their sentences.

Big Idea 2.5. Why Learners May or May Not Remember What They Have Learned 2.5.a. Outline Big Idea 2.5 Human memory is fallible: Learners don’t remember everything they learn, and sometimes they misremember what they’ve learned.

Recalling Information •

How easily something is recalled depends on how it was initially learned.

•

Remembering depends on the context and retrieval cues.

•

How easily something is recalled and used depends on how often it has been recalled and used in the past.

•

Recall often involves construction or reconstruction.

•

Long-term memory isn’t necessarily forever.

Teaching Strategies: Facilitating Retrieval •

Give students time to think about questions.

•

Give hints that help students recall or reconstruct what they’ve learned.

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Chapter 2—Learning, Cognition, and Memory •

Provide opportunities for students to practice retrieving information.

•

Intermix practice problems with problems from previous lessons.

•

Space review sessions over time.

2.5.b. Textbook Slides: 2.28 to 2.30 2.5.c. Discussion Topics •

What retrieval cues do you provide for yourself?

•

Do you sometimes find yourself forgetting to do something because you didn’t give yourself a retrieval cue?

•

How might you monitor yourself as to whether you are incorporating sufficient wait time into your teaching?

•

The textbook recommends periodic review of previously studied material as a way of helping students remember the material over the long run. How might you incorporate previous lessons into later class material without having your class seem too repetitive?

2.5.d. Activities •

Activity: Retrieval of Words

This task (from Ormrod, 1989, pp. 144–145) illustrates how retrieval is facilitated by retrieval cues. The activity is accompanied by Instructor’s Manual Slides 2.90 and 2.91.

1. Ask students to take out a piece of scrap paper. Tell them that you will read them a list of 20 words and that their task is to remember as many of the words as they can, in any order that they wish. Then read the following words at a rate of about one per second. baboon tissue carpet light bulb curtains pixie cantaloupe stocking ballpoint pen gold battery spoon sunburn stove forest stable iron needle 23 ..

Chapter 2—Learning, Cognition, and Memory

penguin dream Give students sufficient time to write down as many of the words as they can remember.

2. Explain that you are now going to give them hints—retrieval cues—to help them remember each of the words. Present Instructor’s Manual Slide 2.90 and explain that each of these words is related to a word in the original list (the retrieval cues are located in the same positions as the words themselves). Ask students to write any additional words that they can now remember in a separate column of their paper.

3. Show the original word list on Instructor’s Manual Slide 2.91 so that students can check their answers. Ask students to tell you how many words they could remember before you gave them retrieval cues and how many they were able to remember altogether.

List both scores for all students in two different columns on the chalkboard. It should be clear from the numbers that retrieval cues facilitate recall of otherwise difficult-toremember information.

•

Activity: Retrieval of Phrases

This task illustrates how difficult retrieval can be in the absence of effective retrieval cues. The activity is accompanied by Handout 2.3 (located at the end of this manual in Appendix B).

NOTE: This task requires considerable knowledge of mainstream American culture. It is not effective for students from cultures very different than that of the United States; for example, students from Southeast Asia are unlikely to be familiar with many of the facts and phrases that need to be retrieved in the task.

1. Tell students that this task asks them to remember things that they have learned many years ago (in some instances). Distribute Handout 2.3 and explain that each item represents either a commonly used expression or the number typically associated with a particular object or event. Give them a fairly lengthy period of time to think about the items (you may even want to give them until the next class period). (I regret that I do not know the source of these items; they have been passed along from one person to another.)

2. Review each of the items and supply any answers that students were unable to retrieve on their own (answers are listed below). Ask students what retrieval strategies they used as they thought about what the items might be. Explain that it is often easier to retrieve things when we have a semantically related retrieval cue than when we only have a number.

Answers: 1. 26 letters of the alphabet 2. 7 wonders of the world 3. 1001 Arabian Nights 4. 12 signs of the Zodiac 5. 54 cards in the deck (with the jokers) 6. 9 planets in the solar system 7. 88 piano keys 8. 32 degrees at which water freezes 9. 13 stars on the American flag 10. 18 holes on a golf course 24 ..

Chapter 2—Learning, Cognition, and Memory

11. 90 degrees in a right angle 12. 200 dollars for passing go 13. 8 sides on a stop sign 14. 3 blind mice (see how they run) 15. 4 quarts in a gallon 16. 24 hours in a day 17. 1 wheel on a unicycle 18. 5 digits in a zip code 19. 21-gun salute 20. 11 players on a football team 21. A picture is worth a 1000 words 22. 29 days in February in a leap year 23. 64 squares on a checker board 24. 2 peas in a pod 25. 3 strikes and you’re out 26. 2 wrongs don’t make a right

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Chapter 3—Complex Cognitive Processes

CHAPTER 3: COMPLEX COGNITIVE PROCESSES Chapter Overview This chapter builds on the last chapter by discussing what learners can do to go beyond the specific information that they are studying and learning. Complex cognitive processes involve concepts such as self-regulation, metacognition, transfer, problem solving, creativity, and critical thinking. For example, can learners apply information to a new situation, use it to solve a problem or create a product, or even critically evaluate it?

Introduction This chapter of the Instructor’s Manual follows the outline of the textbook topics. This manual does not include information related to the Summary or the Case Study Practice Exercises listed in the outline that follows.

Chapter Outline from the Textbook • Big Ideas to Master in This Chapter • Case Study: Taking Over • Big Idea 3.1: Self-Regulation and Metacognition o

Effective Self-Regulated Learning

o

The Roles of Metacognition

o

Teaching Strategies: Promoting Self-Regulation Skills and Metacognitive Development

• Big Idea 3.2: Transfer o

Factors that Affect Transfer

o

Teaching Strategies: Fostering Transfer

• Big Idea 3.3: Problem Solving and Creativity o

General Principles Related to Problem Solving and Creativity

o

Teaching Strategies: Encouraging Problem Solving and Creativity

• Big Idea 3.4: Thinking o

Attributes of Critical Thinking

o

Teaching Strategies: Developing Students’ Critical Thinking Skills

• Summary • Case Study Practice Exercises: Big Ideas to Master in This Chapter 3.1 Effective learners regularly plan for their learning, monitor it, reflect on it, and strive to improve it.

3.2 Specific facts don’t always have much applicability to the outside world, but many general principles, strategies, and attitudes acquired at school are potentially applicable to a wide variety of situations.

3.3 Learners tend to be more effective problem solvers and more creative thinkers if they have considerable knowledge from which to draw and if they can think flexibly about new tasks and problems.

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Chapter 3—Complex Cognitive Processes

3.4 Thinking involves a variety of cognitive processes, such as problem solving, critical thinking, and reasoning.

Textbook Slides: 3.2 and 3.3 Case Study: Taking Over Questions and Answers

•

The question presented at the end of the case study in the textbook is as follows and the answers are provided below the question.

1. What factors are preventing the students in Ms. Gaunt’s class from learning the material in the eighth-grade math curriculum? o

The students lack prerequisite knowledge and skills on which the eighth-grade curriculum depends.

o

Students believe that learning should come quickly and easily and not involve a lot of effort on their part.

o

Students don’t understand that understanding subject matter is an active, constructive process and that certain strategies can enhance their learning.

o

Students view mathematical problem solving as a quick, mindless, enterprise rather than a step-by-step process that requires logical reasoning and frequent self-checking.

Textbook Slides: 3.4 and 3.5 Big Idea 3.1. Self-Regulation and Metacognition 3.1.a. Outline Big Idea 3.1 Effective learners regularly plan for their learning, monitor it, reflect on it, and strive to improve it.

Effective Self-Regulated Learning

•

Self-regulating learners establish goals for their performance and plan their actions accordingly.

•

Self-regulating learners control and monitor their processes and progress during a learning task.

•

Self-regulating learners seek assistance and support when they need it.

•

Self-regulating learners monitor and try to control their motivation and emotions.

•

Self-regulating learners evaluate the final outcomes of their efforts.

•

Self-regulating learners self-impose consequences for their performance.

•

Most learners become increasingly self-regulating over the course of childhood and adolescence, partly as a result of maturation in key areas of the brain.

The Roles of Metacognition

•

Some effective study strategies are easily seen in learners’ behaviors.

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Chapter 3—Complex Cognitive Processes

•

Study strategies are effective only to the extent that they involve productive cognitive processes.

•

Metacognitive knowledge and skills gradually improve with age.

•

Learners’ beliefs about the nature of knowledge and learning influence their approaches to learning tasks.

Teaching Strategies: Promoting Self-Regulation Skills and Metacognitive Development

•

Guide and support self-regulated learning and behavior.

•

Encourage metacognitive self-reflection.

•

Explicitly teach effective learning strategies.

•

Communicate that acquiring knowledge is a dynamic, ongoing process—that one never knows something completely.

3.1.b. Textbook Slides: 3.6 to 3.11 3.1.c. Discussion Topics

•

Think back to when you were a K-12 student. Did your self-regulation develop similar to the developmental trends described in the textbook?

•

What are your current strengths and weaknesses as a self-regulated learner?

•

What strategies do you use when you study for tests?

•

How might you incorporate study strategy instruction into the subject matter you will be teaching?

•

In what ways might failure experiences enhance students’ metacognitive awareness?

•

At what age is it appropriate for teachers to begin to promote self-regulation skills and help students develop their metacognition?

•

Think of teachers you’ve had who encouraged you to engage regularly in self-regulated learning and metacognition. What strategies did these teachers use?

3.1.d. Activities

•

Activity: Promoting Greater Self-Regulation (Note: This task can also be used as an out-of-class activity.)

Give each group one of the problem situations that follow and ask the group to identify a few strategies for promoting greater self-regulation in each of the students. a. Angela is often late to class. b. Morris procrastinates on doing his assignments. c. Trudy’s mind often wanders during lectures. d. Harry forgets to bring the things he needs to school each day (lunch money, band instrument, permission slips, etc.).

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Chapter 3—Complex Cognitive Processes

•

Activity: How Do You Study?

In groups of three students, have students answer the questions in Handout 3.1 (How Do You Study; located in Appendix B) and ask them to list the strategies they believe would be most effective for reading a textbook, listening to a lecture, and studying for a test. When they are finished, ask each group to share with the entire class one strategy for each of these three activities (i.e., the textbook, lecture, and test). To begin a class discussion on this topic, list the strategies and ask students to identify similarities among them. Discuss what the patterns suggest for metacognition and how we learn, as well as what they suggest for what teachers can do to help students learn.

•

Activity: Developing Questions

Give each group an elementary or secondary level textbook. Ask the group to develop a list of questions that elementary or secondary teachers might have students ask themselves as they read the text. Some questions should promote learning of the material itself; others should promote elaboration or comprehension monitoring.

•

Activity: Analyze Teaching

Show students Video Example 3.1 and/or 3.2 from the textbook. Have students work in groups to identify specific strategies that the teachers in the videos use to promote students’ self-regulation skills and metacognitive development. Then ask them to discuss which aspects of self-regulation or metacognition these strategies most directly affect. Ask them to refer to Figure 3.2 as needed to think about and explain their answers.

•

Activity: Metacognitive Self-Reflection

Explain or review metacognitive self-reflection. Have students work in groups of three to list some specific examples of ways in which teachers can help students to engage in metacognitive self-reflection in the subject areas in which they plan to teach.

•

Activity: Examining Students’ Metacognitive Awareness

This activity presents several interviews with students that reveal aspects of students’ metacognitive awareness (or lack thereof). It is accompanied by Handouts 3.2 (A 5-year-old boy) and 3.3 (A 12-year-old sixth-grade boy; located in Appendix B).

(Note: The interviews were conducted by five educational psychology students.

Thank you to Betsy Hopkins, Melissa Rose, Mike Grages, Evie Greene, and Jennifer Glynn for permission to publish them.)

Distribute Handouts 3.2 and 3.3. (If your class is comprised entirely of future elementary school teachers, you may want to use only Handout 3.2. If it is comprised entirely of future middle school and high school teachers, you may want to use only Handout 3.3.).

Read each interview aloud and ask students to consider the following questions (Alternatively, you may want to use Instructor’s Manual Slides 3.1 to 3.9 as you present these interviews to the class.): o

What strategies does this student use to learn/study?

o

What strategies could s/he use to learn/study more effectively?

29

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o

What does the interview reveal about the student’s metacognitive awareness and epistemological beliefs?

You can have students discuss each interview either as an entire class or in small groups. If they first work in small groups, then periodically pull the class together to solicit each group’s analysis of the interview.

3.1.e. Out-of-Class Activities

•

Have your students interview a child or adolescent in the K-12 grades to determine what he/she does and does not understand about his/her own metacognitive processes. As examples, your students might ask questions like these: “What is thinking?” “What is learning?” “What do you do when you need to remember something?” “What things do you do in your head when you’re trying to study for a test?” If your students interview young children, they will probably want to make their questions very specific (e.g., “What would you do if you wanted to remember to bring a favorite toy to show-and-tell at school the next day?”). In their reports of the interviews, your students should describe: a. The child they interviewed (e.g., age, gender) b. The questions they asked c. The responses the child gave d. Their conclusions about the child’s metacognitive development

•

Have students answer one or more of the following questions: o

What strategies do you use to study in this course?

o

What strategies could you be using in this course to learn the material more effectively?

o

How might you incorporate study strategy instruction into the subject matter you will be teaching?

Share students’ responses with other students. There are a variety of ways to do this. One way is for students to e-mail their responses to you and then you can cut and paste all of their responses into one document and send the document to everyone in the course (you can remove students’ names to keep it anonymous). Another way is to post the questions in an online discussion board and have students respond to the question in the discussion board. Yet another way is to create a wiki and ask students to post their responses on the wiki.

One outcome of this activity may be that students try new (and hopefully more effective) strategies as they study the course material. As another idea, you could copy some of the ideas into a document and give it to students at the beginning of the course the next time you teach the course. You may want to limit the number of strategies you include by selecting those from the students who are achieving the highest in the course.

3.1.f. Supplementary Lectures (located in Appendix A)

•

Lecture 3.1: Promoting Effective Study Strategies

•

Lecture 3.2: Concept Mapping

•

Lecture 3.3: Help-Seeking Behavior in Students

•

Lecture 3.4: Mediation Training

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Chapter 3—Complex Cognitive Processes

Big Idea 3.2. Transfer 3.2.a. Outline Big Idea 3.2 Specific facts don’t always have much applicability to the outside world, but many general principles, strategies, and attitudes acquired at school are potentially applicable to a wide variety of situations.

Factors That Affect Transfer

•

Meaningful learning and conceptual understanding increase the probability of transfer.

•

Both positive and negative transfer are more common when a new situation appears to be similar to a previous one.

•

Some knowledge and skills can be transferred to very different situations.

•

Learning strategies, general beliefs, and attitudes can also transfer to new situations.

•

Transfer increases when the learning environment encourages it.

Teaching Strategies: Fostering Transfer

•

Pursue topics in depth rather than superficially.

•

Provide numerous and varied opportunities to apply classroom subject matter to new situations and authentic activities.

•

Construct assessments that require students to apply their knowledge to new situations.

3.2.b. Textbook Slides: 3.12 to 3.16 3.2.c. Discussion Topics

•

Reflecting on your own behavior, what are some examples of positive and negative transfer?

•

How often do you apply the information and skills you’ve learned in school to real-life situations? Which information and skills have been most useful? Which have been least useful? Why are some things more easily applied than others?

•

Other things being equal, students are more likely to transfer something they’ve learned recently than something they learned a long time ago. Explain this principle in terms of what you learned about retrieval and forgetting in Chapter 2.

3.2.d. Activities

•

Activity: Types of Transfer

Remind students about the four different types of transfer discussed in the textbook (positive, negative, specific, and general; see Instructor’s Manual Slide 3.11) and give them one example of each (see Instructor’s Manual Slide 3.12 for examples). Put students in groups and give them the following three “quiz” questions (or show them Instructor’s Manual Slide 3.13) and ask them to label each as positive or negative, and specific or general transfer.

1. Existing knowledge: Cutting and pasting text in a Word document

o New leaning: Successfully cutting and pasting text in a PowerPoint document 31 ..

Chapter 3—Complex Cognitive Processes

2. Existing knowledge: Correct form for forehand stroke in tennis

o New leaning: Unsuccessful in learning racquetball forehand stroke because the swing involves the use of the wrist, which it does not in tennis 3. Existing knowledge: Working together with basketball teammates and passing the ball leads to more wins than trying to make most of the shots by yourself

o New leaning: Successfully solving a problem in math class with a group of students, you listen to your teammates and try some of their ideas Explain the answers using Instructor’s Manual Slides 3.14 to 3.16.

•

Activity: Avoiding Negative Transfer

Ask students to think of times in their lives when they’ve experienced negative transfer.

Then, ask them to think about ways that the negative transfer could have been avoided.

Perhaps a parent or teacher could have done something to help them avoid negative transfer. Or, maybe the negative transfer was unavoidable. You could also ask them whether or not they learned from their negative transfer experience.

Big Idea 3.3. Problem Solving and Creativity 3.3.a. Outline Big Idea 3.3 Learners tend to be more effective problem solvers and more creative thinkers if they have considerable knowledge from which to draw and if they can think flexibly about new tasks and problems.

General Principles Related to Problem Solving and Creativity

•

The depth of learners’ knowledge influences their ability to solve problems and think creatively.

•

Both convergent and divergent thinking are constrained by working memory capacity.

•

How learners represent a problem or situation influences their strategies and eventual success.

•

Problem solving and creativity often involve heuristics that facilitate but don’t guarantee successful outcomes.

•

Effective problem solving and creativity require self-regulation and metacognition.

Teaching Strategies: Encouraging Problem Solving and Creativity

•

Create a classroom climate in which problem solving and creativity are both expected and valued.

•

Pose questions that require students to engage in divergent thinking.

•

Require students to work on complex problems, projects, and designs.

•

Use technology to simulate real-world tasks and problems.

•

Help students avoid mental sets when engaging in creative problem solving.

3.3.b. Textbook Slides: 3.17 to 3.20 3.3.c. Discussion Topics 32 ..

Chapter 3—Complex Cognitive Processes

•

Many 9-year-olds don’t perceive science to be a subject area that is potentially useful in solving world problems (Perkins & Simmons, 1988; Rakow, 1984). Why might this be so?

•

What are the pros and cons of having students use calculators when working on mathematical problems? In what circumstances would they be counterproductive?

•

Look at the list of heuristics in the section “Problem solving and creativity often involve heuristics that facilitate but don’t guarantee successful outcomes” in the textbook. Can you relate each of these heuristic strategies to concepts and principles you have learned about learning and cognition?

3.3.d. Activities

•

Activity: Changing Ill-Defined Problems Put students in groups and give each group one of the following ill-defined problems and have them make it well-defined.

•

o

Eliminating world hunger

o

Minimizing rain forest deforestation

o

Eliminating the diminishing populations of tigers, elephants, and gorillas

o

Reducing poverty

o

Preventing drug addiction

o

Eliminating violence in the schools

Activity: Breaking Mental Sets Give each group the following problems (adapted from M. Gardner, 1978) to solve. After all groups have solved all the problems (or after a reasonable amount of time has passed), ask students to identify when and how they were able to break their mental sets.

•

How can you put 10 pennies in three cups so that each cup holds an odd number of pennies? (Solution: You must put one of the cups inside another cup.)

•

How can you throw a tennis ball so that it goes a short distance, comes to a complete stop, then reverses its direction? You may not bounce the ball against a surface, nor may you attach any other object (such as a string) to it. (Solution: You throw the ball up.)

•

You have 12 matches arranged like so:

Move any number of matches so that you form six squares of the same size. Do not break or overlap the matches. (Solution: You must form a three-dimensional figure.)

•

You have a solid gold bracelet made up of seven links that you want to give to your friend Harvey. However, you are an eccentric person and want to stretch your gift over the course of a week, giving Harvey only one more link each day. How can you give Harvey one additional link each day by cutting only one of the seven links? (Solution: Cut the fifth link, giving you one section of four links, another of two links, and a single 33 ..

Chapter 3—Complex Cognitive Processes

link. Give the single link to Harvey on Sunday, then trade him the two-link section for the single link on Monday, give him the single link on Tuesday, trade with the four-link section on Wednesday, and so on.)

•

Activity: Promoting Creativity Have each group identify specific behaviors that reflect creativity in one of the following areas: music, physical education, science, mathematics, language arts, and social studies.

The group should then develop specific classroom tasks and/or activities that might promote more creative thinking and behavior in students. Eventually, each group can share its product with other students in oral (brief description) and/or written (handout) form.

•

Activity: Divergent Thinking This activity illustrates divergent thinking with a “possible uses” task.

1. Have students independently generate possible uses for a brick and write them on a sheet of paper. Give them enough time to come up with several possibilities.

2. Once students have finished, explain that the task involves divergent thinking (show Instructor’s Manual Slide 3.18 to illustrate).

3. Collect the papers and write all responses on the chalkboard, tabulating the frequency with which each response occurred. You can use the results to talk about creativity involving both fluency (i.e., generating many responses rather than a few) and originality (i.e., generating responses that others haven’t thought of).

4. Time permitting, you can repeat the exercise for a squash, a shoe horn, or a cockroach.

•

Activity: Using an Analogy as a Heuristic in Problem Solving This activity illustrates the use of an analogy as a problem-solving heuristic.

You can have students work on this task either alone or in pairs. If you are using the activity in a class period that has very little social interaction up to this point, I would suggest having them work in pairs.

1. Present Instructor’s Manual Slide 3.20 (Tumor Problem), which is as follows: Suppose you are a doctor faced with a patient who has a malignant tumor in his stomach. It is impossible to operate on the patient, but unless the tumor is destroyed the patient will die. There is a kind of ray that can be used to destroy the tumor. If the rays reach the tumor all at once at a sufficiently high intensity, the tumor will be destroyed.

Unfortunately, at this intensity the healthy tissue that the rays pass through on the way to the tumor will also be destroyed. At lower intensities the rays are harmless to healthy tissue, but they will not affect the tumor either. What type of procedure might be used to destroy the tumor with the rays, and at the same time avoid destroying the healthy tissue? (Gick & Holyoak, 1980, pp. 307-308) Read the problem aloud and ask students how they might solve the problem. Give them about 5 minutes to think about the problem and write down a possible solution. You do not necessarily want to wait until all students have identified a solution; some students may be unable to solve the problem at this point.

2. Present Instructor’s Manual Slide 3.21 (Fortress Problem), which is as follows: A general wish is to capture a fortress located in the center of a country.

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There are many roads radiating outward from the fortress. All have been mined so that, while small groups of men can pass over the roads safely, any large force will detonate the mines. A full-scale direct attack is therefore impossible. The general’s solution is to divide his army into small groups, send each group to the head of a different road, and have the groups converge simultaneously on the fortress. (Gick & Holyoak, 1980, p. 309) Read the problem aloud and ask, “Does this problem give you any ideas about how you might solve the tumor problem?” Give students another 5 minutes to address the tumor problem and write down a solution.

3. Solicit students’ ideas about how to solve the tumor problem. By drawing an analogy to the fortress problem, many students should identify the following solution: Simultaneously shoot many low-intensity rays at the tumor from different directions, such that they converge on the tumor. In this way, the tumor will be exposed to a large concentration of the rays while the surrounding healthy tissue is exposed only to lower-intensity rays.

•

Activity: Two Trains and a Bird This activity illustrates the effects of representation on problem solving success. It is accompanied by Handout 3.4 (located in Appendix B) (alternatively, you can use Instructor’s Manual Slide 3.23), which presents the “Two Trains and a Bird” problem (from Posner, 1973). (To save paper, you may want to copy and paste three or four copies of the problem onto the same sheet of paper before photocopying.)

1. Distribute Handout 3.4 (or show them Instructor’s Manual Slide 3.23) and ask students to solve the problem. Give them no more than 5 minutes to work on the problem; many students will probably not solve the problem within this time.

2. Tell students to stop working. Ask them to raise their hands if they have solved the problem; you will probably see only a small minority of hands go up.

3. Suggest that if students haven’t been able to solve the problem yet, they might try answering a different question: How long must the bird fly before the trains meet? Give students 2-3 more minutes to solve the problem.

4. Once again, survey your class to find out how many students have solved the problem.

At this point, most should have solved it, perhaps as follows: Because the two train stations are 50 miles apart and the trains are traveling at 25 miles per hour, the trains will meet in 1 hour. The bird is flying at a speed of 100 miles per hour; therefore, it will fly 100 miles before the trains meet.

5. Explain that the activity illustrates the influence of representation on problem-solving success. People can solve the trains/bird problem more easily if they represent it as a “time” problem (how long must the bird fly?) rather than as a “distance” problem (how far must the bird fly?). There are often different ways of encoding the same problem in memory—different ways of mentally representing the problem—and some forms of encoding may promote easier problem solution than others.

•

Activity: Petals Around a Rose This activity can be used to demonstrate how inappropriate encoding interferes with problem solving.

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Chapter 3—Complex Cognitive Processes

1. If you have a small class (10-20 students), you can have students gather around a single large table. If you have a larger class, you will probably want to split students into groups of 10–15 apiece, with each group gathering around a separate table. In the latter situation, you will need to have assistants (perhaps class members you have recruited ahead of time), with each assistant conducting the activity for a different group. You will need four or five dice for each group; these dice can be the same or different with respect to size and color. Differences among the dice make the task more difficult.

2. Introduce the game as “Petals Around a Rose.” Tell students that you will be tossing the dice on the table and that each resulting configuration of dice has a particular number solution. It is their job to figure out how you are arriving at the solution each time.

Solution: The solution is to count the number of dots around a center dot on each die.

For example, in this arrangement of dice: the first die has four dots around a center dot, the second has no dots around a center dot (because there isn’t a center dot), the third has two, the fourth has four, and the fifth has none. The solution in this case is 4 + 0 + 2 + 4 + 0, or 10. Only the “three” and “five” sides of the dice have dots around a center dot, and so these are the only ones considered in the solution. Configurations without either a “three” or a “five” showing yield solutions of 0.

3. Toss the dice on the table and allow students to make hypotheses about the correct solution, then give the correct solution and allow them to look at the dice for a few more seconds. Repeat this process many times. If some students catch on, allow them to give the correct solution each time but request that they not give away how they arrive at the solution.

4. Periodically give the students hints such as these:

•

Remember, the name of the game is “Petals Around a Rose.”

•

You might also think of the game as “Chairs Around a Table.”

•

Another possible name is “Campers Around a Campfire.”

•

Still another possible name is “Planets Around the Sun.”

5. You can continue the activity for as long as time allows. Some students will catch on relatively quickly, but others will not. Eventually, you should stop momentarily to ask struggling students what kinds of hypotheses they have been considering regarding possible problem solutions. In all probability, they will be focusing on the numbers the dots represent rather than the dots themselves. Point out that their encoding of the dice as numbers is interfering with problem solution. Continue with a few more trials. If students continue to struggle, urge them to consider the configuration of the dots and continue with a few additional trials until (hopefully) everyone has solved the problem.

6. Conclude the activity with a discussion of how set—in this case, a counterproductive encoding of the problem—interferes with problem solving.

•

Activity: Mental Set This activity uses three problems to demonstrate how mental sets can interfere with problem solving. You may choose to do only one or two of these three activities. When you are 36 ..

Chapter 3—Complex Cognitive Processes

finished with the activities, you can use Instructor’s Manual Slides 3.29 and 3.30 to conclude your discussion of mental set in these activities.

Nine-Dot Problem 1. Show Instructor’s Manual Slide 3.25 (the nine dots). Give students this problem: Connect the nine dots with four straight lines. You must draw all four lines without removing your pencil from the paper. You may not fold, cut, or tear the paper in any way.

Give them about 5 minutes to try to find a solution. A few students probably will solve the problem (particularly if they have seen it before), but many others will not. If students are obviously stumped, tell them that they may be unnecessarily restricting themselves, but give them no further guidance.

2. After a reasonable amount of time, tell struggling students that they can solve the problem only by going beyond the boundaries of the square itself. At this point, most students will be able to solve the problem correctly.

3. Ask a student to draw a correct solution to the problem on the chalkboard or show Instructor’s Manual Slide 3.26. It will probably consist of something along these lines.

4. Explain that people sometimes make assumptions as to what a problem solution must entail—assumptions that interfere with successful problem solving.

Time Flies I regret that I do not know the original source of this problem.

1. Present Instructor’s Manual Slide 3.27 (“Time flies. I can’t. They go too fast.”). Tell students that the three sentences tell a story if interpreted in the correct way, and allow them several minutes to consider how this might be possible.

2. After a few minutes, most students will still be thinking about the problem. At this point, tell them that they are probably misinterpreting the first sentence, and urge them to consider alternative interpretations.

3. After a few more minutes, many of your students will probably still be struggling. At this point, tell them that they are probably interpreting the first sentence as a commonly used expression. Tell them that they must instead think of it as a command.

4. A few students may still be stumped. At this point, you will have to explain the correct interpretation of the first sentence—that it is comprised of an imperative verb (Time) and a direct object (flies).

5. Ask students why they originally represented the first sentence as the common expression. Build on their responses by talking about how we tend to represent incoming information in the way we’ve represented it in the past, and that this may sometimes interfere with effective problem solving.

Water Jar Problems (Luchins, 1942) 1. Introduce the activity only as a series of problems involving water jars. Show Instructor’s Manual Slide 3.28 (the three jars) and read the following problem: Jar A holds 30 oz of water, Jar B holds 40 oz of water, and Jar C 37 ..

Chapter 3—Complex Cognitive Processes

holds 3 oz of water. Unfortunately, what you need is 4 oz of water.

You go down to the river with your three jars, optimistic that you can measure 4 oz exactly with the three jars that you have. How can you do it?

2. Observe students as they work on the problem. When some students have solved the problem but others have not, help struggling students with two hints:

•

You will have to pour water from one jar into another, possibly more than once.

•

You will have to pour some of the water back into the river again.

3. After most or all students appear to have solved the problem, ask one student to describe the solution (as far as I know, there is only one). Then take students step by step through the solution: 1. Fill Jar B with water. This gives you 40 oz of water in Jar B. 2. Pour water from Jar B into Jar A until Jar A is full. This gives you 30 oz in Jar A and leaves 10 oz left in Jar B. 3. Pour water from Jar B into Jar C until Jar C is full. This gives you 3 oz in Jar C and leaves 7 oz in Jar B. 4. Pour out the water in Jar C. 5. Pour water from Jar B into Jar C until Jar C is full again. This gives you 3 oz in Jar C and leaves 4 oz in Jar B. Question for students: How could we represent the solution algebraically?

Answer: B − A − 2C 4. Tell students that you have some similar problems for them to solve, then distribute Handout 3.5. Allow students to work until most have finished. Some students are likely to struggle for some time with the last problem; if so, you may have to stop them before they finish.

5. Ask students to tell you what the solution is to each problem. Note that there are two solutions to Problems 5 and 6.

Solutions: 1. B − A − 2C 2. B − A −2C 3. B − A − 2C 4. B − A − 2C 5. B − A – 2C or A + C 6. B − A − 2C or A − C 7. A − C 6. Ask how many people solved Problems 5 and 6 the more difficult way (B − A − 2C) rather than the easier way (A + C; A − C). Ask how many people were unable to solve Problem 7 because they were looking for a difficult solution.

7. Explain that we sometimes get so used to solving problems in one way that we fail to look for other, possibly simpler solutions—an instance of mental set in problem solving.

3.3.e. Out-of-Class Activity

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Chapter 3—Complex Cognitive Processes

•

Identify two or three specific behaviors that reflect creativity in one of the following areas: music, physical education, science, mathematics, language arts, or social studies. Then develop specific classroom tasks and/or activities that might foster such creativity in students. (Note: This task can also be used as in in-class small-group activity.)

Big Idea 3.4. Thinking 3.4.a. Outline Big Idea 3.4 Thinking involves a variety of cognitive processes, such as problem solving, critical thinking, and reasoning.

Attributes of Critical Thinking •

Critical thinking can take a variety of forms.

•

Students can have difficulties engaging in critical thinking.

•

Critical thinking requires sophisticated epistemic beliefs.

•

Critical thinking is a disposition as much as a cognitive process.

Teaching Strategies: Developing Students’ Critical Thinking Skills •

Encourage critical evaluation of information and ideas presented by others and in printed and online materials.

•

Support complex cognitive processes through group discussions and projects.

•

Teach complex thinking skills within the context of specific topics and content domains.

3.4.b. Textbook Slides: 3.21 to 3.26 3.4.c. Discussion Topics •

Can you think of examples from your classes in the past in which a teacher gave an assignment that required you to engage in critical thinking?

•

Some experts recommend that teachers ask students to find several different ways to solve the same mathematical problem and then justify their solutions to their classmates. What benefits might result from such a strategy?

3.4.d. Activity •

Activity: Horoscopes This activity is based on one described by Ward and Grasha (1986) and Halpern (1998) and is designed to illustrate critical thinking.

Make two copies of yesterday’s horoscopes for all signs (you can find them easily online).

On one copy, delete the specific astrological signs and birthdates associated with each prediction. Make an enlarged copy of the horoscope you have altered, and then make a copy that can be projected or scan it into PowerPoint from your enlargement.

1. Present the horoscopes. Have each student identify the prediction that best describes what yesterday was like for them personally.

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Chapter 3—Complex Cognitive Processes

2. Use your complete (unaltered) copy of the horoscopes to identify the signs and birthdates that accompany each prediction. Then ask students to raise their hands if they correctly identified their sign.

3. Determine whether their success rate in selecting their horoscope was appreciably above a chance level. If approximately one-twelfth of the students raise their hands, accurate selections were probably due to chance.

4. Ask students to speculate about why some people put considerable faith in the accuracy of horoscopes. Write their ideas on the whiteboard or type them into PowerPoint and project it onto a screen.

5. Draw on pieces of the discussion to illustrate aspects of critical thinking, especially verbal reasoning and argument analysis.

40 ..

Chapter 4—Learning in Context

CHAPTER 4: LEARNING IN CONTEXT Chapter Overview While Chapter 2 and 3 focused on what goes on inside the learner during the learning process, Chapter 4 focuses more on what goes on outside of the learner and how the environment can affect the learning process. That’s why the chapter is called “Learning in Context” because it focuses on the environment or context in which learning occurs.

Introduction This chapter of the Instructor’s Manual follows the outline of the textbook topics. This manual does not include information related to the Summary or the Case Study Practice Exercises listed in the outline that follows.

Chapter Outline from the Textbook •

Big Ideas to Master in This Chapter

•

Case Study: Why Jack Wasn’t in School

•

Big Idea 4.1: Immediate Stimuli as Context

•

•

•

o

Stimuli and Consequences Influence Learners’ Behaviors and Cognition

o

Teaching Strategies: Encouraging Productive Behaviors

Big Idea 4.2: Social Interaction as Context o

Other People Affect Students’ Learning

o

Teaching Strategies: Providing Opportunities for Students to Learn from Others

Big Idea 4.3: Culture and Society as Contexts o

Culture as Context

o

Society as Context

o

Teaching Strategies: Considering Students’ Broader Cultural and Societal Contexts

Big Idea 4.4: How Students Modify Their Environments o

How Students Influence Their Environment

o

Teaching Strategies: Attending to Students’ Behaviors

•

Summary

•

Case Study Practice Exercises: Adam

Big Ideas to Master in This Chapter 4.1 Learners’ behaviors and cognitive processes are influenced by the specific stimuli and consequences in their immediate environment.

4.2 Learners co-construct their knowledge with others.

4.3 The cultural and societal contexts in which learners grow up also influence their behaviors and cognitive processes.

4.4 Although various environmental contexts influence learners and their development, so, too, do learners influence the environments in which they live and grow.

Textbook Slides: 4.2 to 4.3 41 ..

Chapter 4—Learning in Context

Case Study: Why Jack Wasn’t in School Questions and Answers •

The questions presented at the end of the case study in the textbook are as follows and the answers are provided below each question.

1. Did you interpret Jack’s absence from school in the same way his English teacher did, concluding that “his parents don’t care” about his education? If so, how might your own cultural background have influenced your conclusion? o

Based on your cultural background, you may have believed that school should take priority over most activities at home and that responsible parents insist that their children attend school. Therefore, you may have concluded that his parents didn’t care because they didn’t find him immediately to make him attend school.

2. Like most parents, Jack’s mother and father cared deeply about his school achievement and general well-being. What alternative explanations might account for their behaviors in this situation? o

Navajos place high value on individual autonomy; and for that reason, Jack’s parents wanted him to make his own decisions. They trusted that Jack would return because he would want to help his family during planting season given that Navajos value cooperation and interdependence.

Textbook Slides: 4.4 and 4.5 Big Idea 4.1. Immediate Stimuli as Context 4.1.a. Outline Big Idea 4.1 Learners’ behaviors and cognitive processes are influenced by the specific stimuli and consequences in their immediate environment.

Stimuli and Consequences Influence Learners’ Behaviors and Cognition •

Some stimuli tend to elicit certain kinds of responses.

•

Learners are more likely to acquire behaviors that lead to desired consequences.

•

Learners are also likely to acquire behaviors that help them avoid or escape unpleasant circumstances.

•

Learners tend to avoid behaviors that lead to unpleasant consequences.

•

Learners acquire many behaviors by observing other people’s actions.

•

Learners learn what behaviors are acceptable and effective by observing what happens to people whom they perceive to be similar to themselves.

•

By seeing what happens to themselves and others, learners form expectations about the probable outcomes of various actions.

Teaching Strategies: Encouraging Productive Behaviors •

Create conditions that elicit desired responses.

•

Make sure that productive behaviors are reinforced and that unproductive behaviors are not reinforced.

•

Make response–reinforcement contingencies clear and appropriate.

42 ..

Chapter 4—Learning in Context •

As an alternative to punishment, reinforce productive behaviors that are incompatible with unproductive ones.

•

Model desired behaviors.

•

Provide a variety of role models.

•

Shape complex behaviors gradually over time.

4.1.b. Textbook Slides: 4.6 to 4.12 4.1.c. Discussion Topics •

Feedback is most effective when it tells students exactly what they are doing well and what they can do to improve their performance. With this point in mind, how effective is using class grades as reinforcers to enhance students’ learning and performance? What other ways have instructors provided you with feedback that was useful to your learning and performance?

•

What reinforcements and punishments have worked well in affecting your behavior?

•

What examples have you seen or experienced in which punishment was effective in modifying a student’s behavior? Can you cite any examples in which punishment has not worked well?

•

What kinds of behaviors have you learned primarily through watching someone else demonstrate those behaviors?

•

When a model preaches one set of moral values and practices another, observers are more likely to do what the model does than what the model says. Why might this be so?

•

Who were influential role models in your own childhood? Why were these people so influential? (You can relate students’ responses to the characteristics of effective models.)

•

Some psychologists propose that people’s expectations of reinforcement and punishment affect their behaviors. What behaviors do you expect to be reinforced for in your college classes? What behaviors do you expect to be punished for? Do your expectations affect how you behave in your classes?

•

Which of your behaviors are reinforced only on an intermittent basis? Does reinforcement occur often enough to prevent extinction?

•

What skills have you learned through shaping?

4.1.d. Activities •

Activity: Reinforcement and Punishment

This activity is designed to illustrate both reinforcement and punishment in a classroom situation.

1. Engage students in some form of question-answer game such as Trivial Pursuit or Pictionary (in the latter case, use the chalkboard/whiteboard rather than paper for drawing).

Include three kinds of items: some that are extremely easy, some that are moderately difficult but that students are likely to get correct, and some that are extremely difficult.

2. Pour on the praise whenever students are getting answers correct (e.g., “That’s great,” “You people are really smart”). Reprimand students when they fail to get an answer correct (e.g., “What’s wrong with you?” “Can’t you do better than that?”). If you are playing Pictionary, you might also reinforce or punish the artist depending on whether students are correctly identifying the item drawn.

3. Ask the class to consider these questions: 43 ..

Chapter 4—Learning in Context

•

•

How does it feel to get reinforced for the things you do well?

•

How does it feel to be punished for not doing well even though you are trying very hard?

•

What did you think when I praised you profusely for answering very easy questions?

Activity: Components of Modeling

This activity illustrates the four essential components of learning through modeling—attention, retention, motor reproduction, and motivation.

1. Identify a task that you do well but that many of your students probably cannot do. For example, you might throw a Frisbee, jump rope, twirl a baton, tie a bowline knot, or speak certain phrases in a foreign language. (As an alternative, you might ask someone you know to come in and model a unique skill or talent; or, ask your students’ the class meeting before if anyone would be willing to model a skill in the next class meeting.) Repeatedly model performance of this task for your students, asking them to imitate what you do. Give students enough time to learn the task to a reasonable level of proficiency.

2. Conduct a class discussion in which students consider how the four essential components of modeling played a role in their learning.

•

Attention: Were they able to keep their attention on you as you modeled the task? Did they attend to the important aspects of the task? What factors made it easy or difficult to pay attention?

•

Retention: How easily could they remember the specific actions you modeled? Did they use particular strategies to help themselves remember what you did?

•

Motor reproduction: How easily could they execute the specific behaviors you demonstrated? Did physical limitations get in the way?

•

Motivation: How motivated were they to learn the task? What factors affected their level of motivation?

3. Ask students how their performance was different from the modeled behavior. Solicit reasons as to why the differences might have appeared. Here are two points: •

When students are not attending carefully, they may sometimes model certain parts of a behavior rather than model the behavior in its entirety. o

Example: Students who watch their teacher demonstrate the addition of two 3-digit numbers, but who don’t understand the process of regrouping (“carrying”), may go through the motions, modeling the teacher’s prescribed format for addition problems, but arriving at a completely outlandish answer:

5 9 6 +8 3 4 13 12 10 •

•

Students may display behaviors similar (rather than identical) to the behaviors demonstrated by the model they observe. o

Example: Students too small to make the prestigious high school football team may try out for the soccer team instead.

o

Example: Students who can’t play a musical instrument well enough for the marching band may volunteer to carry a flag in the band’s color guard.

Activity: Strategies to Reduce Misbehaviors 44 ..

Chapter 4—Learning in Context

Give each group one of the following behavior problems. Within their groups, students should develop a strategy to reduce or eliminate the misbehavior using behaviorist principles. They should describe the specific behavior(s) they will reinforce and the reinforcer they will use; they should also specify when they will use continuous and intermittent reinforcement. o

Marla is always getting out of her seat at inappropriate times.

o

Frank and Tad keep whispering during their teacher’s explanations of new mathematics concepts or procedures.

o

Karen rarely turns in her homework assignments.

o

Jeff is always picking fights with younger children in the lunchroom.

o

Elaine is frequently late to class.

o

Susan uses disrespectful language when talking to her teacher.

o

Wayne consistently wears T-shirts with obscene, racist, or otherwise inappropriate pictures and messages.

o

Louise always puts major assignments off until the last minute, so she rarely turns them in on time.

o

Roy cheats on tests as often as he can.

•

Activity: Developing Shaping Procedures

Have each group develop a shaping procedure to teach one of the following behaviors: o

Teaching a pigeon to peck a one-inch round plastic disk in a Skinner box

o

Teaching a dog to fetch the newspaper

o

Teaching a lazy spouse or roommate to wash dishes

o

Teaching a student to hit a tennis ball over the net with a tennis racket

o

Teaching a student to play a musical instrument (e.g., the piano)

o

Teaching a student to “throw” (i.e., make) a pot on a potter’s wheel

4.1.e. Out-of-Class Activities •

Watch three different children’s shows, counting instances of prosocial and antisocial behavior being modeled for the children who watch these shows.

•

Describe a bad habit you might break by identifying an incompatible behavior for which you could reinforce yourself.

•

Model a difficult task for someone else and describe specific strategies you use to help the observer imitate and remember the modeled behavior.

4.1.f. Supplementary Lectures (located in Appendix A) •

Lecture 4.1: Punishment

•

Lecture 4.2: Schedules of Reinforcement

•

Lecture 4.3: Concerns about Using Reinforcement

•

Lecture 4.4: Models in the Media

Big Idea 4.2. Social Interaction as Context 4.2.a. Outline 45 ..

Chapter 4—Learning in Context

Big Idea 4.2 Learners co-construct their knowledge with individuals whose abilities are similar to or greater than their own.

Other People Affect Students’ Learning •

Learners sometimes co-construct new understandings with more experienced individuals.

•

Learners co-construct knowledge and understandings with peers.

•

Other people sometimes provide the support learners need to take on challenging new tasks.

Teaching Strategies: Providing Opportunities for Students to Learn from Others •

Encourage student dialogue and collaboration.

•

Use computer technology to support both within-class and across-class communication.

•

Create a community of learners.

4.2.b. Textbook Slides: 4.13 to 4.15 4.2.c. Discussion Topics •

Can you think of an example of when you participated in a mediated learning experience?

•

What are some of the advantages and disadvantages of working with peers in classes?

Can you give examples of when you learned something from a peer? Can you give examples of when you found it to be a waste of time to work with peers in a class (because you didn’t learn anything)?

Big Idea 4.3. Culture, Society, Technology, and Academic Domains as Contexts 4.3.a. Outline Big Idea 4.3 The cultural and societal contexts in which learners grow up also influence their behaviors and cognitive processes.

Culture as Context •

Any cultural group encourages and models certain behaviors and actively discourages certain other behaviors.

•

Every culture passes along many cognitive tools that enhance learners’ thinking capabilities.

•

Every culture instills certain worldviews that color people’s interpretations of events.

•

Every culture has certain ways of doing things, and these, too, are passed from generation to generation.

•

Inconsistencies between home and school cultures can interfere with school learning and performance.

Society as Context •

Any large society has multiple layers that all affect children’s learning and development either directly or indirectly.

•

Different members of a society have different specialties, and they call on one another’s areas of expertise as needed.

46 ..

Chapter 4—Learning in Context •

In most situations, some society members have greater access to the society’s resources than other members do.

