Discovering Physical Geography Canadian Edition , Alan F Arbogast, Lisa Ford , Daryl Dagesse , Solut

Discovering Physical Geography Canadian Edition By Alan F. Arbogast, Lisa Ford , Daryl Dagesse

Email: Richard@qwconsultancy.com

Arbogast, Ford, and Dagesse, Discovering Physical Geography, Canadian Edition

INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL PREAMBLE In an attempt to cover many different types of learners and different courses, each of these chapters presents several suggestions for approaches and learning activities that may be utilized in the classroom. It is pointing out the obvious to say that each student is different; of course, each class is also different. Something that works well with one class may not work the following semester with a different class. Throughout a semester you might select only a few activities or suggestions—those that will best serve to engage your student population.

The manual is written primarily for a first-year physical geography class that does not have an accompanying lab section, so it includes a number of simple hands-on demonstrations to be done by the instructor, as well as hands-on student activities; some of these activities have been adapted from typical lab exercises. It is hoped that they might engage students, or deepen their understanding and appreciation of the specific concept or topic in physical geography.

At the outset of this manual, it is perhaps important to point out to beginning instructors that one need not follow the textbook sequentially. You should feel free to deal with chapters in a different order, and plan your syllabus according to your preferences regarding student progress and comprehension. Indeed, greater flexibility can be a distinct advantage because experience shows that it is always effective to take advantage of some recent event, often an extreme weather event or other natural disaster. “Bad news” can serve to capture student attention by showing the relevance of physical geography to living in the here and now, and to understand the forces that shape all our lives, even if we are located distant from the events. It is, of course, no small task to rearrange the entire syllabus, since assignment dates and more have to be reorganized, but the impact on classroom attention, understanding, and appreciation is well worth the minor effort.

If some catastrophic event occurs before the beginning of the semester (e.g., the December 2004 Sumatran earthquake and tsunami; the 1993 Northridge quake; Hurricane Katrina 2005; Haiti earthquake 2010; Hurricane Sandy 2012), you can be prepared in advance. There may be other times, however, when an event occurs during the semester. You should then consider moving immediately to that section—for example, the 2010 Chile earthquake—We will postpone our discussion of atmospheric temperature and moisture, and look at the earthquakes in. ..

Therefore it is wise always to have a footnote to this effect on your syllabus (e.g., “The instructor reserves the right to change topics or policy to meet the needs of this class” or “tentative lecture schedule for the term”).

In similar fashion, even trivial current affairs can bring a new perspective to student learning: a movie star gets heat exhaustion while jogging—depending on where you are in the semester, you may introduce the humidex (https://www.theweathernetwork.com/news/articles/humidex-vsheat-index-whats-the-difference/10243) or remind students that they know about it from their class of (two or whatever) weeks ago; too much snow in Toronto and Montreal—look at the pattern of winter storms (and maybe discuss the misused term global warming); the impact of El Niño on North America’s western coast in California and British Columbia brings mudslides and debris flows (http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/british-columbia/bc-coast-should-brace-formonster-el-nino-year-uvic-professor/article26468934)—look at mass wasting and fluvial erosion; a volcanic eruption in Iceland throws international travel into disarray—what an opportunity to introduce (or revise) volcanism.

These and many other suggestions in this manual attempt to address an important issue in our Instructor’s Manual

Preamble

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Arbogast, Ford, and Dagesse, Discovering Physical Geography, Canadian Edition

classrooms: Increasing numbers of students come to our classes underprepared, with poor reading skills, even worse writing skills, and unable to perform even simple arithmetic calculations (such as division by ten). Furthermore, they may not bring the motivation to learn any of the concepts or skills of physical geography; they are in your classroom because it is a required course or they must take a science class, and they have heard that physical geography is “easier” than the alternatives (biology, for example).

Teaching physical geography can be demanding, as well as rewarding. Therefore many of the activities and approaches suggested in this manual attempt not merely to make the material relevant to students’ lives, but also to engage them with our discipline, while not compromising learning standards. If you are fortunate enough to teach an enthusiastic group of students who will read and think about the importance and relevance of physical geography, it is wonderful to involve them in group discussions; to have them use their personal technology (phones, laptops or tablets) to employ geographic tools such as Google Earth, online GIS, and more; to challenge them with critical thinking and discussion activities. But for the majority of us, it may be most effective simply to concentrate in class on brief examples of processes or phenomena that students can see, feel, and relate to, and to use very simple in-class activities or homework tasks.

For young urban students whose lives are filled with popular media and whose main pastime is texting and social media, these new geographic perspectives can be engaging and even empowering. It is exhilarating when a former student wins first prize for an undergraduate paper presentation, and equally memorable when a student relates with delight in an upper year course that they really enjoyed being in your class!”

As you have the privilege of taking your students on a journey into geography, you will truly be able to show them that “Geography Matters.”

Instructor’s Manual

Preamble

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Arbogast, Ford, and Dagesse, Discovering Physical Geography, Canadian Edition

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY In this chapter, the student is introduced to geography as a field of study, and specifically to physical geography, via the concept of Earth’s four spheres: atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere. This introductory chapter serves to emphasize the distinctive nature of physical geography, in its scientific approach to the nature and problems of humanenvironment interactions. The value of geographic literacy to contemporary young Canadians is stressed.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES Upon completion of the chapter, the student should be able to: Learning Objective 1.

2.

3.

Comprehend the character and scope of geography as a scientific discipline, and define the subdisciplines of physical geography.

Explain the concept of a natural system and define the four Earth spheres.

Describe how the scientific method is used in physical geography.

Instructor’s Manual

Section Reference The Scope of Geography

Defining Physical Geography Physical Geography and the Scientific Method

Chapter 1 – Introduction to Physical Geography

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Lecture Lead-ins/Transitions The first class can follow very different individual approaches. If there is not some dramatic and newsworthy event to open the first day, as described in the Preamble, you might begin with a few pictures of spectacular global or Canadian landscapes (e.g., Gros Morne National Park, Jasper National Park, or Kluane National Park) or of extreme events such as a tornado, hurricane, landslide, or volcanic eruption. Some of your students may have seen similar phenomena or visited these locations and you can ask them to relate their impressions and feelings. Others will know such phenomena from movies and television, perhaps with erroneous or exaggerated special effects.

A discussion of other branches of geography is not appealing at this stage and will do nothing to show your own passion or love of geography and the physical world. It may be more important to make sure students know that physical geography is not (merely) making maps or studying rocks. Since most of them may not have studied geography since early in high school as a component of social studies or Canadian studies, their ideas about what geography encompasses may be vague to nonexistent, and their expectations may be surprising to you as the instructor.

Lecture Demonstrations The remainder of the first class is usually best spent on practical matters—the scope of the class, the four spheres, and the scientific method, skimming the chapter titles and the syllabus topics, to show the breadth and depth of this field of study.

The four spheres is a valuable model that is easy to understand and conveys the central theme of the class: Everything is connected to everything else (Barry Commoner’s first law of ecology).

An alternative for this first meeting might be to introduce students to the idea of scales—human, Earth, and space. You can ask: Is the Earth large or small?

Three useful visuals here are: • PHOTO—Earthrise from Apollo 8. (available from the NASA website).Taken in 1968 by William Anders, it marked the new, holistic approach to the Earth that characterizes physical geography today. It is recognized as one of the top 100 photos of all time by Time magazine (http://100photos.time.com/photos/nasa-earthrise-apollo-8). In 2015 NASA released a new high resolution Earthrise image taken by Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (https://www.nasa.gov/image-feature/goddard/lro-earthrise-2015).

•

PHOTO - Contrast it with the Pale Blue Dot, an image made by Voyager in 1989, at the urging of Carl Sagan (“Our planet is a lonely speck in the great enveloping cosmic dark.”). o This always reminds me of David Quammen’s description of humans in “The Flight of the Iquana: A sidelong view of Science Nature” (1998) as “mortal creatures on a slowdying planet, in the ocean of space,” but students do not necessarily like this view!

Instructor’s Manual

Chapter 1 – Introduction to Physical Geography

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o o

The old Eames film (1977) Powers of Ten is still a fun way to do this. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5CKd0aPSWe8 For a more complete description of the film and other resources, you can visit the Eames Official Site at: http://www.eamesoffice.com/the-work/powers-of-ten/.

The response to your question should then be that it all depends on your standpoint—in space the Earth is tiny, but to a mere human, it is huge.

Discussion Questions/Critical Thinking Questions How does geography differ from geology?

Could there be a biosphere without the presence of all the other three spheres?

Who can describe their personal experience of a tornado? Hurricane? Earthquake?

Is your body an open system or a closed system? Your car? Your aquarium? Earth? etc.

Are there now more earthquakes than in the past? Tornados? Hurricanes?

And/or is it that we now experience, hear, see, and share such events in almost real time via the Internet, social media and satellite communications?

In-Class and/or Group Activities This chapter does not lend itself to group learning activities, and the subject matter of the physical geography course is so extensive that there is little time to be spent on “getting to know you” activities, enjoyable though they are. It is always a good idea to have students get to know the names and contact information (e.g., email or cell phone number) of three other class members; if they miss class, they can email, text, or call on a fellow student for class notes.

If you do want this type of activity, a Bingo-style activity can be used. Allow no more than 10 minutes for this; students really enjoy it. Perhaps have a couple of pencils or small “prizes” for the few who complete the whole sheet.

A nice homework exercise at this stage is to require the students to go to some local vantage point (e.g., park) or a quiet place on campus, where they should sit for 10 minutes, writing their observations of each of the four spheres, in a few sentences for each sphere, while pointing out their interconnectedness. An accompanying field-sketch or photograph is encouraged. Many students may have done a similar exercise at a summer camp, where they write what they hear, see, smell, but without the emphasis on each separate sphere.

Tips for First-Time Lecturers Instructor’s Manual

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It is useful in the first class to familiarize students with the idea that this is a science class and that they must be familiar with the SI or metric system. This can be fun to get them to hold up their fingers or hands to show the length of a metre, a centimetre. Ask if they would rather be in a room at 30 degrees C or 30 degrees F. Some may have water bottles that can be held up to show half a litre. Ask whether it is more than a quart or less.

I like to relate the story of the Mars climate Orbiter fiasco here, when more than $300 billion was lost because of “dueling” measurement systems; as well as to remind students of which two other countries still use the imperial system (Burma and Liberia).

Relevant Web Links • NASA: Earthrise image http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/images/content/76455main_AS11_44_6559earthrise.jpg NASA Earthrise image https://www.nasa.gov/multimedia/imagegallery/image_feature_1249.html • NASA: Apollo Astronaut Shares Story of NASA's Earthrise Photo https://www.nasa.gov/centers/johnson/home/earthrise.html •

Article from the Independent about Earthrise – the image that changed our view of the planet http://www.independent.co.uk/environment/nature/earthrise-the-image-that-changed-our-viewof-the-planet-7837041.html •

National Public Radio report on the 45th anniversary of the day when the Earthrise image was taken http://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2013/12/23/256605845/on-anniversary-of-apollo-8-howthe-earthrise-photo-was-made • NASA: Pale Blue Dot http://www.nasa.gov/centers/jpl/news/dotf-20061101_prt.htm NASA (2015) Pale Blue Dot image turns 25 https://www.nasa.gov/jpl/voyager/pale-blue-dot-images-turn-25 NASA (2016) Voyager – The Interstellar Mission page http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/ Scientific American article on new “Pale Blue dots” https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/project-blue-sets-sights-on-pale-blue-dots-aroundalpha-centauri/

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Short Video on Youtube narrated by Carl Sagan https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p86BPM1GV8M Library of Congress – short recording of Carl Sagan talking about the Pale Blue Dot https://www.loc.gov/item/cosmos000110/ The Canadian Encyclopedia – Background information on the Metric System http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/metric-conversion/ Toronto Star (2015) Forty years ago, Celsius came to Canada. Its reception? Brrrrr https://www.thestar.com/news/insight/2015/03/29/forty-years-ago-celsius-came-to-canada-itsreception-brrrrrrrrr.html University of Illinois – Metric System http://mste.illinois.edu/dildine/tcd_files/metric/hook.htm Example of online conversion tool http://www.metric-conversions.org/ Mars Climate orbiter failure board releases report http://mars.nasa.gov/msp98/news/mco991110.html CBC News – Why its hard to land on Mars http://www.cbc.ca/news/technology/hard-to-land-on-mars-1.3816522 *Webpages were active as of Jan 31, 2017

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Arbogast, Ford, and Dagesse, Discovering Physical Geography, Canadian Edition

CHAPTER 4 THE GEOGRAPHER’S TOOLS In this chapter, the student is introduced to the concepts of latitude and longitude, the geographic grid, maps, map projections, remote sensing, GIS, and GPS.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES Upon completion of the chapter, the student should be able to: Learning Objective 1.

2.

3.

Compare and contrast the various components of the Earth’s geographic grid.

Discuss the concepts of map projection and scale and why they are important when designing maps.

Compare and contrast the various ways that digital technology is used in geography.

Section Reference The Geographic Grid Maps—The Basic Tool of Geographers Digital Technology in Geography

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Arbogast, Ford, and Dagesse, Discovering Physical Geography, Canadian Edition

Lecture Lead-ins/Transitions Geographic grid: Tangibles can add much to the topic of the geographic grid: You might bring to class a beach ball that has absolutely no markings or logo, but you have drawn onto it with a felt pen a large “secret island.” Open by asking students: How would you bury your pirate treasure so that you could find it again? “X marks the spot” introduces the need for a grid to relocate the secret location. You can rotate the ball, showing the need for a North, and develop the grid concept.

Geographic grid: If you install ‘Google Earth’ on the classroom computer, the geographic grid can be toggled on and off under the ‘view’ dropdown menu.

GPS: Increasingly, students have GPS units in their cars, phones or have used them for hiking, camping or geocaching and can comment on this utility, leading to a discussion of how it is done. Some students who are or have been in scouts, cadets or military service may also be familiar with GPS use.