Teaching Strategies: Considering Students’ Broader Cultural and Societal Contexts •

Remember that membership in a particular cultural or ethnic group is not an either–or situation but, instead, a more-or-less phenomenon.

•

Come to understand your own cultural lens and learn as much as you can about students’ cultural backgrounds.

•

Be aware of how your beliefs about race affect your behaviors and communications with students and others.

•

Incorporate the perspectives and traditions of many cultures into the curriculum.

•

Be sensitive to cultural differences in behaviors and beliefs and, when appropriate, adapt instructional methods to students’ accustomed ways of learning and behaving.

•

Be sensitive to the culture shock that recent immigrants might be experiencing.

•

Work hard to break down rigid stereotypes of particular cultural and ethnic groups.

•

Provide opportunities for students to interact regularly and productively with people from diverse cultural, ethnic, and racial groups.

•

Identify and, if possible, provide missing resources and experiences important for successful learning.

4.3.b. Textbook Slides: 4.16 to 4.24 4.3.c. Discussion Topics •

As the textbook points out, different cultural groups have different conceptions of time, and some groups value punctuality more than others. In what situations is punctuality important in our society? In what situations is it not important?

•

Look at the excerpt about Muslim children in the section “Inconsistencies between home and school cultures can interfere with school learning and performance” in the textbook.

How might you address Muslim students’ need to pray five times a day? What accommodations might you make for their low energy during Ramadan?

•

What are some advantages and disadvantages of the practice of inclusion?

•

What are some practical issues that teachers have to deal with for students who are from low-socioeconomic families? What strategies might teachers use to address these issues?

•

In what ways does the typical college environment create “culture shock” for entering first year students? How about for students who transfer to another college or university?

•

What strategies might a school district use of minimize the culture shock that children encounter when they first begin school?

•

Have students discuss instances of when they did not feel accepted in a classroom environment. Ask them to identify strategies that the teacher could have used to make them feel more accepted.

4.3.d. Activities •

Activity: Culturally Responsive Teaching

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Chapter 4—Learning in Context

Have students provide examples of times when they had experienced teaching that was not culturally responsive. Then, ask them to identify some strategies the teacher could have used to make his or her teaching culturally responsive.

•

Activity: Incorporating Content from Diverse Cultures

Ask students to develop a few examples of ways in which they could incorporate content from diverse cultures into the content area that they plan to teach in the future.

Big Idea 4.4. How Learners Modify Their Environments 4.4.a. Outline Big Idea 4.4 Although various environmental contexts influence learners and their development, so, too, do learners influence the environments in which they live and grow.

How Students Influence Their Environment •

Learners alter their current environment through both their behaviors and such internal variables as beliefs, mental processes, feelings, and personality traits.

•

Learners actively seek out environments that are a good fit with their existing behaviors and internal variables.

Teaching Strategies: Attending to Students’ Behaviors •

Help students become aware of how they are influencing their environment.

•

Be aware of how students’ behaviors affect your own thoughts and behaviors.

4.4.b. Textbook Slides: 4.25 to 4.28 4.4.c. Discussion Topics •

What are some examples from your own life where you altered your environment through your behaviors or internal variables (such as beliefs, mental processes, feelings, and personality traits)?

•

What are some decisions you have made in your life where you sought out environments that fit well with your internal variables and behaviors?

4.4.d. Activity •

Activity: Reciprocal Causation Examples Have students work in groups to generate examples of how each one of the aspects of reciprocal causation (i.e., behavior, environment, and internal variables) affects the other two.

4.4.e. Out-of-Class Activities Self-reflect about whether certain aspects of your behavior—those related to independent vs. cooperative work, eye contact, personal space, public v s private conversations, and importance of punctuality—are consistent or inconsistent with mainstream American culture. ersu

48 ..

Chapter 5—Motivation and Emotions

CHAPTER 5: MOTIVATION AND EMOTIONS Chapter Overview This chapter explores many of the factors that affect students’ motivation. Most people, including preservice and inservice teachers, are interested in learning about motivation and why we do the things that we do. This chapter presents motivation theories and strategies that teachers can use to motivate students and explains how emotions influence and are influenced by students’ motivation and cognitive processes.

Introduction This chapter of the Instructor’s Manual follows the outline of the textbook topics. This manual does not include information related to the Summary or the Case Study Practice Exercises listed in the outline that follows.

Chapter Outline from the Textbook •

Big Ideas to Master in This Chapter

•

Case Study: Passing Algebra

•

Big Idea 5.1: The Nature of Motivation

•

•

•

o

The Role of Motivation in Education

o

Teacher Beliefs About and Assessment of Students’ Motivation

o

Teaching Strategies: Assessing Students’ Motivation and Engagement

Big Idea 5.2: Internal Factors That Affect Learners’ Motivation and Engagement o

Learners’ Psychological Needs

o

Learners’ Interests and Enjoyment

o

Learners’ Values and Goals

o

Learners’ Self-Efficacy, Attributions, and Beliefs

Big Idea 5.3: Teaching Strategies to Support Students’ Motivation and Engagement o

Teaching Strategies That Empower Students

o

Teaching Strategies That Demonstrate the Usefulness of Activities

o

Teaching Strategies That Foster Perceptions of Success

o

Teaching Strategies That Stimulate Interest

o

Teaching Strategies That Show and Promote Caring

Big Idea 5.4: Emotions and Their Effects on Motivation and Learning o

The Role of Emotions in Student Motivation and Learning

o

Teaching Strategies: Generating Productive Emotions for Learning

•

Summary

•

Case Study Practice Exercises: Praising Students’ Writing

Big Ideas to Master in This Chapter 5.1 Teachers play a major role in motivating students by designing effective learning environments and supporting students’ motivation-related beliefs over time.

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Chapter 5—Motivation and Emotions

5.2 Learners’ needs, interests, values, goals, thoughts, and beliefs about themselves and the subject matter can influence their motivation to learn.

5.3 Effective teachers create conditions that support learners’ motivation and engagement.

5.4 Learners’ emotions influence and are influenced by both their motives and cognitive processes.

Textbook Slide: 5.2 Case Study: Passing Algebra Questions and Answers •

The questions presented at the end of the case study in the textbook are as follows and the answers are provided below each question.

1. On what factors does Michael initially blame his failure? o

He initially attributes his failure to two uncontrollable factors: his own low ability (perhaps something he’s inherited) and the teacher’s poor instruction.

2. To what factors does he later attribute his success? o

He later attributes his success to his use of strategies (such as listening better and asking more questions) and the fact that he is in control of his effort.

3. How do his changing beliefs affect his learning strategies? o

His changing beliefs affect his learning strategies positively by prompting him to put forth more effort and use effective strategies. For example, he tries to make sense of the subject matter, takes notes, tries to figure out his teacher’s problem solutions, asks questions if he doesn’t understand, does his homework regularly, and studies even on nights when no homework has been assigned.

4. What inferences about motivation might you draw from the case study? Think about how learners’ cognitive processes influence their motivation and how teachers’ behaviors can also impact learners’ motivation. o

From this case study, we see that students’ motivation is changeable. For example, even though Michael is initially frustrated, helpless, and fairly unmotivated, with the proper environmental conditions, his motivation changed, and he started to take pride in his performance and perhaps even enjoyed working on his algebra assignments.

o

Internal cognitive processes, such as Michael's attributions for his poor performance, affected his motivation to engage in algebra. In addition to these internal factors, external factors such as the teacher's behaviors also impacted his motivation to engage.

Textbook Slides: 5.3 and 5.4 Big Idea 5.1. The Nature of Motivation 5.1.a Outline Big Idea 5.1 Teachers play a major role in motivating students by designing effective learning environments and supporting students’ motivation-related beliefs over time.

The Role of Motivation in Education •

A variety of theories are often helpful in explaining students’ motivation.

•

Researchers have identified some general principles about students’ motivation.

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Chapter 5—Motivation and Emotions

Teacher Beliefs About and Assessment of Students’ Motivation •

Teachers should believe that they can affect students’ motivation and that it’s important to motivate students.

•

Teachers can assess students’ motivation and engagement.

Teaching Strategies: Assessing Students’ Motivation and Engagement •

Assess students’ motivation by observing their behaviors and reactions during class.

•

Assess students’ motivation by talking to them.

•

Assess students’ motivation by surveying them.

Textbook Slides: Slides 5.5 to 5.11 5.1.b. Discussion Topics •

Do you believe that all students are motivated to some extent? If so, why aren’t some students motivated in some classes?

•

How do you know when a student is engaged in class work?

•

How might cognitively engaged students mentally process information differently than students who are not cognitively engaged? (They might pay more attention, try to understand and elaborate on the material, they might use other effective learning strategies, etc.)

5.1.c. Activity •

Activity: The Cyclical Nature of Motivation

Divide students into groups of three and ask each student to provide an example from their lives that demonstrates the cyclical nature of academic motivation as shown in Figure 5.1.

5.1.d. Out-of-Class Activity •

Ask students to observe other students in an educational setting and document any behavioral, cognitive, and emotional engagement that they see. Then ask them to explain which types of engagement were easier to document and which ones were more difficult to document. Ask them to identify other ways, besides observation, in which students’ engagement can be documented.

Big Idea 5.2. Internal Factors That Affect Learners’ Motivation and Engagement 5.2.a. Outline Big Idea 5.2 Learners’ needs, interests, values, goals, thoughts, and beliefs about themselves and the subject matter can influence their motivation to learn.

Learners’ Psychological Needs •

Learners have a basic need for arousal.

•

Learners want to be in control of their actions to some degree.

•

Learners want to believe they are competent and have self-worth.

•

Learners want to feel connected to other people.

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Chapter 5—Motivation and Emotions

Learners’ Interests and Enjoyment •

Learners have existing interests, but new interests can be triggered by the environment.

•

Learners experience greater enjoyment and interest in school activities when their psychological needs are met.

•

Learners can become immersed in an activity when the conditions are right.

Learners’ Values and Goals •

Learners are more likely to choose to devote time and effort to activities that they value.

•

Learners’ values are affected by their social and cultural environments.

•

Learners typically form goals related to their academic achievement; the specific nature of these goals influences learners’ cognitive processes and behaviors.

•

Learners must juggle their achievement goals with their many other goals.

Learners’ Self-Efficacy, Attributions, and Beliefs •

Learners are more likely to choose activities and try harder at them when they believe that they can succeed at them.

•

When learners think their chances of success are slim, they may behave in ways that make success even less likely.

•

Learners identify what are, in their minds, the likely causes of their successes and failures.

•

Learners’ attributions for past successes and failures affect their emotional reactions and future performances.

•

Learners’ attributions are affected by their teachers’ attributions and resulting expectations for students’ performance.

•

Over time, learners acquire a general attributional style.

5.2.b. Textbook Slides: Slide 5.12 to 5.20 5.2.c. Discussion Topics •

Do you believe that all people have the need for arousal, competence, autonomy, and relatedness?

•

Does one of these basic psychological needs seem to be more important to your motivation in school than the other ones? Does the most important need change depending on the topic, class, or something else?

•

What can teachers do to increase students’ situational interest?

•

When might a teacher want to use extrinsic motivation?

•

There appears to be a U-shaped relationship between prior knowledge and interest (Hidi & McLaren, 1990; Kintsch, 1980; Tobias, 1994). Students who have a moderate amount of prior knowledge about a topic are more likely to be interested in the topic than those who have either very little or a great deal of knowledge. Why might this be so?

•

A figure in Chapter 5 of the textbook shows an example of Matt’s intense interest in soccer. Throughout his school career, Matt showed a passion for soccer. For instance, when most of his classmates were going to senior prom, he was out on the practice field. After graduation, when most of his classmates went on to college, he postponed 52 ..

Chapter 5—Motivation and Emotions

his college plans to go train with a soccer team in South America. What are the benefits and liabilities of such a strong interest in one particular activity?

•

Students focus increasingly on performance goals as they move from the elementary grades to the secondary grades. Why might this be so?

•

Older students and those with a history of learning problems are more likely to attribute their failures to lack of innate ability. Why might this be so?

•

Juvonen and Murdock (1993) have found that adolescents explain their successes and failures differently depending on their audience. They are likely to tell authority figures (e.g., teachers, parents) that their successes are due to effort and that their failures are due to a lack of ability. In contrast, they are likely to tell classmates (especially classmates who are “popular”) that their successes are not due to effort, yet that their failures are due to the fact that they didn’t try. Why might adolescents explain themselves differently to different people?

•

The textbook suggests that one way of promoting self-efficacy and self-worth is to encourage students to focus on their own improvement—the idea of self-comparison rather than comparison with others. What common practices in schools actually encourage students to compare themselves with others?

5.2.d. Activities •

Activity: The Value of Material

Give each group of students a passage from a K-12 textbook and ask them to identify strategies for making the material relevant to students’ lives and needs. (This activity relates to the concepts of value and internalized motivation in the textbook.)

•

Activity: Examples of Regulations

Place students in groups and ask them to develop one or two examples for each of the four types of motivation shown in Figure 5.11 (i.e., external regulation, introjection, identification, and integration). You can have students write their answers on large paper and hang the paper on the walls of the classroom. Then, students can either stand by their paper and explain their answers to the rest of the class, or they can go around the room and comment on others’ examples (as to whether they accurately depict each type of regulation).

•

Activity: Attribution Examples

Put students in pairs or groups of 3. Show them Textbook Slide 5.19 (which is the same as Figure 5.15 in the textbook) and ask them develop one example for each of the 16 possible attributions shown (the “a” attributions are examples for after students succeed and the “b” attributions are examples for after students fail at something).

•

Activity: Analyzing Attributions

1. Show Instructor’s Manual Slide 5.2 and explain the three dimensions that characterize students’ attributions regarding the things that happen to them: (1) Locus: • Internal: Attributing the cause to factors within oneself • External: Attributing the cause to factors outside oneself (2) Stability: • Stable: Attributing the cause to factors that won’t change anytime soon 53 ..

Chapter 5—Motivation and Emotions • Unstable: Attributing the cause to factors that can change from one time to the next (3) Controllability: • Controllable: Attributing the cause to factors one can influence and change • Uncontrollable: Attributing the cause to factors beyond one’s control 2. Distribute Handout 5.1. Have complete Parts A and B. You may want to give this task as a homework assignment or as a cooperative group activity.

3. After students have finished, present Instructor’s Manual Slide 5.3 and have them check their answers. Explain that eight common student attributions are listed in the left-hand column.

4. Ask students which ones they got wrong and discuss the answers as a class.

A few students may occasionally disagree with the table’s analysis of a particular attribution.

Ask follow-up questions to determine their rationale for analyzing the attribution as they have. In many cases, differences will be legitimate ones due to different interpretations of the same statement.

5.2.e. Out-of-Class Activity •

Develop a lesson that simultaneously teaches academic content and addresses students’ basic psychological needs (i.e., needs for arousal, competence, autonomy, and relatedness).

5.2.f. Supplementary Lectures (located in Appendix A) •

Lecture 5.1: Self-Worth and Self-Handicapping

•

Lecture 5.2: Need for Affiliation

•

Lecture 5.3: Flow

•

Lecture 5.4: Internalization and the Self-Determination Continuum

•

Lecture 5.5: Attribution Theory

Big Idea 5.3. Teaching Strategies to Support Students’ Motivation and Engagement 5.3.a. Outline Big Idea 5.3 Effective teachers create conditions that support learners’ motivation and engagement.

Teaching Strategies That Empower Students •

Give students control over some aspects of classroom life.

•

Communicate with students in a clear, but less-controlling manner.

•

Use extrinsic reinforcers when necessary but do so in ways that preserve students’ sense of autonomy.

•

Ask students to set some personal goals for learning and performance.

Teaching Strategies That Demonstrate the Usefulness of Activities •

Explicitly relate class activities to students’ values, goals, and everyday lives.

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Chapter 5—Motivation and Emotions •

Ask students to talk or write about how what they are learning is useful to their lives.

•

Create conditions that foster internalization of values essential for students’ long-term academic and professional success.

Teaching Strategies That Foster Perceptions of Success •

Protect and enhance students’ self-efficacy and overall sense of competence and selfworth.

•

Present challenges that students can realistically accomplish.

•

Form and communicate optimistic expectations and attributions.

•

Minimize competition.

•

Focus students’ attention more on mastery goals than on performance goals.

Teaching Strategies That Stimulate Interest •

Conduct interest-arousing lessons and activities.

•

Relate activities to students’ individual interests.

Teaching Strategies That Show and Promote Caring •

Show students that you respect them and are concerned about their well-being.

•

Provide regular opportunities for students to interact productively with one another.

•

Create a classroom environment in which students respect one another.

5.3.b. Textbook Slides: 5.21 to 5.27 5.3.c. Discussion Topics •

•

Consider these questions with regard to competition in the classroom: o

What are possible advantages of competition?

o

What are possible disadvantages of competition?

o

Students in a competitive classroom are more likely to attribute their failures to lack of ability (Ames, 1984). Why might this be so?

o

How do teachers and schools promote competition?

o

How might teachers make classrooms less competitive?

What follows are six situations reflecting potential problems in student motivation. For each situation, (a) speculate about possible motives underlying the student’s behavior, (b) identify any unknown information (e.g., family background, peer relationships, history of academic record, etc.) that might help a teacher identify the source of the problem, and (c) develop three strategies that a teacher might use to help the student engage in more appropriate and/or productive behavior. (These situations might be assigned as topics for small-group discussions.) o

Marc often comes to class late, and he skips class altogether about once a week.

o

Luanne is caught stealing someone else’s lunch money on several occasions.

o

Taquan puts on the appearance of doing his independent seatwork—he always looks busy—but he never seems to get his work done in the allotted time.

o

Over a two-month period, Shayla turns in only about half of her homework assignments.

55

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Chapter 5—Motivation and Emotions

o

James says that he studies very hard for his tests, but his mind goes blank as soon as he has a test in front of him.

o

Keely is a highly intelligent girl who doesn’t try very hard and gets only minimally adequate grades.

5.3.d. Activities •

Activity: Student Interviews This activity presents two interviews with students that reveal aspects of motivation and emotions. (Note: The interviews were conducted by two students in an educational psychology class. Thanks Fred Bloise and Scott Howard for permission to publish them.)

Tell the students that you are going to conduct two short skits and ask for volunteers to read the scripts that you give them. For the first skit, ask for three volunteers and assign each one a role in the first interview in Handout 5.2. Have them read the parts and then ask the other students to consider what the interview responses reveal about each student’s motivation, emotions, or both.

For the second skit, ask for two more volunteers and assign each one a role in the second interview in Handout 5.2. Have them read the parts and then ask the other students to consider what the interview responses reveal about each student’s affect, motivation, or both.

•

Activity: Examples of MUSIC Model Strategies Put students in groups of two or three and ask them to generate concrete examples of how the MUSIC model strategies might be translated into classroom practice in their content area (use Handout 5.3 and Instructor’s Manual slides 5.4 to 5.9). For instance, your students might suggest using cooperative group work as a way of increasing students’ chances of success on complex assignments. To foster empowerment, your students might suggest that teachers allow 11th-grade English students to pick the topics about which they want to write a research paper. See www.theMUSICmodel.com for more information and possibilities.

5.3.e. Supplementary Lectures (located in Appendix A) •

Lecture 5.8: Teacher Expectations

•

Lecture 5.9: Teacher Attributions

Big Idea 5.4. Emotions and Their Effects on Motivation and Learning 5.4.a. Outline Big Idea 5.4 Learners’ emotions influence and are influenced by both their motives and cognitive processes.

The Role of Emotions in Student Motivation and Learning •

Emotions and motivation are interrelated.

•

Emotions are closely tied to learning and cognition.

•

Productive emotions can trigger effective learning strategies.

•

Emotions can also trigger certain behaviors.

56 ..

Chapter 5—Motivation and Emotions •

Some anxiety is helpful, but a lot is often a hindrance.

Teaching Strategies: Generating Productive Emotions for Learning •

Get students emotionally involved in the subject matter.

•

Help students to better regulate their emotions.

•

Keep anxiety at a low to moderate level.

•

As students make the transition to middle school or high school, make an extra effort to minimize their anxiety and address their need for relatedness.

5.4.b. Textbook Slides: 5.28 to 5.30 5.4.c. Discussion Topics •

Think of a time when you felt strong emotions in a class. You can think of both positive emotions (such as being happy or excited) or negative emotions (such as being angry, frustrated, or sad). How did these emotions affect your motivation and learning?

•

Provide some examples of when anxiety has helped you in the classroom (maybe it motivated you or helped you learn better). Then, give some examples of when you’ve experienced debilitating anxiety and it had a negative effect on your motivation, learning, or performance.

5.4.d. Activities •

Activity: Students’ Anxiety

Organize students in groups of three students and ask each group to identify several teaching behaviors that increase test anxiety. These behaviors could include verbal or written instructions or feedback, or any other types of teacher behaviors. Then ask students to identify several strategies that teachers might use to keep test anxiety at a facilitative level.

•

Activity: Anagrams

This task is designed to give students a firsthand encounter with frustration, anxiety, and (possibly) learned helplessness.

1. Introduce the activity only as a series of 10 anagrams for students to solve. Explain that you will show each anagram for exactly one minute, and that students should try to unscramble the letters to form a real word. (If some of your students are unfamiliar with anagrams, you may want to do a sample problem using the anagram F LA C, which unscrambles to become calf.)

2. Show each anagram on Instructor’s Manual Slide 5.11 for 60 seconds, starting with the first one (Instructor’s Manual Slide 5.11 is designed to show only one anagram at a time for each click of the mouse). Then move to the next anagram, announcing that you are doing so. Proceed in this fashion until students have worked on all 10 anagrams for one minute each. (You may notice some students becoming frustrated and/or giving up altogether, but continue nevertheless.)

3. Display all 10 anagrams on the slide. Taking each anagram in turn, ask the class for its correct solution. (Answers: The first is water, and the second is chair. Items 3–10 have no correct solutions.)

4. Ask students how they felt as they were attempting to solve the unsolvable anagrams.

How many found themselves becoming increasingly frustrated? How many began to 57 ..

Chapter 5—Motivation and Emotions

question their ability to solve such problems? How many gave up altogether? Their responses should provide a springboard for discussion of frustration, anxiety, and learned helplessness.

5. Point out that a small amount of anxiety in problem solving is helpful, however. As an example, successful problem-solvers report some muscular tension during their attempts to solve a problem, with more complex problems leading to greater tension.

Tension is reduced when the problem is solved, and feelings of enjoyment and satisfaction result. Students who report no tension during problem solving have difficulty concentrating on a problem and show little attempt to tackle it (Bloom & Broder, 1950; McLeod, 1985).

5.4.e. Supplementary Lectures (located in Appendix A) •

Lecture 5.6: Math Anxiety and Test Anxiety

•

Lecture 5.7: The Transition to Junior High School

58 ..

Chapter 6—Cognitive Development

CHAPTER 6: COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT Chapter Overview This chapter examines the question: What is cognitive development and how does it occur? When researchers and teachers discuss development, they’re referring to the orderly, enduring changes that occur over the life span. Because there are so many changes that occur over our life, psychologists generally divide development into smaller areas of study such as cognitive, personal, social, moral, physical, and emotional. This chapter focuses specifically on cognitive development. Because cognition refers to mental processes that occur inside someone’s head, cognitive development includes changes in students’ thinking, reasoning, and language.

Introduction This chapter of the Instructor’s Manual follows the outline of the textbook topics. This manual does not include information related to the Summary or the Case Study Practice Exercises listed in the outline that follows.

Chapter Outline from the Textbook •

Big Ideas to Master in This Chapter

•

Case Study: Hidden Treasure

•

Big Idea 6.1: General Principles of Development

•

•

•

o

Developmental Principles

o

Teaching Strategies: Accommodating Developmental Differences and Diversity

Big Idea 6.2: Developmental Processes o

Knowledge Construction

o

Knowledge Construction Through Interaction with Others

o

Teaching Strategies: Facilitating Learners’ Knowledge Construction

Big Idea 6.3: Trends in Cognitive Development o

Development of Working Memory, Knowledge, and Thinking Processes

o

Stages of Cognitive Development

o

Teaching Strategies: Fostering Cognitive Development

Big Idea 6.4: Intelligence o

The Nature of Intelligence

o

Teaching Strategies: Teaching with a Consideration of Intelligence

•

Summary

•

Case Study Practice Exercises: A Floating Stone

Big Ideas to Master in This Chapter 6.1 As a result of ongoing interactions between biological and environmental influences, children show some similar patterns but also considerable diversity in their developmental pathways.

6.2 Cognitive development depends not only on brain maturation but also on stimulating physical, social, and cultural experiences and on children’s natural inclinations to organize and try to make sense of those experiences.

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Chapter 6—Cognitive Development

6.3 Children continually build on existing knowledge and skills to develop more advanced thinking and reasoning abilities.

6.4 Although children in any age-group differ somewhat in intelligence, cognitive styles, and dispositions, appropriately supportive environments can significantly enhance these abilities and characteristics.

Textbook Slides: 6.2 and 6.3 Case Study: Hidden Treasure Questions and Answers •

The questions presented at the end of the case study in the textbook are as follows and the answers are provided below each question.

1. Why might Ms. Padilla initially underestimate Lupita’s academic potential? o

Ms. Padilla expects students to speak up or raise their hands if they have contributions or questions. Therefore, Lupita’s quiet demeanor in class might suggest that she isn’t really processing what’s going on around her. And because Ms. Padilla rarely calls on her, Lupita has little chance to demonstrate what she has learned.

2. What clues in the case study suggest that Lupita is, in fact, an intelligent child? o

Some of the clues include: the speed with which Lupita finishes her assignment; her skills with puzzles despite little prior knowledge; her correct interpretation of the aide’s subtle message; and her skill in guiding her peers.

Textbook Slides: 6.4, 6.5, and 6.6 Big Idea 6.1. General Principles of Development 6.1.a. Outline Big Idea 6.1 As a result of ongoing interactions between biological and environmental influences, children show some similar patterns but also considerable diversity in their developmental pathways.

Developmental Principles •

The brain continues to develop throughout childhood, adolescence, and adulthood.

•

The sequence of development is somewhat predictable.

•

Children develop at different rates.

•

Development is often marked by spurts and plateaus.

•

Development involves both quantitative and qualitative changes.

•

Heredity and environment interact in their effects on development.

•

Children’s own behaviors also influence their development.

Teaching Strategies: Accommodating Developmental Differences and Diversity •

Ideally, teachers individualize instruction for every student.

60 ..

Chapter 6—Cognitive Development •

Technology-based instructional strategies can be used to meet students’ developmental needs.

6.1.b. Textbook Slides: Slides 6.7 to 6.11 6.1.c. Discussion Topics •

Describe some examples you have seen that demonstrate that: (a) children develop at different rates, and (b) development is often marked by spurts and plateaus.

•

What are some examples of qualitative developmental changes that children can experience?

•

Provide examples of how children’s development can be influenced by their genetic inclinations, their environment, and their own behavior.

6.2. Developmental Processes 6.2.a. Outline Big Idea 6.2 Cognitive development depends not only on brain maturation but also on stimulating physical, social, and cultural experiences and on children’s natural inclinations to organize and try to make sense of those experiences.

Knowledge Construction •

Children have a natural tendency to organize their experiences.

•

Children are naturally inclined to make sense of and adapt to their environment.

•

Inconsistencies between existing understandings and new events promote development.

•

Development builds on prior acquisitions.

•

Observations of the physical environment—and, ideally, frequent interactions with it— promote development.

•

Language development facilitates cognitive development.

Knowledge Construction Through Interaction with Others •

Interactions with other people promote development.

•

Challenging tasks promote development.

Teaching Strategies: Facilitating Learners’ Knowledge Construction •

Encourage play activities.

•

Scaffold students’ early efforts at challenging tasks and assignments.

•

Involve students in age-appropriate ways in adult activities.

6.2.b. Textbook Slide: 6.12 to 6.16 6.2.c. Discussion Topics •

List some activities that are within your zone of proximal development (ZPD) and some that are beyond your ZPD?

61 ..

Chapter 6—Cognitive Development •

What kinds of scaffolding do parents and teachers use to help children develop new skills? (Students should think of specific, concrete examples of scaffolding in everyday childrearing and classroom instruction.)

6.2.d. Activities •

Activity: Seeing Piagetian Concepts in Action With Duplo Blocks

This activity is based on a paper by Joe Nichols (2000).

For this activity, you will need two identical sets of 25–30 Duplo blocks (these are the larger, preschoolers’ versions of Lego blocks). Before class, use one set to construct a complex figure or “sculpture” of some sort (I’ll refer to this as the model) and bring it to class inside a box so that your students cannot see it. Put the equivalent set of blocks, unassembled, into a bag.

In class, introduce the activity as an illustration of some of Piaget’s basic concepts and assumptions, and ask for two student volunteers. Have the volunteers sit back-to-back at two desks or small tables at the front of the room. Designate one volunteer as the “teacher” and the other as the “learner.” Place the previously constructed figure in front of the “teacher,” and give the unassembled blocks to the “learner.”

The task is for the teacher to give instructions that will enable the learner to construct a duplicate of the teacher’s model. The learner cannot speak, not even to ask questions.

Because the two volunteers are sitting back to back, the learner cannot see the model, and the teacher cannot see how the learner is progressing.

The learner typically creates something that is in some ways similar to, but in other ways quite different from, the model (Nichols, 2000). The activity allows for a discussion of questions such as the following: 1. Did the teacher begin by giving a general description of the model (e.g., by saying that it looks like something in particular—perhaps a dog, a tower, or some other familiar object)? If so, the description would serve as a scheme for the learner, who could to some extent assimilate the teacher’s instructions to it. If not, the learner is much more in an accommodation mode, having little prior knowledge to guide the construction.

2. Did the learner seem to experience any disequilibrium, perhaps when a particular instruction was inconsistent with the learner’s construction to that point? If so, how did the learner handle the disequilibrium?

•

Activity: Scaffolding in Textbooks

Give each group a secondary mathematics textbook. Ask the group to find examples in the textbook where the text provides scaffolding for students on difficult tasks.

6.3. Trends in Cognitive Development 6.3.a. Outline Big Idea 6.3 Children continually build on existing knowledge and skills to develop more advanced thinking and reasoning abilities.

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Chapter 6—Cognitive Development

Development of Working Memory, Knowledge, and Thinking Processes •

Children’s growing working memory capacity enables them to handle increasingly complex cognitive tasks.

•

Children’s growing knowledge base enhances their ability to learn new things.

•

Children’s knowledge, beliefs, and thinking processes become increasingly integrated.

Stages of Cognitive Development •

Thinking becomes increasingly logical during the elementary school years.

•

Thinking becomes increasingly abstract in the middle school and secondary school years.

•

Several logical thinking processes important for mathematical and scientific reasoning improve considerably during adolescence.

•

Children can think more logically and abstractly about tasks and topics they know well.

•

True expertise comes only after many years of study and practice.

Teaching Strategies: Fostering Cognitive Development •

Explore students’ reasoning with problem-solving tasks and probing questions.

•

Rely heavily on concrete objects and activities, especially in the early elementary grades.

•

Present abstract ideas more frequently in the middle school and high school grades, but tie them to concrete objects and events.

•

Initially introduce sophisticated reasoning processes within the context of familiar situations.

6.3.b. Textbook Slides: 6.17 to 6.20 6.3.c. Discussion Topics •

Has anyone practiced something, such as a musical instrument or a sport, for at least 10 years? If so, do you consider yourself an expert? How much did you practice each day and week? If after practicing for 10 years, you took a break and didn’t practice for another 10 years, would you still be an expert?

6.3.d. Activities •

Activity: Ready for Formal Operational Reasoning Skills?

Give each group of students an elementary mathematics or science textbook. Ask each group to determine whether the material presented (expository passages, student assignments, etc.) is appropriate for students who have not yet mastered formal operational reasoning skills.

•

Activity: Formal Operational Reasoning

This activity is designed to illustrate aspects of formal operational thought. You might want to use it in conjunction with Supplementary Lecture 6.3 (Piaget’s Formal Operations Stage) located in Appendix A.

63 ..

Chapter 6—Cognitive Development

1. Present the five problems on Instructor’s Manual Slide 6.1, asking students to solve each one in turn.

2. Explain that Problem #1 is an example of proportional reasoning. The learner must recognize that the number of kernels in the 14-oz jar must be proportionally related to the number of kernels in the 8-oz jar, perhaps like so:

8 / 14 = 1200 / 2100 The correct answer, therefore, is 2100.

3. Explain that Problem #2 is an example of combinatorial thought. To arrive at the answer of 26, the learner should generate all possible combinations of the chemicals in a systematic fashion, perhaps like so: Pairs

Sets of Three

Sets of Four

All Five AB CD E

AB

BD

AB C

AD E

AB CD

AC

BE

AB D

BC D

AB C E

AD

CD

AB E

BC E

AB D E

AE

CE

AC D

BD E

AC DE

BC

DE

AC E

CD E

BC DE

Therefore, there are 26 possible combinations.

4. Explain that Problems #3, #4, and #5 are examples of deductive reasoning about hypothetical and contrary-to-fact ideas. Problem #3 involves distinguishing between real life and logical validity. Problem #4 involves premises that are contrary to fact. Problem #5 involves reasoning about things that simply have no substance in concrete reality.

The answers are: #3: Maybe but not necessarily. #4: Maybe but not necessarily; yes; yes. #5: Maybe but not necessarily; yes.

•

Activity: Effects of Knowledge Base

To illustrate the importance of a knowledge base on learning, have groups develop a learning task in which some people are likely to have a rich knowledge base and others are not (baseball, sewing, literature, or old movies are among the possibilities). Have each group give its learning task to other students in the class, and determine whether knowledge base does, in fact, influence students’ ability to learn.

6.3.e. Out-of-Class Activity •

Piagetian Task a. Design and gather the materials for one Piagetian task at either the concrete operational or formal operational level. Use a conventional task, or else design one of your own based on what you know about Piagetian stages. Three examples of tasks are presented in Handouts 6.1, 6.2, and 6.3 located in Appendix B. b. Present this task to each of the following: •

A preschool or kindergarten student (ages 3–5)

•

A child in grades 1–3 (ages 6–9)

•

A child in grades 4–6 (ages 9–12) 64

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Chapter 6—Cognitive Development •

A high school or college student (but not someone who has taken or is taking a class in educational or developmental psychology)

Use people that you know personally, or see the instructor if you need help finding people of particular ages. Make sure that you determine both what the student’s answer is and his/her reasoning (logic) behind the answer. You may need to question the student in more than one way before you find out what he/she is really thinking. c. Write a description of your experience (three to five pages), addressing the following: (1) The task—more specifically, the materials and the question(s) you asked (2) Description of your students (age, grade level, gender) (3) Each student’s verbal and behavioral responses (4) Your interpretation of these responses: •

What can you deduce about each student’s capabilities?

•

Do your observations confirm Piaget’s observations about characteristics typical of different stages and ages?

•

How might you explain your observations in terms of information processing theory (e.g., considering such factors as prior knowledge, metacognition that may have played a role in reasoning and performance)?

6.3.f. Supplementary Lectures (located in Appendix A) •

Lecture 6.1: Piaget’s Preoperational Stage

•

Lecture 6.2: Piaget’s Concrete Operations Stage

•

Lecture 6.3: Piaget’s Formal Operations Stage

Big Idea 6.4 Intelligence 6.4.a. Outline Big Idea 6.4 Although children in any age-group differ somewhat in intelligence, cognitive styles, and dispositions, appropriately supportive environments can significantly enhance these abilities and characteristics.

The Nature of Intelligence •

Intelligence can be measured only imprecisely at best.

•

To some degree, intelligence reflects the general speed, efficiency, and control of cognitive processing.

•

Intelligence also involves numerous specific processes and abilities.

•

Learners may be more intelligent in some domains than in others.

•

Intelligence is a product of both inherited characteristics and environmental influences.

•

Intelligence may take different forms at different age levels.

•

Learners may have specific cognitive styles and dispositions that predispose them to think and act in more or less intelligent ways.

•

Learners act more intelligently when they have physical or social support for their efforts.

Teaching Strategies: Teaching with a Consideration of Intelligence 65 ..

Chapter 6—Cognitive Development •

Interpret intelligence test results cautiously.

•

Look for signs of exceptional abilities and talents.

•

Consult with specialists if children show significant delays in development.

•

Be optimistic that with appropriate guidance and support, all students can perform more intelligently.

•

Be cautious in applying multiple intelligences theory and learning styles to teaching.

6.4.b. Textbook Slides: 6.21 to 6.30 6.4.c. Discussion Topics •

Identify examples of behaviors that are adaptive and, therefore, “intelligent” in one culture but are not particularly adaptive in another culture.

•

Look at the items in the “Mock Intelligence Test” exercise in the textbook section on intelligence. What abilities are these items measuring? Why might they be predictive of academic success?

•

When test constructors purposely minimize the extent to which mainstream culture is reflected in intelligence test items, those tests are relatively poor predictors of school achievement. Why might this be so?

•

Although IQ scores are never “permanent,” they change less during adolescence than during the preschool and early elementary years. In other words, IQ scores become increasingly stable over time. Why might this be so?

•

Some theorists believe that that social skills are a form of intelligence, in some cases calling it emotional intelligence. Others are quite skeptical; for instance, they argue that there is little evidence to indicate that measures of social skills predict success at school. Is Gardner’s interpersonal intelligence truly intelligence? Why or why not?

•

What dispositions are important to encourage if we want students to engage in higherlevel thinking on a regular basis?

•

What are the advantages and disadvantages of providing special services for students who are academically gifted?

•

Some programs for the gifted are acceleration programs, in which students study various topics within the curriculum sooner (i.e., at a younger age and possibly at a lower grade level) than their non-gifted peers. Other programs are enrichment programs, in which students study the same topics that their peers are studying but address them in greater depth. What are the advantages and disadvantages of each of these approaches?

6.4.d. Activity •

Activity: Intelligence in Different Cultures

Place students in groups of three or four students. Have each group brainstorm examples of behaviors that are adaptive, and therefore, “intelligent” in one culture but that are not particularly adaptive in another culture.

6.4.e. Supplementary Lectures (located in Appendix A) •

Lecture 6.4: Applying Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligence

•

Lecture 6.5: Heredity and Environment in Intelligence 66 ..

Chapter 7—Personal, Social, and Moral Development

CHAPTER 7: PERSONAL, SOCIAL, AND MORAL DEVELOPMENT Chapter Overview In this chapter, students are asked to think about the factors that influence people’s sense of self and personality. These factors contribute to our development and help to make us who we are and who we are not. This chapter builds on the last chapter about cognitive development by focusing on personal, social, and moral development. These three aspects of development are important because teachers, whether intentionally or unintentionally, educate the whole student, they don’t just teach students content knowledge and skills.

Introduction This chapter of the Instructor’s Manual follows the outline of the textbook topics. This manual does not include information related to the Summary or the Case Study Practice Exercises listed in the outline that follows.

Chapter Outline from the Textbook •

Big Ideas to Master in This Chapter

•

Case Study: The School Play

•

Big Idea 7.1: Personality and Sense of Self o

•

Big Idea 7.2: Peer Relationships o

•

Social Cognition

Big Idea 7.3: Moral and Prosocial Development o

•

Fostering Personal Development

Fostering Personal Development

Big Idea 7.4: Promoting Personal, Social, and Moral Development o

Fostering Personal Development

o

Encouraging Effective Social Cognition and Interpersonal Skills

o

Promoting Moral Reasoning and Prosocial Behavior

•

Big Idea 7.5: Supporting Students Who Face Exceptional Personal or Social Challenges

•

Summary

•

Case Study Practice Exercises: The Scarlet Letter

Big Ideas to Master in This Chapter 7.1 Students’ personalities, sense of self, and identities are gradually shaped by traits, environmental contexts, and maturational changes in the brain.

7.2 Students must have good social skills and be able to interpret and respond to various social situations and problems in productive ways if they are to benefit fully from their interactions with peers.

7.3 Some signs of moral reasoning and prosocial behavior emerge early in life, but key components of morality continue to evolve over the course of childhood and adolescence.

7.4 Students who most need teachers’ guidance and support are those who face exceptional personal or social challenges.

7.1.b. Textbook Slides: 7.2 and 7.3 67 ..

Chapter 7—Personal, Social, and Moral Development

Case Study: The School Play Questions and Answers •

The questions presented at the end of the case study in the textbook are as follows and the answers are provided below each question.

1. Middle school students often divide themselves into different social groups, with some groups having higher social status than others. Why might social groups be so important for young adolescents?

o Early adolescence can be a time of considerable anxiety for students related to physiological changes of puberty, disruptions of childhood friendships, more superficial interactions with teachers, and higher expectations for academic performance.

o Self-confidence often plummets (at least temporarily) and students look to their peers for emotional and moral support. Being in a high-status “popular” group can be a source of comfort; but students can have high status only if some of their peers have low status.

2. What benefits might the all-class school play have?

o The all-class school play changes students’ connections to status. Now everyone has a common goal, and only by working cooperatively together with all their classmates can any of them look good.

7.2.b. Textbook Slides: 7.4 to 7.6 Big Idea 7.1. Personal Development 7.1.a. Outline Big Idea 7.1 Students’ personalities, sense of self, and identities are gradually shaped by traits, environmental contexts, and maturational changes in the brain.

Personality •

Personality traits can be grouped into five general categories.

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Personality traits are influenced by genetic and environmental contexts.

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One personality trait, effortful control, doesn’t fully mature until adulthood.

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Parenting styles can affect children’s personality traits and behaviors.

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Cultural environments influence the development of personality traits.

Sense of Self and Identity •

Children construct increasingly multifaceted understandings of their sense of self over time.

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With age, self-perceptions become more realistic, abstract, and stable.

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As children reach puberty, they understand that they are unique individuals, but they may overestimate their uniqueness.

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Self-perceptions influence students’ behaviors, and vice versa.

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Other people’s behaviors affect students’ sense of self.

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Group memberships affect students’ sense of self and identity.

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Chapter 7—Personal, Social, and Moral Development •

Ethnic and racial identities also affect students’ sense of self and identity.

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Gender plays a role in students’ sense of self and identity.

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Sexual orientation influences one’s sense of self and identity.

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Despite the influence of others, growing children define and socialize themselves to a considerable degree.

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In forming their identity, it’s important for adolescents to explore alternative beliefs, values, and career goals.

Teaching Strategies: Fostering Personal Development •

Accommodate students’ diverse personality traits.

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Create a warm, supportive environment with clear standards for behavior and explanations of why some behaviors are unacceptable.

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Help students get a handle on who they are and who they want to become.

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Channel adolescents’ risk-taking tendencies into safe activities.

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Create a positive learning environment in which students of all gender identities and sexual orientation identities feel welcome.

7.1.b. Textbook Slides: 7.7 to 7.14 7.1.c. Discussion Topics •

Students working in a cooperative classroom environment usually evaluate themselves more highly than students working in a competitive classroom (e.g., Marsh & Peart, 1988). Why might this be so?

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How have you OCEAN personality traits affected your schooling experiences over the years? For example, maybe your conscientiousness has helped you to turn in assignments on time.

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How might your OCEAN personality traits affect your teaching style? For example, maybe your lack of conscientiousness will cause you to write unclear directions on assignments and lead students to be more confused.

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What are some strategies that teachers can use to create a positive learning environment in which students of all gender identities and sexual orientation identities feel welcome?

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What behaviors might you expect from students who are just entering puberty? What adjustments can teachers and schools make for the physiological variability in students in middle school and junior high?

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What can teachers and administrators do to channel adolescents’ risk-taking tendencies into safer activities?

7.1.d. Activities •

Activity: Promoting Industry

Place students in groups and ask each group to generate a list of ways teachers can promote a sense of industry at the elementary level.

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Activity: Promoting Identity

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Chapter 7—Personal, Social, and Moral Development

Place students in groups and ask each group to generate a list of ways teachers can promote a sense of identity at the secondary level.

7.1.e. Out-of-Class Activities •

Have children of different ages describe themselves, then determine whether the selfdescriptions are consistent with the textbook’s discussion of how sense of self changes over time.

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Analyze the behaviors of the male and female characters on a particular television show, determining the extent to which each one models gender-stereotypical behavior.

7.1.f. Supplementary Lecture (located in Appendix A) •

Lecture 7.1: Marcia’s Four States of Adolescent Identity

Big Idea 7.2. Peer Relationships 7.2.a. Outline Big Idea 7.2 Students must have good social skills and be able to interpret and respond to various social situations and problems in productive ways if they are to benefit fully from their interactions with peers.

Peer Relationships •

Peer relationships promote personal, social, and academic development in ways that adult–child relationships often cannot.

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Peers help define “appropriate” ways of behaving.

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On average, boys and girls interact with their peers in distinctly different ways.

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Social groups become increasingly important in adolescence.

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Romantic relationships in adolescence can provide valuable practice for the intimate relationships of adulthood.

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Truly popular children have good social skills.

Social Cognition •

As children get older, they become increasingly aware of other people’s thoughts and feelings.

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Children’s cognitive processes in social situations influence their behaviors toward others.

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Aggressive behavior is often the result of counterproductive cognitive processes.

Teaching Strategies: Encouraging Effective Social cognition and Interpersonal Skills •

Foster perspective taking and empathy.

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Talk with students about what it really means to be popular.

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Provide frequent opportunities for social interaction and cooperation.

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Explicitly teach social skills to students who have trouble interacting effectively with others.

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Explain what bullying is and why it cannot be tolerated.

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Chapter 7—Personal, Social, and Moral Development •

Be alert for incidents of bullying and other forms of aggression, and take appropriate actions with both the victims and the perpetrators.

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Explicitly discourage inappropriate electronic communications and postings.

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Promote understanding, communication, and interaction among diverse groups.

7.2.b. Textbook Slides: 7.15 to 7.19 7.2.c. Discussion Topics •

What might you do to ease the transition of a new student into your classroom? How might you help other students see things from a new student’s point of view?

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What might you do to discourage membership in deviant gangs and subcultures?