GIS: An image of the Earth by night is a good lead-in to satellite imagery and GIS. If you have the facility in the classroom, it is always better to project a real GIS project and show students how layers can be added, and overlaid, and how this has real-world applications.

ESRI’s online GIS page provides an opportunity to show students a working GIS. http://www.esri.com/software/arcgis/arcgisonline The site is beneficial because it also provides an indication of which industries or sectors of society are using GIS including business, government, natural resources, and public safety. http://www.esri.com/industries/

Lecture Demonstrations There are many serious and technical aspects to the materials of this chapter, so the following suggestions are more for fun; they are not meant as a substitute for the science but as a supplement, time permitting.

Cutting a piece of fruit like a cantaloupe is a good illustration of great and small circles.

A chocolate orange, which falls into segments, illustrates both longitude and great circles, and “sweetens” the students.

For a fun start to class, you might like to wear a Halloween-style witch’s (wizard’s) hat, and not explain it until you get to map projections (conic).

For the map essentials, you might collect some maps of imaginary lands: A. A. Milne’s Hundred Acre Wood https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/ac/Map_of_the_Hundred_Acre_Wood.gif Time article on Hundred Acre Wood http://time.com/4526257/ashdown-forest-winnie-the-pooh/ Guardian article on Hundred Acre Wood http://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/destinations/europe/united-kingdom/articles/ashdown-forestInstructor’s Manual Chapter 2 – The Geographer’s Tools 2-2 Copyright © 2018 John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd. Unauthorized copying, distribution, or transmission of this page is strictly prohibited.

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hundred-acre-wood/ R. L. Stevenson’s Treasure Island http://digital.nls.uk/rlstevenson/pics/picture-e2.html http://mapdesign.icaci.org/2014/02/mapcarte-36365-treasure-island-by-robert-louis-stevenson1883/ http://bigthink.com/strange-maps/378-x-m-aarrrh-ks-the-spot Tolkien’s Middle Earth http://lotrproject.com/map/#zoom=3&lat=-1315.5&lon=1500&layers=BTTTTT http://www.theonering.com/galleries/maps-calendars-genealogies/maps-calendarsgenealogies/map-of-middle-earth-j-r-r-tolkien http://donsmaps.com/middleearthmap.html or other imaginary lands created for computer games.

Article – Putting fiction on the map https://www.theguardian.com/childrens-books-site/2015/nov/11/putting-childrens-literature-onthe-map-young-adult There are also many amusing old maps where countries are drawn as people, animals, and so on. Ask—Do these maps serve the purpose? Do they contain enough information to find your way to a destination? What is their real purpose? (political satire usually) In the spring semester, a heart-shaped projection can be displayed near Valentine’s Day, as a “hook” (http://www.geo.hunter.cuny.edu/mp/werner2.gif, and others)

Discussion Questions/Critical Thinking Questions Students wearing baseball caps in the classroom can be asked—How could you make that cap flat? The answer? By squashing or with scissors.

There is an iPhone app that will show a person’s antipodal point. Some students might have this app, and you could ask them to choose a couple of interesting locations: Could we dig a tunnel from our school to China? Where would we actually land, if we drilled through to our antipodean point?

Which class of projections is best to portray the whole Earth? Which could not be used? Why? What are the alleged advantages of the Peter’s projection?

Can a map be “propaganda”? Or can a map be drawn to influence the viewer’s perceptions?

In-Class and/or Group Activities After covering the map essentials, students can be asked to bring in a map to the following class. They will be called upon to “show and tell,” pointing out the uses, defects, and other Instructor’s Manual Chapter 2 – The Geographer’s Tools 2-3 Copyright © 2018 John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd. Unauthorized copying, distribution, or transmission of this page is strictly prohibited.

Arbogast, Ford, and Dagesse, Discovering Physical Geography, Canadian Edition

notable features of their map. This is a popular exercise for which students may bring such diverse items as a theme park map and an Auto Club road map, a mall, a golf course, a topo map. Gamers or readers of science fiction have brought maps of imaginary places (e.g., Middle Earth) or of World War II in Europe. Even a basketball court diagram is a kind of map. The college campus is an important map for freshmen. Since students keep their own maps, you can have them fill out the attached Map Analysis Sheet to organize their presentation and to serve as a record for you. Of course, if you teach a very large section, say 100 students, you might only call on a few, so the record is necessary.

There are numerous websites with maps that can be cut and folded into an approximation of a globe; students enjoy this; since you need scissors, they could do this at home and bring them to class.

Here is one source (this is a large, 12 MB file): NOAA – National Centre for Environmental Education: Dodecahedron Globe http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/mgg/image/dodecahedron.pdf This one has both small and large file versions: NOAA – National Centers for Environmental Education: Surface of the Earth Icosahedron Globe http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/mgg/fliers/04mgg02.html Several others examples are available here https://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/mgg/education.html The site 3D Geography has several templates that can be downloaded: http://www.3dgeography.co.uk/make-a-globe There are also commercial sites that sell various fold-up globes—for example, Bucky Fuller’s Dymaxion globe.

Tips for First-Time Lecturers Wall maps are essential for a geography classroom, but increasingly we are forced to teach in anonymous rooms and to use PowerPoint slides as a substitute. If this is your situation, try to convince administrators that maps are not only the tools of geographers but also our language.

Student learning is greatly enhanced with large, tangible maps. As the instructor you may wish to work with the department map librarian to create a wall display of various types of maps in an appropriate hallway or display area in the department. Students can be directed to the display to view the various types of maps discussed in class.

A globe is also essential, not only for map projection comprehension, but for antipodal points, the geographic grid, and much more. An alternative to bringing a traditional globe to the class is the use of an inflatable globe which can show countries, topographic and bathymetric features on Earth’s surface. These globes are inexpensive, portable and easy to demonstrate with in class. Examples of inflatable globes can be viewed at the following: http://www.1worldglobes.com/inflatable_earth_globes.htm

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Arbogast, Ford, and Dagesse, Discovering Physical Geography, Canadian Edition

Topographic Maps – The Basics http://www.nrcan.gc.ca/sites/www.nrcan.gc.ca/files/earthsciences/pdf/topo101/pdf/mapping_bas ics_e.pdf UTM Grid http://www.nrcan.gc.ca/earth-sciences/geography/topographic-information/maps/9779 UTM Grid – Map Projections http://www.nrcan.gc.ca/earth-sciences/geography/topographic-information/maps/9775 NTS System http://www.nrcan.gc.ca/earth-sciences/geography/topographic-information/maps/9767 Natural Resources Canada – Topographic Map symbols http://ftp.geogratis.gc.ca/pub/nrcan_rncan/raster/cantopo/doc/Symbology_Symbologie/CanTopo _Symbol_Adobe.pdf Natural Resources Canada – Atlas of Canada http://www.nrcan.gc.ca/earth-sciences/geography/atlas-canada Statistics Canada – Map Projection http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/92-195-x/2011001/other-autre/mapproj-projcarte/m-c-eng.htm Interesting article in Popular Mechanics http://www.popularmechanics.com/technology/design/a23659/incredibly-accurate-world-mapdesign-award/ New Yorker Article on the Allure of the Map http://www.newyorker.com/books/page-turner/the-allure-of-the-map NASA - Earth at Night https://www.nasa.gov/topics/earth/earthday/gall_earth_night.html NASA – Earth at Night – Visible Earth http://visibleearth.nasa.gov/view.php?id=55167 NASA article about Earth at Night https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/NPP/news/earth-at-night.html Guardian Newspaper (UK) Article on Map of Middle Earth https://www.theguardian.com/books/2015/oct/23/jrr-tolkien-middle-earth-annotated-mapblackwells-lord-of-the-rings Independent Newspaper (UK) Article about Maps as Propaganda http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/art/features/the-truth-about-maps-howcartographers-distort-reality-1922806.html Guardian Newspaper (UK) Article about Maps as Propaganda https://www.theguardian.com/books/gallery/2014/jun/03/war-ww1-propaganda-maps-in-pictures National Geographic article on maps and propaganda Instructor’s Manual Chapter 2 – The Geographer’s Tools 2-5 Copyright © 2018 John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd. Unauthorized copying, distribution, or transmission of this page is strictly prohibited.

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http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2016/10/propaganda-war-maps-gallery/ Lying with Maps https://projecteuclid.org/download/pdfview_1/euclid.ss/1124891287 Lying with Maps http://courses.washington.edu/war101/readings/Monmonier.pdf USGS – Map Projections https://egsc.usgs.gov/isb//pubs/MapProjections/projections.html USGS – Map Projections: A working manual (1987) – Downloadable PDF https://pubs.er.usgs.gov/publication/pp1395 Map Projection Page (Carlos Furuti, Prógonos Consulting) http://www.progonos.com/furuti/MapProj/CartIndex/cartIndex.html Map Projection Home Page – Hunter College City University of New York http://www.geography.hunter.cuny.edu/mp/index.html

*Webpages were active as of Jan 31, 2017

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Arbogast, Ford, and Dagesse, Discovering Physical Geography, Canadian Edition

CHAPTER 3 EARTH–SUN GEOMETRY AND THE SEASONS In this important chapter, the student is introduced to the relative size of the Earth and of our solar system. The causes and effects of seasonal changes are explained in terms of Earth–Sun geometry.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES Upon completion of the chapter, the student should be able to: Learning Objective 1.

2.

3.

Describe the nature of Earth’s orbit around the Sun, including revolution, rotation, and axial tilt, and explain the concept of angle of incidence and how it varies by latitude.

Discuss the seasons with reference to the Equator, the Tropic of Cancer, the Tropic of Capricorn, and the shifting subsolar point.

Describe how humans experience the Earth–Sun geometric relationship.

Instructor’s Manual

Section Reference Our Place in Space

The Seasons

Human Interactions: How We See Earth–Sun Geometry on Earth

Chapter 3 – Earth–Sun Geometry and the Seasons

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Arbogast, Ford, and Dagesse, Discovering Physical Geography, Canadian Edition

Lecture Lead-ins/Transitions A powerful lead-in can be used if you live in a place where there is a scale model of the solar system. Many communities have constructed these models, including Toronto, Ontario; Eugene, Oregon; Peoria, Illinois; Presque Isle, Maine; Ithaca, New York; and overseas—Zurich, Switzerland and Falun, Sweden. Students at York University have their own short Planet Walk.

If your school has a walk or is close to a Planet Walk, students can be asked to walk/cycle/drive the local model route on the weekend prior to your class. If you are not near such a model, other cities have science centres where a smaller scale model can be seen— the Ontario Science Centre in Toronto, the H. R. MacMillian Space Centre in Vancouver, or the Rio Tinto Alcan Planetarium in Montreal come immediately to mind. Students could be asked to visit the museum and note the relative sizes and distances. Some may have had small models hanging in their bedroom as children.

Another potential introductory tool could be to watch or have the students watch the video – “To Scale: The Solar System” before the class. In the short (7:00 min.) film, the two filmmakers create a scale model of the solar system on a dry lake bed in Nevada (Available here: https://vimeo.com/139407849) You might in fact choose this to start your class, rather than begin with the materials in Chapters 1 and 2. Feel free to arrange the instruction to suit your own and your students’ interests.

Lecture Demonstrations Good students will understand Earth–Sun geometry regardless of how it is introduced to them, and there are animations to help with this topic. Nevertheless, the idea of seasonal change is difficult for many students if they do not see it in three dimensions. An easy hands-on demonstration involves asking students to bring their own model—a tennis ball or foam ball, impaled on a wooden (satay) skewer, and their own flashlight. (Please note that this activity begins in Chapter Two – The Geographer’s Tools – The Geographic Grid).

First, students can use a felt pen or marker to draw the Equator and mark the Poles. This illustrates the 360 degrees of a circle, and then you can move on to latitude. Ask them to draw a continent as well as an island, where the pirates will bury their treasure.

• How would we locate that “pirate’s treasure” if we only knew the latitude? Clearly we need an X. So we need lines of longitude as well.

After covering the meridians, you might ask: • What is the importance of 23.5 degrees and 66.5 degrees? Why choose such “difficult” numbers for the other” important” lines?

Now you get to play with the model.

• Rotation—First, each student holds the ball-on-stick vertical and rotates it in front of the flashlight. Ask first: What do you notice about the circle of illumination? It passes through the Poles and everywhere on Earth has 12 hours of daylight, 12 hours of darkness.

•

Revolution - Now have one student hold a flashlight at waist height, always facing the model Earth while the other walks around it with the Earth model, again held vertical, at waist height.

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•

What would happen throughout a year if the circle of illumination always passed through the Poles?

•

Would there be a change of seasons in a place that every day of the year had the same amount of solar radiation/the same length of daylight and darkness?

•

Axial Tilt - The students will themselves realize: This does not really happen? Days grow longer/shorter? Temperatures change throughout the year. So it is not simply rotation on the axis, nor is it revolution round the Sun. What else is there to know about the Earth? The axis tilted – 23.5 degrees from vertical. Let students estimate the tilt on their model “Earth” and repeat the revolution, taking care to always keep the Earth in the plane of the ecliptic.

Now what happens to the circle of illumination? The students can see for themselves the changes in day length, particularly at the Poles (e.g., Solstice and Equinox).

•

Aphelion and Perihelion – Students can hold the model Earth closer to the Sun and further away.

The instructor who does not have space in the classroom can do this him/herself, demonstrating the seasonal change with a small (portable or inflatable) globe and a fixed light source, perhaps a projector.

Whether done as an instructor demonstration or in pairs, it is important to point out that the Sun must be understood to be shining in all directions at once, and not as a directed beam as in this activity. This may seem a trivial point, but never underestimate a student’s capacity to misunderstand.

Discussion Questions/Critical Thinking Questions With a good class, you might examine other options one by one, for example: What would happen if the Earth did not rotate?

What if the tilt of the Earth changes? What happens to the seasons at a particular location?

What if the Earth were a cube instead of a sphere?

What if the Earth did not revolve around the Sun?