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Now that you have read about how perspective taking can vary by age, how might that knowledge affect your behaviors as a teacher at a certain grade level?

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What types of aggressive behavior have you witnessed in the classroom? Do any of the cognitive factors listed in Chapter 7 help to explain the behavior of the aggressive students?

7.2.d. Activity •

Activity: Perspective Taking

Present the following scenario to students: Kenny and Mark are co-captains of the soccer team. They have one person left to choose for the team. Without saying anything, Mark winks at Kenny and looks at Tom, who is one of the remaining children left to be chosen for the team. Mark looks back at Kenny and smiles.

Kenny nods and chooses Tom to be on their team. Tom sees Mark and Kenny winking and smiling at each other. Tom, who is usually one of the last to be picked for team sports, wonders why Kenny wants him to be on his team.

Ask students to answer the following question in small groups.

1. Why did Mark smile at Kenny?

2. Why did Kenny nod?

3. Why did Kenny choose Tom to be on the team? How do you know this?

4. Do you think that Tom has any idea of why Kenny chose him to be on the team? How do you know this?

5. How do you think Tom feels?

To answer these questions, you must look at the situation from the perspectives of the three children involved. For instance, if you put yourself in Tom’s shoes, you might suspect that he has mixed feelings. If he enjoys soccer, he may be happy to have a chance to play, but he may also be wondering whether the other boys’ nonverbal signals indicate malicious intentions to make him look foolish on the soccer field. And, of course, Tom may feel embarrassed or demoralized at consistently being one of the last children picked for a team.

(Accordingly, asking some students to choose others for their teams, as might be done in a physical education class, is generally not recommended.)

This activity requires students to engage in perspective taking (i.e., looking at a situation from someone else’s viewpoint). Being able to take the perspective of others is important 71 ..

Chapter 7—Personal, Social, and Moral Development

because it is one of the skills within social cognition (i.e., the process of thinking about how other people are likely to think, act, and react).

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Activity: Promoting Prosocial Behaviors

Place students in groups and ask each group to develop a list of strategies for promoting prosocial behaviors.

7.2.e. Supplementary Lectures (located in Appendix A) •

Lecture 7.2: Self-Concept and Social Selves in Adolescence

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Lecture 7.3: Selman’s Levels of Perspective Taking

Big Idea 7.3. Moral and Prosocial Development 7.3.a. Outline Big Idea 7.3 Some signs of moral reasoning and prosocial behavior emerge early in life, but key components of morality continue to evolve over the course of childhood and adolescence.

The Nature of Moral and Prosocial Development •

Children begin applying internal standards for behavior at a very early age.

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Children increasingly distinguish between moral and conventional transgressions.

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Children’s capacity to respond emotionally to other people’s misfortunes and distress increases throughout the school years.

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With age, reasoning about moral issues becomes increasingly abstract and flexible.

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Challenges to current moral perspectives can promote advancement toward more sophisticated reasoning.

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Cognition, affect, and motivation all influence moral and prosocial behavior.

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Moral values become an important part of some young people’s identity.

Teaching Strategies: Promoting Moral Reasoning and Prosocial Behavior •

Expose students to numerous models of moral and prosocial behavior.

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Engage students in discussions of social and moral issues.

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Discourage all forms of cheating.

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Get students actively involved in community service or service-learning experiences.

7.3.b. Textbook Slides: 7.20 to 7.24 7.3.c. Discussion Topics •

At the beginning of the lesson related to moral development, show Instructor’s Manual Slide 7.2 (Mary and her purse) to the class. Explain to the class that this is an example of a moral dilemma. Ask the class why it is or is not important for teachers to have an understanding of students’ moral reasoning and development.

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At the beginning of the lesson related to moral development, show Instructor’s Manual Slide 7.4 (Heinz dilemma—woman near death from cancer) to the class. Explain to the class that this is an example of a moral dilemma. Ask the class: Should Heinz have 72 ..

Chapter 7—Personal, Social, and Moral Development

stolen the drug for his wife? Ask students to explain their answer. Categorize students’ responses into Kohlberg’s stages shown in Instructor’s Manual Slide 7.5.

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On average, higher stages of moral development are more often observed in people who have attained high levels of education (Reimer, Paolitto, & Hersh, 1983). Why might this be so?

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How could moral dilemmas be used in math class?

7.3.d. Activities •

Activity: Cheating on a Vocabulary Test

Ask students to read the scenario on Instructor’s Manual Slide 7.7 (cheating on the vocabulary test; from Reimer, Paolitto, & Hersh, 1983, p. 153). In groups, have students answer the questions in the way that a typical student at a certain grade level might answer them (allow them to choose any grade level). Lead a class discussion about how students at different ages might answer the questions differently.

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Activity: Moral Dilemmas in Social Studies

Show Instructor’s Manual Slide 7.9 and explain that these are moral dilemmas in social studies. Assign a specific area of the curriculum (e.g., science, athletics, literature, current events) to each group; also assign the topic “daily classroom interaction” to one group. Have the groups generate a list of moral dilemmas related to their assigned domain.

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Activity: The Declaration of Independence

1. Show Instructor’s Manual Slide 7.11 with Kohlberg’s three levels and six stages of moral reasoning.

2. Present the excerpt from the American Declaration of Independence on Instructor’s Manual Slide 7.12. Ask students to decide which of Kohlberg’s levels and stages is/are reflected in the excerpt. Have students either think independently about your question or discuss it in small groups.

3. Have students vote (as either individuals or groups) on the level(s) and stage(s) that they have selected.

4. Reveal the correct answer. The excerpt definitely reflects postconventional (Level 3) thinking. The first part of the excerpt includes abstract ethical principles (equality, life, liberty, pursuit of happiness) and so reflects Stage 6 reasoning. The latter part discusses the changeability of rules and so reflects Stage 5 reasoning.

7.3.e. Out-of-Class Activity •

Find an example of a moral dilemma in children’s literature and explain why it is a moral dilemma.

7.3.f. Supplementary Lecture (located in Appendix A) •

Lecture 7.4: Eisenberg’s Levels

Big Idea 7.4. Students who Face Exceptional Personal or Social Challenges 7.4.a. Outline 73 ..

Chapter 7—Personal, Social, and Moral Development Big Idea 7.4 Students who most need teachers’ guidance and support are those who face exceptional personal or social challenges.

Students At Risk for Academic Failure •

Some students face, or have faced, exceptional challenges outside of school.

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Some students do well in school despite hardships.

Teaching Strategies: Supporting Students Who Face Challenges •

Intervene early and often with students who are at risk for dropping out of school.

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Connect students and families to resources. Identify additional supportive strategies and services for students who are homeless.

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Watch for signs of abuse.

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Be on the lookout for students who appear to be social outcasts.

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Provide extra support and guidance for students who have disabilities that affect their personal or social functioning.

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Know the warning signs of severe depression and possible suicide.

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Foster resilience in students.

7.4.b. Textbook Slides: 7.25 to 7.30 7.4.c. Discussion Topics •

Imagine that you are a teacher and while you’re talking to another teacher at your school in the lunch area the teacher says: “I got into teaching to teach, not to be a parent to all these kids and deal with all their issues.” How do you respond to this teacher?

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Chapter 8—Instructional Strategies

CHAPTER 8: INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES Chapter Overview In Chapter 8, students will use what they’ve learned in the prior chapters about learning, development, and motivation, to identify strategies for effectively planning and carrying out instruction. This chapter is important to anyone who wants to become a teacher because it lays out the basics of teaching.

Students who are enrolled in a teacher preparation program will likely either have taken, or will take, methods courses designed specifically to teach them how to teach the subject matter in their content area. The purpose of this chapter is not to do that, but rather, to provide students with general information that can be applied to teaching most subject areas.

Introduction This chapter of the Instructor’s Manual follows the outline of the textbook topics. This manual does not include information related to the Summary or the Case Study Practice Exercises listed in the outline that follows.

Chapter Outline from the Textbook •

Big Ideas to Master in This Chapter

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Case Study: Westward Expansion

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Big Idea 8.1: Planning Instruction

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Big Idea 8.2: Conducting Teacher-Directed Instruction

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Big Idea 8.3: Conducting Student-Directed Instruction

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Big Idea 8.4: General Instructional Strategies

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Summary

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Case Study Practice Exercises: Cooperative Learning Project

Big Ideas to Master in This Chapter 8.1 Effective teachers identify the knowledge and abilities they want students to acquire, and they plan instruction accordingly.

8.2 Sometimes instruction is most effective when it is teacher-directed—that is, when the teacher chooses the specific topics to be studied and the general course of a lesson.

8.3 Sometimes instruction is most effective when it is student-directed—that is, when students have some control over the issues to be addressed and the ways in which to address them.

8.4 Different instructional strategies are appropriate for different instructional goals and for different students.

8.1.b. Textbook Slide: 8.2 Case Study: Westward Expansion Questions and Answers •

The questions presented at the end of the case study in the textbook are as follows and the answers are provided below each question.

1. What specific instructional strategies does Mr. Quinn use to engage and motivate his students?

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Chapter 8—Instructional Strategies

o He arouses situational interest through a physical activity (students mark a “wagon” on the floor).

o He creates cognitive dissonance (the list in the pamphlet is different from the ones the students generated).

o He makes the lesson a very social, interactive one.

2. What strategies does he use to help them learn and remember the content of the lesson?

o Mr. Quinn promotes learning and understanding by encouraging visual imagery and elaboration—for example, by making the subject matter concrete and vivid (through the old photographs and masking-tape wagon) and by asking students to speculate about why such things as lard and coffee might have been important to have.

Textbook Slides: 8.3 to 8.6 Big Idea 8.1. Planning Instruction 8.1.a. Outline Big Idea 8.1 Effective teachers identify the knowledge and abilities they want students to acquire, and they plan instruction accordingly.

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Begin by identifying what students should ultimately know and be able to do.

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Align long-term instructional goals with appropriate standards for various content domains.

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Include goals and objectives at varying levels of complexity and sophistication.

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Ask students to identify some of their own goals for instruction.

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Break complex tasks and topics into smaller pieces, identify a logical sequence for the pieces, and decide how best to teach each one.

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Consider how you might motivate students to actively engage in instructional activities.

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Develop step-by-step lesson plans.

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Use class websites to share information and scaffold students’ learning.

8.1.b. Textbook Slides: Slides 8.7 to 8.15 8.1.c. Discussion Topics •

Identify examples of topics or skills for which each of the three approaches to task analysis—behavioral analysis, subject matter analysis, and information processing analysis—would be appropriate.

8.1.d. Activities •

Activity: Examples of Interactions

Place students in groups and ask them to identify specific, concrete examples of how each of these five factors—planning, instruction, classroom environment, assessment, and student characteristics—influences each of the other four.

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Activity: Conducting a Task Analysis

Place students in groups and have each group conduct a task analysis for one of the 76 ..

Chapter 8—Instructional Strategies

following tasks. You may want to provide any concrete materials necessary for performing the task (peanut butter, jump rope, etc.). You might want to show Textbook Slide 8.13 and 8.14 to illustrate three possible approaches. o

Making a peanut butter and jelly sandwich

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Tying a shoe

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Jumping rope

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Solving a mathematical word problem

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Activity: Identifying Observable Behaviors

Some experts recommend that instructional objectives identify specific behaviors that teachers can actually observe; in this way, they know without a doubt that their students have accomplished the objectives.

1. Show students Instructor’s Manual Slide 8.2 and ask “Which of the following verbs reflect observable behaviors?” You can have students address these questions either in small groups or within the context of a whole-class discussion. Show students the bolded answers on Instructor’s Manual Slide 8.3 and discuss.

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know

(not observable)

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identify

(observable)

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choose

(observable)

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remember

(not observable)

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appreciate

(not observable)

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explain

(observable)

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recite

(observable)

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understand

(not observable)

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write

(observable)

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do

(observable)

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recognize

(not observable)

2. Have students work in small groups to identify at least 10 additional observable behaviors that might be appropriate for instructional objectives.

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Activity: Looking Ahead “Objectively”

1. Have your students form groups of two to four students each that are relatively homogeneous with respect to the grade level and subject matter they hope to teach in the future.

2. Give the groups the following assignment: a. On a sheet of paper, write down a specific grade level at which you might eventually teach. b. Write down a specific topic you are likely to be teaching at that grade level. c. With both your grade level and topic in mind, write down at least five important objectives you might have for your students.

3. Ask the groups to evaluate the objectives they’ve developed based on the following criteria:

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a. Did the objectives focus on student outcomes rather than on student learning processes or teacher activities? b. Did the objectives identify accomplishments that reflect varying degrees of complexity? c. Which of the three general domains identified in the textbook—cognitive, psychomotor, and affective—do the objectives reflect?

8.3.f. Out-of-Class Activities •

Identify a particular topic you might teach some day and write five instructional objectives you might have when teaching that topic. Your objectives should be consistent with the textbook’s guidelines for developing useful goals and objectives.

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Take a particular passage from a textbook and describe three specific things you could do to help your students learn the material presented. For example, you might consider how to help your students: o

Encode the information

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Organize the information

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Store the information in a way that they will remember easily

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Apply (transfer) the information to new situations

Big Idea 8.2. Conducting Teacher-Directed Instruction 8.2.a. Outline Big Idea 8.2 Sometimes instruction is most effective when it is teacher-directed—that is, when the teacher chooses the specific topics to be studied and the general course of a lesson.

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Encourage and support students’ cognitive processes and motivation.

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Ask a lot of good questions to promote and assess learning.

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Intermingle explanations with examples and opportunities for practice.

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Help all students achieve mastery of basic knowledge and skills.

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Take advantage of well-designed instructional software and websites.

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Extend the school day with age-appropriate homework assignments.

8.2.b. Textbook Slides: 8.16 to 8.20 8.2.c. Discussion Topics •

What are the advantages of using textbooks to teach new information? What are the disadvantages?

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What positive experiences have you had with computer-based instruction? Have you had any negative experiences? If so, how would you recommend that the computer programmer or teacher do things differently next time?

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What are the possible advantages and disadvantages of a mastery-learning approach to instruction?

8.2.d. Out-of-Class Activity •

Develop a lesson on a particular topic and incorporate at least five strategies that should facilitate students’ cognitive processing of the material presented.

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Chapter 8—Instructional Strategies

8.2.e. Supplementary Lectures (located in Appendix A) •

Lecture 8.1: Effective Expository Instruction

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Lecture 8.2: Common Textbook Weaknesses

Big Idea 8.3. Conducting Student-Directed Instruction 8.3.a. Outline Big Idea 8.3 Sometimes instruction is most effective when it is student-directed—that is, when students have some control over the issues to be addressed and the ways in which to address them.

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Have students discuss issues that lend themselves to multiple perspectives, explanations, or approaches.

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Create a classroom atmosphere conducive to open debate and the constructive evaluation of ideas.

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Conduct activities in which students must depend on one another for their learning.

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Have students answer questions through their own research or investigations.

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Have students work on complex, real-world problems, projects, and designs.

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When real-world tasks are impractical or impossible, consider using simulations and games.

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Have students work one-on-one with another student or a teacher.

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Use computer technology to enhance communication and collaboration.

8.3.b. Textbook Slide: 8.21 to 8.24 8.3.c. Discussion Topics •

What benefits do you get from discussing class material with your classmates? What are the disadvantages to such discussions?

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Identify advantages and disadvantages of using whole-class versus small-group discussions.

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Judging from your own experiences, what are the advantages and disadvantages of cooperative learning?

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What are the advantages and disadvantages of peer tutoring?

8.3.d. Activities •

Activity: Facilitating Discussions

Place students in groups and ask them to: o

identify problems that may arise during whole-class discussions (problems that may interfere with students’ learning and achievement); and

o

develop a list of guidelines for facilitating effective discussions.

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Activity: Teaching Text Passages

Form several groups of the same size. Give each group several small passages from a chapter in the textbook that they have not yet read. Ask each group member to read a 79 ..

Chapter 8—Instructional Strategies

different passage and then to teach the passage’s content to other group members. As an example, different members in a group of four might individually read about one of the four “RSVP” concepts (reliability, standardization, validity, and practicality) and then teach their concept to the rest of the group.

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Activity: The Hypothesis-Experiment-Instruction Approach to Science Instruction

This activity illustrates the hypothesis-experiment-instruction approach to science instruction. You will need the following materials: •

A clay ball affixed (perhaps with string) to a long spring; the spring should have a noticeable degree of “stretch” to it

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A large glass bowl filled with water

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A ruler

Increasingly, theorists and practitioners are finding that small-group and whole-class discussions can promote conceptual change in science. The hypothesis-experimentinstruction method is one effective approach (Hatano & Inagaki, 1991). Here are the typical steps a teacher follows: (Show Instructor’s Manual Slide 8.5, revealing each step as you describe and illustrate it [the slide is designed to show one point for each click].)

1. The teacher presents a question or issue that has three or four possible answers. For example, the teacher might pose this situation: Suppose that you have a clay ball on one end of a spring. You hold the other end of the spring and put half of the clay ball into water. Will the spring (a) become shorter, (b) become longer, or (c) retain its length? (Hatano & Inagaki, 1991, p. 337) Illustrate the question by holding the spring (with suspended clay ball) over the bowl of water; do not dip the clay in the water at this point.

2. The teacher asks students each to choose one possible answer to the question. At this point, students should not confer with their classmates. Have your students write down their choice (e.g., in the margin of their notebooks).

3. The teacher asks the students to indicate their choices by a show of hands and tabulates the responses on the chalkboard. Solicit and tally students’ responses.

4. The teacher encourages the students to explain and justify their choices to one another.

Have your students convene in groups of two, three, or four to describe and defend their choices.

5. The class conducts an experiment that enables the students to test their predictions.

Holding the spring with the clay ball suspended from it, ask a student to measure the length of the spring. Then lower the clay ball into the water but without letting it touch the bottom of the bowl. Ask the student to measure the length of the spring a second time and compare the results with the previous measurement.

6. The students develop and discuss possible explanations as to why the experiment yielded the results that it did. Ask those students who previously made an inaccurate prediction to explain why the spring was shorter the second time.

If many students have initially made inaccurate predictions, the experiment will encourage them to revise their thinking and acquire a more accurate understanding of the scientific principles involved in the phenomenon they have just observed.

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Activity: Reciprocal Instruction 80 ..

Chapter 8—Instructional Strategies

This activity illustrates the four key elements of reciprocal teaching—summarizing, questioning, clarifying, and predicting.

1. Select a passage in the textbook that you have not yet asked your class to read. Tell students that they will read this passage in class so that they can get a firsthand feel for what reciprocal teaching is like.

2. If you have a small class (e.g., fewer than 20 students), you can conduct this activity as one large group. If you have a larger class, you probably want to break students into groups of 10 or fewer, with a student assistant being the official “teacher” for each group.

3. As teacher, start by modeling a predicting question (e.g., “Let’s look at the title of this section. Who can tell us what this passage will probably be about?”). Solicit one or more answers to this question.

4. Ask a student to read the first few sentences of the passage, then ask a question that checks students’ comprehension of what has just been read (questioning) and solicit answers. Ask one or more students if they can think of additional questions they might ask one another about the sentences.

5. Ask another student to read a few more sentences of the passage; then, once again, ask students to form teacher-like questions about the material. Continue in this manner for several paragraphs. At appropriate times, model confusion about a vague or ambiguous point in the passage by asking a clarifying question (e.g., “I didn’t understand what the author meant by ____. Can anybody explain that to me?”), or ask students if there are things they don’t completely understand.

6. At the end of a section of the passage, ask a student to summarize the main points of the material that has just been read (summarizing).

7. Proceed with additional sections of the passage, turning the role of teacher over to two or three different students. Repeat steps 3–6.

8. If students have been subdivided into small groups, pull them back into one large class.

Ask them to give you examples of how their group engaged in each of the four elements of reciprocal teaching—summarizing, questioning, clarifying, and predicting. Also have them reflect on the extent to which they do these things as they read their textbooks at home.

8.3.e. Out-of-Class Activity •

Develop lesson on a particular topic using one of the student-directed instructional approaches described in the textbook.

8.3.f. Supplementary Lectures (located in Appendix A) •

Lecture 8.3: Keller’s Personalized System of Instruction

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Lecture 8.4: Discovery Learning

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Lecture 8.5: Cooperative Learning

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Lecture 8.6: Open Classrooms

8.4. General Instructional Strategies 8.4.a. Outline Big Idea 8.4 Different instructional strategies are appropriate for different instructional goals for different students.

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Take group differences into account.

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Chapter 8—Instructional Strategies •

Consider how you might productively modify or supplement instructional strategies for the benefit of English learners in your classroom.

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Also take developmental levels, individual differences, and special educational needs into account.

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Combine several instructional approaches into a single lesson.

8.4.b. Textbook Slide: 8.25 and 8.26 8.4.c. Discussion Topics •

Think of a time when you were in a class in which the teacher used a combination of instructional approaches. In other words, the teacher used more than one instructional approach to teach a lesson. Describe those instructional approaches and how they helped or hindered you in meeting the goals of the lesson.

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Describe some examples in which the teacher implemented a flipped classroom approach. Was the approach effective? Why or why not?

8.4.d. Supplementary Lecture (located in Appendix A) •

Lecture 8.7: General Principles of Effective Instruction

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Chapter 9—Strategies for Creating Effective Classroom and School Environments

CHAPTER 9: STRATEGIES FOR CREATING EFFECTIVE CLASSROOM AND SCHOOL ENVIRONMENTS Chapter Overview Chapter 9 provides many strategies for creating an environment that can help students to thrive academically and personally. In this chapter, students will see how many of the ideas from this textbook come together, including those related to learning, motivation, and development. This chapter is important because beginning teachers consistently rank behavior management as one of their biggest struggles during their first year. Hopefully, the ideas in this chapter will help students deal with these issues in their own classroom.

Introduction This chapter of the Instructor’s Manual follows the outline of the textbook topics. This manual does not include information related to the Summary or the Case Study Practice Exercises listed in the outline that follows.

Chapter Outline from the Textbook •

Big Ideas to Master in This Chapter

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Case Study: A Contagious Situation

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Big Idea 9.1: Creating an Environment Conducive to Learning

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Big Idea 9.2: Expanding the Sense of Community Beyond the Classroom

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Big Idea 9.3: Reducing Unproductive Behaviors

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Big Idea 9.4: Addressing Aggression and Violence at School

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Summary

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Case Study Practice Exercises: The Good Buddy

Big Ideas to Master in This Chapter 9.1 Effective teachers create a caring, respectful classroom environment in which students are consistently focused on accomplishing instructional goals and objectives.

9.2 Teachers are most effective when they coordinate their efforts with colleagues, outside agencies, and parents.

9.3 Effective interventions for reducing unproductive school behaviors are tailored to the circumstances, with students’ long-term development and well-being as the ultimate goals.

9.4 Minimizing aggression and violence at school requires a three-tiered approach: (1) creating a respectful and supportive school environment, (2) intervening early for students at risk for social failure, and (3) providing intensive interventions for chronically aggressive students.

Textbook Slides: 9.2 and 9.3 Case Study: A Contagious Situation Questions and Answers •

The questions presented at the end of the case study in the textbook are as follows and the answers are provided below each question.

1. In what ways has Ms. Cornell planned in advance for her classroom?

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Chapter 9—Strategies for Creating Effective Classroom and School Environments

o She has carefully identified her instructional goals and planned relevant lessons.

2. In what ways has she not planned?

o She has neglected to think about how she might keep students on task or how she might adjust her lessons based on how students are progressing.

o She hasn’t considered how she might nip behavior problems in the bud before they begin to interfere with instruction and students’ learning.

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Other questions you might ask students include: o

o

Why are Eli, Jake, and Vanessa so disruptive right from the start? Can you think of possible reasons related to how Ms. Cornell has begun the school year? Can you think of possible reasons related to the activities Ms. Cornell has planned? Can you think of possible reasons related to learning and motivation in previous chapters?

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Ms. Cornell began the curriculum she planned on the very first day of school, before students have had a chance to settle in and feel comfortable in their new classroom.

Teachers should typically begin the school year with easy, enjoyable tasks that allow a pleasant and supportive classroom climate to be established.

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Ms. Cornell may be presenting especially difficult material and tasks. Students are more likely to misbehave when they are asked to do things that are probably too difficult for them.

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Ms. Cornell did not set limits regarding classroom behavior.

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The students have pent-up energy that needs to be released—an unmet physiological need.

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It’s possible that Ms. Cornell’s expectations for performance are unclear, generating anxiety for the students.

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The students don’t see the relevance of classroom subject matter to their own lives.

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The students have low self-efficacy because they have had a string of failures in previous years. When students attribute their failures in a particular activity to a lack of ability, they are unlikely to exert effort in that activity.

Why does the misbehavior of the three problem students continue? Why does it spread to other students in the classroom? Why might it be particularly common during downtimes in the school day? Can you answer these questions using learning principles presented in earlier chapters?

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The three students are being reinforced for such behavior by the attention they are getting from their classmates and Ms. Cornell is doing nothing to dissuade them from behaving as they do.

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Other students may be starting to behave in a similar fashion either because of vicarious reinforcement (Eli, Jake, and Vanessa are getting a lot of attention from peers) or because of the nonoccurrence of expected punishment (something that is actually reinforcing).

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The misbehavior may be especially common during down times because there is little going on to keep students’ attention focused on academic endeavors or to reinforce them for appropriate behavior.

Textbook Slides: 9.4 to 9.6 Big Idea 9.1. Creating an Environment Conducive to Learning 9.1.a. Outline 84 ..

Chapter 9—Strategies for Creating Effective Classroom and School Environments

Big Idea 9.1 Effective teachers create a caring, respectful classroom environment in which students are consistently focused on accomplishing instructional goals and objectives.

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Arrange the classroom to maximize attention and minimize disruptions.

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Communicate caring and respect for every student.

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Work hard to improve relationships that have gotten off to a bad start.

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Create a sense of community and belongingness.

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Create a goal-oriented, businesslike (but nonthreatening) atmosphere.

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Create a psychologically safe environment for all students.

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Establish reasonable rules and procedures.

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Enforce rules consistently and equitably.

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Keep students productively engaged in worthwhile tasks.

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Plan for transitions.

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Take individual and developmental differences into account.

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Continually monitor what students are doing.

9.1.b. Textbook Slides: Slides 9.7 to 9.9 9.1.c. Discussion Topics •

What various physical arrangement have you seen in the classrooms you’ve observed?

Which arrangements seem to be most effective? Which arrangements can lead to troubling student behavior?

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As teachers, what might you do to maintain a businesslike atmosphere in your classroom while simultaneously showing students that you care about their well-being?

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What rules and procedures would you establish at the beginning of the school year?

Would you have guidelines related to: talking in class, moving about the room, leaving the classroom, and/or turning in assignments?

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A teacher is about to take students on a field trip (perhaps to the zoo, a museum, or a local cultural event). What strategies might he or she use before leaving the classroom to minimize the occurrence of behavior problems on the trip?

9.1.d. Activities •

Activity: Developing Classroom Rules

Place students in groups and assign each group a particular grade level. Ask the group to develop a short list of rules that a teacher at that grade level might use to start out the year.

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Activity: First Day of School Activities

Place students in groups and assign each group a particular grade level. Ask each group to develop several good activities for getting students actively engaged on the first day of school.

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Chapter 9—Strategies for Creating Effective Classroom and School Environments

9.1.e. Out-of-Class Activity •

After reading the chapter, (a) write a paper identifying three to five general principles of classroom management that will guide you as a teacher, and (b) justify those principles on the basis of what you have learned about learning, development, and/or motivation.

9.1.f. Supplementary Lectures (located in Appendix A) •

Lecture 9.1: Kounin’s Strategies

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Lecture 9.2: Humanists on Classroom Climate

Big Idea 9.2. Expanding the Sense of Community Beyond the Classroom 9.2.a. Outline Big Idea 9.2 Teachers are most effective when they coordinate their efforts with colleagues, outside agencies, and parents.

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Collaborate with colleagues to create an overall sense of school community.

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Work cooperatively with other agencies that play key roles in students’ lives.

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Communicate regularly with parents and other primary caregivers.

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Invite families and community members to participate in the academic and social life of the school.

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Make an extra effort with seemingly “reluctant” parents.

9.2.b. Textbook Slide: 9.10 and 9.11 9.2.c. Discussion Topics •

Students learn more from challenging tasks than from easy ones. Yet, challenging tasks are riskier than easy ones, and expectations for students’ performance are often more ambiguous. As a result, when teachers begin to give challenging assignments, many students resist them and classroom misbehaviors increase (R. B. Davis & McKnight, 1976; Doyle, 1983). What strategies might a teacher use to assign a challenging task while maintaining students’ sense of security and keeping misbehaviors to a minimum?

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According to a study by Steinberg (1996), about 30% of high school students think that their parents have no idea how well they are doing in school. Furthermore, more than 15% think that their parents don’t care whether they do well or poorly at school. Do you think the students’ perceptions of their parents are accurate? Whether they are accurate or not, how might such perceptions affect students’ motivation and attitudes at school?

9.2.d. Out-of-Class Activities •

Draft a newsletter that might be sent home to parents describing a hypothetical week’s classroom activities, explaining how those activities relate to students’ long-term developmental goals, and providing concrete suggestions about how parents can foster progress toward the same goals at home.

Big Idea 9.3. Reducing Unproductive Behaviors 9.3.a. Outline Big Idea 9.3 Effective interventions for reducing unproductive school behaviors are tailored to the circumstances, with students’ long-term development and well-being as the ultimate goals.

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Chapter 9—Strategies for Creating Effective Classroom and School Environments •

Consider whether instructional strategies or classroom assignments might be partly to blame for off-task behaviors.

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Consider whether cultural background might influence students’ classroom behaviors.

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Ignore misbehaviors that are temporary, minor, and unlikely to be repeated or copied.

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Give signals and reminders about what is and is not appropriate.

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Get students’ perspectives about their behaviors.

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Teach self-regulation techniques.

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When administering punishment, use only those consequences that have been shown to be effective in reducing problem behaviors.

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Confer with parents.

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To address a chronic problem, plan and carry out a systematic intervention.

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Determine whether certain undesirable behaviors might serve particular purposes for students.

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Use the simplest and least intrusive strategy possible to address student misbehaviors.

9.3.b. Textbook Slides: 9.12 to 9.20 9.3.c. Discussion Topics •

In one research study, only five or six teachers at a particular school were the source of 75–80% of the students who were referred to the principal’s office for disciplinary action (Nichols, Ludwin, & Iadicola, 1998). In another study, only 5% of the teachers at a particular school were responsible for 90% of all office referrals (Jones & Jones, 1995).

What factors might account for such findings?

9.3.d. Activities •

Activity: Behavior Problem Situations

Assign each group one or more of the problem situations on Handout 9.1 (located in Appendix B). Ask the group to develop a possible solution to each situation. (You may want to assign the same situation to two different groups and then compare their solutions at the end of the activity. You may also want to use Instructor’s Manual Slide 9.2 to facilitate student discussion.).

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Activity: Facilitating Parent–Teacher Relationships

Have each group brainstorm strategies for facilitating parent–teacher relationships when parents seem to be intimidated by teachers and other school personnel.

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Activity: Talkative Students

This activity illustrates the effects of repeated teacher reprimands on both the momentum of instruction and the atmosphere of the classroom.

1. Unbeknownst to other students, enlist two students in your class to assist you in this activity; ideally, you should select two students who have been relatively talkative during class sessions. Before class, instruct these two students to sit next to each other. As class proceeds, they should frequently converse with each other, being vocal enough that they attract the attention of their classmates and you.

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Chapter 9—Strategies for Creating Effective Classroom and School Environments

2. Carry on a normal classroom activity; for example, you might want to spend a few minutes reviewing content from a preceding chapter. Every time the students begin a conversation, momentarily stop what you are doing and either give them a dirty look or chastise them for their behavior (e.g., “Do you two have something you’d like to share with the rest of the class?” or “Would you two please face front and pay attention?”).

Continue with your classroom activity, occasionally interrupting it with your disciplinary actions, for whatever length of time seems reasonable (perhaps 5–10 minutes), then wrap up the activity in which you have been engaged.

3. Ask students to reflect on the effects of the students’ talking and of your disciplinary actions. In particular, ask them to think about (1) how the momentum of the classroom activity was interrupted by the way in which you handled the students’ misbehavior, and (2) how the classroom atmosphere changed as a result of your actions. (You should, of course, mention that the two “misbehaving” students were actually your confederates.)

You might also ask students to brainstorm about alternative strategies you might have used in dealing with the distracting behavior. Students’ responses can provide a lead-in to an introduction of classroom management.

9.3.e. Supplementary Lectures (located in Appendix A) •

Lecture 9.3: Dealing with Noncompliant and Deviant Students

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Lecture 9.4: Cultural Differences in Parents’ Beliefs and Attitudes about Education

Big Idea 9.4. Addressing Aggression and Violence at School 9.4.a. Outline Big Idea 9.4 Minimizing aggression and violence at school requires a three-tiered approach: (1) creating a respectful and supportive school environment, (2) intervening early for students at risk for social failure, and (3) providing intensive interventions for chronically aggressive students.

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Make the creation of a nonviolent school environment a long-term effort.

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Intervene early for students at risk.

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Provide intensive intervention for students in trouble.

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Take additional measures to address gang violence.

9.4.b. Textbook Slides: 9.21 to 9.24 9.4.c. Discussion Topics •

Did the schools you attended have “antiviolence” campaigns? What were they like?

What did students think of them? Did they work?

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What types of behaviors from a student should lead a teacher to consult a school administrator or other specially trained professional at his/her school?

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Chapter 10—Assessment Strategies

CHAPTER 10: ASSESSMENT STRATEGIES Chapter Overview This last chapter of the textbook is titled “Assessment Strategies” because it explains different forms of assessment and how to use them effectively. Classroom assessment practices are intertwined with virtually every other aspect of classroom functioning, and effective teachers are very knowledgeable about assessment practices.

Introduction This chapter of the Instructor’s Manual follows the outline of the textbook topics. This manual does not include information related to the Summary or the Case Study Practice Exercises listed in the outline that follows.

Chapter Outline from the Textbook •

Big Ideas to Master in This Chapter

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Case Study: B in History

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Big Idea 10.1: Using Assessment for Various Purposes o

Guiding Instructional Decision Making

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Diagnosing Learning and Performance Problems

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Promoting Learning and Motivation

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Determining What Students Have Learned at the End of Instruction

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Evaluating the Quality of Instruction

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Big Idea 10.2: Enhancing Learning Through Classroom Assessment Practices

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Big Idea 10.3: Important Qualities of Good Assessment

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Big Idea 10.4: Informally and Formally Assessing Students’ Progress and Achievements o

Conducting Informal Assessments

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Designing and Giving Formal Assessments

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Evaluating Students’ Performance on Formal Assessments

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Big Idea 10.5: Summarizing Students’ Achievement with Grades and Portfolios

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Big Idea 10.6: Assessing Students’ Achievement and Abilities with Standardized Tests o

High-Stakes Tests and Accountability

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Using Standardized Achievement Tests Judiciously

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Summary

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Case Study Practice Exercises: Two Science Quizzes

Big Ideas to Master in This Chapter 10.1 Classroom assessments serve a variety of purposes, but in one way or another, they can all influence students’ future learning and achievement.

10.2 Effective teachers strategically use assessments to enhance students’ learning.

10.3 Ideally, classroom assessments have four R SV P characteristics—reliability, standardization, validity, and practicality—with validity being the most important.

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Chapter 10—Assessment Strategies

10.4 Spontaneous, informal assessments and preplanned formal assessments both have important roles to play in enhancing students’ learning and achievement.

10.5 Final class grades provide only global, quantitative information about students’ achievement levels; whenever possible, they should be supplemented with qualitative information, perhaps through student-constructed portfolios.

10.6 Large-scale standardized tests can be helpful in estimating students’ general achievement levels in particular domains, but educators should never use a single test score to make important decisions about individual students, nor should policy makers use average scores from a single test to evaluate teacher and school effectiveness.

Textbook Slides: 10.2 and 10.3 Case Study: B in History Questions and Answers •

The questions presented at the end of the case study in the textbook are as follows and the answers are provided below each question.

1. What conclusions has Ms. Davidson drawn about Ellie, and on what kinds of information has she probably based each conclusion?

o Ms. Davidson likely made the following conclusions about Ellie: ▪

Ellie puts forth her best effort in school.

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Ellie usually gets almost perfect grades.

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Ellie will do better in history next quarter.

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Ellie doesn’t mind that the teacher talks about her grades in front of the class (or believes that she is giving Ellie a complement by discussing the fact that she usually receives almost perfect grades).

o Ms. Davidson probably made these conclusions about Ellie based on Ellie’s prior performance on assignments, quizzes, and day-to-day observations about Ellie’s behaviors in class.

2. Ellie’s parents are unlikely to be concerned about her single B; they’re more worried about her younger brother, who has shown significant delays in reading development.

Why, then, might Ellie be so upset?

o Ellie might be upset for a variety of reasons, but it is likely that Ellie is embarrassed because this grade shows a lack of competence in history. Thinking back to Chapter 5 (Motivation and Emotions), you may recall that students have a need for competence and self-worth. Ms. Davidson’s comments and Ellie’s B grade demonstrate that she lacks competence in history. Although Ellie’s parents see the larger picture and have broader concerns about their children, Ellie is likely more concerned about her competence than those of others. A low grade might indicate that she did not put forth as much effort in history this quarter or might show that she is not really as “smart” as others believe her to be. This could be especially disconcerting to Ellie if she has a fixed view of intelligence because it could indicate that she is not “good at” history. Furthermore, the fact that Ms. Davidson announced her B grade in class could make her uncomfortable in the class in the future, which could negatively affect her motivation.

3. Was it appropriate for Ms. Davidson to announce Ellie’s grades to the class? Why or why not?

o It is not appropriate for teachers to announce one student’s grades to other students. In fact, making a student’s grade public is illegal in the U.S. (it violates F E 90 ..

Chapter 10—Assessment Strategies

RP A). Beyond the legal implications, making students’ grades public can have negative motivational implications in some cases for reasons mentioned in the answer to the prior question.

Textbook Slides: 10.4 to 10.7 Big Idea 10.1. Using Assessments for Various Purposes 10.1.a. Outline Big Idea 10.1 Classroom assessments serve a variety of purposes, but in one way or another they can all influence students’ future learning and achievement.

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Guiding Instructional Decision Making

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Diagnosing Learning and Performance Problems

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Promoting Learning and Motivation o

Assessments can influence students’ cognitive processes as they study.

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Assessment activities can be learning experiences in and of themselves.

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Assessments can provide feedback about learning progress.

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Assessments can encourage engagement and self-regulation if students play an active role in the assessment process.

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Through both words and deeds, communicate that promoting learning and mastery—not passing judgment—is the ultimate goal.

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Determining What Students Have Learned at the End of Instruction

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Evaluating the Quality of Instruction

10.1.b. Textbook Slides: 10.8 to 10.11 10.1.c. Discussion Topics •

As a student, in what ways do your instructors’ tests promote your learning? In what ways do they interfere with your learning?

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Under what conditions is a test likely to motivate students to do their best? Under what conditions is a test not likely to motivate students to do their best?

Big Idea 10.2. Enhancing Learning through Classroom Assessment Practices 10.2.a. Outline Big Idea 10.2 Effective teachers strategically use assessments to enhance students’ learning.

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Make assessment criteria explicit early in the instructional process.

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Ask students to evaluate their own performance.

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Assess students’ ability to learn new things given varying levels of guidance and support.

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Take advantage of technology-based formative assessment tools.

10.2.b. Textbook Slides: 10.12 to 10.14 10.2.c. Discussion Topics 91 ..

Chapter 10—Assessment Strategies •

What are some examples of assessment practices that you have seen work well or not so well in the classroom?

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Give some examples of self-assessments that teachers have asked students to complete. Which ones worked well and which ones were not as effective?

10.2.d. Activity •

Activity: Developing a Rubric

Form cooperative groups of students who will be teaching the same subject areas. Have each group identify a particular knowledge or skill (e.g., writing) its members might eventually be teaching and develop a rubric for evaluating it.

Big Idea 10.3. Important Qualities of Good Assessment 10.3.a. Outline Big Idea 10.3 Ideally, classroom assessments have four RSVP characteristics—reliability, standardization, validity, and practicality—with validity being the most important.

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A good assessment is reliable.

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A good assessment is standardized for most students.

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A good assessment has validity for its purpose.

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A good assessment is practical.

10.3.b. Textbook Slides: 10.15 to 10.22 10.3.c. Discussion Topics •

How might you balance the need for standardization of assessment practices with the need to address diversity in student characteristics (including special needs)?

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Think about some of the tests that you have taken. Are there times when you believe that your test scores were not an accurate representation of your true knowledge and skills (the scores might be higher or lower than they should be)? If so, what factors led to the test scores being higher or lower than they should have been? (see “Lecture 10.1: Reliability” in Appendix A for some factors that affect test score reliability)

10.3.d. Activity •

Activity: Table of Specifications

Form cooperative groups of students who will be teaching the same subject areas. Have each group identify a particular topic its members might eventually be teaching and develop a table of specifications for that topic.

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Activity: Table of Specifications for Section 10.3

Construct a table of specifications for the section “Important Qualities of Good Assessment” (Big Idea 10.3) in Chapter 10 of the textbook. (Alternatively, this assignment could be completed as a cooperative learning activity in class.)

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Activity: Table of Specifications

Construct three multiple-choice questions related to the section “Important Qualities of Good 92 ..

Chapter 10—Assessment Strategies

Assessment” (Big Idea 10.3) in Chapter 10 of the course textbook. Your questions should meet the following criteria: o

They test general principles and concepts rather than trivial details.

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They make it clear what students are being asked to do.

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They are likely to discriminate between students who have truly learned class material from those who have not.

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They measure higher-level thinking skills.

10.3.e. Supplementary Lectures (located in Appendix A) •

Lecture 10.1: Reliability

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Lecture 10.2: Standardization

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Lecture 10.3: Validity

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Lecture 10.4: Practicality

Big Idea 10.4. Informally and Formally Assessing Students’ Progress and Achievements 10.4.a. Outline Big Idea 10.4 Spontaneous, informal assessments and preplanned formal assessments both have important roles to play in enhancing students’ learning and achievement.

Conducting Informal Assessments •

Observe both verbal and nonverbal behaviors.

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Ask yourself whether your existing beliefs and expectations might be biasing your judgments.

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Keep a written record of your observations.

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Don’t take any single informal observation too seriously; instead, look for patterns over time.

Designing and Giving Formal Assessments •

Get as much information as possible within reasonable time limits.

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When practical, use authentic tasks.

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Use paper–pencil assessment tasks when they are consistent with instructional goals.

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Use performance assessments when necessary to ensure validity.

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Define tasks clearly and give students some structure to guide their responses.

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Carefully scrutinize items and tasks for characteristics that might put some groups at an unfair disadvantage.

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When giving tests, encourage students to do their best, but don’t arouse a lot of anxiety.

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Minimize the potential negative effects of stereotype threat during testing.

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Establish conditions for the assessment that enable students to maximize their performance.

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Take reasonable steps to discourage cheating.

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Chapter 10—Assessment Strategies

Evaluating Students’ Performance on Formal Assessments •

After students have completed an assessment, review evaluation criteria to be sure they can adequately guide scoring.

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Be as objective as possible.

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Make note of any significant aspects of a student’s performance that predetermined scoring criteria don’t address.

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When determining overall scores, don’t compare students to one another unless there is a compelling reason to do so.

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Accompany any test scores with specific, constructive feedback.

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Make allowances for risk taking and the occasional “bad day.”

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Respect students’ right to privacy.

10.4.b. Textbook Slides: 10.23 to 10.29 10.4.c. Discussion Topics •

Can you think of informal assessments that you have seen in the classroom that have worked particularly well?

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Imagine that a teacher wants to boost his or her students’ self-esteem and so constructs a test on which everyone can do well, regardless of how well they have learned the material. Is this a good idea? Why or why not?

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Can we assess such abstract abilities as “artistic creativity”? If so, how might we do so validly and reliably?

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Have you ever had a teacher who gave a test more to punish students than anything else? What (if any) learning did that test promote? Why is using tests as punishment not a good idea?

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Should a formal classroom assessment instrument be very hard, very easy, or somewhere in between? What factors should teachers consider when deciding how difficult to make an assessment instrument?

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Should teachers allow students to choose the test questions they answer from among several possibilities? Why or why not?

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Has one of your teachers ever intentionally revealed test questions ahead of time? Was it appropriate for that teacher to do so? Why or why not?

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For the subject matter you will be teaching, should grammatical and spelling errors influence the scores you give on paper-pencil assessments? Why or why not?

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A student answers an essay question correctly and then adds additional, irrelevant information that is incorrect. How would you score such a response?

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How should students’ performance in cooperative groups be assessed? To what extent should students get individual grades? To what extent should all group members get the same grade? (Note that there is probably no easy answer to this question.)

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Which kind of test score is more likely to be motivating for most students—normreferenced or criterion-referenced? Why?

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What undesirable behaviors might result when we score students’ performance on assessment instruments in a norm-referenced fashion?

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What kinds of classroom assessment practices might teachers increase students’ willingness to take risks in the classroom?

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Chapter 10—Assessment Strategies •

What are the advantages and disadvantages of allowing students to retake assessments on which they initially do poorly?

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What are the advantages and disadvantages of the traditional grading system (A B CD F)? Why do you think this system continues to predominate despite its drawbacks?

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When teachers assign criterion-referenced grades, there is always the possibility that most or all students will get high grades. There is also the possibility that most or all students will get low grades. In either of these circumstances, school administrators and/or parents might object. As a teacher, how might you respond?

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Under what conditions might grading on a curve be appropriate? When is it definitely not appropriate?

10.4.d. Activities •

Activity: Conducting Informal Assessments

Form cooperative groups of students who will be teaching the same subject areas. Have each group identify three ways by which they could conduct informal assessments in their future classrooms. Ask them to describe which factors would be at the center of their observations and the types of information they would be able to glean about their students’ learning.

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Activity: Instructional Objectives and Corresponding Assessment

Place students in groups and give each group a chapter from a K-12 textbook. Ask each group to develop at least three instructional objectives for the chapter and then develop one or more paper-pencil assessment items to assess each objective.

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Activity: Creating a Multiple-Choice Test

Assign each group a chapter from Essentials of Educational Psychology that will be covered in your next test. Ask each group to develop possible multiple-choice test questions for the chapter. Inform the group that its test questions may appear on the upcoming test if they meet these criteria: o

They test general principles and concepts rather than trivial details.

o

They make it clear what students are being asked to do.

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They are likely to discriminate between students who have truly learned class material from those who have not.

o

They measure higher-level thinking skills.

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Activity: Developing Authentic Assessments

Give each group one of the bulleted objectives below. Ask the group to develop a method of authentic assessment for measuring achievement of the objective. Then ask the group to analyze the assessment method in terms of reliability, standardization, validity, and practicality. o

Students will write legibly in cursive.

o

Students will describe the rights protected in the Bill of Rights.

o

Students will explain the importance of preserving the world’s rain forests.

o

Students will demonstrate basic dribbling, passing, and kicking skills in soccer.

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Chapter 10—Assessment Strategies

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o

Students will apply the four basic arithmetic operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, division) to real-world situations.

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Students will use meaningful learning, elaboration, and comprehension monitoring strategies as they study.

Activity: Developing Scoring Criteria Have students develop specific criteria for scoring students’ responses to the following performance tasks:

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o

Conducting a chemistry experiment

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Participating in a class debate regarding a controversial issue

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Swimming the length of a swimming pool using the breast stroke

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Making a toolbox out of sheet metal

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Writing the letters of the alphabet in both lowercase and uppercase cursive

Activity: Recognition vs. Recall Items This activity illustrates the fact that recognition test items are often easier than recall items.

1. Tell students that you are giving them a test of their knowledge of European capital cities. Present Instructor’s Manual Slide 10.2. Ask students to take out a piece of scrap paper, and have them write down the countries and the capitals of as many of the countries as they can.

2. When they are finished, show Instructor’s Manual Slide 10.3, and tell students to write down as many capitals as they can in a third column, next to their prior answers.

3. When they are finished, show Instructor’s Manual Slide 10.4 and have students score the number of correct answers in their second column and in their third column separately.

4. Ask students which test was easier. The great majority will tell you that they obtained higher scores on the second test (recognition) where they were given the cities from which to choose. Solicit reasons for why this might be the case. Their responses can lead you into a discussion of why recognition tests are easier (more retrieval cues, higher guessing factor, etc.).

5. Ask students if they study differently for recognition and recall tests and, if so, how and why they study differently. Explain that students’ scores on recognition and recall tests are almost always correlated (e.g., N. Frederiksen, 1984b; P. M. Lamb & Cochran, 1982; Murnane & Raizen, 1988). However, the correlations are not perfect ones, and other evidence indicates that the two types of tests may measure somewhat different things (Croft, 1982; N. Frederiksen & Ward, 1978; Shavelson, Baxter, & Pine, 1992).

6. Show Instructor’s Manual Slide 10.5 and review the ways in which recognition and recall items differ.

•

Activity: Grading Essays This activity illustrates potential reliability problems in scoring essays. It also addresses ways of enhancing the reliability of essay tests.

1. Ask students to write an essay that answers the following question: What are the disadvantages of using punishment in the classroom?

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Give them about 10 minutes to write their essays. Caution students not to put their names on their papers or in any other way identify themselves through the things they write.

2. When all students have completed their essays, have them put a pseudonym (e.g., Mickey Mouse, Miley Cyrus) at the top of the page. The pseudonyms allow you and your students to refer to specific test papers while simultaneously maintaining confidentiality regarding each student’s test performance.

3. Collect the test papers and randomly distribute them to students who were not their authors. Give the class a few minutes to read the essays in front of them and assign a letter grade ranging from A+ to F. After completing this task, students should make a note of both their essay’s “author” (i.e., pseudonym) and its letter grade.

4. Randomly distribute the test papers again, having each student grade a second essay and record its pseudonym and assigned grade. Time allowing, you may wish to have students score a third essay as well.

5. Collect the test papers. Write each pseudonym on the chalkboard, and ask the two or three students who graded that “person’s” essay to report the grades they assigned.

You are likely to see considerable variability in the grades each essay was given.

6. Solicit reasons for the variability (possibilities include a poorly defined task, lack of scoring criteria, bluffing, etc.). These reasons can provide a springboard for a discussion of reliability issues in grading subjective tests.

7. Ask students to brainstorm about strategies for enhancing the scoring reliability of the punishment question. Or, alternatively, have them meet in small groups to develop a better-defined test question and specific criteria by which students’ responses can be graded.

10.4.e. Out-of-Class Activity •

Do you think your test anxiety helps or hinders your performance on tests? Write a onepage essay responding to this question, drawing on what you’ve learned about both cognition and anxiety.

10.4.f. Supplementary Lectures (located in Appendix A) •

Lecture 10.5: Using Concept Maps as Assessment Tools

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Lecture 10.6: Cheating in the Classroom

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Lecture 10.7: Issues in Using Paper-Pencil Tests

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Lecture 10.8: Scoring Issues

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Lecture 10.9: Norm-Referenced vs. Criterion-Referenced Scores

Big Idea 10.5. Summarizing Students’ Achievement with Grades and Portfolios 10.5.a. Outline Big Idea 10.5 Final class grades provide only global, quantitative information about students’ achievement levels; whenever possible, they should be supplemented with qualitative information, perhaps through student-constructed portfolios.

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Base final grades largely on achievement levels and hard data.

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Use many assessments to determine final grades, but don’t count everything.

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Share grading criteria with students, and keep students continually apprised of their progress.

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Accompany grades with descriptions of what the grades reflect.

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Also accompany grades with qualitative information about students’ performance.

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Use portfolios to show complex skills or improvements over time.

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Keep parents in the loop.

10.5.b. Textbook Slides: 10.30 and 10.31 10.5.c. Discussion Topics •

Think back over all the classes you have taken. What types of teacher assessments provided you with the most useful feedback? Why were those assessments so useful?

•

What types of grading policies have you found to be unfair?

10.5.d. Activity •

Activity: Creating an Alternative Grading System

Place students in group and ask each group to develop an alternative grading system to the traditional A B CDF system and then to explain their system and its benefits to the rest of the class.

10.5.e. Supplementary Lectures (located in Appendix A) •

Lecture 10.10: Assigning Grades

Big Idea 10.6. Assessing Students’ Achievement and Abilities with Standardized Tests 10.6.a. Outline Big Idea 10.6 Large-scale standardized tests can be helpful in estimating students’ general achievement levels in particular domains, but educators should never use a single test score to make important decisions about individual students, nor should policy makers use average scores from a single test to evaluate teacher and school effectiveness.

High-Stakes Tests and Accountability Using Standardized Achievement Tests Judiciously •

When you have a choice in the test you use, choose one that has high validity for your curriculum and students.

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Teach to the test if—but only if—it reflects important instructional goals.

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When preparing students for an upcoming standardized test, tell them what the test will be like and teach them good test-taking skills.

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When administering the test, follow the directions closely and report any unusual circumstances.

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Make appropriate accommodations for English learners.

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WWhen interpreting test results, take students’ ages and developmental levels into account.

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If tests are being used to measure teacher or school effectiveness, advocate for a focus on students’ improvement over time rather than on age-group averages.

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Never use a single test score to make important decisions about students.

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10.6.b. Textbook Slides: 10.32 to 10.37 10.6.c. Discussion Topics •

In recent years, the news media have reported numerous examples of how our schools have apparently failed to do their jobs; for example, some news organizations have published descriptions of high school graduates who can’t read, write, or add. As a result, many government officials and tax-paying citizens have begun to demand educational accountability: They want concrete evidence that schools and teachers are accomplishing their objectives. This concrete evidence often takes the form of test scores. Are test scores an appropriate measure of school effectiveness? Why or why not?

•

Have you ever had specific training in taking tests (e.g., for the S A T or A CT)? If so, what are your impressions about its effectiveness?

10.6.d. Supplementary Lectures (located in Appendix A) •

Lecture 10.11: Standardized Achievement Tests

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APPENDIX A: SUPPLEMENTARY LECTURES

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Lecture 1.1: Why Do We Need Research?

Over the years, psychologists and educators have used at least four different approaches in their attempts to assess the validity of learning theories and the effectiveness of instructional methods. The first three approaches are not always reliable indicators of the validity of theoretical explanations or the effectiveness of teaching strategies.

1. Common Sense Many of our ideas about learning have been derived from common sense—from things that are logical and consistent with one’s day-to-day experiences.

Example: If a parent praises a child for picking up her room, the child will be more likely to keep her room clean in the future.

Example: When a teacher repeats information over and over again to his students, they will eventually learn that information.

Unfortunately, different people have different ideas as to what constitutes “common sense.” Just as members of different political parties have varying opinions on the best way to govern a country, so, too, do psychologists and educators differ with regard to fundamental issues in learning.

Example: Many behaviorists believe that, given the evolutionary ties of human beings to other species, conclusions derived from animal research are applicable to humans as well.

On the other hand, many cognitivists believe that human beings learn in ways unique to the species (e.g., much of human learning is heavily dependent on language).

Furthermore, ideas that “make sense” are not always totally valid.

Example: Praising a child for cleaning his or her room doesn’t always change the child’s behavior.

Example: Although repetition is one way of helping students learn new information, it is a relatively slow and unmotivating teaching method, and many students will learn the information without really understanding what they have learned.

2. Introspection Much of the psychological research conducted at the turn of the century was based on a methodology known as introspection. Psychologists would, in essence, examine their own thoughts and develop theories about the learning process from such self-examination. The two exercises below illustrate this process: •

Think of someone you know very well: a spouse, a parent, or a close friend. Now close your eyes and try to picture that person in your mind. What do you notice about the image you have formed? Can you see the person’s hair? the eyes? the mouth? the shape of the head? Do you see an entire body or just the face?

•

Imagine you need to write the word that means “author unknown” (hint: it begins with the letters an...). How is the word spelled? Can you picture the word in your mind? If so, can you see all the letters clearly?

Questions for students: What did you notice about your images? Were they precise enough for you to see some of the finer points, such as the shape of the mouth or the letter y in the middle of anonymous?

Or were they fuzzy and missing some crucial details?

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Answer: Visual imagery is an example of a mental phenomenon about which a great deal has been learned through introspective examination.

However, there are at least three difficulties with introspection that make it a questionable source of support for the validity of psychological theories: •

People are not always aware of what they know and feel.

Example: Psycholinguists have spent several decades trying unsuccessfully to determine how it is that people form sentences that are almost always grammatically correct. People are largely unaware of the mental processes they use to construct sentences.

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Introspection cannot be used with major portions of the population.

Example: Infants and toddlers have few if any language capabilities to describe what they are thinking.

Example: Even elementary school children, although they can verbally communicate their thoughts, often cannot accurately describe their own thinking processes.

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Introspection does not always provide accurate answers to questions about learning.

Example: Although many people will describe the visual images they form in their minds as being sharp and detailed, research suggests that such images are actually rather fuzzy and inaccurate (e.g., see J. R. Anderson, 1990, or Dodd & White, 1980, for reviews).

3. Anecdotal Evidence Anecdotal evidence is a story or example (i.e., an anecdote) used in support of a theory or practice. It appears prominently in educational literature, particularly in popular paperback books.

Example: A teacher says, “I tried Method X to teach reading, and it worked wonders with my students!”

Example: An educator describes an innovative technique used in a particular school district and reports major changes in students’ achievement and attitudes.

One problem with anecdotal evidence is that people cannot always be objective in their perceptions of situations; they tend to see what they want to see.

Example: Consider the teacher who said, “I tried Method X to teach reading, and it worked wonders with my students!” What exactly are “wonders”? Did the reading skills of the students really improve? How does the teacher know?

A second problem is that even when improvement can be documented by objective data, anecdotal evidence does not show conclusively that the improvement was due specifically to the method or treatment used.

Example: You lose 5 pounds when you go on the Humperdinck Diet. Is your weight loss due to the diet? What other factors might have brought about the weight loss?

4. Empirical Research The kind of evidence necessary to document the validity of a learning theory or an instructional method is empirical research. Such research, when carefully conducted, will ensure the precise administration of particular teaching strategies and the objective assessment of learning outcomes. Some research designs (i.e., experimental studies) will also ensure that other factors that might also account for any results obtained are ruled out.

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Lecture 1.2: Variables, Constants, and Control 1. Variables and Constants A variable is anything that varies in a research study. A constant is anything that does not vary in a research study.

Example: A college English professor wants to investigate the effectiveness of W I SE (Writing Is Seldom Easy), a new method of teaching writing. She uses W I S E in her freshman composition class, and her students are producing excellent compositions by the end of the term. She concludes that W I S E is an effective method and plans to use it again.

The biggest mistake that the professor has made is that her independent “variable” (method of instruction) doesn’t vary. Her students write well, but compared to whom?

Example: A high school history teacher wants to find out whether pictures help students learn what they read. He decides to investigate this question while teaching a unit on World War I. He prepares two forms of a study workbook, one with pictures and one without.

Each student in his class receives one workbook, with the two different forms of the workbook being distributed in a random fashion. The students study their workbooks for the first half-hour of their history class, then take a quiz over the material contained in the workbooks. After class, the teacher scores the students’ quiz papers.

Question for students: What are the variables in this study?

Possible answers: •

Presence or absence of pictures in the workbooks

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Quiz scores

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Characteristics that make each student unique (intelligence, motivation, etc.)

Question for students: What are the constants in this study?

Possible answers: •

Teacher

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Content taught

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Nature of the quiz

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Modality of instruction used in the workbooks (visual)

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Classroom environment

One common way of making something vary is to have two or more groups. For example: •

There might be two or more treatment groups. Subjects in each group receive a different treatment (i.e., the treatment varies).

•

There might be one treatment group and one control group, consisting of participants who receive either no treatment at all or a placebo treatment that should have little or no effect.

2. Independent and Dependent Variables Every correlational and experimental research study has at least one independent variable and one dependent variable. An independent variable is a variable that is hypothesized to have an effect on another variable. A dependent variable is a variable hypothesized to be affected by an independent variable. The dependent variable depends on the nature or amount of the independent variable. (You might want to show Textbook Slide 1.19 as an example of variables that are correlated.)

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Example: In the history teacher’s study described earlier, the presence or absence of pictures is the independent variable, and quiz scores are the dependent variable.

Example: To study the effect of punishment on aggression, 10 aggressive boys are given different consequences for aggressive behavior. For 5 of the boys, each aggressive act is followed by placement in a boring room (a type of punishment known as time-out) for 20 minutes. For the other 5 boys, aggressive behaviors are ignored. Aggressive behaviors exhibited by all 10 boys are observed and counted during the following week.

Question for students: What is the independent variable?

Answer: Use or nonuse of punishment.

Question for students: What is the dependent variable?

Answer: Aggression.

Example: To determine whether high-achieving students have better memories than lowachieving students, high achievers (G P A ≥ 3.0) and low achievers (G P A ≤ 2.5) are asked to remember strings of numbers of increasing lengths. The performance of the high achievers on this memory task is compared to that of the low achievers.

Question for students: What is the independent variable?

Answer: G P A (achievement).

Question for students: What is the dependent variable?

Answer: Maximum length of number string correctly remembered (memory).

The independent and dependent variables are important things to consider when examining research studies. In particular, a study from which conclusions about causation can be made is one in which the experimenter has intentionally manipulated the independent variable (an experimental study) rather than one in which the experimenter observes the independent variable as it occurs naturally (a correlational study).

Question for students: In which of the two studies just described is the independent variable manipulated by the experimenter?

Answer: Only in the first study (the study of time-out and aggressive behavior).

3. Confounding Variables Correlational studies often have confounding variables—variables associated with the independent variable that might also explain any differences observed in the dependent variable.

Example: To study the effect of pictures on learning, a school district superintendent compares the history achievement of students at two different high schools in the district.

Students at Jefferson High School have been using a history book that has an average of one picture for every two pages. Students at Madison High have been using a history book with an average of only one picture in every 10 pages. At the end of the school year, the students at both schools are given a history test and their scores compared.

Question for students: How is the superintendent’s study similar to the history teacher’s study described earlier?

Answer: The independent and dependent variables are the same.

Question for students: How are the two studies different?

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Answer: The teacher’s study manipulates the independent variable; the superintendent’s study examines it as it occurs naturally.

Question for students: What are some possible confounding variables in the superintendent’s study?

Answer: Any differences between the two high schools—perhaps quality of teaching, quality of textbooks, socioeconomic status (S E S) of students, etc.

Question for students: From which study can we draw a conclusion about the causal relationship between pictures and learning?

Answer: The teacher’s study.

4. Controlling Confounding Variables An experimental study utilizes two methods of controlling possible confounding variables.

1. Holding some factors constant One way of holding some factors constant is to have the sample of people studied be as similar to one another as possible (e.g., age, grade level, gender), but it is virtually impossible to keep all factors the same (e.g., prior experiences will vary, motivation will vary). An alternative strategy is a within-subjects design: The same group of students is given two or more treatments simultaneously.

Example: Students are asked to study 50 spelling words that they don’t already know. For 25 of these words, students must write them correctly only once. For the remaining 25 words, the students must write them correctly 10 times. A few days later, their ability to spell the two groups of words correctly is tested.

2. Randomly assigning people to groups When people are randomly assigned to groups, it is assumed that the characteristics in which those people are likely to vary (intelligence, motivation, personality, mood, etc.) will be roughly the same for all groups and therefore will not affect the average performance of the groups.

Example: In the history teacher’s study, the workbooks were randomly distributed to the students.

Many statistical analyses are based on this idea of random assignment.

5. Studies of Elaboration as Examples of Correlational and Experimental Research The textbook describes the process of elaboration—a process whereby students add the things they already know to new information (e.g., analyzing the new information, interpreting it, considering the “logic” of it) as a way of learning the information.

Correlational studies tell us that good students are more likely to elaborate on information than poor students; that is, good students are more likely to do something with the information beyond just taking it at face value (Pressley, 1982; Van Rossum & Schenk, 1984). So we know that there is a correlation between elaboration and amount of learning.

Question for students: Does elaboration actually cause better learning?

Answer: There is no way to know based on correlational evidence.

Question for students: What other variables might be responsible both for the more frequent elaboration and for the greater learning of some students in comparison with others?

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Answer: Possibilities include intelligence, motivation, reading ability, background knowledge, etc.

Experimental studies have demonstrated that elaboration does directly influence learning.

Example: Linden and Wittrock (1981) randomly chose some fifth-grade students for special instruction in how to elaborate on the things they read (e.g., by making inferences, drawing analogies, and mentally imagining the things they were reading about). These students (the experimental group) then showed greater ability to learn from the things they read than did students not selected for the special instruction (the control group). The random assignment of students to groups tells us that the two groups were probably similar in other factors that might also affect learning—factors such as intelligence, motivation, reading ability, and so on. By process of elimination, the degree to which students elaborated on their reading material was probably the cause of their differences in learning.

6. When Experimental Studies Aren’t Possible Obviously, experimental studies are preferable to correlational studies whenever possible because they lead to conclusions about cause-effect relationships—conclusions that are particularly important for theory development. Sometimes, however, experimental designs are not possible; the independent variable cannot or should not be controlled by the experimenter.

Example: Imagine that we want to find out if being male or female affects people’s tendency toward aggressive behavior. We cannot assign gender to the participants in our study: They come to us already being either male or female.

Example: Imagine that we want to investigate the effects of alcohol abuse on teenagers’ school achievement. Although it is hypothetically possible to randomly place teenagers into two groups, one with high alcohol consumption and one without, such a procedure would be highly unethical.

For a variety of reasons, controlling the independent variable may not always be possible, practical, or ethical, and descriptive or correlational studies may be the only alternatives.

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Lecture 1.3: Basic and Applied Research 1. Basic Research The primary goal of basic research is the investigation of theoretical issues related to learning, development, or behavior. Whenever possible, basic research studies are designed to establish causal relationships; as such, they tend to be highly controlled so that confounding variables leading to alternative interpretations of the results are eliminated.

The tight control found in basic research is obtained in several ways: •

Much of this research is conducted in laboratories, where the experimenter has more control over environmental conditions than would be possible in the “real world.”

•

The tasks that participants perform are often simplified compared to the typical learning tasks that people face in the real world.

Example: Participants might study a list of words rather than a chapter in a textbook.

•

Some basic research, particularly within the behaviorist perspective, employs animals other than humans. Researchers can control both past and present environments of laboratory animals in ways that they cannot do with human beings.

2. Applied Research The primary goal of applied research is to validate theories obtained from basic research in realworld settings. Control of confounding variables is not always as possible outside of the laboratory as it might be within the lab, but applied research does have an important advantage over basic research: Its results are more likely to generalize to other real-world situations.

3. Internal and External Validity Ideally, a research study should be valid in two ways: •

It should have internal validity—careful control of any confounding variables that would prevent the identification of a cause-effect relationship.

•

It should have external validity—generalizability to real-world learning situations.

Unfortunately, it is the rare study that has both high internal validity and high external validity at the same time: •

Basic research studies are typically high in internal validity (because they carefully control possible confounding variables), but low in external validity (because they are conducted under artificial conditions).

•

Applied research studies are often low in internal validity (the real world of human beings cannot easily be controlled by experimenters), but high in external validity (the studies tend to be similar to everyday situations).

Because it is difficult to conduct research that is high in both internal and external validity, the development of psychological theories often follows a two-step process: 1. Basic research is conducted to identify cause-effect relationships that form the foundation of theory.

2. Applied research is conducted to validate the theory in more realistic settings.

Unfortunately, this two-step process moves slowly, with applied research often following basic research by as much as 20 years or more.

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Sometimes, when urgent educational questions require immediate empirical answers, researchers bypass the basic research step and begin with applied research. However, the conclusions drawn from such research are often tentative because of the problems with internal validity.

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Lecture 2.1: Attention

This lecture is accompanied by Instructor’s Manual Slide 2.6. It is adapted from a discussion of attention in Ormrod’s Human Learning textbook (2004).

What things attract our attention? At least six factors are involved. (Show Instructor’s Manual Slide 2.6) 1. Size Large things attract our attention.

•

Example: Draw “A B C D” on the chalkboard and make B and D larger. B and D stand out more than A and C.

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Example: Newspaper headlines are in large print.

2. Intensity Bright and loud stimuli attract our attention.

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Example: We hear someone scream in a crowd.

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Example: Fluorescent colors stand out against browns and blacks.

3. Novelty New and unusual things attract our attention.

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Example: We pay attention to a dog that wanders into the classroom.

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Example: We notice italics in a sentence.

4. Incongruity Things that don’t make sense within their context attract our attention.

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Example: We would notice an elderly gentleman acting like a teenager by wearing teenagestyle clothing and listening to an iPhone with headphones

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Example: In this sentence, “I took a walk to the rabbit this morning,” the word rabbit stands out because it doesn’t fit.

5. Emotion Stimuli with strong emotional associations attract our attention.

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Example: We are likely to notice someone using an inappropriate four-letter word in the classroom.

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Example: We stop and gawk at an accident scene as we drive by.

6. Personal significance Stimuli that are important to us at a particular time attract our attention.

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Example: We study our textbook when a test is approaching.

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Example: We notice a 10-dollar bill lying on the sidewalk.

Question for students: With these six factors in mind, what things can we do as teachers to attract and keep our students’ attention?

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Lecture 3.1: Promoting Effective Study Strategies Most students throughout the K-12 range are metacognitively naive about how best to study.

Researchers have identified at least seven factors that appear to facilitate students’ development of more effective study skills: 1. Instruction within a particular content domain Study skills are most effectively taught within the context of a particular content domain—e.g., within a history class, chemistry course, spelling unit (Hattie, Biggs, & Purdie, 1996; Pressley, Harris, & Marks, 1992).

Question for students: Which teachers should be teaching study strategies?

Answer: Almost all of them should be teaching study strategies in one form or another, depending on the discipline(s) they teach.

Question for students: How might you incorporate study strategy instruction into the subject matter you will be teaching?

2. Teacher scaffolding Many effective study strategies involve relatively sophisticated cognitive processes—elaborating, summarizing, monitoring comprehension, etc. Students are more likely to be successful in using them if we provide scaffolding to help them initially.

•

Example: Model effective strategies.

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Example: Give clues or prompts as to when and how to apply a strategy.

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Example: When students first begin taking notes (e.g., in middle school), tell them what things they should include in their notes.

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Example: Provide opportunities for group study, whereby students discuss strategies appropriate for studying class material.

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Example: Provide opportunities for practice with increasingly more complex material.

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Example: Give feedback as to when students are or are not using a strategy appropriately.

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(Alexander, Graham, & Harris, 1998; Kucan & Beck, 1997; Paris & Winograd, 1990; Pressley et al., 1992; Rosenshine & Meister, 1992; Yokoi, 1997)

As students become more proficient in their use of various learning strategies, we can gradually reduce, and eventually eliminate, the support we give them.

3. Knowing numerous and varied strategies Effective study skills training programs teach students a wide variety of strategies they can use (Nist, Simpson, Olejnik, & Mealey, 1991; Pressley et al., 1992).

4. Knowing why various strategies are effective Students are more likely to use effective study strategies when they understand why those strategies are useful (Hattie, Biggs, & Purdie, 1996; Mayer & Wittrock, 1996; Pressley et al., 1992). We should explain the usefulness of various strategies in terms that students understand.

•

Example: Show students how note taking helps them keep their minds from wandering during class.

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Example: Show students how comprehension monitoring strategies enable them to identify weak spots in their knowledge.

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5. Knowing when various strategies are effective In addition to knowing why certain strategies are useful, students also benefit from knowing when those strategies are most applicable (Hattie et al., 1996; Nist et al., 1991; Pressley et al., 1992).

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Example: Elaboration is most useful when students will eventually be expected to go beyond the information itself—e.g., to draw implications from it, generate new examples, use it to solve problems, etc. (Barnett, Di Vesta, & Rogozinski, 1981).

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Example: Summarizing is most useful when students are expected to focus on the big picture rather than tiny details.

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Example: Some mnemonics (e.g., verbal mediation, keyword method) are useful for remembering pairs of items; others (e.g., superimposed meaningful structures) are more useful for remembering lists of items.

6. Practice in applying strategies Students are most likely to acquire effective study strategies when they can practice those strategies over a long period of time and across a wide variety of tasks (Pressley et al., 1992).

7. High self-efficacy about learning Students are only likely to use effective strategies when they believe that such strategies will actually help them learn more effectively if they apply a reasonable amount of effort (Borkowski, Carr, Rellinger, & Pressley, 1990; Pressley, Borkowski, & Schneider, 1987; C. E. Weinstein, Goetz, & Alexander, 1988).

Question for students: From the perspective of social cognitive theory, what conditions are likely to promote self-efficacy for using new study strategies?

Possible answers: Experiencing success using the strategies (possibly with scaffolding); seeing fellow students use them successfully.

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Lecture 3.2: Concept Mapping Dr. Kathy Cochran has graciously provided this lecture.

Concept mapping is a method for showing how ideas are related to each other. The ideas that can be represented in a concept map can be drawn from a textbook chapter, a student’s understanding of a topic area (such as classroom testing), or an instructor’s understanding of a topic area. Novak and Gowin (1984) provide a complete and helpful description of concept mapping and its uses.

A substantial body of research evidence shows that the complexity and accuracy of learners’ concept maps are highly correlated with the degree to which they understand the subject matter, for example, in science (R. G. Good, Novak, & Wandersee, 1990).

Concept maps have two major components: 1. Concepts: Words that represent meaningful ideas •

Examples: dog, justice, assessment, learning, money.

2. Links between concepts: Words or phrases that represent relationships among concepts •

Example: Learning can be measured through assessment.

Concept maps are constructed using the following procedures: 1. Specify a general, overall idea that encompasses the topic area to be explored. When teaching concept mapping to students without prior experience, it is often helpful to choose a highly familiar topic as an initial example.

•

Example: money

2. Identify a list of ideas related to the topic. For teaching concept mapping, the size of this list should be limited to 7 to 10 concepts, or perhaps even fewer.

•

Example: Concepts related to the topic of money are money, value, cash, credit, loans, checks, purchases, dollars, exchange, cents

3. Arrange the list in a hierarchical order so that the most general concept is at the top and the most specific concepts are at the bottom. Notice that there may be more than one logical version of this ordering.

•

Example:

money value exchange purchases credit loans cash checks dollars cents

4. Begin arranging the concepts on paper in hierarchical order, circle each one, and add arrows between the circles to represent the links. Identify linking words or phrases that express the conceptual relationships in the direction specified by the arrows. Revisions will almost always be necessary. An important point here is that for any specific topic, there is no one single correct 112 ..

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concept map; there are many potentially valid maps for a given set of concepts. The accuracy of the map is embedded in the accuracy of the conceptual relationships as expressed by the links.

This task is not as simple as it looks, and a variety of practice maps are usually necessary before a learner completely masters the method.

•

Example: Show Instructor’s Manual Slides 3.32 and 3.33

Concept maps can be used during whole-group instruction; for example, they can be used to introduce a new topic or to review a prior topic through direct instruction. They can also be used for small-group activities, individual study, or class assignments, and they can be incorporated into quizzes and exams (see Novak & Gowin, 1984, for scoring ideas). Concept maps can also be used for planning instruction or for planning writing tasks (similar to outlines, although more complex).

The following additions were made by Brett Jones.

Mind maps are similar to concept maps, but differ in some a few ways. More information about mind maps (including a sample rubric that can be used to grade them) can be found in the article accessed for free here: https://digitalcommons.georgiasouthern.edu/ij-sotl/vol6/iss1/5/.

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Lecture 3.3: Help-Seeking Behavior in Students Seeking help when needed is an important aspect of self-regulated learning. High-achieving students are more likely to seek help when they need it than low-achieving students (Karabenick & Sharma, 1994). Sometimes they seek help from their teachers; at other times, they seek it from their peers.

Yet many students don’t ask for help when they need it. Here are some possible reasons why: 1. Teachers may have discouraged them from seeking help in the past.

2. Asking for help is too difficult or will take too long.

3. Mainstream Western culture values independence over reliance on others.

4. Asking for help may give their teacher and classmates the impression that they have low ability.

5. Asking for help may be a source of embarrassment and threaten self-esteem.

6. Students may not have the social skills to ask for help appropriately.

7. Students may simply want to master a task without assistance from anyone else.

8. (Butler, 1998; Karabenick & Sharma, 1994; McCaslin & Good, 1996; Newman & Schwager, 1992; Nicholls, 1989; Paris & Cunningham, 1996; Ryan, Pintrich, & Midgley, 2001; Skaalvik & Valas, 2001) Researchers have identified several factors that lead to increased help seeking at times when it is appropriate.

1. Students are aware that they need help and that they might benefit from it.

2. Students’ attention is focused on their own improvement rather than on how well they are doing in comparison with peers. (Here we are talking about a focus on mastery goals rather than performance goals; these concepts will be introduced in Chapter 6.)

3. Students feel confident that their requests for help will be responded to favorably.

4. Students see helping-seeking and help-giving as ways of meeting their social needs.

5. (Newman, 1998; Ryan, Gheen, & Midgley, 1998; Ryan, Hicks, & Midgley, 1997; Ryan, Pintrich, & Midgley, 2001) Question for students: How can teachers encourage students to seek help when they need it without also encouraging students to be overly dependent on others?

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Lecture 3.4: Mediation Training Mediation training involves teaching students how to help their peers resolve interpersonal conflicts.

Many studies suggest that mediation training can be effective at all grade levels, from kindergarten through high school. Not only does it enhance students’ ability to mediate their peers’ conflicts, but it also encourages them to resolve their own conflicts in a peaceful and equitable manner (Johnson & Johnson, 2001).

An example of mediation training is the “Teaching Students to Be Peacemakers” program (Johnson and Johnson, 2001). This training involves four steps: 1. Students learn: •

What is and is not a conflict

•

That conflicts are not necessarily bad

•

That effectively managed conflicts can be beneficial

2. Students learn how to negotiate agreements between themselves and others by: a. Describing what they themselves want b. Describing their feelings (e.g., frustration) c. Describing why they have the desires and feelings that they do •

Example: “You have been using the book for the past hour. If I don’t get to use the book soon my report will not be done on time. It’s frustrating to have to wait so long.” (Johnson & Johnson, 2001, p. 5)

d. Looking at the situation from the other person’s perspective; summarizing what the person wants, how the person feels, and why the person feels that way e. Identifying three possible ways to resolve the conflict so that both parties benefit f.

Choosing the course of action that maximizes the benefits to both parties

3. Students learn how to mediate their peers’ conflicts by: a. Calming down the individuals engaged in the conflict and offering to be of assistance b. Asking if the individuals want to resolve the conflict equitably; intervening only when everyone says yes c. Securing everyone’s agreement to six rules: •

Agree to solve the problem

•

No name calling

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Do not interrupt

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Be as honest as you can

•

If you agree to a solution, you must abide by it

•

Anything said in mediation is confidential (Johnson & Johnson, 2001, pp. 5-6)

d. Assisting the individuals in the negotiation process e. Formalizing the agreement on paper (using a “Mediation Report Form”); having everyone sign the agreement and shake hands 4. After the training, the program is implemented. Each day, the teacher chooses two students who will serve as mediators throughout the day. Any students who cannot resolve their own conflicts are referred to the mediators.

Periodically, students have additional training sessions throughout the year to help them improve their conflict resolution and peer mediation skills.

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Lecture 4.1: Punishment Punishment typically takes one of two possible forms; both reduce the frequency of the behavior they follow.

•

Presentation punishment involves the presentation of an aversive stimulus after the behavior.

•

Removal punishment involves the removal of a pleasant stimulus after the behavior.

Students sometimes confuse punishment and negative reinforcement. Presentation punishment and negative reinforcement both involve aversive stimuli; however, in presentation punishment, the aversive stimulus follows the response, whereas in negative reinforcement, it precedes and is terminated by the response.

Views on the effectiveness of punishment have changed considerably over the past 60 years. Early research indicated that punishment was a very ineffective means of changing behavior.

•

Thorndike (1932) found that, whereas positive feedback facilitated students’ learning of correct responses, negative feedback did not reduce incorrect responses.

•

Skinner (1938) found that when rats were punished for a response that had previously been reinforced, the response was temporarily suppressed but soon returned to its prepunishment frequency.

More recent studies indicate that punishment can be effective in many situations. Furthermore, it may be more effective than such techniques as extinction or the reinforcement of an incompatible behavior (Pfiffner & O’Leary, 1987; Rachlin, 1991; G. C. Walters & Grusec, 1977).

•

Example: A 7-year-old deaf girl named Andrea pinched and bit both herself and anyone else with whom she came into contact. The high frequency of such responses (an average of 72 per school day) made normal academic instruction impossible. Following a baseline period, punishment for each aggressive act was initiated: Whenever Andrea pinched or bit, her teacher pointed at her sternly and shouted “No!” Even though Andrea was deaf, the shouting and pointing virtually eliminated her aggressiveness (R. V. Hall et al., 1971).

•

Example: A boy named Billy frequently cried, whined, and complained of stomachaches whenever he was given a reading or arithmetic assignment, while apparently being quite healthy the rest of the day. Punishment for such behavior consisted of giving Billy five slips of colored paper bearing his name at the beginning of reading and arithmetic periods every day and then removing one slip of paper (removal punishment) each time Billy cried, whined, or complained. The punished behavior was virtually eliminated within a few days (R. V. Hall et al., 1971).

•

Example: Three students in a high school French class had been consistently earning Ds and Fs on daily quizzes. Their teacher informed them that because they were obviously having difficulty with their French, they would have to come in for a half hour of tutoring after school whenever they received a grade lower than C. Curiously enough, none of these students ever needed to report for after-school tutoring. Apparently, just the thought of after-school tutoring was sufficient to bring about desired study behaviors (R. V. Hall et al., 1971). Note: Graphic representations of the data from the Hall et al. studies are in Ormrod, 1990 (pp. 112–114); Ormrod, 1995 (pp. 113–115); Ormrod, 1999 (pp. 102–103); or Ormrod, 2004 (pp. 111–113).

Potential Problems with Using Punishment Note: You may first want to solicit students’ opinions regarding the disadvantages of punishment and then add the items below to supplement the list they generate. (Show Instructor’s Manual Slide 4.2.)

1. A punished behavior may be only temporarily suppressed rather than permanently eliminated.

A punished behavior may eventually reappear, perhaps when the punishment stops or when the punisher is absent (Appel & Peterson, 1965; Azrin, 1960; Griffore, 1981; Holz & Azrin, 1962; Skinner, 1938).

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2. When a behavior is punished in one situation, it may increase in another situation (one in which it is not punished). This phenomenon is known as behavioral contrast (e.g., G. S. Reynolds, 1975; Swenson, 1980).

•

Example: Some children who behave badly at school may be described by their parents as being little angels at home. A child who is held to strict behavioral rules on the home front and is punished by a parent for breaking those rules may often engage in the forbidden behaviors at school.

3. The response–punishment contingency may not be recognized. Punishment, especially if it is severe, may distract a student’s attention away from the behavior that was punished. Children are often less aware of the response that is being punished than they are of the punishment itself (Maurer, 1974). Clearly, punishment will be ineffective if children do not know what they are being punished for.

4. Punishment often conditions negative emotional responses and may lead to escape and avoidance behaviors. When punishment involves a particularly aversive stimulus, the association of that stimulus with other stimuli (e.g., the punisher or the situation in which punishment occurred) can, through classical conditioning, lead to undesirable emotional responses to those other stimuli (Skinner, 1938). Furthermore, a fear-eliciting stimulus often leads to escape and/or avoidance of school and school tasks (e.g., Redd, Morris, & Martin, 1975). Escape and avoidance behaviors in school take many forms: running away, truancy, avoidance of school tasks, inattention or withdrawal in class, cheating, and lying (e.g., Becker, 1971; Skinner, 1938). Because such undesirable behaviors terminate an aversive stimulus (in this case, the aversive stimulus is the punishment), they are negatively reinforced and so are likely to increase.

5. Punishment may lead to aggression. When punishment produces pain, it evokes emotional arousal in an individual, arousal that may result in anger and aggression, especially in characteristically aggressive individuals (Azrin, 1967; Berkowitz & LePage, 1967; G. C. Walters & Grusec, 1977).

Aggressive behavior in turn appears to reduce emotional arousal (e.g., Hokanson & Burgess, 1962) and to “feel good” (Bramel, Taub, & Blum, 1968), the result being that aggression is reinforced.

Furthermore, some forms of punishment provide a model of aggression, thus communicating the message that aggression is acceptable. Children who observe others being aggressive are more likely to be aggressive themselves (Bandura, Ross, & Ross, 1961, 1963; Mischel & Grusec, 1966; Steuer, Applefield, & Smith, 1971).

•

Example: Particularly aggressive children (i.e., juvenile delinquents) are likely to come from homes in which severe punishment has been frequent (Welsh, 1976).

6. Punishment does not illustrate the correct behavior. Punishment tells a student what not to do, but not what should be done instead (Skinner, 1938).

•

Example: A boy who is consistently aggressive on the playground may not know how to interact with other children appropriately. Punishing him for aggressive behavior without simultaneously teaching him more appropriate social skills does not help him develop friendly relationships with his classmates.

7. Severe punishment may cause physical or psychological harm. Severe physical punishment can lead to bodily injury. Severe psychological punishment, such as extreme embarrassment or deflation of one’s self-esteem, can be equally harmful. The line between punishment and abuse is often a very fuzzy one.

Examples of Effective Punishment in Classroom Settings 1. Verbal reprimand: A scolding or admonishment. Softly spoken reprimands are sometimes more effective than loud ones, possibly because soft reprimands are less likely to be noticed by other children and thus less likely to draw the (potentially reinforcing) attention of other children to the child being punished (O’Leary, Kaufman, Kass, & Drabman, 1970). In addition to suppressing undesirable behavior, occasional reprimands also appear to enhance the positive reinforcement value of praise (Pfiffner & O’Leary, 1987).

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2. Response cost: The withdrawal of a previously received reinforcer.

•

Example: When students earn points, tokens, etc., for appropriate behavior, such things can be removed for inappropriate behavior.

3. Logical consequence: A consequence that follows naturally or logically from the behavior.

•

Example: Repairing or replacing an item a student has damaged or destroyed.

•

Example: Separating two friends who talk instead of completing assignments.

4. Time-out: Placing a misbehaving student in an environment without any reinforcers present (i.e., in a dull and boring situation). The inappropriate behavior must stop before the child is released from the time-out situation; release from time-out (a negative reinforcer) is therefore contingent on appropriate behavior.

•

Example: Putting the student in a separate room where he/she has little to do and cannot interact with others.

•

Example: Putting the student in a corner of the classroom screened from the rest of the room by partitions or tall furniture.

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Example: Having students wear ribbons that make them eligible to participate in rewarding classroom activities. Students who misbehave remain in the classroom, but their ribbons are removed, making them ineligible to receive the reinforcers available to their classmates (Foxx & Shapiro, 1978).

•

Example: In one situation, 14-year-old Keith was not doing his homework. His teacher told him he didn’t have to do his homework as long as he came to class, sat in the back of the room, remained quiet, and didn’t bother anyone else. After a few days of this, Keith began turning in his homework assignments and participating regularly and appropriately in classroom activities (Krumboltz & Krumboltz, 1972).

The time-out environment should be neither reinforcing, as the hall or the principal’s office is likely to be, nor frightening, as a dark closet might be (Walker & Shea, 1984; Wielkiewicz, 1986).

Time-out does not need to be lengthy to be effective. Many psychologists advocate that durations of 10 minutes (even as few as 2 minutes for preschool children) are sufficient.

5. In-house suspension: Placing a student in a quiet, boring room within the school building for one or several days. The student brings schoolwork and must keep up with classroom assignments.

In-house suspension tends to be effective because it does not allow students to escape the school environment (something that may be a form of negative reinforcement), yet it prevents the social interactions with peers that most students find reinforcing.

Punishment is probably effective to the extent that it gives feedback about inappropriate behavior.

Sometimes students are truly unaware of how frequently they misbehave (e.g., Krumboltz & Krumboltz, 1972), and the occasional punishment of inappropriate responses can provide reminders that keep these students on task.

Guidelines for Using Punishment Effectively (Show Instructor’s Manual Slide 4.3 and 4.4.)

1. Modify the classroom environment so that the misbehavior is less likely to occur. The temptation to engage in a misbehavior should be reduced or, if possible, eliminated.

•

Example: Trouble-making friends should be placed on opposite sides of the classroom or in separate classrooms.

•

Example: Cheating on an exam can be reduced by having students sit apart from one another or by administering two different forms of the exam (perhaps the same test items in two different orders).

2. Avoid certain kinds of punishment. Punishments not recommended are: 118 ..

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Physical punishment Physical punishment in the classroom is illegal in many states. Furthermore, its use provides a model of aggression.

Psychological punishment (e.g., embarrassing or insulting a student) Students who are consistently made to feel inadequate are likely to develop poor selfconcepts that will interfere with appropriate, productive behaviors in the future. Furthermore, if negative feedback implies that students are stupid or incompetent, their intrinsic motivation to learn is likely to be undermined (Deci & Ryan, 1985).

Extra class work Assigning extra classwork is appropriate only when it is a logical consequence of the misbehavior (e.g., when students are failing exams). In other situations, it transmits the message that schoolwork is not fun.

Group punishment for one student’s misbehavior Although group contingencies are often effective for reinforcement, they are not effective for punishment. Students often don’t have control over their classmates’ behavior; punishing those who have done nothing wrong is likely to make them angry and resentful.

Suspension from school Many chronically misbehaving students are students who have difficulty with their academic work (e.g., many have low reading comprehension skills). Suspending such students from school puts these students at an even greater disadvantage and decreases still further the likelihood of academic success. Furthermore, being removed from the school environment may be negatively reinforcing rather than punishing.

3. Choose a punishment strong enough to discourage the behavior but not overly severe.

Punishment that is too short or mild will not be effective (e.g., Parke & Walters, 1967). At the same time, severe punishment can lead to such undesirable side effects as resentment, hostility, aggression, or truancy. The ultimate purpose of administering punishment is to communicate that the limits of acceptable behavior have been exceeded; it should not be so excessive that it undermines the personal relationship between the punisher and the person being punished (Spaulding, 1992).

•

Example: The student can be asked to apologize to a classmate whose feelings he or she has hurt.

•

Example: One teacher effectively used threats that she would sing to her class if they didn’t settle down (Diamond, 1991).

•

Example: Mr. Bruce Janu of Riverside-Brookfield High School in Illinois has misbehaving students stay after school and listen to Frank Sinatra records for a half hour. He refers to this punishment as “Franking.”

4. Make sure that students know ahead of time that certain behaviors will lead to certain unpleasant consequences. Punishment is most likely to deter behavior when an individual knows that the behavior will lead to punishment (e.g., Aronfreed, 1968).

5. Don’t bluff. Some teachers continue to threaten punishment without ever following through, perhaps because they have threatened a punishment that is impractical or unrealistically extreme.

6. Describe the behavior to be punished in clear, concrete terms. Students should understand exactly which responses are unacceptable.

•

Example: A student who is told, “If you disrupt the class again this morning, you will have to stay in during recess,” may not understand exactly what the teacher means by “disrupt” and so may continue to engage in inappropriate classroom behavior. The teacher should instead take the student aside and say something like this: 119 ..

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Sharon, there are two behaviors that are unacceptable in this classroom. When you talk without permission and when you get out of your seat during seatwork time, you keep other children from getting their work done. This morning I expect you to talk and get out of your seat only when I give you permission to do so. Otherwise, you will have to stay in during recess today and sit quietly at your desk.