In-Class and/or Group Activities There is seldom time or space for this but another fun demonstration is to have students in groups of three act out the motions of the Sun, Earth, and Moon. One student stands still, the Earth student has to walk slowly around in its own orbit, close to the Earth, and the Moon has to spin quite fast around the Earth; it is harder than one expects. This is a good campfire/evening “game” if you take students on an extended field trip.

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Tips for First-Time Lecturers Remember that Pluto has been “demoted” from planetary status, but that some displays, books, and even websites have not been updated to reflect this controversial decision.

It is worth taking time on this chapter, for the cause of the seasons is a basic and vastly misunderstood concept. After their experiment with the ball-on-stick, you can show students how the poor Harvard graduates in the 1980s explained the seasons: (*Note this is a short clip of a 20 minute film) http://ed.ted.com/on/xKxsSA5w or https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p0wk4qG2mIg For the complete resource with interesting additional links and videos: https://www.learner.org/resources/series28.html#

Relevant Web Links Animations help, but a three-dimensional hands-on model is best for this section.

University of Nebraska-Lincoln – Astronomy Education http://astro.unl.edu/naap/ssm/heliocentric.html NASA - Solar System Animation https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/20249 Sagan Planet Walk at the Sciencenter in Ithaca, New York http://www.sciencenter.org/sagan-walk.html Eugene Oregon Model: http://www.efn.org/~jack_v/ University of Manitoba – A scale model of our Solar System http://umanitoba.ca/observatory/outreach/solarsystem/ Jane’s Walk – Walkable Planets – a walkable route in downtown Toronto, ON http://janeswalk.org/canada/toronto/walkable-planets/ York University - Scale Model of the Solar System http://solarsystem.blog.yorku.ca/ Video – “To Scale: The solar System” Two filmmakers create a scale model of the solar system on a dry lake bed in Nevada https://vimeo.com/139407849 CBC article on man who built a solar system model in a field in Comber, ON http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/windsor/solar-system-model-built-to-scale-1.3647627 McBride British Columbia, Scale Model Solar System http://visitmcbride.ca/solar/ The Maine Solar System Model, Aroostook County, Maine http://pages.umpi.edu/nmms/solar/ Instructor’s Manual

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A list of Science Centres in Canada https://www.canadiansciencecentres.ca/Find-a-Science-Centre A list of Canadian Planetariums http://casca.ca/?page_id=451 STAR Lab Stanford University http://nova.stanford.edu/projects/mod-x/ad-globe.html National Geographic Activity – The Reason for the Seasons http://www.nationalgeographic.org/activity/the-reason-for-the-seasons/ Guardian Newspaper (UK) Science demo video on the changing seasons https://www.theguardian.com/science/video/2012/nov/02/science-demonstration-changingseasons-video NASA article – What is Pluto? https://www.nasa.gov/audience/forstudents/k-4/stories/nasa-knows/what-is-pluto-k4.html NASA – Pluto – The basics http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/pluto/basic National Geographic article – Debate over Pluto’s status – Planet or Not? http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2014/09/140926-pluto-planet-definition-sciencedebate/

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CHAPTER 4 THE GLOBAL ENERGY SYSTEM In this chapter, the student is introduced to Earth’s atmosphere, the electromagnetic spectrum, Earth’s radiation budget, and solar energy as an alternative to non-renewable energy.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES Upon completion of the chapter, the student should be able to: Learning Objective 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Section Reference

Describe the fundamental components of the electromagnetic spectrum and how they differ from one another.

Discuss the various components of the atmosphere.

The Electromagnetic Spectrum and Solar Energy

Explain the flow of radiation from the Sun to Earth and how absorption, reflection, scattering, and albedo influence the system.

Discuss the various components of the global radiation budget and how the system achieves balance.

Discuss why solar energy is a renewable energy source and the challenges associated with its production.

The Flow of Solar Radiation on Earth

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Composition of the Atmosphere

The Global Radiation Budget

Human Interactions: Solar Energy Production

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Lecture Lead-ins/Transitions This chapter presents a wealth of information and concepts beyond students’ own experiences, so it helps to give them real-world examples from their own lives to ground the class session(s).

For an opener: A picture of the aurora, or even better a short movie clip, is a nice way to catch students’ attention. (More than a decade ago (2000), the movie Frequency was a good talking point: Dennis Quaid time-travelled in Chicago when the aurora was strong!)

Aurora info from NASA: https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/sunearth/aurora-newsstories/index.html

For the Greenhouse effect: Unfortunate stories of dogs and even children expiring in a locked car are familiar, even to students who have never seen a greenhouse. In recent periods of very warm weather across Canada, people have experimented with baking cookies in their cars to illustrate the hot temperatures in a closed vehicle and how dangerous it can be to children or pets.

Baking cookies in a car: https://www.theweathernetwork.com/news/articles/for-science-bakingcookies-in-a-sweltering-hot-car/55534 http://www.torontosun.com/2013/07/17/toronto-cop-uses-hot-weather-to-bake-cookies-in-car

For the Earth’s atmosphere: There is a clip in the old video series “Space Age,” titled “Mission to Planet Earth” (1992), that aired on Discovery Channel where a Russian cosmonaut (astronaut) says that, although he already knew the dimensions of the Earth and the thinness of its atmosphere, it was not until he saw the Earth from space that he really appreciated that our atmosphere is thin and delicate, like the skin of an onion or the skin of an apple.

Skin of an apple: http://earth.rice.edu/mtpe/atmo/atmosphere/topics/1_atmomemb.html Neil deGrasse Tyson https://twitter.com/neiltyson/status/723534428916486144?lang=en This is a nice simile, which students can easily visualize or even hold in their hands. It can be useful here to remind students again of the different scales: To a human the depth of the atmosphere is immense as with the description ‘an ocean of air’ but from space the entire terrestrial biosphere is only within the troposphere a thin envelop of gases that protect life on Earth from the vacuum of space.

Actual quote: For the first time in my life I saw the horizon as a curved line. It was accentuated by a thin seam of dark blue light—our atmosphere. Obviously this was not the ocean of air I had been told it was so many times in my life. I was terrified by its fragile appearance.

— Ulf Merbold. http://www.spacequotations.com/earth.html http://www.azquotes.com/author/43936-Ulf_Merbold https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FYHN952dVRE Russian - see at 6:50 of video Or David Leestma – atmosphere is Earth’s spacesuit Canadian Astronaut Robert Thirsk

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http://www.macleans.ca/society/science/question-and-astronaut-robert-thirsk/ or Steve Maclean http://www.macleans.ca/society/science/question-and-astronaut-steven-maclean/

Albedo: Time permitting; you can ask students: Why the most popular automobile colour is black, and what are the consequences on a sunny day?

Why do we build houses that have dark-coloured roofs (shingle, composite materials, and concrete tile) in warm places in the United States and Canada? Students who have travelled to tropical destinations may have seen very lightweight houses, corrugated metal roofs, white walls, and similar thermally appropriate construction features.

Measuring Earth’s albedo: http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=84499 http://www.esa.int/Our_Activities/Observing_the_Earth/Reflecting_on_Earth_s_albedo

UV radiation: Why do you apply sunscreen at the beach? When you go skiing? Or perhaps, why not! What is the UV report for your home town compared to where someone might go on vacation further south in the winter?

UV Report: Find a location: https://www.theweathernetwork.com/forecasts/uv/list Interpret results: https://www.theweathernetwork.com/forecasts/uv/interpretation UV index Environment Canada: http://www.ec.gc.ca/uv/default.asp?lang=En&n=C74058DD-1 http://legacyweb.theweathernetwork.com/uvreport/caon0289

Lecture Demonstrations This chapter contains so much information that there may not be time for much else.

UV: You might like to open a webpage showing weather conditions for your city (e.g., https://www.theweathernetwork.com/ca) and point out the UV index information, asking: Who ever consults this page? Who likes to “lie out” on the beach? How long do you do this? Have you ever been sunburned?

Ozone: Although ozone in the atmosphere is beneficial, ozone at ground level is a pollutant that is harmful. Ozone (O3), Fine particulate matter (PM2.5), and Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2) are the three specific pollutants measured by Environment Canada to provide an indication of overall air quality. There are also small “kits” available (EcoBadge is one version) that you can leave outside on campus to give a measure of ozone pollution near the school. Some students may have been in a European country in the summer during hot sunny weather, when automobiles may be banned from city centres to reduce ozone and smog on these days.

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Since reading a print newspaper is not common among our students, you might at this time ask students to bookmark a weather website, as they will need it in a future class (for the exercise suggested for Chapter 9.)

Discussion Questions/Critical Thinking Questions •

• • •

How is your dorm, apartment, or house heated? What is the power source? Many students may not know this for your city, so you need to know about the government power situation (municipal or provincial?) e.g., Toronto – Toronto Hydro http://www.torontohydro.com/sites/electricsystem/Pages/foryourhome.aspx e.g., Utility company such as Horizon Utilities https://www.horizonutilities.com/pages/default.aspx e.g., Ontario – Hydro One http://www.hydroone.com/Pages/default.aspx You could have this webpage open as the class begins, and use it as a lead-in to this chapter.

It is important here also to refer back to the previous chapter and the seasonal changes in temperature and angle of incidence to reinforce this material.

As you talk about the energy budget, students will almost certainly ask about “global warming.” Is the budget not balanced? This issue should be addressed succinctly, since it leads to the next chapter.

You can ask students to compare the delay in banning CFCs with the delay in making the connection between tobacco and cancers.

In-Class and/or Group Activities This chapter does not lend itself to group activities. It is often better to balance a couple of “heavy” classes with a fun activity later.

Tips for First-Time Lecturers It is important to maintain the human focus (the geographical focus) while covering this chapter.

Much of the information is almost background (the composition of the upper atmosphere, atmospheric chemistry, and such). It is good to always give an application that students might relate to.

Ionosphere: The use of BBC shortwave radio broadcasts by Winston Churchill during World War II might be familiar to students, especially those who play computer games. Ham radios used to be popular, but are thin on the ground nowadays, so the aurora is the more visual part of the ionosphere. The phenomenon brings many Japanese tourists to Alaska or tourists to Iceland; it might not be appropriate to mention the association between conception and good fortune, depending on your class situation.

Difference between AM and FM bands: http://apollo.lsc.vsc.edu/classes/met130/notes/chapter1/ion2.html http://radiojove.gsfc.nasa.gov/class/educ/radio/tran-rec/exerc/iono.htm

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Electromagnetic spectrum: Only visible light, UV, and IR actually affect our students’ lives to the extent that we can talk about emergency services or search and rescue using IR to find lost or missing persons; use of IR to find heat loss from a home in order to improve insulation and save money; skin cancers from UV; or making rainbows with a prism in elementary school.

Albedo: This chapter also provides an opportunity to reinforce some of the earlier materials, especially the importance of the seasons, angle of incidence, and subsolar point.

Ozone: It is especially important to be sure students understand that stratospheric ozone (good) is exactly the same chemically as urban ozone (pollutant = bad).

Other: You may find that students will ask about SETI while you are covering the materials in this chapter. It is always advisable to be prepared. Are there Earth-like planets? Do they have an Earth-like atmosphere? How would alien life forms communicate with us? Travel to Earth?

For information on other planets, please refer to the Kepler Mission – A search for Habitable Planets. https://kepler.nasa.gov/ https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/kepler/overview/index.html

Relevant Web Links •

United States Global change Research Program—has a section for educators, including printable brochures and an image gallery, links to IPCC documents, and more. http://www.globalchange.gov/ http://www.gcrio.org/ozone/ozoneFAQs.html • Weather Network https://www.theweathernetwork.com/ca • Weather Network UV Report https://www.theweathernetwork.com/ca/forecasts/uv/ontario/hamilton • Weather Network Air Quality Health Index https://www.theweathernetwork.com/ca/forecasts/air-quality/ontario/hamilton • Environment and Climate Change Canada – FAQ about the AQHI https://www.ec.gc.ca/cas-aqhi/default.asp?lang=En&n=3E3FDF68-1#wsA52DC9CF • Environment Canada – Ozone and UV Monitoring http://exp-studies.tor.ec.gc.ca/clf2/e/main.html • Environment Canada – World Ozone Monitoring and Mapping http://es-ee.tor.ec.gc.ca/e/ozone/ozoneworld.htm •

Government of Canada – Canada’s Action on Climate Change

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http://www.climatechange.gc.ca/default.asp?lang=En&n=E18C8F2D-1 • Government of Canada – Natural Resources Canada – Climate Change https://www.nrcan.gc.ca/environment

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CHAPTER 5 GLOBAL TEMPERATURE PATTERNS In this chapter, the student is introduced to the structure of the atmosphere, based on temperature. The three different temperature scales are illustrated, and the effects of heat stroke or wind chill are noted. Controls of temperature are explained, followed by the urban heat island effect. To conclude, annual temperature ranges are examined, to show the combined effects of latitude, insolation, and marine/continental location.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES Upon completion of the chapter, the student should be able to: Learning Objective 1.

2.

3.

Compare and contrast the various layers of the atmosphere and the vertical change in temperature that occurs within them.

Describe how various large-scale factors influence surface air temperature on Earth.

Discuss the urban heat island effect and how human interactions in these environments influence air temperature.

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Section Reference Layered Structure of the Atmosphere Surface and Air Temperatures Human Interactions: Urban Heat Islands

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Lecture Lead-ins/Transitions Using a Sci-fi visual (perhaps a person in a spacesuit floating in blackness—Apollo 13, 2010 a Space Odyssey ), you might show students that in outer space it is cold and dark, and human life cannot exist without extreme protection and support.

You could then simply ask about what they notice when they drive or hike to the top of a mountain, where it will be colder than at sea level. Does this mean that temperature simply decreases with distance from Earth’s surface? For example, Mount Kilimanjaro in Tanzania (3.0674° S, 37.3556° E) is located only 320km from the equator but at approximately nearly 6000m in height there is snow and ice on its summit. Another example would be Mount Chimborazo, Ecuador which is even closer to the equator (1.4693° S, 78.8169° W) but because of its height of approximately 6300m above sea level there is snow and ice.