7. Whenever possible, punish inappropriate behavior immediately. As is true for reinforcement, punishment is more effective when it occurs immediately after a behavior. When immediate punishment is not possible, delayed punishment may be effective provided that the punished behavior is clearly described (Aronfreed & Reber, 1965; Trenholme & Baron, 1975; R. H. Walters, 1964; G. C. Walters & Grusec, 1977).

8. Explain why the behavior is unacceptable. Punishment is more effective when reasons why certain behaviors cannot be tolerated are given (Baumrind, 1983; Hess & McDevitt, 1984; Parke, 1972, 1974, 1977; Perry & Perry, 1983).

•

Example: In the preceding example, Sharon’s teacher said, “When you talk without permission and when you get out of your seat during seatwork time, you keep other children from getting their work done.”

There appear to be several advantages in providing reasons that behaviors are unacceptable: •

It informs students that others are feeling pain or distress as a result of the behavior and makes the students aware that they are the cause of that pain or distress.

•

It promotes students’ ability to see events from another’s point of view.

•

It makes the immediate use of punishment a less important consideration; delayed punishment can be as effective as immediate punishment if it is accompanied by reasons.

•

It helps students resist temptation on future occasions.

•

It decreases the probability that a misbehavior will reappear in the teacher’s absence.

•

It increases students’ internal desire to obey rules and decreases their resistance to those rules. (Baumrind, 1971; Cheyne & Walters, 1970; Griffore, 1981; Harter, 1983; Hoffman, 1970; Parke, 1972, 1974, 1977; Perry & Perry, 1983; G. C. Walters & Grusec, 1977.)

9. Punish the behavior each and every time it occurs. Just as is true for reinforcement, punishment is much more effective when it is a consistent consequence of a particular response (Leff, 1969; Parke & Deur, 1972). In fact, if a punishment is not given each time, it may act as a form of reinforcement by allowing the behavior to persist. Or, it may actually increase the behavior. For example, students may think, “I guess it’s okay to do this because the teacher didn’t tell me not to do it.”

10. The effects of the presumed punishment should be monitored. Punishment, like reinforcement, is defined by its effect on behavior: True punishment decreases the response it follows. If a given consequence does not decrease the response it is meant to punish, that consequence may not be aversive to the individual being “punished”; in fact, it may even be reinforcing.

•

Example: Some students find time-out pleasant rather than unpleasant (Solnick, Rincover, & Peterson, 1977), and, as a result, their “punished” behaviors increase rather than diminish.

11. Use punishment sparingly. An effective punishment is one that does not need to be administered very often to reduce behavior. When used properly, punishment is the fastest way of reducing or eliminating unacceptable behaviors.

12. Teach and reinforce desirable alternative behaviors. Punishment of misbehavior is typically more effective when it is combined with reinforcement of appropriate behavior (Rimm & Masters, 1974; G. C. Walters & Grusec, 1977). A misbehavior is more likely to be suppressed permanently when alternative behaviors are reinforced, and especially when those behaviors are incompatible with the punished behavior.

•

Example: When punishing aggression on the playground, a teacher should also reinforce appropriate social behavior.

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Example: When punishing a student for cheating, a teacher should also reinforce that student for demonstrating good study habits and for working well independently.

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Lecture 4.2: Schedules of Reinforcement The textbook distinguishes between continuous reinforcement and intermittent reinforcement.

Teachers should use continuous reinforcement when they want to teach a new behavior or increase the frequency of an existing behavior. Teachers should use intermittent reinforcement when students already demonstrate a behavior at the appropriate frequency and they want to prevent extinction.

Behaviorists distinguish among different forms, or schedules, of intermittent reinforcement. Each one has a somewhat different effect on behavior. Here are the four schedules most commonly described: 1. Fixed ratio (F R) Reinforcement occurs after a certain constant number of responses have been made.

•

Example: Reinforcement might occur after every third response (a 1:3 ratio schedule) or after every 50th response (a 1:50 schedule).

•

Example: Whitlock (1966) used a series of ratio schedules with a 6-year-old boy who had been unable to acquire basic reading skills. At first, the boy was asked to read words presented to him on flash cards. Every time he read a word correctly, he received a plastic poker chip as a reinforcer (a continuous reinforcement schedule). Filled jars of 36 poker chips could be traded for various activities (e.g., two jars allowed him to play a game, seven jars allowed him to watch a cartoon). Once the boy was able to read from beginning reader storybooks, he was reinforced after every second word he read correctly. Later, he was reinforced for every four words, then for every page, then for every story, and finally for every four stories. After 15 sessions of such individualized instruction, reinforcement was phased out altogether, and the boy was placed in his class’s regular reading program. Three months later, he was still reading at grade level.

A fixed ratio schedule leads to a high and consistent response rate over an indefinite period of time.

High ratios lead to especially high rates of responding.

2. Variable ratio (VR) Reinforcement occurs after a certain variable number of responses have been made. The occurrence of reinforcement in a V R schedule is somewhat unpredictable: The organism never knows exactly which response will be reinforced.

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Example: Reinforcement might occur after four responses, then after seven more, then after three more, and so on.

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Example: Playing a Las Vegas slot machine is reinforced on a V R schedule.

•

Example: Telephone solicitation is reinforced on a V R schedule.

Variable ratio schedules lead to higher response rates than fixed ratio schedules. Responses reinforced on a VR schedule are highly resistant to extinction.

3. Fixed interval (F I) Reinforcement is contingent on the first response emitted after a certain fixed time interval has elapsed.

•

Example: An organism is reinforced for the first response emitted after 5 minutes have elapsed, regardless of how many responses were made during those 5 minutes. Following reinforcement, another 5-minute interval must elapse before a response is reinforced again.

A fixed interval schedule produces a unique response pattern. Following reinforcement, the response rate tapers way off in a post-reinforcement pause until the end of the time interval approaches, at which point responding picks up again—a scallop pattern that looks like this:

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•

Example: For many students, studying for exams shows a scallop pattern. After each exam, the frequency of studying drops way down until the next exam is near, when it increases until the exam is over.

4. Variable interval (V I) Reinforcement is contingent on the first response emitted after a certain variable time interval has elapsed. As is true for VR schedules, the occurrence of reinforcement in a V I schedule is somewhat unpredictable.

•

Example: An organism may be reinforced for the first response after 5 minutes, then the first response after 8 minutes, then the first response after 2 minutes, and so on.

•

Example: You have a friend who really enjoys talking on the telephone, so when you try to call him/her, you often get a busy signal. You may continue to dial the phone number once every few minutes until eventually your call goes through.

Variable interval schedules result in a slow, steady rate of responding. The longer the average time interval until reinforcement, the slower the response rate will be.

The best schedule to use depends on the rate of response desired. In most cases, a variable ratio is recommended for a high rate of responding, with a variable interval schedule being better for a slow but steady rate. When continuous reinforcement is first replaced by intermittent reinforcement, the ratio should be small or the time interval short. The ratio or interval can then be gradually extended until the response is being maintained on very little reinforcement at all.

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Lecture 4.3: Concerns About Using Reinforcement This lecture addresses some common concerns expressed about using reinforcement in the classroom; it also presents recommendations for circumventing the possible negative effects that reinforcement can have.

Reinforcement is often an effective way to improve students’ classroom behavior; but it has been criticized on many counts. Some of the concerns about reinforcement are probably “bogus,” while others are more legitimate. (Show Instructor’s Manual Slide 4.6.)

Bogus Concerns 1. Reinforcement is bribery.

The word bribery implies that the behavior being reinforced is illegal or unethical. But in the classroom situation, we are reinforcing desirable and productive behaviors.

2. Reinforcement develops dependence on concrete rewards for appropriate behavior.

This argument can be countered in two ways. First of all, reinforcement often involves a nontangible consequence such as feedback, praise, or a favorite activity. Second, when concrete reinforcers are involved, they are typically used only when behavior change apparently will not occur without them. It is undoubtedly better to help students learn by using concrete reinforcers than not to help them learn at all.

3. Reinforcing one student teaches other students to be bad.

When students see a classmate being reinforced for appropriate behavior, they may choose to be bad so that they, too, can receive reinforcement for being good. If nontangible consequences such as feedback, praise, or favorite activities are the reinforcers, then all students should already be receiving these for their accomplishments anyway; thus, there is no need for someone to behave badly in order to get them. If a particular student must be reinforced on a concrete basis, he or she should be reinforced in private.

4. Changing a problem behavior doesn’t change its underlying cause.

Sigmund Freud proposed that when behaviors are changed but their underlying causes are not, symptom substitution occurs: Another maladaptive behavior will emerge to replace the behavior that has changed. However, research indicates that when problem behaviors are treated through behavior modification, symptom substitution rarely occurs (Rimm & Masters, 1974). One likely explanation is that by improving students’ outward behaviors, we may simultaneously be addressing the underlying causes of those behaviors.

•

Example: Students may act in inappropriate ways toward their classmates (e.g., insulting them, hitting them) because they already believe their classmates don’t like them. In other words, they have low self-confidence about their ability to make friends. If we help them develop more appropriate social skills, their self-confidence about making friends (the underlying cause) is likely to improve as well.

Substantiated Concerns Regarding Extrinsic Reinforcement 1. Reinforcement may encourage students to accomplish a task in a minimally acceptable way rather than in a maximally beneficial manner.

If students receive the same reinforcement for performing a task regardless of the overall quality of their performance, they may exert the minimal amount of effort necessary to accomplish that task (Brophy, 1986; Lee, 1991; Lepper & Hodell, 1989).

•

Example: A student working only to get a good grade may cheat rather than study in order to get that grade.

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Example: If teachers want to encourage students to engage in higher-level thinking processes as they perform a task, then reinforcing them simply for doing the task may be counterproductive (Brophy, 1986; Deci & Ryan, 1985; Hennessey & Amabile, 1987; Lepper & Hodell, 1989).

2. Extrinsic reinforcement of a behavior may undermine any intrinsically reinforcing value that the activity has for students.

Several research studies indicate that when people are extrinsically reinforced for doing something they already enjoy doing, their frequency of engaging in that behavior decreases to a below-baseline level once reinforcement stops. This is particularly likely to happen when people feel that they are being controlled by the reinforcer (Deci & Ryan, 1987; Lepper & Hodell, 1989; Ryan, Mims, & Koestner, 1983).

•

Example: In a study with preschoolers, children who had previously been reinforced for certain drawing activities were less likely to engage in drawing in a free-play situation than children who had not been reinforced (Lepper, Greene, & Nisbett, 1973).

•

Example: In an experiment by Deci (1971), college students worked on block puzzles; some received a dollar for each correct solution whereas others did not. Those who had been paid for correct solutions were less likely to continue doing the puzzles once reinforcement stopped.

Suggestions for Using Extrinsic Reinforcement (see Instructor’s Manual Slide 4.7) 1. Use extrinsic reinforcement only if students are not already engaging in the behavior of their own volition.

Extrinsic reinforcement is useful when desirable behaviors will apparently not occur any other way.

Students may initially find a new activity difficult or frustrating and therefore need external encouragement to continue. But with practice, their competence and skill are likely to improve, and they may eventually find the activity intrinsically rewarding.

2. Be specific about what you are reinforcing.

The more specific and discrete a reinforced behavior is, the more effective reinforcement is likely to be (Rachlin, 1991).

3. Praise the specific things a student has done well rather than simply praising task accomplishment.

Praise should direct students’ attention to the quality of the performance (Spaulding, 1992).

4. Communicate the message that a reinforcer is being given to help students learn more effectively, not to control students’ behavior.

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Lecture 4.4: Models in the Media On the average, children spend more hours watching television than doing anything else except sleeping. Researchers have estimated that children watch somewhere between 11 and 28 hours of television per week. It is children from poor and relatively uneducated families who watch television most frequently (Huston, 1983; Huston, Watkins, & Kunkel, 1989).

Question for students: What kinds of behaviors are modeled in: •

Situation comedies?

•

Action adventures?

•

Music videos?

•

Sports events?

•

News broadcasts?

•

Soap operas?

•

Cartoons?

Question for students: What messages does television give children and adolescents regarding acceptable and unacceptable behavior?

Question for students: Does television promote gender stereotypes?

The media give consistent messages about acceptable/unacceptable behavior for both males and females. Let’s look at research related to two different media—television and children’s books.

Television •

Males are usually the leaders; they are depicted as aggressive, independent, competent, and successful.

•

Females are usually followers; they are depicted as submissive, dependent, and helpless.

They are also more competent at household tasks (cooking, cleaning, doing laundry).

(Durkin, 1987; Huston, 1983; Macklin & Kolbe, 1984; Ruble & Ruble, 1982; Steeves, 1989)

Children’s Books •

Classic children’s stories depict violence and gender-stereotypical behaviors (Huston, 1983; Ruble, 1988; Rushton, 1980).

•

Example: In Jack and the Beanstalk, the giant is violent, his wife is submissive, and Jack saves the day for himself and his mother.

•

Example: In Snow White, the queen is concerned only about her beauty, and she plots numerous schemes to kill Snow White (sending her to the woods with the huntsman, making a poisoned apple, etc.). Meanwhile, Snow White cleans the house while the dwarves go off to work.

•

Example: Cinderella and Sleeping Beauty are saved from their plights (a life of servitude and a coma, respectively) when their physical beauty catches the attention of nearby princes.

Many contemporary television writers and children’s book authors are introducing more appropriate social behaviors into their manuscripts, as well as more balanced coverage of males and females. However, the overall pattern in the media is changing very slowly (Huston, 1983; Lazier-Smith, 1989). Furthermore, the “classic” stories and television reruns of previous decades of course remain with us.

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Example: Lucy Ricardo continues to defer to husband Ricky as head of the household.

•

Example: Tom and Jerry continue to bash each other to smithereens.

Questions for students: Note that the research cited above was typically published in the 1980s. Do students believe that the results of these studies would be different if they were conducted today?

What specific examples can students provide that are counter to the findings of these older studies?

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Lecture 5.1: Self-Worth and Self-Handicapping This lecture is adapted from a discussion of self-worth theory in Ormrod (2004).

Many motivation theorists propose that people have a basic need for self-esteem; we might also use the terms self-efficacy and competence. The need for self-esteem may have biological significance: It pushes people to develop ways of dealing more effectively with environmental conditions and thus increases their chances of survival (R. White, 1959).

Martin Covington (1992) uses the term self-worth. He proposes that protecting one’s sense of selfworth is one of people’s highest priorities. People use several strategies to protect their sense of selfworth: 1. They strive to achieve success on a regular basis.

When success isn’t possible: 2. They make excuses that seemingly justify their poor performance.

3. They refuse to engage in a task at all.

4. They engage in self-handicapping behaviors that actually undermine their chances of success.

Self-handicapping takes a variety of forms, including these: •

Setting unattainably high goals: Working toward goals that even the most able individuals couldn’t achieve

•

Procrastinating: Putting a task off until success is virtually impossible

•

Reducing effort: Putting forth an obviously insufficient amount of effort to succeed

•

Using alcohol or drugs: Taking substances that will inevitably reduce performance (Covington, 1992; Ford, 1996; Jones & Berglas, 1978; Riggs, 1992; Urdan, Midgley, & Anderman, 1998)

It might seem paradoxical that people who want to be successful would engage in self-handicapping behaviors. But if people believe they are unlikely to succeed at a particular task, they increase their chances of justifying their lack of success (and therefore maintain their sense of self-worth) by acknowledging that, under the circumstances, success wasn’t very likely to begin with (Covington, 1992; Jones & Berglas, 1978; Riggs, 1992).

Curiously, people are more likely to perform at their best, and less likely to display self-handicapping behaviors, when their chances of success are slim. In such situations, failure does not indicate low ability and so does not threaten their sense of self-worth (Covington, 1992).

Question for students: How can teachers minimize the likelihood that students will engage in selfhandicapping behaviors?

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Lecture 5.2: Need for Affiliation Some students have a greater need for affiliation than other students.

Questions for students: What kinds of behaviors indicate high affiliation needs? What kinds of behaviors indicate low affiliation needs?

Research yields mixed findings about the relationship between need for affiliation and school achievement. Some studies find a positive correlation between affiliation needs and level of achievement. Others find a negative relationship (e.g., Gama, 1985; Schneider & Coutts, 1985; Sid & Lindgren, 1982; Van Hecke, Tracy, Cotler, & Ribordy, 1984).

Question for students: What conditions might promote a positive relationship between affiliation needs and achievement?

Possible answers: •

Students with a high need for affiliation achieve at higher levels if their teachers are warm and friendly rather than cold and aloof (McKeachie, Lin, Milholland, & Isaacson, 1966).

•

Students with high affiliation needs might achieve at higher levels if their friends value academic achievement.

•

Students with high affiliation needs might perform better in a cooperative rather than competitive learning environment.

Question for students: What conditions might promote a negative relationship between affiliation needs and achievement?

Possible answer: Students with high affiliation needs may try to hide their academic successes—possibly performing well below their ability level—if friends show disdain for high achievers.

Question for students: How can we minimize the extent to which students must hide their academic successes?

Possible answers: •

Don’t require students to perform publicly (e.g., contests, question-answer sessions).

•

Don’t make evaluations of student performance public.

•

Don’t grade on a curve.

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Lecture 5.3: Flow Csikszentmihalyi (1990, 1996) has introduced the concept flow to describe an intensely motivated person. Flow can be thought of as peak intrinsic motivation. More specifically, flow is: A state of optimal experience characterized by total concentration and absorption in a challenging activity that engenders sense of control, interest, enjoyment, even exhilaration. (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990) Flow has the following elements (Csikszentmihalyi, 1996): 1. One has clear goals every step of the way.

The person always knows what needs to be done.

2. One gets immediate feedback for one’s actions.

The person always knows how well he/she is doing 3. There is a well-matched balance between challenge and skills.

The person is neither bored nor anxious.

4. Action and awareness are merged.

The person is intensely focused on what he/she is doing.

5. Distractions are excluded from consciousness.

The person is aware only of what is currently relevant to the task.

6. One is not worried about failure.

The person is too involved in the task to be concerned about failure.

7. Self-consciousness disappears.

The person doesn’t worry about how he/she appears to others. Afterward, he/she emerges from the experience with a stronger self-concept.

8. One’s sense of time is distorted.

Hours pass quickly, or quick actions seem stretched out in time.

9. The activity becomes autotelic (i.e., an end in itself).

The person engages in the activity for its own sake.

Teachers can promote flow by: •

Assigning challenging tasks that involve novelty and discovery

•

Emphasizing intrinsic rewards, and

•

Minimizing external pressures related to competition, grades, and rules.

(Csikszentmihalyi, 1996; Csikszentmihalyi, Rathunde, & Whalen, 1993; Snow, Corno, & Jackson, 1996)

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Lecture 5.4: Internalization and the Self-Determination Continuum Sources for this lecture include Ryan and Deci (2020); Deci and Ryan (1985, 1995); Deci, Vallerand, Pelletier, and Ryan (1991); Ryan and Connell (1989); Ryan, Connell, and Grolnick (1992), Harter (1992), and Stipek (1993).

Extrinsic and intrinsic motivation are not necessarily an either-or state of affairs. In fact, several theorists have proposed that this apparent dichotomy is actually a continuum and that, in many instances, motivation may lie somewhere between the two extremes.

Sometimes people do things that aren’t fun or interesting, yet they expect no extrinsic reinforcement for engaging in those activities. In such instances, we can say that these people have internalized motivation (Harter, 1992; Stipek, 1993).

•

Example: Taking out the garbage without being asked or reinforced.

•

Example: Studying for a test over uninteresting classroom material.

When people have internalized motivation, they have adopted the values of others (e.g., for school success) as their own.

Internalized motivation is an aspect of self-regulation: People are do things of their own accord, without regard for the external consequences (or lack thereof) of their behavior.

The Self-Determination Continuum Theorists (e.g., Ryan & Deci, 2020; Ryan & Connell, 1989) have proposed a continuum consisting of amotivation, four different types of extrinsic motivation, and intrinsic motivation. (Show Instructor’s Manual Slide 5.13.)

1. Amotivation: The person does not engage at all in the activity or engages but just goes through the motions. S/he does not value the activity, feel competent, or expect any desired outcomes.

2. External regulation: The person is motivated to behave, or else not to behave, in certain ways primarily on the basis of the external consequences that will follow behaviors.

•

Example: A student will do schoolwork to avoid punishment.

When students are motivated primarily by external regulation, they tend to:

•

Need a lot of prodding to get their work done.

•

Act out in class.

•

Have low self-efficacy with regard to academic activities.

•

Be easily discouraged.

•

Attribute their failures to external causes.

•

Show low classroom achievement.

3. Introjected regulation: The person behaves in particular ways to gain the approval of others.

•

Example: A student doesn’t cheat on a test because her teacher would disapprove.

The person feels some internal pressure to behave in particular ways and feels guilty if he/she violates certain standards or rules for behavior. However, the person does not fully understand the rationale behind such standards and rules. The primary motives tend to be feelings about self-worth and the desire to avoid a negative self-evaluation.

4. Identified regulation: The person holds certain behaviors as being personally important or valuable.

•

Example: A student does homework because it will help him/her master class material.

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The person is beginning to incorporate the desirable behaviors that others exhibit as being essential to his/her sense of self.

When students are motivated primarily by identification, they tend to: •

Value the process of learning for its own sake.

•

Need little if any prodding to get things done.

•

Have high self-efficacy with regard to academic activities.

•

Rebound easily after failure, seeking strategies for succeeding the next time.

5. Integrated regulation: The person has fully accepted the desirability of certain behaviors and integrated values related to these behaviors into an overall system of motives and values.

•

Example: A student shows, by word and deed, a keen interest in science as a career goal.

6. Intrinsic regulation: The person engages in an activity because it is enjoyable in itself. The activity is fully assimilated to the self and in congruence with his/her other values and needs.

The increasing internalization of motivation may be a natural developmental process (Ryan et al., 1992). Three conditions within the environment probably promote this development: 1. The individual is given some autonomy.

People controlling the individual’s behavior (e.g., parents, teachers) exert no more control than necessary, as a way of maximizing the extent to which the individual maintains a sense of selfdetermination.

Over time, parents and teachers should gradually relinquish control of a child’s behavior.

2. The individual operates within a certain degree of structure.

The environment provides information about expected behaviors and why they’re important.

Response-consequence contingencies are clearly spelled out.

3. The individual operates within the context of a warm, responsive, and supportive environment.

The student feels a sense of relatedness to significant others within his/her environment.

Not all rules and regulations for behavior will become fully internalized. Those that conflict with other needs will continue to create conflict for people. (Ryan et al., 1992) •

Example: A student may sometimes have trouble sitting still and paying attention.

•

Example: A student may have difficulty “fiddling” with interesting, but forbidden, objects in the classroom.

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Lecture 5.5: Attribution Theory Both ability and effort attributions have an internal locus. However, they differ in terms of controllability and stability: •

Ability is seen as uncontrollable and stable (particularly as students get older).

•

Effort is seen as controllable and unstable.

Question for students: When two students succeed, which one is more likely to be optimistic about future performance—the one who attributes the success to high ability or the one who attributes it to high effort?

Answer: The one who attributes it to ability, which is stable and therefore dependable.

Question for students: When two students fail, which one is more likely to be optimistic about future performance—the one who attributes the failure to low ability or the one who attributes it to a lack of effort?

Answer: The one who attributes it to a lack of effort, which is unstable and controllable.

Developmental Changes in Views of Ability Young children: •

Infer that they have high ability if they succeed at difficult tasks or if they improve.

•

View ability as a temporary state of affairs that improves with effort (Barker & Graham, 1987; Nicholls, 1984).

Older children and adolescents: •

Infer that they have high ability only if they do better than their peers.

•

View ability as a relatively permanent condition.

•

Think of ability and effort as being negatively correlated—people with high ability try less hard than others do (Barker & Graham, 1987; Nicholls, 1984).

•

Yet, they also believe intelligence is changeable and that they can become “more intelligent” through the use of academic effort (e.g., studying more, working harder, paying attention; Jones, Byrd, & Lusk, 2009).

Effort as a Double-Edged Sword •

The most able people are usually perceived to be the ones who succeed with the least effort (Covington & Omelich, 1979).

•

When a student tries hard and still fails, the student looks “stupid.” In many cases, it may be easier on his/her self-esteem not to try hard (Covington & Omelich, 1979; Jagacinski & Nicholls, 1990).

Optimal Interpretations for Student Performance Teachers’ interpretation of students’ performance influences the attributions that students make.

•

For successes, teachers should attribute student performance to such controllable factors as effort and study strategies.

•

For failures, teachers should attribute student performance as being due to a lack of effort, insufficient practice, or lack of appropriate strategies (whichever is most accurate).

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Question for students: Why should we not attribute success partly to ability?

Answer: Because students will logically conclude that if their successes are due to their innate ability, then their failures are too. Instead, it is better for teachers to focus on effort and strategies for both successes and failures.

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Lecture 5.6: Math Anxiety and Test Anxiety Many researchers have found an “inverted U” relationship between anxiety and performance. (Show Instructor’s Manual Slide 5.14.) When anxiety is extremely low, performance is also low. As anxiety increases, performance also increases, but only up to a point (here we are talking about facilitating anxiety). High levels of anxiety lead to reduced levels of performance (here we are talking about debilitating anxiety).

Mathematics Anxiety Of all the subjects taught in schools, none seems to elicit as much anxiety, and for as many students, as mathematics.

Math anxiety seems to have two components: 1. Negative emotional reactions to math (e.g., fear, dislike), and 2. The belief that one is incapable of succeeding in mathematics (Wigfield & Meece, 1988).

One possible reason why students become anxious about math is that a school’s curriculum sometimes introduces mathematical concepts before students are cognitively ready to handle them.

•

Example: Piaget proposed that the abilities to understand proportions and to deal with abstract ideas don’t usually emerge until early adolescence and then continue to develop for several years after that. Yet we often expose students to such proportions as fractions and ratios, and to such abstract ideas as negative numbers and pi (π), in the upper elementary and early junior high school years.

Research findings: •

High math-anxious students do less well in future math classes than those with low anxiety.

•

High math-anxious students are less likely to enroll in additional math classes.

•

Such differences between high math-anxious and low math-anxious students appear even when the two groups of students have done equally well in previous math classes (Eccles & Jacobs, 1986). In fact, math anxiety has a greater influence on students’ future plans for taking or not taking mathematics than does their previous achievement level and degree of success in math (Eccles & Jacobs, 1986).

•

Math anxiety is more common in girls than in boys, even when their achievement levels are the same (Fennema, 1980).

Test Anxiety A small amount of anxiety helps us do better on tests. But some students become extremely anxious in test-taking situations, and these students get lower test scores (on the average) than their lessanxious classmates (e.g., Sarason, 1972; Spielberger, 1966).

There are probably two types of high test-anxious students (Naveh-Benjamin, 1991): 1. Some students have good study habits (e.g., they study regularly, learn the material sufficiently).

Their problem occurs at retrieval time (i.e., during the test). They are so distracted by their worrying that they can’t concentrate on the test itself (Eccles & Wigfield, 1985). For these students, treatment of the anxiety itself is most effective.

2. Some students have difficulty learning the material to begin with—in other words, their problem occurs at storage time. For these students, tutoring and study skills training may be more appropriate.

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We rarely see extreme cases of test anxiety in the early grades. Test anxiety increases throughout the elementary years (Sarason, 1972).

•

Lower-ability students are more test-anxious than high-ability students (Kirkland, 1971).

Questions for students: What kinds of teacher behaviors raise students’ test anxiety? How might teachers keep test anxiety at a reasonable level?

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Lecture 5.7: The Transition to Junior High School Questions for students: As a student, did you make an easy transition from elementary school to middle school or junior high school? Why or why not?

Making the transition from elementary school to junior high school is a difficult and uncertain step for many students. Eccles and Midgley (1989) have given us several reasons why the move to junior high is often so anxiety arousing: (Show Instructor’s Manual Slide 5.17 and 5.18) •

The school is larger and has more students.

•

Previously formed friendships are often disrupted as students move to new (and sometimes different) schools.

•

Students have more teachers at one time, and each teacher has more students. Teacher-student relationships are therefore more superficial and less personal than they were in elementary school.

•

There is more whole-class instruction, with less individualized instruction that takes into account each student’s particular needs.

•

Despite students’ greater maturity, there is an increased emphasis on discipline and control of student behavior.

•

Comparison and competition among students are more common. Some students will be winners, but others must inevitably be losers.

•

Standards for assigning grades are more rigorous, so students’ grades often decrease from what they were in elementary school. Grades are often assigned on a comparative basis (i.e., only the highest-achieving students get As and Bs; low achievers often get Ds or Fs).

•

Students’ work is more likely to be evaluated publicly, with classmates being aware of how each student has performed.

•

The change occurs at about the same time that students must deal with the physiological and social changes accompanying puberty and adolescence.

(Eccles & Midgley, 1989; Wigfield, Eccles, & Pintrich, 1996)

The increases in competition, social comparison, and public evaluation and the decreasing opportunities to establish close relationships with teachers often lead to decreased confidence, lower self-esteem, and a great deal of anxiety. Students begin to develop less positive attitudes about school and academic subjects and to show less intrinsic motivation to learn (Eccles & Midgley, 1989).

The concept of middle school was developed as a way of attempting to ease the transition to secondary school. In principle, middle schools have these characteristics: •

They accommodate the unique needs of preadolescents and early adolescents, including their anxieties about more demanding academic expectations, the changing nature of social relationships, and their own rapidly maturing bodies.

•

They typically give attention to students’ personal, emotional, and social development as well as to their academic achievement.

•

They are attuned to students’ individual differences and unique academic needs.

•

Middle school teachers often work as a team, coordinating activities, expectations, and rules for behavior.

•

Ideally, middle school teachers teach learning and study skills as well as subject matter, helping students move toward increasing independence as learners.

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Strategies for Middle School and Junior High School Teachers (Show Instructor’s Manual Slide 5.19.)

Here are some ways middle school and junior high school teachers can help students make a smooth transition from elementary to secondary school.

•

Help students maintain existing friendships and form new ones. Friends provide a major source of support during this time of rapid change.

•

Provide opportunities to establish close and trusting relationships with teachers. All students should feel that they have at least one teacher to whom they can turn in time of trouble or uncertainty.

•

Provide a means through which every student can identify with a small, close-knit group. The sheer size of many large junior high schools can be anxiety arousing. At-risk students are especially likely to be affected negatively by a large school size (Eccles & Midgley, 1989).

Students should be made to feel an integral part of some small group—perhaps a home “base” to which they report at the beginning and end of each school day.

•

Assign grades on the basis of mastery, rather than on the basis of comparisons with peers. Grade students on the basis of how well they learn material and master required skills, not on the basis of how they stack up against their classmates.

•

Keep grades and other evaluations confidential. Students will feel less anxious about their performance if their classmates are unaware of how well they are performing academically.

Note: If you will be dealing with the topic of assessment in this course, you might also mention that, at least in the United States, there is a legal reason as well as a psychological one for maintaining confidentiality with regard to students’ evaluations. The Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (a.k.a. the Buckley Amendment) mandates that students’ school records (e.g., test scores, grades) be shared only with students, their parents, and school personnel who specifically need to be aware of them.

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Lecture 5.8: Teacher Expectations Many teachers are predisposed to have expectations about students from different groups.

Examples of Common Teacher Expectations •

Teachers judge physically attractive students more favorably in terms of intelligence, academic potential, and social skills (Ritts, Patterson, & Tubbs, 1992).

•

When students are “discipline problems” in the classroom, their teachers tend to judge their academic skill to be lower (Bennett, Gottesman, Rock, & Cerullo, 1993).

•

A student’s dialect (e.g., Black English) can influence a teacher’s initial judgment regarding the student’s intelligence and potential classroom achievement (Garcia, 1994).

•

Teachers often assume that students from low-S E S backgrounds have little readiness for academic work, often leading to low expectations for (and sometimes ability tracking of) these students (Knapp, Turnbull, & Shields, 1990; Knapp & Woolverton, 1995).

•

Many teachers have low expectations for immigrant students (Nieto, 1995; Olneck, 1995).

Teacher Behaviors Associated with Low Expectations for Students (Show Instructor’s Manual Slides 5.21 and 5.22.)

When teachers have low expectations for students, they tend to: •

Seat students near the back of the room.

•

Have fewer friendly interactions with students.

•

Provide little positive “body language” (e.g., making eye contact, smiling, nodding).

•

Give students less attention during instruction.

•

Use few effective yet time-consuming instructional strategies.

•

Present easy, limited, and repetitive content, with an emphasis on facts and drill-and-practice.

•

Demand a lower quality of performance.

•

Call on students infrequently.

•

Leave little wait time after questions, either giving students the correct answers or calling on someone else.

•

Give less frequent and less informative feedback.

•

Praise incorrect answers.

•

Use students’ ideas infrequently.

•

Criticize students more frequently when they fail. (T. L. Good & Brophy, 1994; Rosenthal, 1994) Several Points to Keep in Mind About Teachers’ Differential Treatment of Students

Keep in mind several points about teachers’ differential treatment of students: •

Even first graders are aware of teachers’ differential treatment of high and low achievers (R. S. Weinstein, 1993).

•

Some differential treatment may be an appropriate way of individualizing instruction (T. L. Good & Brophy, 1994).

•

Differential treatment is sometimes due to the fact that students behave differently (T. L. Good & Brophy, 1994).

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Example: Students may not raise their hands to answer a question.

•

Example: A teacher can’t use a student’s ideas when they are of low quality.

•

Teacher expectations sometimes lead to high-ability students getting the short end of the stick.

•

Example: In one situation, a first-grade teacher had low expectations for one Hispanic girl and high expectations for another. She took actions that helped the first girl make great progress in reading. She did nothing special for the second girl, who then achieved at a much lower level than she probably should have (Goldenberg, 1992).

Two Types of Teacher Expectation Effects (T. L. Good & Brophy, 1994) 1. Self-fulfilling prophecy effect: An originally erroneous expectation leads to the expected behavior.

2. Sustaining expectation effect: A teacher expects a student to continue to exhibit previous behaviors and so fails either to notice or to capitalize on changes in the student’s performance.

A Strategy for Raising Teacher Expectations (R. S. Weinstein, Madison, & Kuklinski, 1995) At one school, teachers perceived many low-achieving students as being unmotivated to learn. They also saw themselves, their colleagues, and school administrators as being ineffective and uninvested in helping these students succeed.

To counteract such tendencies, the school faculty held frequent two-hour meetings in which they: •

Read research related to low-achieving and at-risk students.

•

Explored various hypotheses as to why their own students were having difficulty.

•

Developed, refined, and evaluated innovative strategies for helping their students succeed.

•

Established a collaborative atmosphere in which, working together, they could take positive action.

•

Acquired higher expectations for their students’ achievement.

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Lecture 5.9: Teacher Attributions Attribution theory suggests that students are likely to develop attributions regarding the causes of the things that happen to them. Teachers also form attributions about students’ behaviors. These attributions in turn affect how the teacher behaves toward the student.

Example: A student tries hard and fails at a relatively easy task. The teacher considers: •

The student has a history of failing tasks.

•

Other students have succeeded at the same tasks.

•

Most people should be able to succeed at tasks if they try reasonably hard.

The teacher concludes that the student must be “dumb.” Having little expectation for the student’s future success, the teacher does not try very hard to help the student succeed. The teacher also communicates the message that the student lacks intelligence in numerous subtle ways—for example, by expressing pity and giving unsolicited help (Weiner, 1984).

Example: A student doesn’t study for a difficult task and so fails. The teacher considers: •

The student has a history of succeeding at tasks.

•

Other students have failed at the same tasks.

The teacher concludes that the student didn’t put forth sufficient effort and has high expectations for the student’s next exam performance. The teacher also communicates a high regard for the student’s ability—for example, by expressing annoyance about the lack of studying and the low test score (Weiner, 1984).

Question for students: In some cases, teachers believe that their students are victims of circumstances beyond their control. In other situations, teachers believe that students are deliberately choosing not to be successful. How are teachers who hold these two very different kinds of attributions for student failure likely to act in the classroom?

Answer: According to Brophy (1985b), teachers who believe that their students have not caused their own failure focus on developing long-term solutions to students’ problems. In contrast, teachers who believe that their students have voluntarily chosen not to achieve focus more on blaming, criticizing, controlling, and punishing their students than on problem solving.

Research indicates that teachers may form somewhat different attributions for boys and girls (Seligman, 1991): •

Boys tend to be more fidgety and have a harder time sitting still. So when they do poorly, teachers attribute their performance to the fact that they weren’t paying attention or didn’t try hard enough.

•

Girls sit more quietly than boys, so teachers have a harder time attributing poor performance to lack of attention or effort. By process of elimination, they are likely to attribute the poor performance to lack of ability.

Questions for students: What kinds of attributions have you seen teachers make about their students’ performance? Did the attributions influence student behaviors? What kinds of precautions might teachers take to make sure they don’t form pessimistic attributions about students?

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Lecture 6.1: Piaget’s Preoperational Stage The preoperational stage emerges when the child is about 2 years old and continues until the child is about 6 or 7. Hence, we are likely to see characteristics of this stage in most preschoolers, as well as in many children in kindergarten and the early elementary grades.

Preoperational thought has several noteworthy characteristics. (Show Instructor’s Manual Slide 6.4) 1. Language: Use of language in both social communication and mental representation of the world.

Example: A child can express his/her needs and desires to others.

Example: A child can think about an object simply by thinking about the word for that object.

2. Preoperational egocentrism: An inability to view situations from another person’s perspective.

Example: Children may have trouble understanding why they must share their toys with a guest, or why they must be careful not to hurt someone else’s feelings.

Example: Children may play games together without ever checking to be sure that they are all playing according to the same rules.

Example: Children may exhibit egocentric speech, saying things without really considering the perspective of the listener. For instance, Piaget once asked individual children to listen to a story and then to retell the story to someone who had not heard it. Here is one of Piaget’s stories, followed by young Gio’s version of it: The original: Once upon a time, there was a lady who was called Niobe, and who had 12 sons and 12 daughters. She met a fairy who had only one son and no daughter. Then the lady laughed at the fairy because the fairy only had one boy. Then the fairy was very angry and fastened the lady to a rock. The lady cried for ten years. In the end she turned into a rock, and her tears made a stream which still runs today. (Piaget, 1959, p. 82) Gio’s version: Once upon a time there was a lady who had twelve boys and twelve girls, and then a fairy a boy and a girl. And then Niobe wanted to have some more sons. Then she was angry. She fastened her to a stone. He turned into a rock, and then his tears made a stream which is still running today.

(Piaget, 1959, p. 102) Notice how Gio never explained who “she,” “her,” and “he” were—something that couldn’t possibly have been obvious to his listener.

In Gio’s rendition of the story we find one reason why social interaction is so important for cognitive development. Someone listening to Gio might express confusion about who was angry and who turned into a rock. Repeated feedback from other people helps children learn that others see the world differently than they do. Preoperational children need to learn that their thoughts and feelings are unique to them—that their perception of the world is not shared by others and so does not necessarily reflect “reality.”

3. Confusion between physical and psychological events: Confusing external, physical objects with one’s own internal, mental ideas.

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This characteristic takes two forms: Animism: Children attribute psychological qualities such as thoughts and feelings to inanimate objects.

Example: A child who accidentally bumps his head on a table spanks the table to punish it.

Example: A child expresses a concern that a doll is sad or in pain when its leg is torn off.

Realism: Children believe that their thoughts and ideas have physical reality.

Example: A child has an imaginary playmate.

Example: A child worries that monsters and bogeymen lurk in the basement.

Example: A child finds nightmares realistic and terrifying.

4. Lack of conservation: A lack of understanding that, when nothing is added or taken away, amount stays the same regardless of alterations in shape or arrangement.

Example: When water is poured from a tall, thin glass into a short, fat one, a child believes that there is a different amount of water (either less or more) than before.

Example: Two rows of six pennies each are placed in front of a child, like this:

The child agrees that both rows contain the same number of pennies. The pennies in the second row are then spread farther apart, so that the two rows now look like this:

The child is now likely to say that the second row has more pennies than the first row because the coins are spread farther out or the row is longer. Without the realization that the number of objects is constant despite changes in arrangement (i.e., without conservation of number), preoperational children have a limited understanding of the concept of number itself.

5. Centration: Focusing on one dimension of an object to the exclusion of other dimensions.

Example: When explaining why water poured from a tall, thin glass into a short, fat glass is now less than it was before, a child says that the water in the first glass is “taller.” The child does not recognize that the first glass is also thinner and that height compensates for width.

Example: During the conservation of number task just described, a child justifies the conclusion that the second row has more pennies by saying that it’s longer, without acknowledging that the pennies are also spread farther apart.

6. Inability to reason about transformations: Difficulty thinking about change processes.

Preoperational children tend to focus on static situations.

Example: In the conservation tasks just described, a child doesn’t take into account the fact that the same amount of water was merely poured into a different glass and that the pennies in one row were simply spread farther apart.

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Example: A child has trouble arranging a series of pictures of a pencil to show its various positions as it is held in a vertical position and then allowed to fall (Sund, 1976). (Show Instructor’s Manual Slide 6.5) Example: A child resists the idea of caterpillars becoming butterflies through the process of metamorphosis; he/she may instead insist that the caterpillars crawled away and butterflies came to replace them (Harris, 1986).

7. Irreversibility: Difficulty recognizing that transformations can be undone, or reversed.

Example: In the conservation of liquid task described earlier, a child does not recognize that he/she can prove that the water in the short, fat glass is the same as it was before simply by pouring it back into the tall, thin glass. Similarly, in the conservation of number task, the child does not recognize that he/she can prove equivalence of the two rows of pennies simply by moving the spread-out pennies as close together as they were originally.

Example: A child does not comprehend that subtraction is the reverse of (i.e., it “undoes”) addition. The child is therefore likely to learn 2 + 3 = 5 and 5 − 3 = 2 as two separate, unrelated number facts.

Centration, the inability to think about transformations, and irreversibility all contribute to the preoperational child’s inability to conserve.

8. Single classification: An inability to classify an object as being a member of two categories at the same time.

Example: A child is shown 10 wooden beads, of which 8 are brown and 2 are white. When asked, “Are there more brown beads or more wooden beads?” the child says that there are more brown beads.

Example: A child denies that a mother can also be a teacher.

9. Transductive reasoning: Thoughts about how things work and what events cause other events are often based on coincidence or the child’s egocentric beliefs about how things should be rather than on true deductive logic.

Example: A boy named Roy has just asserted that the moon “grows”—that a half moon becomes larger to make a full moon. Here is Roy’s reasoning: Adult:

How does the moon grow?

Roy:

Because it gets bigger.

Adult:

How does it happen?

Roy:

Because we grow ourselves.

Adult:

What makes it grow?

Roy:

The clouds.

Adult:

How did it begin?

Roy:

Because we began to be alive.

Adult:

How did the moon make herself be there?

Roy:

Because we made ourselves be there.

Adult:

And did that make the moon grow?

Roy:

Yes. 144

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Adult:

How? Why?

Roy:

The clouds made it grow.

(Piaget, 1928, p. 188) In general, the preoperational stage is characterized by rudimentary but immature logical thought processes.

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Lecture 6.2: Piaget’s Concrete Operations Stage According to Piaget, the concrete operational stage emerges when the child is about 6 or 7 years old and continues until he/she is about 11 or 12. Hence, we are likely to see characteristics of this stage in most elementary students. Research indicates that many secondary students are likely to show signs of concrete operational thought as well.

Characteristics of concrete operational thought include the following: (Show Instructor’s Manual Slide 6.7) 1. Differentiation of one’s own perspective from the perspectives of others: The realization that one’s own thoughts and feelings are not necessarily shared by others.

Example: Children know that they can sometimes be wrong and so seek out external validation for their ideas. They may ask “What do you think?” or “Did I get it right?”

2. Conservation: The realization that, when nothing is added or taken away, amount stays the same regardless of alterations in shape or arrangement.

Example: A child correctly responds to tasks involving conservation of liquid and number.

Concrete operational children become increasingly able to conserve as they progress through the stage. Some conservation tasks, such as the conservation of liquid and number tasks, are understood near the beginning of the concrete operational stage. More complex forms of conservation don’t appear until somewhat later in the stage, or even at the beginning of formal operations.

Example: Using a balance scale, an adult shows a child that two round balls of clay have the same weight. One ball is removed from the scale and smashed into a pancake shape. Does the pancake weigh the same as the unsmashed ball, or do the two pieces of clay weigh different amounts? Children typically do not achieve conservation of weight—they do not realize that the flattened pancake weighs the same as the round ball it was earlier—until sometime around 9 to 12 years of age (Sund, 1976).

3. Decentration: The ability to consider two or more dimensions of an object at the same time.

Example: A child recognizes that when water is poured from a tall, thin glass into a short, fat one, the amount of water is still the same because the extra width makes up for the relative lack of height.

4. Reasoning about transformations: The ability to think and reason about change processes.

Example: A child correctly arranges various pictures of a pencil as it is falling. (Show Instructor’s Manual Slide 6.5) 5. Reversibility: The realization that some procedures can be undone, or reversed.

Example: A child proves that the water in the two glasses is the same by pouring the water from the short, fat glass back into the tall, thin glass.

Example: When asserting that two rows of six pennies each contain the same number of pennies even though the pennies in one row are spread out, a child may justify his/her reasoning by reversing the transformation, like this: “One row is spread out more, but I can put these pennies close together again, and now the second row looks just like the first one.”

Decentration, the ability to think about transformations, and reversibility all contribute to the concrete operational child’s ability to conserve.

6. Multiple classification: The ability to classify objects as belonging to two or more categories at the same time.

Example: A child is shown 10 wooden beads, of which 8 are brown and 2 are white. When asked, “Are there more brown beads or more wooden beads?” the child says that there are more wooden beads.

Example: A child can comprehend interrelationships among the various levels of classification that biologists use to describe the animal kingdom.

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7. Deductive reasoning: The ability to draw a logical inference from two or more pieces of information.

Example: A child reading or listening to stories can deduce ideas that are implied rather than explicitly stated.

8. Inability to deal with abstract, hypothetical, and contrary-to-fact ideas: An inability to think logically about things that are not reflected in concrete reality (hence, the term concrete operations).

Example: A child has difficulty understanding such mathematical concepts as pi (π), infinity, and negative numbers.

Example: A child has difficulty understanding such abstract notions as democracy, communism, and human rights.

Example: A child cannot correctly solve this logical problem: If all pencils are umbrellas, And if all umbrellas are whistles, Then: •

Are all pencils whistles?

•

Are all whistles pencils?

Example: Children fail to see the illogic in this statement: If ever I kill myself from despair I won’t choose a Friday, because Friday is a bad day and would bring me ill luck (Piaget, 1928, p. 63).

In a study by Copeland (1979), 100 eight-year-olds were asked to fix this statement so that it wasn’t so silly. Forty-three of them denied that Friday is a bad day (e.g., you “have fun” on Friday), and another 29 rejected the idea that people could or should kill themselves. In other words, they had difficulty reasoning about things that were hypothetical rather than true-to-life.

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Lecture 6.3: Piaget’s Formal Operations Stage According to Piaget, the formal operations stage begins when the child is about 11 or 12 years old and continues to emerge until he or she is about 15. Hence, we are likely to see some (but perhaps not all) characteristics of this stage in secondary students.

Characteristics of formal operational thought include the following: (Show Instructor’s Manual Slide 6.9) 1. Ability to deal with abstract, hypothetical, and contrary-to-fact ideas: The ability to think about concepts and ideas that have little or no basis in concrete reality.

Example: Students now have an easier time solving mathematical word problems that cannot be easily visualized.

Example: A student can comprehend negative numbers (e.g., comprehending temperatures below 0°).

Example: A student understands the concept of infinity (e.g., the notion that two parallel lines never touch even if they go on forever).

2. Formulation and testing of hypotheses: The ability to develop and test a variety of possible explanations for a given phenomenon.

Example: Students are asked to identify which one or more variables determine how quickly a swing moves back and forth (i.e., the oscillation rate of a pendulum). They should be able to generate several possibilities (e.g., weight of the person swinging, length of the swing, force of the initial push) and test each one in turn. Ideally, their testing of these hypotheses should also include the separation and control of variables (see #3 below).

3. Separation and control of variables: The ability to test the effect of one variable by keeping all others constant.

Example: Students are given a problem in which four friends often go fishing together, but one friend (Herb) always catches the most fish. Several variables are evident, including the kind of bait the friends use, the length of their fishing rods, and the places where they sit. Students test each variable one by one (keeping the others constant) to look at its effects on fishing success (Pulos & Linn, 1981).

These three abilities—to reason logically about hypothetical ideas, to formulate and test hypotheses, and to separate and control variables—together allow the formal operational student to use the scientific method, in which several possible explanations for an observed phenomenon are proposed and tested in a systematic manner.

4. Proportional thought: Conceptual understanding of proportions.

Example: A student works easily with fractions, decimals, and ratios.

Question for students: At what grade level do schools typically begin teaching students how to work with fractions? Is the timing appropriate?

5. Combinatorial thought: The ability to consider all possible combinations of several items in a systematic fashion.

Example: A student is given this problem: (Show Instructor’s Manual Slide 6.10) Four good friends—Ann, Billy, Carla, and David—want to know how many combinations of themselves can go to the school dance. They can all go, various pairs of two friends can go, any one of them can go alone, and so on. How many possibilities are there?

The student systematically lists the possible combinations, arriving at the correct answer of 15 (each of the 4 children going alone, 6 combinations of two children going, 4 combinations of three, and the additional 1 combination of all four children). (In contrast, a concrete operational student would identify combinations in a haphazard manner, perhaps like this: “Well, they all can go, and then Ann and Billy can go, and then Ann and Billy can take Carla, and then Billy can go by himself, or he could take Ann with him….”)

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6. Construction of alternatives to reality: The ability to envision how the world might be different from the way it actually is.

Example: An adolescent begins to evaluate the legitimacy of his/her social, political, ethical, or religious issues.

Example: An adolescent is idealistic about how the world could be made a better place.

According to Piaget, the idealism of the formal operational individual reflects formal operational egocentrism—an inability to separate abstract logical thinking from practical considerations and the unpredictability of human behavior.

David Elkind (1984) describes apparent hypocrisy in many adolescents. Although they express many ideals, they don’t expend much effort in working toward those ideals.

Example: A group of high school students solicited pledges for a “walk”—a benefit for a good environmental cause. As they walked along their route, they left numerous Coke cans, fast food containers, napkins, etc. (Elkind, 1984).

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Lecture 6.4: Applying Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligence Howard Gardner (2000; Chen & Gardner, 1997) suggests that the theory of multiple intelligences has several implications for classroom practice: 1. It suggests several approaches to introducing a topic.

Example: By telling a story Example: By talking about numbers and numerical relationships Example: By having students interact with others about an issue (e.g., through role-playing or debates) 2. Analogies from different domains might be useful ways to help students connect new material with what they already know.

3. Students may come to understand and mentally represent a topic in a variety of ways.

Example: Geometry can help students understand the many shapes they see in different contexts.

Example: Logical reasoning can help students understand cause-effect relationships.

4. Assessment of students’ learning should involve different media and modalities, depending on the domain being assessed.

Gardner (1999) has expressed his concern that some people misapply his theory of multiple intelligences. Here are some examples of such misapplications: •

Trying to teach every classroom topic using all the intelligences

•

Using certain activities as a way of activating or strengthening particular intelligences Example: Gardner says that encouraging students to engage in active movement (e.g., running around, moving their arms) does not necessarily foster bodily-kinesthetic intelligence.

•

Using various intelligences simply as ways of remembering material Example: “Dancing” about an idea does not necessarily help students understand or remember it better.

•

Trying to enhance self-esteem in superficial ways, purportedly as a means of enhancing intrapersonal intelligence

•

Categorizing students in terms of particular intelligences; Gardner suggests that teachers should not think of students as being able to learn via only one intelligence

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Lecture 6.5: Heredity and Environment in Intelligence To the extent that intelligence is an inherited characteristic, it will probably not change very much over time. To the extent that intelligence is environmentally determined, there is obviously much room for change and improvement.

It is often difficult to separate the relative influences of heredity and environment on human characteristics. People with similar genetic makeup (e.g., sisters and brothers, parents and their children) typically live in a similar environment as well. So when we see similarities among members of the same family, it is hard to know whether those similarities are due to the genes that family members have in common or to the environments that they share.

Nevertheless, research studies tell us that both heredity and environment affect intelligence.

Evidence for Heredity 1. Twin studies Fraternal twins are twins conceived as two separate fertilized eggs. They share about 50% of their genetic makeup, with the other 50% being different for each twin. In contrast, identical twins begin as a single fertilized egg and then separate, developing into two people with identical genes.

A review of twin studies by Bouchard and McGue (1981) finds these median correlations: Blank

Correlations of twins’ I Qs

Identical twins raised in the same home

.86

Identical twins raised in different homes

.72

Fraternal twins raised in the same home

.60

(Note to instructor: Briefly interpret the correlation coefficients, explaining that higher numbers indicate stronger relationships.)

The correlation coefficient of .72 indicates that identical twins raised in different environments nevertheless tend to have similar I Q scores. In fact, these twins are more similar to each other than are fraternal twins raised in the same home.

2. Adoption studies When researchers obtain I Q scores for adopted children and for both their biological and adoptive parents, they typically find that the children’s I Q scores are more highly correlated with the scores of the biological parents who gave them up for adoption than with the scores of the adoptive parents who have raised them. In other words, in a group of people who place their infants up for adoption, those with the highest I Qs tend to have children who, despite being raised by different parents, also have the highest IQs. Such evidence tells us once again that heredity is an important factor in intelligence (Clarke-Stewart, 1988; Plomin, Fulker, Corley, & DeFries, 1997).

Evidence for Environment 1. Twin studies Look again at the correlations for identical twins presented earlier:

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Correlations of twins’ I Qs

Identical twins raised in the same home

.86

Identical twins raised in different homes

.72

Twins raised in separate homes are less similar than those raised in the same home. Home environment, then, does make a difference.

2. Adoption studies Adoption studies show evidence of environmental influences as well (Capron & Duyme, 1989; Devlin, Fienberg, Resnick, & Roeder, 1995; Scarr & Weinberg, 1976).

Example: In a study by Scarr and Weinberg (1976), some children of poor parents were adopted by parents with average I Qs of 118–121. Others remained with their biological parents. Average I Qs of the children in the two groups were as follows: Blank

Average IQs Adopted children

105

Nonadopted children

90

Thus, environment accounted for a 15-point difference in intelligence test scores.

3. Nutrition What and how regularly children are fed are aspects of the environment that have long-term effects on intellectual development.

Example: When pregnant women are malnourished, the brain cells of their developing fetuses are smaller in size and fewer in number (Berk, 1997; Scott-Jones, 1984).

Example: Severe malnutrition, either prior to birth or during the early years of life, is associated with lower IQ scores, poorer attention and memory, and lower school achievement (Galler, 1984; Lozoff, 1989; Ricciuti, 1993; Scott-Jones, 1984).

4. Home environment Developmentalists have identified several aspects of the home environment that are correlated with a child’s intelligence. Following are some home variables consistently related to I Q scores: •

The variety of stimulation and experiences to which children are exposed

•

The extent to which parents interact and play with their children

•

The amount and complexity of verbal communication between parents and children (e.g., the extent to which parents use syntactically complex sentences, and the extent to which they use reasons in explaining things to their children)

•

The extent to which toys, puzzles, and reading materials are available and are appropriate for the age of the children

•

The extent to which children are encouraged and expected to be independent and to develop new skills

•

The educational level of parents

•

(Bradley & Caldwell, 1976a, 1976b, 1981, 1984; Elardo, Bradley, & Caldwell, 1975; Engel, Nechin, & Arkin, 1975; Hess & Holloway, 1984; Honzik, 1967; McGowan & Johnson, 1984.)

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Question for students: What kinds of studies have probably yielded these results—descriptive, correlational, or experimental?

Answer: Correlational Because studies of home environment are typically correlational in nature, we cannot determine conclusively that those aspects cause the differences in intelligence that we see. An alternative explanation for the same results is that more intelligent parents provide more stimulating environments and, through heredity, also produce more intelligent children.

5. Early intervention When researchers actually change the early environments of children—when they conduct experimental studies—we find more convincing evidence for the effects of environment.

Example: Studies of Head Start and other short-term preschool programs indicate that such programs produce short-term gains in intelligence (Lazar & Darlington, 1982; Seitz, Rosenbaum, & Apfel, 1985; Zigler & Finn-Stevenson, 1987).

Example: Studies involving long-term intervention indicate that permanently changing a child’s environment from an impoverished one to an enriched, stimulating one can lead to long-lasting gains in intelligence—gains of up to 20 or 25 points in measured I Q score (Bloom, 1964; Capron & Duyme, 1989; Scarr & Weinberg, 1976; Skeels, 1966; Zigler & Seitz, 1982).

6. Effects of schooling A number of research findings converge to indicate that schooling influences I Q: Example: When students must start school later than they would otherwise for reasons beyond their families’ control, their I Qs are about 5 points lower for every year of delay (Ceci & Williams, 1997).

Example: When other things are equal, students who drop out have lower I Q scores than students who remain in school. For every year of high school not completed, I Q drops an average of 1.8 points (Ceci & Williams, 1997).

Example: Students’ I Q scores decline during the summer months when they are out of school (Ceci & Williams, 1997).

How Heredity and Environment Are Intertwined Both heredity and environment play a role in the development of intelligence and have an influence on IQ scores. Furthermore, they interact in their effects in several ways (McDevitt & Ormrod, 2016): 1. Genetic expression is influenced by environmental conditions.

Genes require environmental support (e.g., adequate nutrition) in order to do their work. Thus, they are not entirely self-contained, independent “carriers” of developmental instructions; the particular instructions they transmit are influenced by the environments in which they operate (Bidell & Fischer, 1997).

2. Heredity establishes a range rather than a precise figure.

Heredity does not dictate that a child will have a particular I Q score. Instead, it appears to set a range of abilities within which children will eventually fall, with the specific level of ability each one achieves depending on specific environmental experiences (Weinberg, 1989). Heredity may also affect the extent to which a child is susceptible to particular environmental influences or, instead, relatively impervious to them (Rutter, 1997).

3. The relative effects of heredity and environment may be different for different children, depending on individual circumstances.

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intellectually (Plomin & Petrill, 1997). Yet in an ideal environment—one in which nutrition, parenting practices, and educational opportunities are optimal and age-appropriate—heredity is more likely to have a significant influence on children’s I Q scores (Rowe, Jacobson, & Van den Oord, 1999).

4. Especially as they get older, children choose their environments and experiences.

Children may actively seek out environmental conditions that match their inherited abilities—a phenomenon known as niche-picking (Halpern & LaMay, 2000; Petrill & Wilkerson, 2000; Scarr & McCartney, 1983).

Example: Children who, genetically speaking, have exceptional quantitative reasoning ability may enroll in advanced mathematics courses, participate in mathematics competitions, enjoy tackling mathematical brainteasers, and in other ways nurture their inherited talents. Children with more “average” quantitative ability are less likely to take on such challenges and so have fewer opportunities to develop their mathematical skills.

For such reasons, it is virtually impossible to determine how much heredity and environment each contribute to intelligence.

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Lecture 7.1: Marcia’s Four States of Adolescent Identity As the textbook points out, many adolescents struggle with the issue of identity, questioning and wondering about the specific roles they will assume in their adult lives. One’s sense of identity emerges gradually and is affected by the decisions one makes every day (e.g., what courses to take, whether to do homework, whom to date, whether to join friends in a beer or cigarette).

James Marcia (1980) has identified four possible states of identity or nonidentity in which adolescents may find themselves: (Show Instructor’s Manual Slides 7.14 and 7.15.)

Identity diffusion: •

Have no clear-cut sense of identity.

•

Have little commitment to social, political, or religious beliefs.

•

Have made no decision regarding a future occupation.

•

Have a general lack of direction and few long-term goals toward which to strive.

•

Typically have low self-esteem.

Foreclosure: •

Have made definite decisions regarding a course of study, an occupation, and a general belief system.

•

Have made decisions that reflect the choices of someone else (usually a parent) rather than their own personal choices.

•

Typically have low self-esteem.

Moratorium: •

Are undergoing a true “identity crisis.”

•

Are actively exploring different options regarding possible careers and ideological belief systems.

•

Are wrestling with their own sense of identity as they work toward making a commitment to both career and beliefs.

Identity achievement: •

Have a strong commitment to a particular career and a particular set of self-chosen social, political, and religious beliefs.

•

Have a good sense of personal strengths and weaknesses.

•

Are self-directed; have a strong sense of direction of where their lives will lead.

•

Are self-confident.

According to Marcia, identity achievement can occur only after one goes first through identity diffusion and moratorium. Clearly, some degree of moratorium—of wrestling with ideas and careers—is an important part of an adolescent’s growth. Yet only a minority (about 20%) of junior and high school students have begun to wrestle with these lifelong issues. Most others either remain without a strong sense of identity (identity diffusion) or unquestioningly accept the ambitions and beliefs of their parents (identity foreclosure) (Archer, 1982). Thus, even by the end of high school, most students have not yet established a set of self-determined, life goals.

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Question for students: What might teachers do to help students achieve a sense of identity?

•

Marcia (1980) doesn’t provide specific recommendations, so teachers can only speculate.

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Lecture 7.2: Self-Concept and Social Selves in Adolescence Research indicates that adolescents distinguish among at least eight discrete aspects of themselves (Harter, Whitesell, & Junkin, 1998): •

Cognitive competence

•

Behavioral conduct (e.g., how well they behave in class)

•

Physical appearance

•

Romantic appeal

•

Peer likability

•

Close friendship (i.e., whether they have close friends)

•

Athletic competence

•

Job competence (i.e., how well they can work in employment settings)

Of these, physical appearance, romantic appeal, and likability are the three most closely associated with global self-worth (Harter et al., 1998).

Question for students: With this research in mind, how can teachers best enhance middle school and high school students’ overall self-esteem?

Possible answer: Students’ perceptions of how others view them seem to be critical for their general self-esteem. Therefore, strategies that enhance peers’ perceptions of them might be particularly effective.

Adolescents’ views of themselves also change from one context to another. Harter (1988) proposes that adolescents have two or more different social selves—views of how they fit in and should behave—that surface in different situations. Many teenagers behave very differently around their families than they do around their peers, in part because family members and peers expect different behaviors of them. For example, they might be outspoken at home yet quiet in class, or they might be obedient on the home front yet rebellious when out with friends.

Question for students: When we see how students behave in class, are we seeing their “typical” behavior?

Answer: Not necessarily, and in many cases almost certainly not. Students have learned to behave differently in different contexts. They may be entirely different people with their teachers than with their families or with their peers.

Question for students: How might the notion of varying social selves explain why parents are sometimes surprised to hear that their children are misbehaving in school?

Answer: Their children may be acting very differently at school than they act at home.

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Lecture 7.3: Selman’s Levels of Perspective Taking This lecture takes a closer look at Robert Selman’s levels of perspective taking. Note: Age ranges associated with each level overlap because different children move from one level to another at different ages. (Show Instructor’s Manual Slide 7.17.)

Level 0: Egocentric Perspective Taking Age range: about 3 to 6 years old Characteristics: (Note the similarities to Piaget’s preoperational egocentrism) •

Aware of physical differences (size, gender, appearance, etc.) among people.

•

Don’t yet realize that people have different thoughts and feelings as well.

•

Assume that their own perspective of a situation (including a concern for their own personal needs) is shared by others.

Level 1: Subjective Perspective Taking Age range: about 5 to 9 years old Characteristics: •

Realize that people have different thoughts and feelings as well as different bodies.

•

Perceive another’s perspective in a relatively simplistic, one-dimensional fashion (e.g., someone is happy, sad, or angry).

•

Equate someone’s behaviors with his/her feelings (e.g., a happy person will smile, a sad person will pout or cry).

•

Don’t yet understand that someone might have “mixed feelings” or try to hide true feelings by “putting up a front.”

Level 2: Second-Person, Reciprocal Perspective Taking Age range: about 7 to 12 years old Characteristics: •

Know that other people can have mixed, possibly contradictory feelings.

•

Recognize that people may feel differently than their behaviors indicate.

•

Realize the importance of intentions—that other people may do things they didn’t really want or intend to do.

Level 3: Third-Person, Mutual Perspective Taking Age range: about 10 to 15 years old Characteristics: •

Can see things from both their own perspective and that of another.

• •

Take an “outside” perspective of the two-person relationship, looking at it as an observer.

Appreciate the need to satisfy both themselves and others simultaneously, so understand the advantages of cooperation, compromise, and trust.

Level 4: Societal, Symbolic Perspective Taking Age range: about 12 years old to adulthood Characteristics: •

Recognize that people are products of their environment—that past events and present circumstances influence personality and behavior.

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Understand that other people are not always aware of why they act as they do (i.e., recognize the influence of the unconscious).

•

Understand the true complexity of human behaviors, thoughts, and emotions.

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Lecture 7.4: Eisenberg’s Levels of Prosocial Reasoning This lecture takes a closer look at Eisenberg’s levels of prosocial reasoning. (Show Instructor’s Manual Slide 7.19) Level 1: Selfish and Self-Centered Orientation Grades at which observed: most preschool children, many younger elementary school students Characteristics: •

Show no interest in helping other people apart from serving their own interests (e.g., “That’s your problem, not mine”).

•

Can justify only prosocial behaviors that benefit themselves as well as others.

Level 2: Superficial “Needs of Others” Orientation Grades at which observed: many preschool and elementary school children Characteristics: •

Show some concern for the physical and emotional needs of others.

•

May express a desire to help someone else even if the gesture is an inconvenience or sacrifice for themselves.

•

Show concern for others only in a simplistic, superficial fashion, without any true empathy or understanding of the other person’s perspective (e.g., saying “He’s hungry” or “She needs this,” without further explanation).

Level 3: Approval and Stereotypic Good Boy/Girl Orientation Grades at which observed: some elementary and high school students Characteristics: •

Advocate prosocial behavior on the grounds that it’s the “right” thing to do and that they will be better liked or appreciated if they help.

•

Hold stereotyped views of what “good boys and girls” and “bad boys and girls” do (e.g., saying “It’s nice to help out” or “She’ll be my friend if I help her”).

Level 4: Empathic Orientation Grades at which observed: a few elementary school students; many high school students Characteristics: •

Express true empathy for another person’s situation and a willingness to help other people based on those empathic feelings.

•

Seem genuinely concerned with the well-being of another and are able to perceive a situation from that person’s perspective (e.g., saying “I know just how she feels” or “I’d feel badly if I didn’t help him because then he’d be in pain”).

Level 5: Internalized Values Orientation Grades at which observed: small minority of high school students Characteristics: •

Express a set of internalized values about helping other people and improving conditions of society as a whole—values that reflect belief in equality, dignity, and human rights.

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Maintain self-respect by upholding internalized values for helping others in need (e.g., saying “I couldn’t live with myself if I didn’t help out” or “It’s our responsibility to help one another whenever we can”).

You may want to show Instructor’s Manual Slide 7.20 to make comparisons between Selman’s and Eisenberg’s levels.

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Lecture 8.1: Effective Teacher-Directed Instruction Researchers have identified several strategies that can enhance the effectiveness of teacher-directed instruction: Advance Organizers An advance organizer is an introduction that describes an overall organizational scheme for the body of knowledge to be presented (Ausubel et al., 1978; Corkill, 1992; Mayer, 1979a, 1979b). It typically includes the major concepts and ideas of a lesson and shows how these concepts and ideas are related to one another.

•

Example: “Today we are going to talk about the two different sounds for the letter G. Sometimes G is pronounced ‘guh,’ and sometimes it is pronounced ‘juh.’ Let’s look at some examples....”

•

Example: “During the next two weeks, we will be discussing animals known as vertebrates.

Vertebrates are all similar in one very important respect: They have a backbone. We will be talking about five phyla of vertebrates: mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and fish. And we will discover that animals in each of these phyla differ from one another in several ways, including whether they are warm-blooded or cold-blooded; whether they have hair, scales, or feathers; and whether they lay eggs or bear live young.”

•

Example: “For tonight’s homework, please read pages 110 through 124 in your history book.

These pages describe Magellan’s three-year expedition around the world. As you will discover in your reading, Magellan’s ships left Spain in 1519. They sailed west and then south to the southernmost tip of South America, then north and west to the Philippines, south around Africa, and finally back up the Atlantic to Spain. As you read, you will learn about why Magellan made the trip, how he dealt with an attempted mutiny, what he called the ocean he found after sailing through the Strait of Magellan, and how he died on Mactan Island before completing his expedition.”

An advance organizer might also take the form of a graphic, such as a hierarchical chart or a concept map.

Prior Knowledge Activation Long-term memory storage and retrieval are easier when students relate new information to things they’ve already stored in long-term memory. Yet all too often, students fail to connect the new things they learn in school with what they’ve previously learned (Perkins & Simmons, 1988; Prawat, 1989). Teachers can help students make such connections through prior knowledge activation—that is, by reminding students of relevant things they already know.

•

Example: A teacher could conduct a classroom discussion about a particular topic before students begin a reading assignment on the topic (Hansen & Pearson, 1983; Wilson & Anderson, 1986).

•

Example: A teacher could conduct a quick review of a previous lesson before beginning a new lesson that builds on that earlier material.

Analogies provide an additional means of helping students connect new concepts and principles with what they already know.

•

Example: Radar is like an echo. In both cases, waves (either radio waves or sound waves) travel from their source, bounce off a distant object, and return to the source (Mayer, 1984).

•

Example: If we think of the earth’s history as a 24-hour day, then humans have been in existence for only the last minute of that day (Hartmann, Miller, & Lee, 1984).

•

Example: Peristalsis, the muscular contractions that push food through the digestive tract, is like squeezing ketchup out of a single-serving packet. “You squeeze the packet near one corner and run your fingers along the length of the packet toward an opening at the other corner. When you do this, you push the ketchup through the packet, in one direction, ahead of your fingers, until it comes out of the opening” (Newby, Ertmer, & Stepich, 1994, p. 4).

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By using an analogy to compare new material to familiar ideas, teachers can help students store the new information more meaningfully and retrieve it more easily (Bulgren, Deshler, Schumaker, & Lenz, 2000; Donnelly & McDaniel, 1993; Newby et al., 1994; Pittman & Beth-Halachmy, 1997).

At the same time, teachers must point out ways in which the two things are different; otherwise, students may take an analogy too far and draw incorrect conclusions (Glynn, 1991; Zook & Di Vesta, 1991).

Coherent Organization Teachers can facilitate organization (as a long-term memory storage process) by introducing each new idea within the lesson in such a sequence that important relationships among ideas are clear (Dansereau, 1995; Tennyson & Cocchiarella, 1986; Wade, 1992).

•

Example: If teachers want students in an English literature class to discover similarities among various short stories, they should discuss several stories within the same lesson rather than talk about each one separately.

•

Example: If teachers want students to use principles from several subject areas simultaneously to analyze situations or solve problems, they should present those subject areas in an interdisciplinary manner, showing students how the ideas of each area tie in with the ideas of others.

One strategy for showing how the concepts and ideas of a lesson interrelate is to present a concept map—a diagram of the concepts or main ideas of a unit and the interrelationships among them. Such organizational maps often help students learn, organize, and remember what they hear in a lecture or read in a textbook (Hall & O’Donnell, 1994; Krajcik, 1991; Linn, Songer, & Eylon, 1996).

Signals Students often have trouble deciding which things are important and which things are not (Alexander & Jetton, 1996; Garner, Alexander, Gillingham, Kulikowich, & Brown, 1991; Reynolds & Shirey, 1988).

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Example: Students may focus their attention on interesting yet relatively trivial details at the expense of less interesting but more central ideas (Schraw & Lehman, 2001).

•

Example: Students may look at the equations they see in a textbook while ignoring any verbal explanations of those equations (Dee-Lucas & Larkin, 1991).

Signals that point to important information can facilitate students’ learning from teacher-directed instruction (Armbruster, 1984; Lorch, Lorch, & Inman, 1993).

•

Example: A teacher can emphasize key points by writing them on the chalkboard.

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Example: A teacher can insert questions throughout a lecture or reading assignment (Andre, 1979; McDaniel & Einstein, 1989).

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Example: Simply telling students what’s important probably makes a difference (Reynolds & Shirey, 1988).

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Lecture 8.2: Common Textbook Weaknesses Teachers (especially at the middle and secondary levels) often expect students to learn a great deal from textbooks. But keep in mind that textbooks are not always written in ways that facilitate student learning. The typical school textbook often does not: 1. Begin with what students already know.

Many textbooks begin at an arbitrary starting point, without regard to what prior knowledge students may or may not have about a topic.

•

Example: Several commonly used fifth- and sixth-grade American history books talk about how the American colonists resisted the British policy of taxation without representation, when many students don’t know what representation means (McKeown & Beck, 1990).

2. Relate new information to students’ experiences and interests.

Many textbooks fail to show students how their own experiences relate to the material being discussed. And many make little if any attempt to show students how the material might relate to interests they have.

3. Provide a clear organizational scheme.

Many textbooks are “listy” in nature, going from one fact to another without providing an overall organization to help students tie ideas together.

•

Example: An earth science text might list different ways in which mountains are formed without drawing logical connections (e.g., similarities and differences) among them.

4. Distinguish between important ideas and unimportant details.

In many textbooks, it is difficult for students to separate what’s important from what is not.

5. Present general principles and skills.

General principles and skills (e.g., map interpretation skills) are more applicable to new situations than are specific facts.

6. Describe cause-effect relationships.

Many textbooks (e.g., elementary science texts) describe what happens without ever describing why or how it happens.

7. Address typical misconceptions.

Most textbooks fail to address the misconceptions students are likely to have when they encounter new topics. These misconceptions may lead students to misinterpret the things they read.

8. Discuss implications.

Many textbooks don’t discuss the implications of new information for students’ own lives.

Question for students: As teachers, what might we do to facilitate students’ learning when we find that our textbooks have some of these problems?

(Sources for this lecture: Bochenhauer, 1990; Calfee & Chambliss, 1988; Chambliss, Calfee, & Wong, 1990; McKeown & Beck, 1990.)

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Lecture 8.3: Keller’s Personalized System of Instruction Question for students: Think about your college classes. What is wrong with these classes from an operant conditioning perspective?

Possible answers: •

Lack of active responding.

•

Delayed rather than immediate reinforcement, in the form of grades and other feedback.

•

Proceeding to advanced material before basics have been mastered, violating the notion of shaping as a gradual process.

You and your students may identify other weaknesses as well, but be sure to keep students focused on an operant conditioning framework.

To remedy such problems, Fred Keller (1968, 1974) developed the Personalized System of Instruction (PS I)—also known as the Keller Plan—as an alternative approach to instruction. It has been used in many high school and college classrooms across the country.

Features of P SI 1. Discrete modules Course content is divided into a number of units or modules (typically between 10 and 20), each of which is treated as a separate, discrete portion of the course.

2. Emphasis on individual study Most learning occurs through independent study of such written materials as textbooks and study guides. Additional assistance is provided by one-on-one tutoring when necessary.

3. Supplementary instructional techniques Traditional group instructional methods (e.g., lectures, demonstrations, discussions) are occasionally provided as supplementary presentations of the same information that also appears in the textbook or other assigned readings.

4. Unit tests Students’ mastery of material is measured by means of a test on each module. Students receive immediate feedback about their test performance.

5. Proctors Proctors (e.g., more advanced students) administer and score tests. They also tutor students on topics with which they are having difficulty.

6. Self-pacing Students take tests when they are ready to do so. Some students proceed through the course quickly while others progress more slowly.

7. Mastery Students must demonstrate mastery of one module before proceeding to the next. Mastery is typically defined as passing a module test at a certain criterion (e.g., 80% or 90% correct).

Students take a test on module content as many times as necessary until they meet the criterion.

The teacher’s role in a PSI course is very different from what it is in a more traditional approach to instruction. The PSI teacher is less of a lecturer and more of a curriculum developer, test writer, proctor, coordinator, and record keeper.

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Question for students: In what situations is P S I most likely to be appropriate?

Possible answers: P S I is most suitable when course content is well-defined and noncontroversial, and when students are highly motivated to achieve. You and your students may identify other answers as well.

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Lecture 8.4: Discovery Learning A student once described his frustration with teacher-directed instruction—more specifically, his frustration with his physics class—this way: … one had to cram all this stuff into one’s mind for the examinations, whether one liked it or not. This coercion had such a deterring effect [on me] that, after I had passed the final examination, I found the consideration of any scientific problems distasteful to me for an entire year.

The student skipped his physics classes frequently, depending on a classmate for lecture notes and exploring the field of physics on his own: There were altogether only two examinations; aside from these, one could just about do as one pleased. This was especially the case if one had a friend, as did I, who attended the lectures regularly and who worked over their content conscientiously.

This gave one freedom in the choice of pursuits until a few months before the examination, a freedom I enjoyed to a great extent, and I have gladly taken into the bargain the resulting guilty conscience as by far the lesser evil. It is, in fact, nothing short of a miracle that the modern methods of instruction have not yet entirely strangled the holy curiosity of inquiry; for this delicate little plant, aside from stimulation, stands mainly in need of freedom; without this it goes to wrack and ruin without fail. It is a very grave mistake to think that the enjoyment of seeing and searching can be promoted by means of coercion and a sense of duty. To the contrary, I believe that it would be possible to rob even a healthy beast of prey of its voraciousness if it were possible, with the aid of a whip, to force the beast to take food continuously even when not hungry, especially if the food handed out under such coercion were to be selected accordingly.

Question for students: Can you speculate on who this student might have been?

Answer: Albert Einstein (quotations are from Einstein, 1979, pp. 15–-17).

Guidelines for Using Discovery Learning (Show Instructor’s Manual Slide 8.7) 1. Make sure students have the necessary prior knowledge.

Students benefit from a discovery learning session only when they have appropriate and relevant background knowledge that they can draw on to interpret their observations (e.g., Bruner, 1966; N. Frederiksen, 1984a).

2. Show puzzling results to arouse curiosity.

When students observe a puzzling phenomenon, they are often eager to discover and learn a logical explanation for that phenomenon.

3. Have students record their findings.

Students should keep track of their observations as they proceed through a discovery session.

•

Example: Students can keep a log of their findings. This helps them remember what they have learned. It also helps their teacher monitor their progression and ultimate success (Foster, 1972).

4. Structure the experience so that students proceed logically toward their “discoveries.”

Young children often benefit from a random exploration of their environment. But older students usually gain more from carefully planned and structured activities (Ausubel, Novak, & Hanesian, 1978; Foster, 1972; Hutt, Tyler, Hutt, & Christopherson, 1989; Kuslan & Stone, 1972).

One possible structure is White and Frederiksen’s (1998) “ThinkerTools Inquiry Curriculum,” which provides a way of structuring discovery sessions in science. In this approach, students proceed 167 ..

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through five steps related to a particular topic: (1). They formulate a research question, often with considerable teacher scaffolding.

(2). They make a prediction about what will happen. The teacher asks different students to present their predictions and then asks the students to generate several possible theories to justify these predictions.

(3). They test their predictions either through real-world experiments or through computer simulations.

(4). They analyze and describe their findings in the form of a theoretical model.

(5). They apply the model to new situations.

Research Findings Regarding Discovery Learning Research results are inconsistent regarding the effectiveness of discovery learning. There are at least two possible reasons for the “mixed messages” that research gives us: 1. The term discovery learning means different things to different people, so it may be implemented in a wide variety of ways, some of which are effective and others of which are not (e.g., Giaconia & Hedges, 1982; Marshall, 1981).

2. Discovery learning approaches may be more appropriate for some students than for others.

•

Example: Discovery learning is often quite effective in enhancing the academic achievement of high-ability students; however, it may actually be detrimental to the achievement of lowability students (Corno & Snow, 1986). Students benefit little from discovery learning sessions when they do not have the basic knowledge they need in order to interpret their observations and discoveries.

Questions for students: What are some potential advantages of discovery learning? What are some potential drawbacks?

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Lecture 8.5: Cooperative Learning Increasingly, educators are recognizing the benefits of a cooperative learning environment: •

By working with one another, students develop interpersonal skills essential for their success in the adult world.

•

By explaining information or teaching a skill to someone else, students tend to learn the information or skill better themselves (A. L. Brown & Campione, 1986; Devin-Sheehan, Feldman, & Allen, 1976; Prawat, 1989).

•

Students often like one another better when they work together cooperatively.

Features of effective cooperative groups 1. Small, heterogeneous groups •

Groups usually have two to six members each.

•

Groups include both genders, varying ethnic backgrounds, and different ability levels.

Note: Don’t focus exclusively on diversity as the basis for group formation—for example, to the point where each group has half males and half females, or each group has one “token” minority (N. Miller, Brewer, & Edwards, 1985). Use other considerations (e.g., the need to put two troublemakers in separate groups) as well.

Question for students: Theorists recommend that teachers form the specific groups rather than allowing students to form their own groups. Why? Answer: Self-selected groups are likely to be too homogeneous.

2. Clear goals To focus its efforts constructively, a cooperative group must have a specific, concrete goal toward which to work.

•

•

Examples of nonspecific goals: •

Learn about the digestive system.

•

Analyze religious prejudices reflected in The Merchant of Venice.

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Prepare for a debate on tropical rain forests.

Examples of specific goals: •

Learn the names and functions of each organ in the digestive system.

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Identify the attitudes toward Judaism expressed in The Merchant of Venice, as reflected in the behaviors and statements of Shylock and other characters.

•

Develop three scientifically based reasons for preserving tropical rain forests.

3. Varying roles and interdependence of group members To maximize the probability that students work cooperatively with one another, students must be interdependent; in other words, every student’s success must depend on the help and participation of every other group member. Such mutual interdependence can be accomplished when each group member has a unique and essential function within the group. Students must believe that it’s to their advantage that other students do well (e.g., Deutsch, 1993).

•

Example: In a lesson on the digestive system, instructional materials are divided among group members: One student receives materials on the teeth, tongue, and salivary glands, another student receives information on the stomach, and so on. Each student is responsible for learning the information contained in those materials and then teaching that information to other group members. (This is an example of the jigsaw technique.)

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Example: In a lesson concerning attitudes toward Judaism in The Merchant of Venice, each group is given only one copy of the play. Students take turns reading the scenes in which Shylock appears.

•

Example: When preparing for a debate on the preservation of tropical rain forests, each student is given a unique function. One student acts as reader of information about rain forests, another acts as recorder of the arguments that group members present, a third acts as checker to determine whether all group members agree with each argument, etc.

•

Example: In pair problem solving, students work in groups of two. One student works to solve a problem while the other asks what the first student is doing and why. They switch roles periodically (Lochhead, 1985).

One problem in creating such interdependence is that students will be different in terms of their perceived “academic status” (e.g., high ability, low ability) with their peers. High-status students will talk and interact more, and thus learn more, than low-status students (Cohen, 1994; Cohen & Lotan, 1995).

To promote equal status among group members, a teacher can assign a complex task that requires many different abilities, such that every group member has competence related to at least one of the required abilities. This strategy appears to make the perceived status of various group members more equal (Cohen, 1994; Cohen & Lotan, 1995).

4. Training and/or structure that facilitates effective interaction skills Students sometimes work more effectively in cooperative groups when students are trained in effective interaction skills or follow a structure that promotes the desired kinds of interactions (e.g., Dansereau, 1988; Deutsch, 1993; Meloth & Deering, 1994; O’Donnell & O’Kelly, 1994).

•

Example: A teacher describes general rules for group interaction—rules that include attentive listening and no put-downs (O’Donnell & O’Kelly, 1994; Webb & Farivar, 1994).

•

Example: Being sensitive to the fact that males tend to dominate in group situations, a teacher asks groups to ensure that males and females contribute equally to discussions and problem solving.

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Example: A teacher teaches strategies both for getting help (e.g., asking specific questions, persisting until help is given) and for giving help (e.g., giving specific feedback, giving explanations instead of answers to problems) (Webb & Farivar, 1994).

•

Example: A teacher hands out “think sheets” to cooperative groups—sheets that direct their discussions toward important content and toward important strategies for addressing that content (e.g., toward elaborative questions) (Meloth & Deering, 1994).

5. Teacher as monitor and resource The teacher should monitor each group to be sure that interactions are productive and socially appropriate. Teachers should observe groups with a number of questions in mind. (Show Instructor’s Manual Slide 8.9.)

•

Are all students actively participating?

•

Are students listening to one another?

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Do students trust and support one another?

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Are students able to accept one another’s viewpoints and perspectives?

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Are students criticizing ideas rather than people?

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Are students using effective instructional strategies to tutor one another?

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Are students explaining things in such a way that others can understand them?

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Are students asking questions when they don’t understand one another?

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Are students effectively coordinating their individual behaviors in working toward their common goal?

On occasion, the teacher may also serve as an information resource for cooperative groups; that is, he or she may occasionally provide information or insights that a group needs in order to accomplish its goal successfully. However, the teacher should play this role as infrequently as possible, because too much involvement seems to interfere with student-to-student talk (Cohen, 1994). Instead, the teacher should encourage students to seek help from one another.

•

Example: When a student asks the teacher a question, that teacher’s first response might be, “Does anyone in your group know the answer?” (D. W. Johnson & Johnson, 1987).

6. Individual accountability A common criticism of cooperative learning is that some students do most or all of the work while other students get a “free ride,” sharing equal credit but contributing little to the group’s success.

This unequal participation of different group members is most likely to occur when a group produces a single group product for which all group members receive the same grade (Slavin, 1983a). Experts recommend individual accountability in group work: Each student must demonstrate individual mastery or accomplishment of the group’s goal (D. W. Johnson & Johnson, 1987; Slavin, 1983a, 1990).

7. Rewards for group success In addition to being held individually accountable for their own achievement, students should also be rewarded for the success of the group as a whole (D. W. Johnson & Johnson, 1987; Slavin, 1983a, 1983b).

•

Example: Compute the average test score for the group; this average is the score that each group member receives.

•

Example: Give students their individual test scores plus additional bonus points if the entire group performs at or above a certain level.

•

Example: Give bonus points if the lowest test score in the group is at or above a certain level.

Note: A combination of group goals and individual accountability may also encourage students to help their classmates understand class material, rather than just to provide correct answers (Stevens & Slavin, 1995).

Question: What concept from operant conditioning is consistent with this practice?

Answer: A group contingency.

8. Varying duration, depending on the task at hand In some cases, a teacher may want to form temporary cooperative groups for a specific purpose (e.g., to analyze The Merchant of Venice or prepare arguments for a debate on tropical rain forests). But a teacher may also want to form longer-lasting base groups— groups that provide support and assistance for one another throughout the semester or school year. Base groups provide a context in which students can share resources, clarify assignments for one another, help one another with class notes, and provide one another with a general sense of belonging and support in the classroom (R. T. Johnson, 1989).

9. Self-evaluation Students’ performance in cooperative groups is more likely to improve when students (perhaps with the assistance of their teacher) look analytically and critically at the ways in which their group has functioned effectively and the ways in which it needs to improve (Cohen, 1994; D. W. Johnson & Johnson, 1987). Students can ask themselves some of the same questions their teacher considered when monitoring group behaviors. (Show Instructor’s Manual Slide 8.10.)

•

Did all students actively participate?

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Were all students able to accept one another’s viewpoints and perspectives?

•

Did students criticize ideas rather than people?

•

Did students ask questions when they didn’t understand one another?

Effectiveness of Cooperative Learning When a cooperative learning activity includes the features just listed, students often perform at higher levels than they do in traditional competitive or individualistic classrooms. Researchers report a number of consistent findings. (Show Instructor’s Manual Slides 8.11 and 8.12.)

•

Students of all ability levels show higher achievement.

•

Females, members of minority groups, and at-risk students are especially likely to show increased achievement.

•

In some cases, chronically underachieving students catch up to the achievement levels of their classmates.

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Students have greater confidence in their own abilities and are more likely to believe they can be successful.

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Students express greater interest in the subject matter.

•

Students are more likely to encourage and support one another’s academic achievement.

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A greater number of students participate in class.

•

Students better understand the perspectives of others.

•

Students form new friendships and are more likely to make friends with children of different races and ethnic backgrounds.

•

Students with physical or academic disabilities interact more frequently, and are more likely to make friends, with their nondisabled classmates.

•

Students are more likely to believe that they are liked and accepted by their classmates, and less likely to feel shy or isolated.

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Students are less likely to misbehave in class.

•

(Casanova, 1987; Eccles, 1989; Garcia, 1992; D. W. Johnson, 1980; D. W. Johnson & Johnson, 1987; D. W. Johnson, Maruyama, Johnson, Nelson, & Skon, 1981; Larrivee, 1989; Marsh & Peart, 1988; Pigott, Fantuzzo, & Clement, 1986; Sharan & Shachar, 1988; Slavin, 1983a, 1990.)

Question for students: Which aspects of cooperative learning are likely to be at the root of such results?

Unresolved Issues Related to Cooperative Learning •

Cooperative groups may sometimes make ability differences among students even more obvious than they would be otherwise (T. L. Good, McCaslin, & Reys, 1992).

•

Students may pass misconceptions along to others (T. L. Good et al., 1992).

•

Some group members may exert little effort, engaging in “social loafing” (abdicating any responsibility for accomplishing group goals) or “cognitive loafing” (claiming no interest in the tasks to be performed) and exerting pressure on other group members to do likewise (O’Donnell & O’Kelly, 1994).

•

Some students may be reluctant to seek help from their classmates, perhaps because they don’t want to appear “stupid” or perhaps because they don’t believe they’ll get the kind of help they need (T. L. Good et al., 1992).

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Students do not always have the academic or pedagogical competence to assist their peers (O’Donnell & O’Kelly, 1994).

•

There is a tendency for high-ability students to assume leadership of their groups and to dominate discussions, especially if they want to accomplish the assigned task quickly (T. L. Good et al., 1992).

•

Some educators are concerned that the progress of high-ability students may be hindered when materials are geared toward average-ability students (Robinson, 1991; Tudge, 1990).

•

If criteria for final grades do not include group work, then students may not see such work as being important (T. L. Good et al., 1992).

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Lecture 8.6: Open Classrooms Many humanist psychologists believe that traditional educational methods impose unnecessary restrictions on how classrooms are organized and on how and when students learn.

•

Example: Students are typically grouped according to age (6-year-olds are in first grade, 7-yearolds are in second grade, etc.), rather than according to individual needs and interests.

•

Example: Daily and weekly schedules are often preplanned. Students study various topics at predetermined times and with predetermined teachers.

•

School subject matter is predetermined. Students learn information and skills only as they are encompassed within traditional subject areas such as mathematics, biology, or history.

Humanists propose an open classroom in which such restrictions are either minimal or nonexistent.

The open classroom concept means somewhat different things to different people (Giaconia & Hedges, 1982; Marshall, 1981), but generally speaking, open classrooms have some or all of these characteristics: 1. Self-guided and self-motivated learning Students choose the topics they wish to study and the activities they wish to pursue. They are responsible for initiating activities, choosing appropriate materials, and setting the pace at which they learn.

2. Wide variety of learning materials and resources Students may choose from many different learning materials and resources. Concrete materials that allow student manipulation and exploration are especially plentiful.

3. Teacher as facilitator and resource The teacher’s role is as a facilitator rather than a director of student learning.

4. Greater integration of traditional subject areas Students may sometimes study topics organized in terms of traditional school disciplines (e.g., chemistry, social studies). At other times they may study topics that require an integration of several different subject areas (e.g., environmental issues, women’s rights, the influences of technology on society and human behavior).