An interesting side note related to Mount Chimborazo is the debate over whether it is the highest point on Earth and not Mount Everest in Nepal. If time allows it could be an interesting discussion about the shape of the Earth. For some background on the debate, please see: The New York Times https://www.nytimes.com/2016/05/17/world/what-in-the-world/the-mountain-that-tops-everestbecause-the-earth-is-fat.html?_r=0 The Weather Network https://www.theweathernetwork.com/us/news/articles/ecuadors-mt-chimborazo-is-officiallyhighest-spot-on-earth/66219 The Guardian Newspaper https://www.theguardian.com/travel/2016/jan/23/mountain-climbing-chimborazo-ecuador The Independent Newspaper http://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/mount-everest-isn-t-actually-the-tallest-mountainecuador-s-chimborazo-beats-it-a7034656.html Another example would be if students have driven the 120km ‘Sea to Sky’ highway from sea level in Vancouver, BC (2oC) to approximately 675m in the village of Whistler (-8oC). From there students then would have taken the chairlift/gondola system to an elevation of approximately 2200m (-12oC) at the top of Whistler-Blackcomb mountains.

This leads to a diagram of the atmospheric layers—temperature does fall in the troposphere, but it increases in the stratosphere. The students have just studied ozone in the previous chapter, so this links the two. Then temperature falls again in the mesosphere.

Lecture Demonstrations Maps and diagrams, video of the aurora, and perhaps a fund of short “stories” are the best tools for this chapter. Students like to see the coloured diagrams of atmospheric layers. This is an easy and enjoyable chapter for both the instructor and the students.

Discussion Questions/Critical Thinking Questions •

If you wait until this chapter to introduce the Systeme International, this could be the time to

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mention the fiasco of NASA’s Mars Climate Orbiter, lost in December 1998–January 1999, because different contractors used different measurement systems (SI versus Imperial); the loss for the total project: $327.6 million. o What three countries still use the imperial system? o Why are we so attached to this system?

• Bucky Fuller’s Dome for New York City is an idea that can lead to fruitful insights into temperature change, urban heat islands, air pollution, and more. o What would be the advantages/benefits? o What complication can you foresee? o What about this idea for a smaller city? With a colder climate? o Treehugger website http://www.treehugger.com/urban-design/look-bucky-fullers-dome-over-new-yorkcity.html

In-Class and/or Group Activities You may like to show part of this video: US Department of State Youtube channel – America’s Response to Climate change: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pOJPzd45wQs Especially if you live close to places described in this video: (Madison, Wisconsin; New York City, New York; New Orleans, Louisiana; Detroit, Michigan (whose auto industry gets quite lengthy coverage); Ardacia Florida (solar power); Sweetwater, Texas, (oil to wind); Idaho Falls, Idaho (Nuclear Energy); Golden, Colorado (biofuel/ethanol); Decatur, Illinois (carbon sequestration); New Haven, West Virginia; Miami, Florida. The ending, with GEOS images, is useful; this is a good lead-in; perhaps show just the introduction and the one local case study.

Although there isn’t a similar video for Canada’s response to climate change, instructors could ask students to explore Canadian examples of projects similar to those mentioned in the film that have been developed across Canada as a homework assignment. The class could discuss the various examples found by the students.

Canadian Examples Government of Canada – Environment and Climate Change Canada: http://www.climatechange.gc.ca/default.asp?lang=en&n=E18C8F2D-1

Solar Natural Resources Canada – Renewable Energy http://www.nrcan.gc.ca/energy/renewable-electricity/7295#solar Natural Resources Canada – Solar Photovoltaic Energy http://www.nrcan.gc.ca/energy/renewables/solar-photovoltaic/7303 Canadian Solar http://www.canadiansolar.com/na/projects.html Globe and Mail http://www.theglobeandmail.com/report-on-business/solar-power-surging-to-forefront-ofcanadian-energy/article19786759/ Instructor’s Manual

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http://www.climatechange.gc.ca/default.asp?lang=en&n=E18C8F2D-1

Wind Natural Resources Canada – Wind Energy http://www.nrcan.gc.ca/energy/renewables/wind/7299 http://www.nrcan.gc.ca/energy/renewable-electricity/wind/7323 Canadian Wind Atlas http://collaboration.cmc.ec.gc.ca/science/rpn/modcom/eole/wind-atlas-selection.html Canwea – Canadian Wind Energy Assocation http://canwea.ca/wind-energy/installed-capacity/ Nuclear Energy World Nuclear Association – Nuclear Power in Canada http://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/country-profiles/countries-a-f/canada-nuclearpower.aspx Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission http://www.cnsc-ccsn.gc.ca/eng/reactors/power-plants/index.cfm

Biomass Natural Resources Canada – Bioenergy from biomass http://www.nrcan.gc.ca/forests/industry/bioproducts/13323 Natural Resources Canada – Bioenergy Systems https://www.nrcan.gc.ca/energy/renewable-electricity/bioenergy-systems/7311 Biomass Innovation Centre http://www.biomassinnovation.ca/ http://www.biomassinnovation.ca/casestudies.html#

Carbon Sequestration Natural Resources Canada http://www.nrcan.gc.ca/energy/coal/carbon-capture-storage/4295 CBC News http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/calgary/carbon-capture-milestone-one-million-tonnes1.3761606 Guardian Newspaper https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2014/oct/01/canada-switches-on-worlds-first-carboncapture-power-plant Canadian Association of Petroleum Producers http://www.capp.ca/responsible-development/air-and-climate/carbon-capture-and-storage Financial Post Instructor’s Manual

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http://business.financialpost.com/fp-comment/canada-may-already-be-carbon-neutral-so-whyare-we-keeping-it-a-secret

Tips for First-Time Lecturers We should be proselytizers for the SI. Train yourself to use it; if you feel you must give imperial units, as a crutch to your students, always use the SI units first. (e.g., 10km [6.2miles]) At the end of this chapter, emphasize that all life is in the troposphere, at the bottom of the atmosphere. Just as we looked briefly at the solar system, our focus is really on humans on Earth, and so we need to know enough to understand our place in the larger realm of Earth’s system.

Even in a science class, we need not exclude colour and creativity. Students enjoy making their own scale-diagram-plus-artwork of the atmosphere. Encourage them to make, by hand, a onepage illustration of the four temperature layers, putting into each illustration as much as they can: You might brainstorm, and they will come up with the Sun (e.g., a smiley-face), auroras, the space shuttle, Earth-orbiting satellites, Mount Everest, a thunder storm (cumulonimbus) with lightning, a jet plane, the CN Tower, and so on. You can also have the students refer to a Figure 6.4 in Chapter 6 as an additional reference. Suggest the creation of a collage as an alternative to sketching. Display the best, most colourful, most creative examples in the class or department. The only condition is that students do not simply print out one from a website.