5. Nongraded and flexible organization Students are grouped according to needs, interests, and readiness rather than by age. Many open schools do not have specific grade levels. Most instruction occurs on an individual or small-group basis rather than in large, classroom-sized groups.

6. Students teaching students Students often help one another learn new material and skills. Peer tutoring and cross-age tutoring are common, the belief being that the tutor learns as much from the experience as the student being tutored.

7. Flexibility of space and furniture Open classrooms tend to have larger rooms and more open spaces, with fewer walls to impose barriers on student interaction and learning activities. Furniture is moveable so that it can be arranged in different configurations as needed.

8. Student-referenced evaluation or self-evaluation rather than comparative evaluation Sometimes students are evaluated by others (usually teachers) in terms of what they specifically can and cannot do. In other situations, students evaluate themselves regarding their progress and achievement.

9. Democratic atmosphere Administrators, teachers, and students are all involved in making decisions about school goals, curricula, and rules of conduct.

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(Sources: Giaconia & Hedges, 1982; Horwitz, 1979; Marshall, 1981; Patterson, 1973; Rogers, 1983; Schmuck & Schmuck, 1974; Valett, 1977.)

Research on Open Classrooms Research does not give us clear-cut answers about the effectiveness of open classrooms, partly because the open classroom concept is implemented somewhat differently in different schools, and partly because the “traditional” classrooms against which open classrooms are compared also differ in a number of ways (Giaconia & Hedges, 1982; Marshall, 1981). Nevertheless, here are general trends we see in research results: •

Academic achievement We find no consistent findings for higher academic achievement in either open or traditional classrooms (Horwitz, 1979; Marshall, 1981). At least two research reviews have led to the conclusion that, all research studies considered together, traditional classrooms may yield slightly superior academic achievement (Giaconia & Hedges, 1982; Peterson, 1979). But in a few cases, open classrooms produce higher academic performance, particularly when they provide numerous materials for students to manipulate in a hands-on fashion (Giaconia & Hedges, 1982).

•

Creativity Some studies show no differences in students’ creativity levels when they are in open or traditional classrooms; others indicate that an open classroom format leads to greater creativity (Giaconia & Hedges, 1982; Horwitz, 1979; Kogan, 1983; Peterson, 1979).

•

Independence Open classrooms appear to promote greater student independence than traditional classrooms (Giaconia & Hedges, 1982; Horwitz, 1979; Peterson, 1979). For example, students in open classrooms may show greater ability to choose appropriate learning activities and to pursue tasks with only minimal teacher direction or assistance.

•

Affective outcomes Some studies find few if any differences in the affective characteristics of students in open and traditional classrooms. Other studies find that students in open classrooms have greater curiosity, more positive self-concepts, and more favorable attitudes toward school than do their peers in traditional schools (Giaconia & Hedges, 1982; Horwitz, 1979; Peterson, 1979).

To summarize these findings: •

Traditional classrooms sometimes produce slightly better academic outcomes.

•

Open classrooms sometimes produce slightly better nonacademic outcomes.

Both tendencies are consistent with the relative emphasis that traditional and open classrooms place on the academic and nonacademic aspects of development.

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Lecture 8.7: General Principles of Effective Instruction There is probably no single best kind of teacher or best type of school (Brophy, 1994; G. A. Davis & Thomas, 1989). Yet, research studies indicate that, in general, effective teachers and effective schools: (Show Instructor’s Manual Slides 8.14 and 8.15.)

1. Have clear goals for instruction.

2. Ensure the relevance of classroom activities to real-world contexts and students’ lives.

3. Exhibit adaptation to diversity by selecting instructional strategies and materials appropriate to the age, backgrounds, cultures, and special needs of individual students.

4. Create a classroom climate that promotes learning, intrinsic motivation, and achievement.

5. Encourage social interaction related to classroom subject matter.

6. Provide a structure that guides students’ learning and behavior.

7. Facilitate effective cognitive processing.

8. Support mastery of fundamentals, including proficiency in the basic knowledge and skills that provide the foundation for advanced learning.

9. Provide the challenge so essential for cognitive development.

10. Promote higher-level thinking skills.

11. Communicate high expectations (within realistic limits) for students’ performance.

12. Engage in regular monitoring of students’ behavior and progress toward classroom goals.

(Brophy, 1992; Darling-Hammond, 1995; G. A. Davis & Thomas, 1989; T. L. Good & Brophy, 1986; Levine & Lezotte, 1995; Phillips, 1997; Prawat, 1992)

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Lecture 9.1: Kounin’s Strategies This lecture is based on Kounin’s (1970) classic study concerning classroom management strategies that effective teachers use.

Effective classroom managers are teachers whose students are on task most of the time and exhibit few misbehaviors. Kounin’s (1970) observations of such teachers indicate that they typically use strategies such as these: 1. Withitness: Communicating an awareness of what students are doing Example: Facing the entire classroom while working with a small group of students.

2. Overlapping: Doing more than one thing at a time Example: Cueing a student about inappropriate behavior while simultaneously conducting a lesson.

3. Smoothness and momentum: Moving through a lesson or from one activity to another smoothly (smoothness) and without unnecessary pauses or slow-downs (momentum) Example: Directing questions to potentially disruptive students.

4. Group alerting: Keeping all students attentive and involved in classroom activities Example: Asking all students to respond in unison to a question.

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Lecture 9.2: Humanists on Classroom Climate This lecture brings the perspective of humanistic educators to the topic of classroom climate.

Humanists propose that students learn more effectively when they do not feel threatened by classroom events and when the messages they receive foster positive self-concepts. With this in mind, humanistic educators advocate creating and maintaining a positive classroom climate—an atmosphere in which students: •

Feel accepted and respected as people of value and worth.

•

Are able to express their opinions and feelings openly.

•

Know that they can make mistakes without being identified as “failures.”

Here are several strategies that humanistic educators propose for promoting a positive classroom climate: Be honest with students Teachers and students alike should express their beliefs and feelings openly and candidly. For example, everyone in the classroom should be able to express such feelings as excitement, anger, or boredom.

Communicate acceptance Students should believe that their teacher accepts and respects them as valued, worthwhile human beings, despite any mistakes they might make or shortcomings they may have.

Be empathic Teachers should try to see the world through students’ eyes and attempt to understand students’ individual perspectives and needs. They should be understanding and supportive, rather than critical and judgmental.

Talk less, listen more Students should feel free to express their own ideas and opinions. This can happen only when teachers talk less themselves and actively listen to what students have to say.

Ask fewer questions with “right” answers; ask more open-ended questions Teachers should focus on questions that can be answered in more than one way and that promote the exploration and examination of many different ideas.

Downplay your evaluative role Teachers are more likely to promote learning when they are seen as facilitators rather than evaluators of learning.

Question for students: Many humanistic educators have proposed that teachers should not evaluate their students at all, but instead, should let students evaluate themselves. Is this a good idea? Why or why not?

Sources: Aspy & Hicks, 1978; Combs, 1979, 1981a; Combs et al., 1976; H. Kirschenbaum, 1975; Patterson, 1973; C. R. Rogers, 1969, 1983; Schmuck & Schmuck, 1974; Weller, 1977.

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Lecture 9.3: Dealing with Noncompliant and Defiant Students Generally speaking, students are more likely to contribute to a productive learning environment when they comply with reasonable teacher directives, procedures, and rules. Noncompliance can take either of two forms (Colvin, Ainge, & Nelson, 1997; Zirpoli & Melloy, 1993): 1. Direct defiance or confrontation: The student overtly refuses to comply, using negative facial, bodily, and/or verbal expressions or blatantly testing limits and violating rules.

2. Passive noncompliance: The student does not overtly refuse to do what the teacher has asked, but instead acts as if he/she hasn’t heard the teacher’s message.

Strategies for addressing noncompliance and defiance in the classroom include (Colvin et al., 1997; Emmer, Everston, Clements, & Worsham, 1994): 1. Discuss the situation with the student privately rather than publicly.

Example: The teacher says, “This is taking time away from the lesson. I will discuss it with you in a few minutes when I have time.” Later, the teacher has a private discussion with the student and administers a consequence if it seems warranted (Emmer et al., 1994, p.

170).

2. Point out that the behavior is not acceptable, and clearly state the consequence for the behavior.

3. Don’t get embroiled in an argument or power struggle with the student.

Example: Here is a situation in which someone has to lose: Student:

I’m not staying. You can’t make me.

Teacher:

You’ll have to stay after school. You’ve been tardy three times.

Student:

Oh man, I can’t stay.

Teacher:

That’s life. If you don’t serve your time now, it’s doubled. That’s the rule.

Student:

(Angry) I’m leaving.

Teacher:

You’d better not.

Student:

Buzz off! (Student leaves.) (Emmer et al., 1994, p. 135)

4. Give the student some “space.” For instance, give him/her a chance to calm down (perhaps in a separate location) or assign an activity that will be relaxing.

5. Communicate concern for the student’s needs.

6. Try to stay objective and calm. Listen to the student’s point of view and respond empathically.

However, don’t imply that the student can do whatever he/she wants without regard for others.

Example: In this situation, the teacher responds empathically but remains firm about the fact that the behavior is unacceptable: Student:

I’m not staying. You can’t make me.

Teacher:

I agree. It’s up to you.

Student:

I can’t stay.

Teacher:

Staying after school is a problem for you?

Student:

I can’t be late to practice.

Teacher:

Oh, I see. The detention would make you late for practice.

Student:

Right, and if I’m late one more time, I’ll have to sit out the next game.

Teacher:

That’s a difficult situation. What are your options? (Emmer et al., 1994, pp.

135–136)

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7. Give the student several options.

Example: When a student wears an offensive T-shirt, tell the student that the shirt is unacceptable at a public school. Suggest that the student might: (a) wear it inside out so that the offensive message doesn’t show, get a shirt from the gym, or wear a jacket (Colvin et al., 1997).

8. Follow through with previously described consequences for noncompliance.

9. Involve the student in a plan for long-term change.

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Lecture 9.4: Cultural Differences in Parents’ Beliefs and Attitudes about Education What follows are some cultural differences to keep in mind when working with parents and other family members from diverse cultures: 1. Cultures differ in what they believe is most important for schools to teach their children.

•

Example: European American and Mexican American parents tend to believe it’s most important to help students acquire knowledge and problem-solving skills. In contrast, many immigrant parents (e.g., from Cambodia, the Philippines, Vietnam, and Mexico) believe that it is just as important for students to learn how to do their work neatly (Okagaki, 2001).

2. Some cultures (e.g., many Asian Americans) believe that success or failure in school is largely the result of personal effort rather than the result of inherited abilities or disabilities (Okagaki, 2001).

3. Cultures differ in their views of what intelligence is.

•

Example: European American parents conceptualize intelligence as comprising the kinds of skills that are represented on traditional intelligence tests (e.g., verbal ability, problem solving).

Parents from cultural minority groups often have a broader view of intelligence—for instance, thinking of it as including strong interpersonal skills (Okagaki, 2001).

4. European American parents tend to be more skillful in helping children do homework than are parents from other backgrounds. Parents who have been educated in a different culture don’t always understand the assignments their children are given, especially when the instructions for completing the assignment are not written down (Okagaki, 2001).

5. Parents from a variety of cultural backgrounds often help their children with schoolwork in indirect rather than direct ways.

•

Example: Parents from Central American cultures sometimes work two or three jobs so that their children do not have to work, and therefore, can concentrate on their schoolwork (Okagaki, 2001).

•

Example: Asian American parents provide a very structured environment that encourages students to do their homework. For instance, they may schedule specific times for doing homework, or they may limit the amount of time that their children can play with friends or watch television (Okagaki, 2001).

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Lecture 10.1: Reliability The reliability of an assessment instrument is the extent to which it assesses something consistently.

A reliability coefficient tells us the extent to which temporary errors contribute to fluctuations in students’ scores on the instrument.

When we use an assessment instrument, we must be confident that the scores we get won’t change much regardless of whether we give it Monday or Tuesday, regardless of whether we use Form A or Form B (if the test has two forms), and regardless of whether we score it while in a good or bad mood.

Reliability as an Indicator of Error Reliability gives us an idea of how much error due to temporary factors is affecting students’ scores.

(More permanent sources of error affect validity.)

Variables affecting reliability include these: •

Day-to-day changes in students •

•

Variations in the physical environment •

•

•

Examples: Room temperature, noise level, outside distractions.

Variations in administration •

•

Examples: Health, fatigue, mood, motivation.

Examples: Instructions, timing, how a teacher responds to different students’ questions.

Characteristics of the instrument itself •

Example: Length of the instrument—longer instruments tend to be more reliable ones, because small errors have less of an impact on students’ overall scores.

•

Example: Ambiguous or excessively difficult questions or tasks—ambiguous and very difficult items increase students’ tendency to guess randomly in ways likely to be inconsistent from one day to the next.

Subjectivity in scoring •

Example: Short-answer questions for which judgments must be made regarding the “rightness” or “wrongness” of students’ responses.

•

Example: Essay questions or performance tasks for which students’ responses are scored on the basis of vague, imprecise criteria.

Determining Reliability We begin by getting two scores on the instrument for the same group of students. Depending on the specific sets of scores we get, we determine different types of reliability: Test-retest reliability: The extent to which a test or other assessment instrument yields similar scores for the same group of students on two different occasions. To determine this, we have a group of students respond to the same instrument two different times.

Alternate forms reliability: The extent to which two different forms of the instrument yield similar scores for the same group of students. To determine this, we have a group of students respond to two or more different forms (which will typically contain different questions or tasks) of the same instrument.

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Internal consistency reliability: The extent to which all the items of an instrument tend to assess the same thing. To determine this, we have a group of students respond to only one instrument, but we compute two subscores from different parts of the instrument.

Scorer reliability: The extent to which two different scorers obtain similar scores for the same group of students. To determine this, we score the same responses twice or have two different individuals score the same responses. This type of reliability is especially likely to be a concern with subjectively scored instruments such as paper-pencil essays and many performance tasks.

Scorer reliability is higher when precise criteria for scoring are specified in advance.

Once we have two sets of scores for a group of students, we determine reliability by computing a correlation coefficient. A perfect reliability coefficient of 1.00 is virtually impossible to attain; however, many standardized achievement and intelligence tests have reliabilities of .90 or above, indicating a high degree of consistency in the scores that they yield.

Estimating Error in an Individual Student’s Score Reliability tells us how similar two sets of scores are likely to be for an entire group of students. In contrast, the standard error of measurement (S EM) gives us an estimate of how much error is likely to be present in a particular student’s score. In other words, it tells us about how close an actual score is to what the student actually should have gotten on the instrument (the hypothetical true score).

•

Example: Susan takes the Basic Skills Test (B ST). Based on how well Susan can read, let’s suppose that she should get a score of 40 on the BST’s reading subtest. Susan’s “ideal” score of 40 is her true score—what she would theoretically get if we could measure her reading achievement with complete accuracy. But Susan misinterprets a few of the test items, answering them incorrectly when in fact she knows the correct answers, so she actually gets a score of only 37. Because we can’t see inside Susan’s head, we have no way of finding out what her true score is; we only know that she’s gotten a 37 on the test. To estimate the amount of error in her score, we look in the B S T test manual and discover that the standard error of measurement for the reading subtest is 5 points. So we go one S E M to either side of Susan’s test score of 37—down 5 points to 32 and up 5 points to 42—and guess that Susan’s true score in reading probably lies somewhere between 32 and 42.

There is a 68% probability that a student’s true score is within one standard error of measurement of the score that the student has actually obtained. If we want to be even more confident, we can go two SEMs to either side of the obtained score; we can then be 95% percent sure that we have identified the interval in which the true score resides.

Note: The S EM is actually the standard deviation of the distribution of error scores; see any contemporary measurement book for a more precise interpretation of S E Ms (e.g., consider recent texts by Anastasi, Cronbach, Linn & Gronlund, Popham, or Sax).

To reflect the errors inherent in the scores from most assessment instruments, students’ performance on standardized tests is sometimes reported as a range, or confidence interval, extending one S E M to either side of the actual test score.

•

(Show Instructor’s Manual Slide 10.7.) Here are Susan’s scores on a hypothetical standardized achievement test with five subtests and five subtest scores. Each score is represented by a dot; the confidence interval for the score is represented by the lines extending to either side of the dot.

Notice that: o

Confidence intervals for different subtests are different lengths, because each subtest has a different standard error of measurement.

o

Some of the confidence intervals overlap, but others do not. When the confidence intervals of two test scores overlap, we conclude that a student has performed similarly on those two 183 ..

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tests. When there is no overlap between two intervals, we say that a student has performed better on one test than the other.

Based on Susan’s confidence intervals, we can conclude that she does best in science and math (and equally well in these two subjects), less well in social studies, and still less well (but equally so) in reading and spelling.

The reliability and the standard error of measurement of an assessment instrument are related numbers. The higher the reliability, the less error there is in students’ scores and the lower the standard error of measurement will be. Conversely, when reliability is low, the standard error of measurement will be larger and we will not be able to pinpoint a student’s true score as precisely.

(Note: The S E M is actually calculated from the reliability coefficient; see a contemporary measurement textbook for details.)

Question for students: What strategies can you use to maximize the reliability of your classroom assessment instruments?

Answer: Here are some possible strategies; you and your students may identify others as well: •

Include several tasks in each instrument, and look for consistency in students’ performance from one task to another.

•

Define each task clearly enough that students know exactly what they are being asked to do.

•

Identify specific, concrete criteria on which to evaluate students’ performance.

•

Try not to let expectations for students’ performance influence judgments.

•

Avoid assessing students’ learning when they are obviously ill, tired, or out of sorts.

•

Administer the assessment in similar ways and under similar conditions for all students.

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Lecture 10.2: Standardization Question for students: Imagine that you have a test in your educational psychology class. You and most of your classmates report to class on the appointed day and take a 70-item multiple-choice test in the 45 minutes your instructor allows for the test. But one student reports that his grandmother died (just as she usually does before a major test) and gets 2 hours to take the test a few days later under the secretary’s not-so-watchful eye. And another student appears 3 weeks later after allegedly being shipwrecked on a tropical island (as proof, she reveals her tan line).

Because your instructor has already told the class the answers to the multiple-choice questions, the second student takes an essay test constructed especially for her. What’s the problem here?

Answer: Different students are taking the test under different conditions, so test scores are not comparable.

A good assessment instrument is standardized. In other words, all students respond to items or tasks that have: •

Similar content: Questions and tasks don’t necessarily have to be identical for all students, but they should be of equivalent difficulty and reflect the same objectives.

•

The same format: Items (multiple-choice questions, essay questions, performance tasks, etc.) should be the same or equivalent for everyone.

•

The same administration procedures: All students should be given the same instructions, have the same time limits, and work under the same constraints. (Some adjustments may need to be made for students with special needs—e.g., a student with a visual impairment or a student with a learning disability.)

•

The same scoring procedures and criteria: Students’ responses should be scored as consistently as possible. For example, we shouldn’t use tougher standards for one student than for another.

The term standardized test comes from this notion of standardization, but in fact teacher-developed assessment instruments should also be standardized in the sense that they have similar content, difficulty level, administration procedures, and grading criteria for all students.

Standardization helps to reduce some of the error in students’ scores, especially any error due to variation in administration or subjectivity in scoring. So the more an assessment instrument is standardized for all students, the higher is its reliability and the lower is its standard error of measurement. An additional reason to standardize assessment is one of equity: Except for unusual situations, it is only fair to ask all students to perform similar tasks under similar conditions.

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Lecture 10.3: Validity The validity of an assessment instrument is the extent to which the instrument assesses what it is supposed to assess and serves the purpose for which it is intended. A particular instrument may be valid for some purposes but not for others.

It may be more accurate to talk about the validity of the inferences we draw from assessment instruments, rather than about the validity of the instruments themselves. The validity of an assessment instrument is always specific to the context in which it is used.

Theorists have identified several different types of validity that are useful in different situations and for different reasons: 1. Content validity: The extent to which an instrument is a representative sample of the content domain being assessed.

To have content validity, an instrument should: •

Sample from as many different parts of the content domain as reasonably possible.

•

Have more items related to topics that were covered in greater depth and fewer items related to topics that were covered quickly or superficially.

•

Have items that measure the particular behaviors and skills identified in instructional objectives.

•

Example: A reading achievement test with items like this: Which of the following words is a small animal? a. can b. fat c. cat d. cot may be a valid measure of word identification skills but isn’t necessarily a good indication of students’ ability to comprehend an entire passage of text.

•

Example: A paper-pencil test covering the rules of basketball may be a valid measure of students’ knowledge of basketball but is probably not a valid measure of skill in playing the game.

Content validity is especially important for both standardized achievement tests and teacherdeveloped assessment instruments.

For teacher-developed instruments: We can begin by constructing a table of specifications.

(Illustrate with the two examples on Instructor’s Manual Slides 10.9 and 10.10.) The table should include: 1) The topics to be covered.

2) The things (behaviors) students should be able to do with each topic). Bloom’s taxonomy is one of many possible ways we can conceptualize these behaviors.

In each cell of the grid, we indicate the relative importance of each topic-behavior combination in terms of a particular number or percentage of items to be included in the assessment instrument. We can then construct items that reflect both the topics and the behaviors we want to assess and have some confidence that our instrument has content validity for the domain it is designed to represent.

For standardized achievement tests: Sometimes the test manual provides a table of specifications that describes the content and nature of the test items. If it doesn’t, we can 186 ..

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construct a table by categorizing each item in terms of both the content it covers and the things it asks students to do. We can then determine whether the table matches our curriculum closely enough that the test represents what we actually do in our classroom, school, or district.

2. Predictive validity: The extent to which an assessment instrument predicts a future behavior •

Example: How well does a mathematics aptitude test predict later success as a mathematician?

•

Example: How well does an intelligence test predict a student’s future success in the classroom?

•

Example: How well does a college aptitude test predict college grade-point-average?

Predictive validity is determined by the correlation between people’s scores and their performance in a later situation (e.g., success in an advanced math class, a high college G P A, satisfactory job performance). Standardized tests typically have moderate predictive validity at best; for example, the correlation between intelligence or specific aptitude tests and students’ future academic performance is often around .40–.60.

An assessment instrument has no single predictive validity. Its predictive validity in a given situation depends on: •

The behavior being predicted: Instruments may predict some things well yet predict other things poorly or not at all.

o Example: Intelligence tests predict future academic success with some degree of accuracy but are poor indicators of future artistic ability or social success.

•

The instrument’s reliability: The higher an instrument’s reliability (and the less error in students’ scores), the more accurately it will predict students’ future behavior.

•

The age group being assessed: Assessment instruments often have greater predictive validity for older students than for younger ones. We should not use standardized test scores to make predictions about the long-term academic success of young children.

o Example: The predictive validity of intelligence tests is generally better for school-aged children than for toddlers and preschoolers (e.g., Anastasi, 1988).

•

The amount of time between the assessment and the criterion behavior: An assessment usually predicts future behavior more accurately when the behavior follows closely after the assessment, rather than many years later.

o Example: Many psychologists recommend that a student’s intelligence test scores not be used after 2 years.

o Example: ET S, the publisher of the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) discards students’ test scores 5 years after they have taken the test.

When an assessment instrument has predictive validity for a particular situation, we can use it for selection purposes—that is, we can choose some people and not choose others based on the scores they obtain. However, assessment instruments rarely if ever predict future behavior with complete accuracy; thus, we are likely to make a few mistakes in our selections.

Nevertheless, instruments with some degree of predictive validity provide a better alternative than making decisions on the basis of no information at all.

•

Example: A high school teacher is offering an advanced mathematics class. He needs to limit the class to 10 students but discovers that 30 students want to enroll. He will be teaching challenging material in the course and estimates that only about half of the 30 interested students would succeed in his class. He uses a mathematics aptitude test that has a correlation of .60 with later success in advanced mathematics courses. If he gives the 30 students the test, then chooses the 10 students with the highest test scores, chances are that 8 of those 10 will pass his course (H. C. Taylor & Russell, 1939). In contrast, if he chooses students at random, only 5 will pass.

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3. Construct validity: The extent to which an instrument actually assesses an abstract psychological concept, or construct.

•

Example: Does an intelligence test really assess intelligence?

•

Example: Does a personality test actually assess such things as anxiety or motivation?

•

Example: Does a mathematics aptitude test truly assess mathematical aptitude?

Occasionally we may need to know if a standardized test really assesses the characteristic it is claimed to assess. In such cases, we should consult the test manual for evidence of construct validity. Although it is difficult to prove that a test assesses an abstract characteristic we can’t actually see, sources of evidence such as these support its case for construct validity: •

Age differentiation: If the construct increases with age, older children should perform better on the assessment than younger children.

o Example: Intelligence presumably increases as children develop, so 14-year-olds should perform better on an intelligence test than 10-year-olds, who in turn should perform better than 6-year-olds.

•

Differences in extreme groups: If the construct is one on which certain groups should differ, those groups should have different average scores.

o Example: High achievers in class should score higher on a test of achievement motivation than low achievers of the same intelligence level.

o Example: Students in advanced mathematics classes should score higher on a test of mathematical aptitude than students in remedial math.

•

Correlation with other measures of the same thing (i.e., concurrent validity): An assessment should correlate with other measures of either the same construct or a similar one.

o Example: Intelligence tests should correlate with one another; to a lesser extent, they should correlate with achievement tests as well.

o Example: A test of achievement motivation should correlate with teachers’ judgments regarding how motivated their students are about performing well in school.

4. Face validity: The extent to which an instrument looks like it’s assessing what it’s supposed to be assessing.

Face validity involves only a superficial, subjective judgment; it is not determined in any systematic psychometric fashion.

Face validity is essential to enlist students’ cooperation in taking an assessment instrument seriously. If the instrument does not look like it’s assessing what it’s supposed to, students may very well be uncooperative and therefore not put forth their best efforts.

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Lecture 10.4: Practicality Practicality is the extent to which an assessment instrument is easy and inexpensive to use. It incorporates issues such as these: How much the instrument costs to purchase or develop •

Example: Schools using a standardized test typically have to pay for test booklets, answer sheets, and test manuals.

•

Example: Teachers or schools developing their own assessment instruments may require considerable personnel hours to develop valid items or tasks.

How much time the instrument takes •

Example: A 10-minute paper-pencil test that can be administered to all students at the same time is a practical one: It takes 10 minutes of both the students’ and the teacher’s time. A 10-minute oral examination that must be administered to one student at a time may be less practical because it involves several hours of the teacher’s time.

How easily the instrument is administered •

Example: A paper-pencil test can usually be administered more easily than a performance test.

•

Example: Some performance tasks require special equipment or materials; others do not.

How easily students’ responses can be scored •

Example: It is easier to score a multiple-choice test than an essay test.

How much training is required to administer and score students’ responses •

Example: Teacher-developed instruments and many objective standardized tests can be administered and scored by classroom teachers. But some standardized tests (e.g., intelligence tests) must be administered and scored by personnel with specialized training.

There is often a trade-off between practicality and such other characteristics as reliability and validity.

•

Example: Some intelligence tests are group tests that can be given to an entire classroom of students at once; others are individually administered. Group tests are more practical (e.g., they can be given by the classroom teacher to many students at once, and they can usually be scored quickly). However, most group tests are heavily dependent on reading skills and so may not always be accurate measures of a student’s potential in areas unrelated to reading and language.

For this reason, individual intelligence tests are often preferred. Individual tests have several other advantages that often outweigh the practicality advantage of group tests: o

They include tasks that cannot be administered in a paper-pencil format (e.g., assembling picture puzzles, arranging geometric shapes into particular patterns).

o

They allow the examiner to observe a student’s level of motivation in taking the test and encourage the student to do his or her best.

o

They typically measure a wider range of intelligence: They include very easy and very difficult items through which extreme developmental delays and exceptional giftedness can be assessed. Group tests are geared for the “average” student and have only a limited range of difficulty.

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Distribute Handout 10.1 and discuss the relative benefits of different types of test items with respect to the R S V P characteristics. Instructor’s Manual Slide 10.12 can be used to facilitate the discussion.

Question for students: Under what conditions might it be appropriate to sacrifice a certain amount of reliability and validity in order to have a more practical test?

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Lecture 10.5: Using Concept Maps as Assessment Tools Concept maps are diagrams that depict important concepts and interrelationships within the context of a particular topic. Some theorists suggest that concept maps can also be used to assess how well students understand and have integrated classroom subject matter (Good, Novak, & Wandersee, 1990; Novak, 1998; Novak & Gowin, 1984).

Concepts maps are very open-ended tasks that students are likely to take in a variety of directions. In most situations, it may be virtually impossible to identify a single “best” map that students might construct. Thus, it may be difficult to score the maps reliably, and their validity is indirectly jeopardized as a result.

Nevertheless, concept maps may occasionally be the most appropriate means of assessing how well students have mastered interrelationships among important concepts. Following are two suggestions for enhancing the reliability and validity of concept map assignments: 1. Identify the specific concepts that students should interrelate, and keep the number of concepts to a manageable level.

Teachers can better standardize a concept mapping task when they tell students which concepts to include in their maps and limit the list to a number (perhaps 7 to 10) that they can easily address within a short time. If students have too many concepts, they may find the task too overwhelming to handle or may lose interest in the task long before they have completed it.

2. Give students lots of practice in constructing concept maps before holding them accountable for what they produce.

Students often need considerable practice before they can construct good concept maps (Novak, 1998). In fact, concept mapping is a fairly complex process. a. It involves two separate, albeit overlapping, processes: (1). Identifying which concepts are interrelated, and (2). Specifying the nature of the relationships (hierarchical, cause-effect, etc.). b. It requires students to think about how various ideas are interconnected—a process that some of them may rarely have engaged in for their previous learning and studying activities.

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Lecture 10.6: Cheating in the Classroom Cheating in the classroom can take a number of forms: •

Gaining unfair advantage over others—e.g., by getting unauthorized access to a test ahead of time or surreptitiously using “crib notes” during a test,

•

Representing the work of others as one’s own—e.g., by putting one’s own name on someone else’s term paper or copying another student’s answers to a test or homework assignment, or

•

Helping someone else gain an unfair advantage—e.g., by revealing one’s own responses to test questions or sharing answers on a homework assignment.

There is no question that cheating is prevalent in our public schools. Furthermore, the incidence of cheating increases as students get older and move into the upper grade levels. At the secondary level, more than 40% of students are likely to cheat at one time or another (Evans & Craig, 1990b; Paris, Lawton, Turner, & Roth, 1991).

Students believe that cheating is an even more serious problem than their teachers do, partly because students are the ones most likely to know when cheating is actually going on (Evans & Craig, 1990b).

Since students usually cheat in such a way that they don’t get caught in the act, teachers often remain in the dark about when students aren’t doing their own work. And few students are willing to “snitch” on their cheating classmates.

Factors That Contribute to Cheating in the Classroom Some students cheat frequently; others cheat rarely, if at all. Why do some students cheat while others do not? Educators have identified a number of factors that probably contribute to the problem of classroom cheating.

1. Lack of understanding Many students don’t fully understand what cheating is; for instance, they may not realize that the following behaviors constitute cheating: •

Getting advance notice of test questions from a student who has previously taken the same test (McLaughlin & Ross, 1989)

•

Letting other students see answers to tests (McLaughlin & Ross, 1989)

•

Representing the work or ideas of published authors or other students as their own (i.e., plagiarism); for example, copying things word for word from references without proper acknowledgment of the source (Evans & Craig, 1990b)

•

Writing a report for someone else (McLaughlin & Ross, 1989)

•

Copying answers for homework assignments (McLaughlin & Ross, 1989)

•

Doing homework assignments with classmates when those assignments were meant to be done independently (Enker, 1987)

2. Rationalization Students often rationalize cheating as being “OK” or at least not serious. Students are far more likely to engage in cheating when: •

They view the crime as only a minor offense (Evans & Craig, 1990a; McLaughlin & Ross, 1989; Michaels & Miethe, 1989).

o Example: Students are more likely to cheat on homework assignments than on exams. o Example: Students are more likely to let someone else copy answers from them than to copy answers themselves.

•

They think they have a reasonable excuse for cheating (McLaughlin & Ross, 1989).

o Example: Students may justify cheating if they inadvertently lose their homework on the way to school.

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They attribute their success or failure to external and uncontrollable factors (Evans & Craig, 1990b; Forsyth, Pope, & McMillan, 1985).

o Example: Students may argue that it is OK to cheat when their teachers are dull and boring, when course material is very difficult, or when there is not enough time to learn all the material they’ve been assigned.

3. Classmates’ behaviors Classmates often condone or even encourage cheating (Enker, 1987; Evans & Craig, 1990b; Houston, 1986a; Michaels & Miethe, 1989; Sherrill, Horowitz, Friedman, & Salisbury, 1970).

•

Example: Students are more likely to cheat when their friends and classmates cheat, and especially when those individuals help or encourage them to cheat as well.

•

Example: Students are more likely to cheat when they can sit near their friends in class.

4. Fear of failure Students may be afraid that they will fail if they don’t cheat (Evans & Craig, 1990b; W. M. Gardner, Roper, Gonzalez, & Simpson, 1988; Lobel, Gur, & Yerushalmi, 1989; Malcolm & Ng, 1989; Michaels & Miethe, 1989; Schab, 1971, 1980).

•

Example: Students are especially likely to cheat when they are performing more poorly than their peers, when their grades are low, or when course grades are based on only one or two tests or papers.

5. Emphasis on performance goals rather than mastery goals Parents and teachers often emphasize performance goals rather than mastery goals. It appears that cheating may be more frequent when parents and teachers focus more on how students “look” than on how much they learn (e.g., Anderman, Griesinger, & Westerfield, 1998).

•

Example: Students are more likely to cheat when they receive a lot of parental pressure for good grades (Brooks, 1990; Calabrese & Cochran, 1990; Evans & Craig, 1990b; Michaels & Miethe, 1989; Schab, 1980).

•

Example: Students are more likely to cheat if they believe that their teachers’ expectations for their performance are unrealistically high (Evans & Craig, 1990b).

6. Poor planning Students sometimes don’t allow themselves enough time to learn material or complete assignments (reflecting some metacognitive naïveté). When they haven’t taken sufficient time to complete an assignment or study for a test, they are more likely to cheat (Evans & Craig, 1990b; Michaels & Miethe, 1989).

7. Belief that assessments are poor reflections of learning Especially at the high school level, many students have little confidence in what classroom assessment instruments measure; for example, they may see their tests as being poorly constructed or arbitrarily graded (Paris et al., 1991). When students have little respect for the way in which their achievement is being measured, they may feel justified in doing whatever it takes in order to perform well.

8. Alienation from the school environment Some students don’t feel as if they are an integral and important part of the school environment.

For example, they dislike school, perceive classroom objectives and activities as being irrelevant and meaningless, and have little respect for school rules and authority figures. When students feel such alienation from school, they are more likely to cheat as a way of getting through the system relatively painlessly (e.g., Calabrese & Cochran, 1990).

9. Lack of consequences for cheating Students are more likely to cheat if they know they can get away with it or if the penalties for cheating are unspecified or unclear (Evans & Craig, 1990b; McLaughlin & Ross, 1989).

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Question for students: Why do students so often get away with cheating?

Suggestions for Minimizing Cheating (Show Instructor’s Manual Slide 10.14) 1. Make success without cheating a realistic possibility.

Students are less likely to cheat if they know they can achieve success without cheating.

•

Example: Set realistic goals for student achievement.

•

Example: Help students budget their time so that the necessary studying gets done and assigned projects can be completed.

•

Example: Develop valid measures of student learning.

•

Example: Define success in terms of how much students learn (i.e., in terms of mastery goals) rather than in terms of how “good” students look.

2. Make sure you have a good rapport with students.

Students are less likely to cheat when they believe that their teacher likes and respects them and is committed to helping them be successful (Linn & Gronlund, 2000; Murdock, Hale, Weber, Tucker, & Briggs, 1999).

3. Discuss exactly what cheating is, give specific examples, and explain why cheating is not acceptable.

Students at all levels can benefit from an honest and open discussion of the various behaviors that constitute cheating and the reasons why cheating is not in their best interest over the long run (Evans & Craig, 1990a, 1990b; McLaughlin & Ross, 1989).

4. Portray assessments as tasks that will help students rather than hurt them.

Students are less likely to cheat when they believe the assessments will ultimately help them (Linn & Gronlund, 2000).

5. Have assigned seats for students during exams, and seat students as far away from one another as possible.

Students are less likely to cheat on tests when they can’t see one another’s test papers. They are also less likely to cheat when they don’t sit next to their friends (Evans & Craig, 1990b; Houston, 1986a).

6. Use two or more forms of tests and homework.

Cheating is less likely when different students have different forms of a test or homework assignment.

•

Example: Present the same test questions in two different sequences.

•

Example: For homework assignments, assign odd-numbered problems to some students and even-numbered ones to others (McLaughlin & Ross, 1989).

•

Example: Assign a different topic for each student to work on (McLaughlin & Ross, 1989).

•

Example: When students need a make-up exam, give them a different (yet equivalent) exam from the one previously taken by other students (Evans & Craig, 1990b).

•

Example: Don’t let students keep graded test papers if any of the questions will be used again.

7. Keep your eyes open for possible instances of cheating.

Cheating is likely to occur even when we ask students to sign “honor pledges” that they won’t or didn’t cheat (Evans & Craig, 1990b; W. M. Gardner et al., 1988), so we should be continually on the lookout for indications that cheating is occurring or has occurred.

•

Example: Students are less likely to cheat if we keep a watchful eye on them as they take a test (Covey, Saladin, & Killen, 1989; Houston, 1986b).

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Lectures

•

Example: As we read student papers, we can make special note of wording that sounds more like it came from an encyclopedia than from an eighth grader’s own vocabulary.

•

Example: We should make a note of two or more papers whose similarity to one another is probably more than coincidental.

8. Specify the consequences of cheating and apply them consistently.

When we allow cheating to occur in our classrooms without repercussions, students may easily conclude that such behavior is acceptable. If we want to communicate the message that cheating is unfair to others and does not promote a student’s own learning of important instructional objectives, we must not let instances of cheating go without consequences.

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Lectures

Lecture 10.7: Issues in Using Paper-and-Pencil Tests Here are several issues to consider in relation to using paper-and-pencil tests (see Instructor’s Manual Slide 10.16).

Test Security Classroom tests should be kept under lock and key. In many situations, test results are valid and useful only to the extent that students do not have access to a test before they actually take it.

Furthermore, although students often gain valuable feedback by looking at their corrected and graded tests, they should not be given a copy of the test to keep if any part of the test items will ever be used again.

Frequency of Testing Generally speaking, frequent testing (perhaps every 2 or 3 weeks) is preferable to infrequent testing.

There are several advantages to giving tests on a regular basis: •

Frequent testing gives students continual feedback about their performance.

•

Students are less likely to experience debilitating test anxiety when they take a number of tests that each contribute only a small amount to their final grade.

•

Frequent testing motivates students, especially lower-ability ones, to study regularly (Sax, 1989).

•

Students who are tested frequently learn and achieve at higher levels than students who are tested infrequently (Crooks, 1988; Gaynor & Millham, 1976; Glover, 1989).

Retakes There are pros and cons to letting students retake tests on which they do poorly the first time.

Pros •

Students are less likely to have debilitating test anxiety when they know that they will have a second chance if they need one.

•

A basic assumption underlying mastery learning is that some students need more time to master a topic than others and may therefore need to be tested on the same material more than once.

Cons •

When students know that they can eventually retake an exam if they get a low score the first time, they may study less for it than they would otherwise.

•

Most tests are only small samples of the domain we want to assess. Students who are allowed to retake the same exam are likely to study the specific things that are on the test without studying equally important but nonassessed material.

If we truly want students to master course material, then we may, in some cases, have no choice except to give retakes. There are two strategies we can use to minimize the possible drawbacks in doing so: •

Construct two tests that assess the same content domain, using one as an initial test and the other for retakes. (Note, however, that this may involve a considerable amount of our time—a practicality issue.)

•

Allow students to retake the same exam a second time, but compute an average of the two scores obtained.

Announced Versus Unannounced Tests 196 ..

Lectures

Unannounced tests (e.g., “pop quizzes”) are appropriate and useful for formative evaluation purposes—for example, to find out what topics students have not yet mastered and therefore require additional instructional time.

Unannounced tests and quizzes are generally not recommended as a means of punishing students for the things they haven’t been doing, for at least two reasons: •

The ever-looming threat of a surprise quiz may increase students’ anxiety about class, or even about school in general.

•

Students almost invariably have several things competing for their time (e.g., extracurricular activities, family obligations, occasional social events, assignments from other teachers). We must recognize that they can’t always complete their schoolwork the same day we assign it.

Giving Open-Book Tests Sometimes teachers allow students to use outside resources (perhaps a dictionary, a textbook, or class notes) when taking tests. Such a test is appropriate when the objective is not for students to commit certain things to memory, but for them to be able to use and apply these things once they have looked them up.

•

Example: A teacher doesn’t want students to memorize every principle in their geometry textbook but would like them to know how to use geometric principles to predict distances or angles.

•

Example: A teacher doesn’t expect students to know how to spell every word in the English language but would like them to be able to write a composition free of spelling errors if they have a dictionary to assist them.

A problem that arises in relation to open-book tests is that students generally don’t prepare as thoroughly for these tests as they do for a closed book test; hence, they may not learn as much when they study (Crooks, 1988). One way to discourage students from coming to a test session unprepared is to set a time limit for the test and let them know in advance that, although they will have time to search their resources for information relevant to test questions, they will not have time to learn the material from scratch.

Giving Take-Home Tests Sometimes teachers give students a test to be completed at home using whatever resources the family or community at large can provide. This kind of test is sometimes more closely related to realworld tasks (i.e., it is more authentic) than in-class tests can be.

There are two potential problems associated with take-home tests: •

Different students will work in different home environments (e.g., students’ homes may be quiet or noisy; some students will have more time than others).

•

There is no way to ensure that students will do their own work.

For these reasons, we may want to use take-home tests more as learning experiences than as major sources of data for assigning final class grades (Sax, 1989).

Saving Tests for Future Use Constructing reliable and valid teacher-made tests can be a time-consuming process. But once we have developed a test for one group of students, we can use the same test (or perhaps a modified version) on future occasions with other students. There are two precautions we should take whenever we want to save test items for later use: •

Although we certainly want to show students their scored test papers (thereby giving them feedback on the strengths and weaknesses of their performance), we should ask them to return all 197 ..

Lectures

test papers after a reasonable period of time (and definitely before the end of class). By doing so, we maintain test security and minimize the chance that future students will have unfair advance notice of what our test questions are likely to be.

•

We should identify any “problem” items (e.g., those that students’ questions indicated to be ambiguous or misleading, those that we had difficulty scoring reliably) and revise them so that they better reflect our objective we are trying to assess. The time to rewrite test items is immediately after we have scored test papers and returned them to students, because the flaws of bad test items are still fresh in our minds.

Once we determine that certain test items are “keepers,” we can save these items in a test item file for use on future occasions. For example, many teachers paste each test item on a separate five-by-eight card, with scoring criteria and item analysis data listed on the reverse side. As they continue to add items to their files over the years, they eventually have a large enough collection that they don’t have to use any single item very often.

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Lectures

Lecture 10.8: Scoring Issues Scoring students’ responses on paper-and-pencil and performance assessment instruments is not always an easy task. Here are some guidelines to keep in mind: (Show Instructor’s Manual Slide 10.18.)

1. Focus on important features of the performance, not on what’s easy to observe and score (Wiggins, 1992).

Ideally, you should focus on a few key criteria.

2. “Pilot” scoring criteria (e.g., checklists, rating scales) on two or three students’ responses (Carey, 1994).

As you do so, ask yourself questions such as these: •

Are your criteria observable?

•

Can they be assessed somewhat objectively?

•

Have you overlooked important criteria?

3. Be on the lookout for bias in your scoring.

Teachers’ judgments are sometimes subject to error due to personal bias (Popham, 1995). You should be especially suspicious about bias in your scoring if you find that you are rating particular students very consistently with respect to all your criteria (Carey, 1994).

•

Example: Teachers may give higher ratings than are warranted (generosity error). For instance, when grading not-quite-correct responses, teachers are more likely to give the benefit of the doubt to high-achievers than to low-achievers (Finn, 1972).

•

Example: Teachers may give lower ratings than are warranted (severity error).

•

Example: Teachers may rate everything as being “in the middle” (central-tendency error).

One strategy for counteracting bias is to look for weaknesses in an otherwise “strong” student’s performance and look for strengths in an otherwise “weak” student’s performance (Carey, 1994).

4. Develop general policies to apply when students do any of the following: •

Give a partially correct response. (Should the student get partial credit?)

•

Make errors unrelated to the primary objective of the assessment (e.g., when students make spelling errors on a paper-pencil history test).

•

Give a correct response and then do something extra that is incorrect.

Question for students: For the subject matter you will be teaching, should grammatical and spelling errors influence the test scores you give? Why or why not?

Question for students: A student answers an essay question correctly, then adds additional, irrelevant information that is incorrect. How would you score such a response?

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Lectures

Lecture 10.9: Norm-Referenced v s Criterion-Referenced Scores er su

Norm-referenced scores are comparative scores that tell us how students’ performances compare with one another. They are useful in situations such as these: •

When selecting a few students among many for a special program (e.g., remedial reading, advanced math)

•

When selecting the most qualified students for a prestigious college

•

When comparing entire school districts with one another

Criterion-referenced scores tell us the specific things that students do and do not know. They are useful in situations such as these: •

When determining whether students have mastered the basic skills necessary for proceeding further with a particular topic

•

When deciding whether students have acquired a sufficient level of knowledge and skills for high school graduation

Importance of Variability A critical difference between norm-referenced and criterion-referenced assessment instruments is their variability—the extent to which students’ scores differ from one another.

Norm-referenced instruments: Because norm-referenced instruments are used to compare students to one another, there must be differences in those students’ scores.

Norm-referenced instruments are often designed to create variability. They often have some very difficult questions that only a few students can answer, and they are sometimes so long that only a few students can finish in the allotted time.

Criterion-referenced instruments: Variability is not an issue for criterion-referenced instruments. Sometimes we see variability in students’ scores on a criterion-referenced instrument, but at other times we do not.

Because there is sometimes little variability in criterion-referenced scores, we typically should not, and often cannot, use them for comparative purposes.

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Lectures

Lecture 10.10: Assigning Grades This lecture provides general guidelines for assigning course grades. It also describes eight things not to do when assigning grades (the first seven are from Palmer, 1962; the last is from Stipek, 1988).

Questions for students: Can you think of teachers you’ve had whose grading policies were unfair or in some other way inappropriate? What specifically did those teachers do?

General Guidelines for Grading Students Here are two guidelines to consider as you assign course grades: 1. A teacher’s ultimate goal is to facilitate students’ learning.

Grading systems are most appropriate and useful to the extent that they enable us to foster learning to the greatest extent possible.

2. Grades should reflect students’ accomplishment of instructional objectives.

Grades should take into account both the number and complexity of each objective achieved (Terwilliger, 1989).

Issues to Keep in Mind When Assigning Grades Here are two issues to keep in mind about grading: 1. There is no “best” method of assigning grades. Especially when you assign grades on the basis of “percentage correct” or “points accumulated,” cutoffs for each grade are likely to be arbitrary (Frisbie & Waltman, 1992; Stiggins, 1994).

2. Standards for assigning grades should take into account the ability level of the class and the nature of the subject matter (Airasian, 1994).

What NOT to Do When Assigning Grades (Show Instructor’s Manual Slide 10.20.)

Here are eight suggestions regarding what not to do when you assign student grades: 1. Don’t shirk your responsibility for assigning grades.

•

Example: Don’t give a last-minute, poorly constructed test.

•

Example: Don’t let students grade themselves.

Judging the adequacy of student performance is an important responsibility of almost every teacher.

2. Don’t grade by “psychic” intuition.

•

Example: Don’t grade on the basis of what you “feel” students “deserve.”

Grades should be based on actual student performance, evaluated as objectively as possible.

3. Don’t go overboard in adding or subtracting points for things unrelated to major class objectives.

•

Example: Don’t award so many extra-credit points that they overly inflate students’ letter grades.

•

Example: Don’t impose major penalties for mechanical errors (spelling, grammar, etc.) when an assignment is designed to assess something other than writing skill.

Grades should be an indication of students’ actual achievement—something that isn’t necessarily reflected in the number of extra-credit projects they complete or the number of words they misspell.

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Lectures 4. Don’t grade on the basis of an inadequate sampling of student performance.

•

Example: Don’t base final grades on a single test score.

No measure of student behavior is perfectly valid or reliable. You should always consider as many sources of information as is reasonable when determining final grades.

5. Don’t grade everything.

•

Example: Don’t grade every daily quiz, in-class assignment, and homework paper.

When every single behavior is evaluated, evaluation may become such a distraction that little is ever learned.

6. Don’t change rules in midstream.

•

Example: Don’t raise your expectations for student performance midway through a lengthy assignment.

•

Example: Don’t add additional requirements for attaining certain course grades after you have already described to your class what the requirements for each letter grade will be.

By raising your requirements midstream, students will become frustrated that formerly “adequate” performance is no longer acceptable. By lowering your requirements midway through the grading period, students may get the message that they are incapable of reaching your original expectations.

Question for students: Under what conditions might it be appropriate to change expectations midway through an assignment or course?

7. Don’t set impossible standards.

•

Example: Don’t expect perfection every time.

Students will strive to meet your standards only if they believe those standards are attainable.

Unrealistically high standards will be discouraging rather than motivating.

8. Don’t repeatedly remind students that they will be graded on their work.

•

Example: Don’t imply that good grades are the only reason students should work hard.

Focus students’ attention on mastering course objectives rather than on getting good grades. In other words, emphasize mastery goals rather than performance goals. By placing emphasis on course objectives rather than grades, we can help students begin to view grades as indicators of their progress and success in classroom activities rather than as entities unrelated to academic achievement.

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Lectures

Lecture 10.11: Standardized Achievement Tests Standardized achievement tests take at least two different forms: 1. Survey Tests These tests cover a broad content domain and give only a very general estimate of a student’s level of performance in that domain. Many are test batteries that address several content domains and provide separate scores for each domain.

Survey tests are most common for reading, writing, and mathematics.

Some test batteries also include assessments of knowledge in science and social studies.

However, school curricula tend to vary more in science and social studies than in reading, writing, and math. Thus, school personnel should determine whether such tests have content validity for their own situations.

Survey tests typically provide norm-referenced scores. Hence they allow: •

Comparisons across students

•

Comparisons among a single student’s test scores

•

Tracking of a student’s progress over time relative to peers (if the same test and same norm group have been used each time)

2. Mastery Tests These tests assess a narrower content domain and tend to be geared toward specific instructional objectives.

Mastery tests typically provide criterion-referenced scores. Hence they provide some indication of whether students have achieved particular objectives.

Sometimes teachers and other school personnel use the results from standardized achievement tests to identify students’ areas of weakness. Keep in mind that subtest scores may sometimes be based on only a small number of items. Hence, their reliability and validity may be questionable, and any conclusions drawn from them should be treated only as hypotheses that should be supported by additional data.

Sources: Anastasi & Urbina, 1997; Linn & Gronlund, 2000; Sattler, 2001.

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APPENDIX B: HANDOUTS

204 ..

Handout 1.1

True/ False Decide whether each of the following statements is true or false.

1. Some children are predominantly left-brain thinkers, whereas others are predominantly right-brain thinkers.

2. Students are good judges of how much they know about a topic.

3. Anxiety sometimes helps students learn and perform more successfully in the classroom.

4. Playing video games can enhance children's cognitive development.

5. The ways in which teachers assess students' learning influence what and how students actually learn.

205 ..

Handout 1.2

alligator baseball calendar dandelion egg furnace groom house icicle jellybean kite laundromat mountain nucleus

206 ..

Handout 1.3

organ furnace jellybean baseball mountain groom alligator organ kite calendar icicle egg nucleus house laundromat dandelion

207 ..

Handout 1.4

Classifying Research Studies Study #1 Ormrod and Jenkins (1989) reported that in a group of 20 third and fourth graders, the predominant strategy the children used to learn a list of spelling words was saying the letters of each word out loud.

Study #2 In a study by Palardy (1969), first-grade teachers were asked whether they believed that girls were better readers than boys. Some teachers said that girls were better readers than boys; others said that girls and boys had equal reading ability. At the beginning of the school year, there were no differences in reading readiness between girls and boys for either group of teachers. At the end of the year, reading achievement tests yielded these average scores: Teacher Expectations

Girls’ Test Scores

Boys’ Test Scores

Girls are better readers

96.7

89.2

Girls and boys are equal

96.2

96.5

Study #3 Laosa (1982) has reported that parents with higher educational levels are more likely to read to their children than parents with lower levels.

Study #4 Four 10th-grade physics classes received cognitively activating instruction (C A I) and four classes received regular instruction (RI). After the instruction, students in the C AI classes scored higher than students in the RI classes on a test of conceptual understanding (Hofer et al., 2018).

Study #5 After analyzing tape recordings of numerous science classrooms in action, Rowe (1974) reported that when the teachers asked a student a question, they waited an average of only one second for the student to reply before repeating or rephrasing the question, asking a different question, or calling on another student.

Study #6 In a study of 1,446 students in an online university course, students who rated their teacher as more caring also reported higher effort in the course (Jones, Krost, & Jones, 2021).

Study #7 In a study with Spanish-speaking kindergartners by Dreisbach and Keogh (1982), some students were given training in test-taking skills, and other students spent the same amount of time drawing pictures.

The students with the training later got higher scores on a school readiness test than did the students who had no training.

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Handout 2.1

Learning Tasks Develop mnemonics to facilitate the learning of the information in the table below.

State Capitals

Capitals of Countries

Augusta, Maine

Madrid, Spain

Columbia, South Carolina

Sydney, Australia

Frankfort, Kentucky

Bogota, Columbia

Richmond, Virginia

Stockholm, Sweden

Olympia, Washington

New Delhi, India

Carson City, Nevada

Ottawa, Canada

Tallahassee, Florida

Cairo, Egypt

Chinese Words

Greek Gods and Goddesses

bu means “not”

Poseidon was God of the Sea

gwo means “country”

Athena was Goddess of the City

shu means “book”

Apollo was God of Light

nyan means “to study”

Aphrodite was Goddess of Love and Beauty

jung means “clock”

Hermes was God of Markets and Commerce

ting means “listen”

Ares was God of War

fan means “food”

Hephaestus was God of Fire Hestia was Goddess of the Hearth

The 13 Original Colonies in the Order They Entered the Union Delaware

The First 10 Presidents of the United States Washington (George) Adams (John)

Pennsylvania New Jersey Georgia

Jefferson (Thomas) Madison (James) Monroe (James)

Connecticut Massachusetts Maryland

Adams (John Q.) Jackson (Andrew) Van Buren (Martin)

South Carolina New Hampshire

Harrison (William Henry) Tyler (John)

Virginia New York North Carolina Rhode Island

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Handout 2.1

The First 9 Elements in the Periodic Table

The 9 Planets of the Solar System

hydrogen

Mercury

helium

Venus

lithium

Earth

beryllium

Mars

boron

Jupiter

carbon

Saturn

nitrogen

Uranus

oxygen

Neptune

fluorine

Pluto

210 ..

Handout 2.2

****************************************************************************************************** With the story you just heard in mind, determine whether each of the following statements is: T — Definitely a true statement about the story F— Definitely a false statement about the story ? — May or may not be true given the information presented in the story ****************************************************************************************************** 1. John had worked hard at the office that day. T F ?

2. On his way home from the office, John stopped at a convenience store.

3. John stopped at the store at noontime.

4. John was a smoker.

TF?

TF?

5. John purchased a pack of cigarettes.

TF?

6. John made a date with the store clerk.

TF?

7. The store clerk was male.

TF?

TF?

8. A heavyset man entered the store. T F ?

9. The heavyset man brought a large canvas bag into the store.

10. The heavyset man brusquely pushed John aside.

TF?

TF?

11. Although the cash register originally contained money, the story does not say how much. T F ?

12. The heavyset man left the store with the bag under his arm.

13. A crime was committed at the convenience store.

(From Ormrod, 1989, p. 70)

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TF?

TF?

Handout 2.3

Retrieval of Phrases DIRECTIONS: Each item below contains the initials of words that will make the item a correct phrase.

Identify the missing words. Example: 12 M. in a Y. = 12 months in a year 1. 26 L. of the A. 2. 7 W. of the W. 3. 1001 A. N. 4. 12 S. of the Z. 5. 54 C. in the D. (with the J.) 6. 9 P. in the S. S. 7. 88 P. K. 8. 32 D. at which W. F. 9. 13 S. on the A. F. 10. 18 H. on a G. C. 11. 90 D. in a R. A. 12. 200 D. for P. G. 13. 8 S. on a S. S. 14. 3 B. M. (S. H. T. R.) 15. 4 Q. in a G. 16. 24 H. in a D. 17. 1 W. on a U. 18. 5 D. in a Z. C. 19. 21 G. S. 20. P. on a F. T. 21. A P. is W. a 1000 W. 22. 29 D. in F. in a L. Y. 23. 64 S. on a C. B. 24. 2 P. in a P. 25. 3 S. and Y. O. 26. 2 W. D. M. a R. 212 ..

Handout 3.1

How Do You Study?

When you read a reading assignment in a textbook: •

Is there anything special you do to get ready to read the assignment?

•

How do you identify the most important ideas in the text?

•

Does your attention sometimes drift away from what you are reading? If so, how do you know when this is happening? Do you have any particular strategies for keeping your attention on the text?

•

How do you know when you understand what you are reading?

•

What do you do when you don’t understand what you are reading?

When you listen to a lecture in class: •

How do you identify the most important ideas in the lecture?

•

Do you take notes? If so, what kind of notes do you take?

•

Do your notes help? If so, in what way?

•

Does your attention sometimes drift away from the lecture? If so, how do you know when this is happening? Do you have strategies for keeping your attention on the lecture?

•

How do you know when you understand what you are hearing?

•

What do you do when you don’t understand what you are hearing?

When you study for a test: •

What criteria do you use to decide how long you will study?

•

What criteria do you use to decide when you will study?

•

How do you know when you understand what you are studying?

•

What do you do when you don’t understand what you are studying?

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Handout 3.2

A 5-year-old boy in kindergarten is interviewed by his teacher aide: Aide:

When you learn a new song, like “The Horne Street School Song,” how do you remember the words?

Student: I just remember. I didn’t know how to sing it for a while until I listened to the words enough to remember them.

Aide:

When I ask you during group time to “put on your thinking caps,” what do I mean?

Student: It means think. You think hard until you know what you are trying to think about.

Aide:

What do you do to think about what you are trying to think about?

Student: I don’t really know how you think, you just do.

Aide:

Where does thinking take place? Where do you think?

Student: In your brain.

Aide:

During one of our centers, you told me all about caterpillars and butterflies. How did you know that caterpillars spin a chrysalis and turn into a butterfly?

Student: You mean that I knew about the life cycle of a caterpillar? I learned it in preschool.

Mommy and Papa and my teacher told me, so that made me know more stuff.

Aide:

How do you keep this stuff in your brain so it doesn’t disappear?

Student: I have a great memory, that’s how it stays in my head. I even can remember my dreams!

Aide:

How do you remember to give Mommy and Papa papers that we send home?

Student: My good memory.

Aide:

Why do you have a good memory?

Student: It’s just good. It started when I turned three. I still had it when I was four, and now when I am five.

Aide:

For how long will you have your memory?

Student: I don’t think it is going to go away. I think it is going to get better as I get older.

A 10-year-old fifth-grade girl is interviewed by a college student (the adult): Adult:

What is learning?

Student: It is a behavior, learning new information. It is the opposite of teaching. It is what the teacher is telling you.

Adult:

What happens when you learn something?

Student: You put it in your memory bank.

214 ..

Handout 3.3

A 12-year-old sixth-grade boy is interviewed by a college student (the adult): Note: The boy is described as being “very bright” and is enrolled in advanced classes.

Adult:

How do you think you learn best?

Student: It helps when it’s quiet and there’s not many distractions. And it’s best to have something to write with always. And it’s good to ask questions.

Adult:

What do you do when you need to remember something?

Student: Always write it down. If it is an assignment, I write it in my assignment notebook. If it is studying, I write it in the binder of the subject I need to study for.

Adult:

How do you study for a test?

Student: First, I get out the binder. Then I’ll go over the most important parts of the unit, or go over the whole unit if it wasn’t specified what we need to study.

Adult:

What kinds of things do you do in your head when studying?

Student: I’ll ask myself questions, or get someone else to ask me questions. Asking questions always helps.

A 15-year-old 10th-grade girl is interviewed by a college student (the adult): Note: The girl is described as someone who gets good grades but finds schoolwork difficult.

Adult:

In your classes at school, how do you know what information is, or will be, important for you to remember?

Student: If the teacher emphasizes it, or writes it on the board, if the teacher tells us to make a note of it, or sometimes I think that I just need to know this [the information].

Adult:

What if you are reading a textbook?

Student: Anything I think might be important to know, I just write down.

Adult:

OK, once you have some information that you think you need to know, what types of things do you do so that you will remember it?

Student: I take notes ... (pause).

Adult:

Is that all you do?

Student: Usually. Sometimes I make flashcards.

Adult:

What types of things do you usually put on flashcards?

Student: I put words I need to know. Like spelling words. I put dates and what happened then.

Adult:

How would you normally study flashcards or your notes?

Student: My notes, I read them over a few times. Flashcards I look at once and try to remember what’s on the other side and what follows it.

A 16-year-old 11th-grade girl is interviewed by a college student (the adult): Note: The girl is described as having a history of low academic achievement.

Adult:

What is thinking?

Student: I never really thought about it. I would say it is something you need to do to find an answer.

Adult:

What is learning?

Student: Something you do to get knowledge.

215 ..

Handout 3.3

Adult:

What is knowledge?

Student: Any information that I don’t know.

Adult:

What about the things you already know?

Student: That doesn’t count.

Adult:

Doesn’t count?

Student: As knowledge because I already know it.

Adult:

How do you know when you have learned something?

Student: When I can repeat it, and it is the same as what the teacher said or what I read, and I can remember it forever or a really long time.

216 ..

Handout 3.4

Two Trains and a Bird Two train stations are 50 miles apart. At 2 P.M. one Saturday afternoon two trains start toward each other, one from each station. Just as the trains pull out of the stations, a bird springs into the air in front of the first train and flies ahead to the front of the second train. When the bird reaches the second train it turns back and flies toward the first train. The bird continues to do this until the trains meet.

If both trains travel at the rate of 25 miles per hour and the bird flies at 100 miles per hour, how many miles will the bird have flown before the trains meet? (from Posner, 1973, pp. 150–151)

217 ..

Handout 3.5

Water Jar Problems Here are several more water jar problems for you to do. Each time, you must obtain a certain amount of water given three jars of different sizes. See you many you can solve.

Blank

Jar A is:

Jar B is:

Jar C is:

Obtain:

Solution: Blank

1.

20 oz.

59 oz.

4 oz.

31 oz.

Blank

2.

18 oz.

43 oz.

10 oz.

5 oz.

Blank

3.

14 oz.

163 oz.

25 oz.

99 oz.

Blank

4.

31 oz.

61 oz.

4 oz.

22 oz.

Blank

5.

15 oz.

39 oz.

3 oz.

18 oz.

6.

23 oz.

49 oz.

3 oz.

20 oz.

7.

28 oz.

76 oz.

3 oz.

25 oz.

Blank

Blank

218 ..

Handout 5.1

Analyzing Attributions Part A: Analyze each of the following attributions with respect to locus, stability, and controllability.

Comments After a Success Experience Locus (Internal or External)

Attribution

Stability (Stable or Unstable)

Controllability (Controllable or Uncontrollable)

“I have talent.”

Blank

Blank

Blank

1.

“My teacher helps me when I have trouble.”

“I worked really hard to improve my skill.”

“The mnemonics I used really helped.”

“This is my lucky day.”

“I’m a naturally outgoing person.”

“Math is easy.”

“I was feeling really good that day.”

Blank

Blank

Blank

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

Blank

Blank

Blank

Blank

Blank

Blank

Blank

Blank

Blank

Blank

Blank

Blank

Blank

Blank

Blank

Blank

Blank

Blank

Comments After a Failure Experience Locus (Internal or External)

Attribution 9. “I need to try a different approach.”

10. “My teacher doesn’t like me.”

11. “It was a tough break.”

12. “I’m a very anxious person.”

13. “I had the flu when I tried out.”

14. “I wasn’t cut out for this.”

15. “The test was too hard.”

16. “I didn’t study long enough.”

Stability (Stable or Unstable)

Controllability (Controllable or Uncontrollable)

Blank

Blank

Blank

Blank

Blank

Blank

Blank

Blank

Blank

Blank

Blank

Blank

Blank

Blank

Blank

Blank

Blank

Blank

Blank

Blank

Blank

Blank

Blank

Blank

Part A: Next, place each of the 16 attributions above into one of the 8 categories below. For example, you might write a 1 (“I have talent.”) on the line for category 3 (although you would be incorrect!).

1. Inherited ability or aptitude 2. Personality 3. Effort 4. Study strategy 5. Health/energy level 6. Task difficulty 7. Teacher attitude 8. Luck/chance

219 ..

Handout 5.2

Skit 1: Two first-grader boys are interviewed by a college student (the adult) Adult:

What goes on inside your head when you are learning the new words of the week in class? [The children learn five new words each week, plus two bonus words.]

Student 1: I’m like I’m scared ... I’m embarrassed that I might be wrong and people will make fun of me.

Student 2: Read them ... helps to remember them.

Skit 2: A 15-year-old tenth-grade boy is interviewed by a college student (the adult) Note: The boy is described as a high achiever.

Adult:

How do you study for a test?

Student:

I sit down and ask Mom to quiz me. Sometimes I read over the stuff and cover the answers and see if I can guess it. I try to find things that rhyme to keep it together, or sometimes I listen to music while I study and then listen to the same music in study hall before my test. It brings it back to mind.

Adult:

What is the best way for you to learn something?

Student:

I like to watch it be done and ask many questions. I wait until the teacher is done explaining, then I try to do it and ask if it’s right. If they say yes, I keep doing it. If they say no, I ask how to improve it.

Adult:

From a lecture, what do you remember?

Student:

I’m not good at dates. Facts I kind of remember. I remember things I don’t need to know. I remember interesting things or stuff about things I like. I learn more about things I like. Now we’re doing the American Revolution and I don’t learn much about that, but if we did ancient Rome or Egypt, I’d learn everything.

Adult:

If you read a book, about how much of it would you remember?

Student:

That’s a difficult question. I’m trying to think about what I’ve read so far. About half, I guess. I remember more from books that are interesting. Books with people and people’s struggles.

Adult:

What subject is easiest for you to learn? Why?

Student:

History. Well, a tie between history and art. Those are the two things I like the most. I just put more energy into what I do. And I can listen to the history and think of what I’ve watched on the history channel. I guess a lot depends on how lax the class is.

Some are strict with lots of information, and lax don’t do as much, but sometimes you get more. I guess you’ve got to have balance. You don’t want a teacher who hits you with a ruler, but you don’t want to be able to shoot the teacher in the head with a rubber band and get no reaction either....

Adult:

What is the best way to set up a class for you to learn?

Student:

Lots of structure is good. If people talk a lot, I can’t concentrate. Quiet means not a lot of distractions. Like, in a loud class, someone will tell a joke, then you’re taking a test later that week, and you remember the joke instead of the stuff you need to learn. So structure and quiet are good.

220 ..

Handout 6.1

Teaching Strategies for Motivating Students As teachers think about whether or not they are designing instruction that is consistent with the MUSIC ® Model of Motivation components, they should consider the questions provided below. Teachers who are successful at motivating students answer “yes” to these types of questions. Beneath most of the questions are bullet points that were copied directly from the last part of Chapter 5 in the textbook.

For each of the bullets below, generate concrete examples of how each might be translated into classroom practice in your content area. For instance, for the bullet under #1 for empowerment, you might suggest that teachers allow 11th-grade English students to choose the topics about which they want to write a research paper. eMpowerment 1. Do students believe that they have control over some aspects of their learning?

•

Give students control over some aspects of classroom life.

2. Do students believe that the instructor empowers them and does not try to manipulate their behavior?

•

Use extrinsic reinforcers when necessary, but do so in ways that preserve students’ sense of autonomy.

•

Evaluate students’ performance in a noncontrolling manner.

Usefulness 1. Do students understand why what they are learning is useful to their interests, to their career goals, and/or in the “real-world”?

•

Relate assignments to students’ personal interests, values, and goals.

•

Ask students to set some personal goals for learning and performance.

Success 1. Do students understand the instructor’s expectations of them?

2. Do students find the learning activities challenging in that they are not too hard or easy?

•

Present challenges that students can realistically accomplish.

3. Do students receive regular feedback about their level of competence?

•

Keep anxiety at a low to moderate level.

4. Do students believe that they can succeed if they put forth the effort?

•

Protect and enhance students’ self-efficacy and overall sense of competence and self-worth.

•

Form and communicate optimistic expectations and attributions.

•

Minimize competition.

•

Foster emotion self-regulation.

Interest 1. Do students demonstrate a situational interest in the course activities?

•

Conduct stimulating lessons and activities.

•

Get students emotionally involved in the subject matter.

2. Do students demonstrate an individual interest in the course content?

221 ..

Handout 6.1 •

Create conditions that foster internalization of values essential for students’ long-term academic and professional success.

•

Focus students’ attention more on mastery goals than on performance goals.

Caring 1. Do students believe that the instructor cares about whether they achieve the course objectives?

•

As students make the transition to middle school or high school, make an extra effort to minimize their anxiety and address their need for relatedness.

2. Do students believe that the instructor cares about their well-being?

•

Help students meet their need for relatedness.

Conservation of Substance Materials Two equal balls of clay, and a small amount of clay on the side.

Procedure 1. Present the two balls of clay. Say Are these balls of clay the same size? If the student says no, then say Then please make them the same size. Allow the student to add or subtract clay until satisfied that the balls are equal.

2. Smash one ball into a pancake shape. Say Does one of these have more clay than the other, or do both balls have the same amount? Record the student’s response.

3. Say Can you tell me or show me how you know this is true? Record the student’s response.

Interpretation Students show conservation of substance if their response indicates an awareness that the two amounts of clay must be equal because nothing has been added or subtracted in the transformation. Examples include: •

Statements such as “Changing shape doesn’t change the amount” or “You didn’t add any more clay, so they’re both still the same.”

•

Behaviors such as rolling the pancake back into a ball, or flattening the ball into a pancake so that both pieces of clay appear equal again.

Students show a lack of conservation if they say the two pieces of clay are different in amount and justify that conclusion on the basis of the clay’s appearance. Examples include: •

Statements such as “The ball is taller” or “The pancake is skinnier.”

•

Behaviors such as adding more clay to one in order to make the two pieces the “same” again.

Conservation of substance appears early in concrete operations, usually when children are about 6 or 7 years old.

222 ..

Handout 6.2

Conservation of Displaced Volume Materials •

Two equal balls of clay, and a small amount of clay on the side.

•

Two glasses containing equal amounts of water.

•

Two rubber bands.

•

A table knife.

Procedure 1. Present the two glasses of water, with one rubber band around each glass at the level of the water’s surface. Say Do both glasses have the same amount of water? If the student says no, say Then please make them the same and allow the student to pour water from one glass to the other until satisfied that the amounts are equal.

2. Present the two balls of clay. Say Are these balls of clay the same size? If the student says no, then say Then please make them the same size. Allow the student to add or subtract clay until satisfied that the balls are equal.

3. Place one ball of clay into a glass of water as the student watches. Say Did you see the water go up?

Let’s move the rubber band to the place where the top of the water is. Move the rubber band to the level of the water’s surface.

4. Take the second ball of clay and second glass of water. Say I’m going to cut this ball of clay into two pieces. Using the knife, cut the ball into two approximately equal pieces.

5. Say How far do you think the water in this glass will go up when I put the two pieces of clay into it?

Please move the rubber band up to the spot where you think the water will go. Allow the student to adjust the rubber band until satisfied with its location.

6. Say Tell me why you put the rubber band where you did. Record the student’s response.

7. Say Let’s see what happens. Drop the two pieces of clay into the glass. Say Were you right? Record the student’s response.

8. Say The water in this glass is the same height as the water in the other glass. Can you explain why that is? Record the student’s response.

Interpretation Students show conservation of displaced volume if their response indicates an awareness that the same amount of water is being displaced in each glass. Examples include: •

Placing the rubber band on the second glass at a level equal with the rubber band on the first glass.

•

Statements such as “There’s the same amount of clay in each glass.” Statements like these are considered to indicate conservation even if the student’s original prediction was incorrect.

Students show a lack of conservation if they predict that the water in the second glass will rise to a different height than that in the first glass and if they cannot later justify why the two heights are the same.

Examples include: •

Placing the rubber band of the second glass higher or lower than that of the first glass.

•

Statements such as “There is more clay in the second glass” or “The pieces in the second glass are smaller.”

223 ..

Handout 6.2

Conservation of displaced volume appears later than most other forms of conservation, usually not until age 11 or 12 at the earliest (Linn & Pulos, 1983; Sund, 1976).

224 ..

Handout 6.3

Proportional Reasoning Materials •

A piece of poster board or large sheet of thick paper, with a stick figure drawn on each side. One figure, labeled “Mr. Little,” is 20 c ms tall. The other figure, labeled “Mr. Big,” is 35 c m tall.

•

Two thin pieces of wood (such as slats or dowels) at least 45 cm (18 inches) long. One (the “greenie” ruler) is marked in green ink at 5-cm intervals. The other (the “reddie” ruler) is marked in red ink at 2cm intervals.

•

A pencil.

•

A sheet of blank paper.

Procedure 1. Place the greenie and reddie rulers out of sight. Show the student the two stick figures. Say Here is Mr. Little, and here is Mr. Big. I want you to measure how tall they are.

2. Show the student the greenie ruler. Say Here is a special ruler from the planet Xeron. People on planet Xeron don’t measure with centimeters or inches, they measure with units they call “greenies.”

Give the greenie ruler to the student. Say I’d like you to measure how many greenies tall Mr. Little is.

Let the student measure Mr. Little, assisting if necessary, until a height of 4 greenies is obtained.

3. Say Now I’d like you to measure how many greenies tall Mr. Big is. Let the student measure Mr. Big, assisting if necessary, until a height of 7 greenies is obtained.

4. Remove the greenie ruler from sight, and bring out the reddie ruler. Say Here is a ruler from the planet Phylus. People on planet Phylus measure with units they call “reddies.” Give the reddie ruler to the student. Say I’d like you to measure how many reddies tall Mr. Little is. Let the student measure Mr. Little, assisting if necessary, until a height of 10 reddies is obtained.

5. Remove the reddie ruler from sight. Say Now let’s review what we know so far. Mr. Little is 4 greenies tall and Mr. Big is 7 greenies tall. Mr. Little is 10 reddies tall. Without measuring, see if you can figure out how tall Mr. Big must be in reddies. Give the student the pencil and blank paper. Say You may use pencil and paper if you wish. Allow the student to work as long as necessary.

6. After the student gives you a prediction for Mr. Big’s height in reddies, say How did you arrive at that answer? Record the student’s response.

7. Give the student the picture of Mr. Big and the reddie ruler. Say Now measure Mr. Big to see if you are right. Let the student measure Mr. Big, assisting if necessary, until a height of 171/2 reddies is obtained. Say Mr. Big is 171/2 reddies tall. Can you tell me why that is the correct answer? Record the student’s response.

Interpretation Students show proportional reasoning if their response indicates the use of multiplication, division, ratios, or fractions. Examples include: •

The correct answer of 171/2.

•

Statements such as “The ratio of Mr. Big to Mr. Little in reddies is the same as the ratio in greenies” or “4 is to 7 as 10 is to 171/2” or “10 is 2.5 times 4, so the answer must be 2.5 times 7.” Statements like these indicate proportional reasoning even if the student’s original prediction was incorrect.

Students show a lack of proportional reasoning if they use addition or subtraction to obtain an answer and if they cannot later explain how the correct answer is obtained. Examples include: •

An incorrect answer (often “13”).

225 ..

Handout 6.3 •

Statements such as “The difference between 4 and 7 is 3, so I added 3 to 10 and got 13” or “4 plus 6 equal 10, so I added 6 to 7.”

Proportional reasoning is one aspect of formal operational thinking.

226 ..

Handout 9.1 (page 2 of 2)

Problem Situations Problem #1 Sarah, a gregarious fifth grader, is quite popular with her peers. However, her reading and math performances are beginning to decline. You notice that every time you give an in-class seatwork assignment, Sarah spends most of her time talking and laughing with those around her. You’re really concerned that if Sarah continues to perform this way, she’ll fall further and further behind.

Problem #2 Mark and Melissa are very good friends who are in your high school math class. After the first exam, you notice that their exam responses are exactly the same. Even their mistakes are identical—something that would hardly occur by chance alone.

Problem #3 During a learning center activity, you notice that Jeff keeps hitting the children around him. One child complains quite loudly that Jeff has hurt him. Jeff is really disrupting the class. You continually ask him to stop, but he ignores you.

Problem #4 Sam is larger and older than his classmates. He is usually either unhappy or angry, and he doesn’t seem to have any real friends. He is both physically and verbally abusive to those around him. He bullies other students, especially boys, at lunch and on the playground.

Problem #5 Wendy whines and complains continually about her stomach during math class. However, she makes miraculous recoveries during study hall the following period.

Problem #6 Bill skips class at least once a week. When he comes to class, he often arrives several minutes late.

Problem #7 On several occasions, you catch Susan in the act of stealing someone else’s class materials (pencils, paper, etc.).

Problem #8 Bill frequently forgets to bring his lunch money to school. You don’t want to keep lending Bill money, but you don’t want him to starve either. So you usually send Bill to the main office to telephone his mother and wait until Mom delivers the necessary cash. You estimate that Bill misses an average of 15 minutes of class time each day because of his chronic forgetfulness.

Problem #9 Marsha is constantly tattling about her classmates’ behaviors during recess. The behaviors in question are socially inappropriate (e.g., name calling, cutting in line) but not physically dangerous. You don’t want such behaviors to continue, but you don’t want to reinforce Marsha’s tattling either.

Problem #10 Christopher uses foul language (including several four-letter words) frequently in his interactions with you and his classmates.

227 ..

Handout 9.1 (page 2 of 2)

Problem #11 Annette and Karen often whisper to each other during their teacher’s lectures. You have given them a stern look on several of these occasions, but their behavior hasn’t improved.

Problem #12 Teresa rarely if ever does her homework assignments.

Problem #13 Michael can’t seem to work cooperatively with his classmates. You have put him in several different cooperative groups, but his behaviors in a group are always distracting and counterproductive.

Problem #14 Kevin apparently has no friends in the classroom. He has become very attached to you and always sits as close to you as he possibly can. Because you have gone out of your way to try to make him feel comfortable, the other students now call him “teacher’s pet” and openly express their disdain for him.

Problem #15 You have established an orderly classroom in which your students are usually well-behaved and on task.

However, on days that you are sick, substitute teachers consistently report that these same students become unruly and nonproductive.

Problem #16 Nicole talks out frequently at inappropriate times. Her comments are distracting and often irrelevant to the topic at hand.

228 ..

Advantages and Disadvantages of Different Kinds of Test Items RELIABILITY

Test Length

Scorin g

TrueFalse

Matchin g

MultipleChoice

Many items can be answere d in a limited time Items can be scored reliably

Many items can be answered in a limited time Items can be scored reliably

Many items can be answere d in a limited time Items can be scored reliably

Short Answer

Essays

& Completio n Many items can be answered in a limited time

Reliability depends on item objectivity

Only a few items can be answere d in a limited period Reliability higher when criteria clearly specified

PaperPencil Problems

Performanc e Tasks

Time required for response s varies

Only a few items can be answered in a limited period

Reliability depends on item objectivity

Reliability depends on task; higher when criteria specified

STANDARDIZATION

Admin istratio n Scorin g

TrueFalse

Matching

Admin. easily standardiz ed Scoring easily standardiz ed

Admin. easily standardiz ed Scoring easily standardiz ed

MultipleChoice

Admin. easily standardiz ed Scoring easily standardiz ed

Short Answer

Admin. easily standardiz ed Scoring may or may not be easy to standardiz e

229 ..

Essays

& Completi on Admin. easily standardiz ed Scoring more difficult to standardiz e

PaperPencil Problems

Performan ce Tasks

Admin. easily standardiz ed Scoring may or may not be easy to standardiz e

Admin. difficult to standardiz e Scoring more difficult to standardiz e

VALIDITY

Sampling

Skills Measured

LTM Search

Guessing

TrueFalse

Matching

Wide sampling of a broad content domain possible Tend to assess lowerlevel skills

Wide sampling of a broad content domain possible Tend to assess lowerlevel skills

Require only limited search of longterm memory Scores affected by high guessing factor (50%)

MultipleChoice

Short Answer

PaperPencil Problems

Essays

& Completion

Performance Tasks

Wide sampling of a broad content domain possible

Good sampling more likely in a narrow domain

Range of sampling varies depends on item complexity

Good sampling more likely in a narrow domain

Tend to assess lower-level skills but can be written for higher-level

Can easily be written to assess higherlevel skills

Can easily be written to assess higherlevel skill

Especially suitable for assessing reallife applications

Require only limited search of long-term memory

Wide sampling of a broad content domain possible Tend to assess lowerlevel skills but can be written for higherlevel.

Require only limited search of long-term memory

Require broad search of long-term memory

Require broad search of longterm memory

Require broad search of long-term memory

Require broad search of long-term memory

Scores affected by moderate guessing factor

Scores affected by moderate guessing factor

Scores affected little by guessing

Scores affected little by guessing

Scores affected little by guessing

Scores affected little by guessing

PRACTICALITY

True-False

Matching

MultipleChoice

Short Answer

Essays

& Completion

PaperPencil Problems

Performance Tasks

More expensive More difficult to administer Ease and time vary; often scored on the spot

Expense

Inexpensive

Inexpensive

Inexpensive

Inexpensive

Inexpensive

Inexpensive

Administration Scoring

Easy to administer Quick and easy to score

Easy to administer Quick and easy to score

Easy to administer Quick and easy to score

Easy to administer Scored more slowly

Easy to administer Relatively difficult and timeconsuming

Easy to administer Ease and time of scoring vary

230 ..

APPENDIX C: ADDITIONAL RESOURCES

231 ..

Resources

Chapter 1: Introduction to Educational Psychology General Resources American Psychological Association (2020). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed.). Author.

American Psychological Association (1997). Learner-centered principles: A framework for school redesign and reform (rev. ed.). Author. (Available online at http://www.apa.org.)

Corno, L., & Anderman, E. M. (Eds.) (2016). Handbook of Educational Psychology. Routledge.

Reynolds, W. M., & Miller, G. E. (Eds.) (2013), Handbook of psychology, volume 7: Educational psychology (pp. xv–xviii). Wiley.

Sawyer, R. K. (Ed.) (2014). The Cambridge handbook of the learning sciences (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press.

Case Studies of School-Age Children and Adolescents Ormrod, J. E., & Mcguire, D. (2007). Case Studies: Applying educational psychology (2nd ed.).

Prentice Hall.

Sudzina, M. R. (Ed.) (1999). Case study applications for teacher education: Cases of teaching and learning in the content areas. Allyn & Bacon.

Willems, P. P., & Gonzalez-DeHass, A. R. (2017). Case studies in educational psychology: Elementary school grades. Rowman & Littlefield.

Teacher Development Fives, H., & Gill, M. G. (Eds.). (2015). International handbook of research on teachers’ beliefs.

Routledge.

Gentrup, S., Lorenz, G., Kristen, C., & Kogan, I. (2020). Self-fulfilling prophecies in the classroom: Teacher expectations, teacher feedback and student achievement. Learning and Instruction, 66, Article 101296. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2019.101296 Kagan, D. M. (1992). Professional growth among preservice and beginning teachers. Review of Educational Research, 62, 129–169.

Educational Research Creswell, J. W. (2014). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (4th ed.). Sage.

Gage, N. L. (1991). The obviousness of social and educational research results. Educational Researcher, 20(1), 10–16.

Mertler, C. A. (Ed.) (2019). The Wiley handbook of action research in education. Wiley.

Chapter 2: Learning, Cognition, and Memory General Resources on Learning Byrnes, J. P. (2001). Minds, brains, and learning: Understanding the psychological and educational relevance of neuroscientific research. Guilford Press.

Corno, L., & Anderman, E. M. (Eds.) (2016). Handbook of Educational Psychology. Routledge.

Gredler, M. E. (2009). Learning and instruction: Theory into practice (6th ed.). Prentice Hall.

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Resources

Legare, C. H. (2019). The development of cumulative cultural learning. Annual Review of Developmental Psychology, 1, 119–147.

Ormrod, J. E. (2020). Human learning (8th ed.). Pearson.

Ormrod, J. E. (2017). How we think and learn: Theoretical perspectives and practical implications.

Cambridge University Press.

Schunk, D. H. (2020). Learning theories: An educational perspective (8th ed.). Pearson.

Cognitive Processes and Memory Anderson, J. R. (2009). Cognitive psychology and its implications (7th ed.). Worth Publishers.

Anderson, J. R. (2000). Learning and memory: An integrated approach (2nd ed.). Wiley.

Ausubel, D. P., Novak, J. D., & Hanesian, H. (1978). Educational psychology: A cognitive view (2nd ed.). Holt, Rinehart & Winston.

Bowers, J. S. (2016). The practical and principled problems with educational neuroscience.

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Chapter 9: Strategies for Creating Effective Classroom and School Environments General Resources on Classroom Management Battistich, V., Solomon, D., Watson, M., & Schaps, E. (1997). Caring school communities. Educational Psychologist, 32, 137–151.

Doyle, W. (1986). Classroom organization and management. In M. C. Wittrock (Ed.), Handbook of research on teaching (3rd ed.). Macmillan.

Emmer, E. T. (1987). Classroom management and discipline. In V. Richardson-Koehler (Ed.), Educators’ handbook: A research perspective. Longman.

Emmer, E. T., & Evertson, C. M. (1981). Synthesis of research on classroom management.

Educational Leadership, 38, 342–347.

Emmer, E. T., Evertson, C. M., & Worsham, M. E. (2002). Classroom management for secondary teachers (6th ed.). Allyn & Bacon.

Emmer, E. T., & Evertson, C. (2008). Classroom management for elementary teachers (8th ed.). Allyn & Bacon.

Evertson, C. M., & Harris, A. H. (1992). What we know about managing classrooms. Educational Leadership, 49(7), 74–78.

Moles, O. C. (Ed.) (1990). Student discipline strategies: Research and practice. State University of New York Press.

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Scheuermann, B. K., & Hall, J. A. (2016). Positive behavioral supports for the classroom (3rd ed.).

Pearson.

Specific Models of Classroom Management and Discipline Canter, L. (1976). Assertive discipline: A take charge approach for today’s educator. Lee Canter & Associates.

Cassel, P., Dreikurs, R., & Ferguson, E. D. (2004). Discipline without tears: How to reduce conflict and establish cooperation in the classroom. Wiley.

Emmer, E. T., & Aussiker, A. (1990). School and classroom discipline programs: How well do they work? In O. C. Moles (Ed.), Student discipline strategies: Research and practice. State University of New York Press.

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Working with Parents and Families Epstein, J. L. (1996). Perspectives and previews on research and policy for school, family, and community partnerships. In A. Booth & J. F. Dunn (Eds.), Family-school links: How do they affect educational outcomes? Erlbaum.

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Salend, S. J., & Taylor, L. (1993). Working with families: A cross-cultural perspective. Remedial and Special Education, 14(5), 25–32, 39.

Chapter 10: Assessment Strategies Amrein, A. L., & Berliner, D. C. (2002, March 28). High-stakes testing, uncertainty, and student learning. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 10(8). Available online at http://epaa.asu.edu/epaa/v10n18/ Anastasi., & Urbina. (2006). Psychological testing (7th ed.). Academic Internet Publishers.

Andrade, H. L., & Cizek, G. G. (Eds.) (2010). Handbook of formative assessment. Routledge.

Corno, L., Cronbach, L. J., Kupermintz, H., Lohman, D. F., Mandinach, E. B., Porteus, A. W., & Talbert, J. E. (2002). Remaking the concept of aptitude: Extending the legacy of Richard E. Snow. Erlbaum.

Double, K. S., McGrane, J. A., & Hopfenbeck, T. N. (2020). The impact of peer assessment on academic performance: A meta-analysis of control group studies. Educational Psychology Review, 32, 481–509.

Gardner, H. (2000). The disciplined mind: Beyond facts and standardized tests, the K–12 education that every child deserves. Penguin Books.

Gierl, M. J., Bulut, O., Guo, Q., & Zhang, X. (2017). Developing, analyzing, and using distractors for multiple-choice tests in education: A comprehensive review. Review of Educational Research, 87(6), 1082–1116.

Haladyna, T. M, Rodriguez, M. C.& Stevens, C. (2019). Are multiple-choice items too fat? Applied Measurement in Education, 32(4), 350–364.

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Jones, B. D. (2007). The unintended outcomes of high-stakes testing. Journal of Applied School Psychology, 23(2), 65–86.

Jones, B. D. (2020). User guide for assessing the components of the MUSIC Model of Academic Motivation. http://www.theMUSICmodel.com Jones, M. G., Jones, B. D., & Hargrove, T. Y. (2003). The Unintended Consequences of High-Stakes Testing. Rowman & Littlefield.

Lee, H., Chung, H. Q., Zhang, Y., Abedi, J., & Warschauer, M. (2020). The effectiveness and features of formative assessment in the US K–12 education: A systematic review. Journal of Applied Measurement in Education, 33(2), 124–140.

Lewis, R. B., & Mcloughlin, J. A. (2007). Assessing students with special needs (7th ed.). Prentice Hall.

Miller, D., Miller, M., Linn, R., & Gronlund, N. E. (2012). Measurement and assessment in teaching (11th ed.). Pearson.

Popham, W. J. (2014). Classroom assessment: What teachers need to know (7th ed.). Pearson.

Stiggins, R. J. (2001). Student-involved classroom assessment (3rd ed.). Merrill/Prentice Hall.

Venn, J. J. (2006). Assessing students with special needs (4th ed.). Prentice Hall.

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APPENDIX D: COMMERCIAL VIDEOS

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Commercial Videos

Many videos are available for instructors to use. Of course, there are commercially available videos for sale as well as those that are available free online at sites such as YouTube. The contact information for some companies that sell videos is provided in the following table and you can search their sites for videos.

Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD) 1703 N. Beauregard St. Alexandria, VA 22311-1714 (800) 933-2723

Insight Media 2162 Broadway New York, NY 10024-0621 (800) 233-9910 www.insight-media.com

www.ascd.org Davidson Films, Inc.

Into the Classroom Media

668 Marsh St.

10573 W. Pico Blvd. #162

San Luis Obispo, CA 93401-3951

Los Angeles, C A 90064

(888) 437-4200

(800) 732-7946

www.davidsonfilms.com

www.classroommedia.com

EducationalTrainingVideos.com

Magna Systems, Inc.

TrainingABC

Alexander Street Press

136 Granville St, Suite 200

3212 Duke St

Gahanna OH

Alexandria, VA 22314

http://www.educationaltrainingvideos.com/

www.academicvideostore.com/publishers/magnasystems

Films Media Group

Research Press

132 West 31st St, 16th Floor

P.O. Box 7886

New York, N Y 10001

Champaign, IL 61826

www.films.com

(800) 519-2707 www.researchpress.com

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