Relevant Web Links Mount Kilimanjaro Image from NASA Earth Observatory http://www.earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=79641&eocn=image&eoci=moreiotd Mount Chimborazo Image from NASA Earth Observatory http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=6099 NASA Layers of the Atmosphere https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/sunearth/science/atmosphere-layers2.html UCAR Center for Science Education – Layers of Earth’s Atmosphere https://scied.ucar.edu/atmosphere-layers

Weather Information Weather Network https://www.theweathernetwork.com/ca UNISYS Weather http://weather.unisys.com/index.php Environment and Climate Change Canada – Weather http://weather.gc.ca/canada_e.html Weather Underground www.wunderground.com

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Environment and Climate Change Canada http://www.climatechange.gc.ca/default.asp?lang=En&n=E18C8F2D-1 U.S. Global Change Research Program http://www.globalchange.gov/ US Department of State Youtube channel – America’s Response to Climate change https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pOJPzd45wQs The Global Earth Observation System of Systems http://www.earthobservations.org/geoss.php Interesting resource if you have time to look beyond classwork.

Memorial University – Canadian Humidex Calculator https://memory.psych.mun.ca/tech/js/humidex/ CBC article on ‘The Humidex’ http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/the-humidex-the-flawed-canadian-way-to-calculate-summerdiscomfort-1.1394673 Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety – Humidex Rating and Work https://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/phys_agents/humidex.html Weather Network – Humidex vs Heat Index https://www.theweathernetwork.com/news/articles/humidex-vs-heat-index-whats-thedifference/10243 Weather Network – Humidex Map https://www.theweathernetwork.com/maps/humidex

Urban Heat Islands National Geographic http://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/urban-heat-island/ UCAR (Centre for Science Education) https://scied.ucar.edu/longcontent/urban-heat-islands Natural Resources Canada https://www.nrcan.gc.ca/sites/www.nrcan.gc.ca/files/earthsciences/pdf/mun/pdf/13-0616Rosemont%20Case%20Study_e.pdf City of Windsor – Urban Heat Island report http://www.citywindsor.ca/residents/environment/Environmental-MasterPlan/Documents/Urban%20Heat%20Island%20Report%20(2012).pdf Toronto Heat Island – Toronto Star https://www.thestar.com/news/world/2013/08/17/reducing_urban_heat_island_effect_in_toronto _a_matter_of_social_justice_activists_say.html Buffalo Heat Island – includes part of the Niagara Region

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NASA Earth Observatory http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=47704 Buffalo Heat Island (Second Page from NASA) https://www.nasa.gov/topics/earth/features/heat-island-sprawl.html

*Webpages were active as of Feb 5, 2017

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CHAPTER 6 ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE, WIND, AND GLOBAL CIRCULATION In this chapter, the student is introduced to atmospheric pressure, cyclones and anticyclones, prevailing winds, and the Asian monsoon. Wind as a clean and renewable energy source is discussed, preceding a section on the better known local winds. The mechanics of oceanic circulation are introduced, leading to a survey of El Niño as a phenomenon whereby atmospheric and oceanic circulations combine to create dramatic weather events.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES Upon completion of the chapter, the student should be able to: Learning Objective 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

Explain the concept of air pressure and how it is measured.

Compare and contrast high and low pressure systems and how air flows within them.

Describe the factors that influence large-scale wind patterns on Earth.

Discuss the components of the three major parts of the global circulation model: tropical circulation, midlatitude circulation, and polar circulation.

Describe the seasonal migration of pressure systems and explain the relevance to the monsoon season.

Describe how proximity to large bodies of water and topographic variations create local circulatory systems.

Explain why people are developing wind as a supplementary energy system, where in Canada potential is high for this development, and the challenges facing the effort.

Discuss the nature of oceanic circulation and how it compares with atmospheric circulatory patterns.

Instructor’s Manual

Section Reference Atmospheric Pressure Atmospheric Pressure Systems The Variables That Influence Large-Scale Winds Global Pressure and Atmospheric Circulation Seasonal Migration of Pressure Systems Local Wind Systems

Human Interactions: Harnessing Wind Energy

Oceanic Circulation

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Lecture Lead-ins/Transitions Air exerts pressure. Most of the simple lab-type pressure experiments are dramatic but cannot be done in a regular classroom, since you need to boil water. You can, however, remind students of the time when their high school teachers may have made a can collapse by boiling off liquid.

An alternative may be to show a short video clip such as the following: Bill Nye https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QeAp3CuGjk8 Crush a 220 litre drum https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j0TQxYemrgg Crush a 220 litre drum #2 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c5_ho2sc0fc Some students may have once driven to a high-elevation destination and noticed that a milk carton or packets of chips bulging out. Ask them why? The answer: because the pressure falls as one travels up the mountain, away from Earth’s surface.

Depending on the year, it might be an opportune time to start with the Wiley animation of El Niño showing what is happening on both sides of the Pacific and leading to the fact that only in the last 20 years or so have scientists been able to combine data and satellite observations and so can now predict El Niño events. (Since this may be the only science class your students ever take, it is worth grasping every opportunity to point out how scientists work, what they do, and how their findings make even student lives better, safer, and more predictable.)

NOAA El Niño http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/ninonina.html Discovery Channel – DNews https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Rjj8qPs6nLc Aljazeera English – El Niño http://www.aljazeera.com/programmes/techknow/2016/11/climate-chaos-el-nino-weather161108114844184.html UK Metoffice https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WPA-KpldDVc

Discussion Questions/Critical Thinking Questions Is there a connection between weather and health? Psychological condition? Or are these part of folklore/myth? (Migraines during Santa Ana and Foehn?)

The Weather Channel – 13 Ways weather affects your health https://weather.com/health/news/13-ways-weather-affects-your-health-without-you-knowing20140613#/1 Harvard Health Publications – How does cold weather affect your health Instructor’s Manual

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http://www.health.harvard.edu/staying-healthy/how-does-cold-weather-affect-your-health Environment and Climate Change Canada – Weather and your Health https://ec.gc.ca/meteo-weather/default.asp?lang=En&n=72113777-1 Readers Digest – How does the weather affect our health? http://www.readersdigest.ca/health/healthy-living/how-does-weather-affect-our-health/ Global News http://globalnews.ca/news/1508598/how-the-weather-can-affect-your-health/ Mayo Clinic – Migraines and weather http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/migraine-headache/expert-answers/migraineheadache/faq-20058505

You may have asked this question at the start of the semester: Are natural disasters becoming more frequent? More destructive? This is quite a controversial part of the global climate change debate, and the differing opinions and conclusions provide insight into the fact that scientific thought develops and changes over time, as better knowledge and data become available.

IPCC – Extreme weather and weather disasters http://www.ipcc.ch/ipccreports/tar/wg2/index.php?idp=354 http://www.ipcc.ch/ipccreports/tar/wg2/index.php?idp=680 NASA Earth Observatory – Impact of climate change on Natural Disasters http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/RisingCost/rising_cost5.php Union of Concerned Scientists – Extreme weather and Climate Change http://www.ucsusa.org/global_warming/science_and_impacts/impacts/extreme-weather-climatechange.html Scientific American https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/yes-some-extreme-weather-can-be-blamed-onclimate-change/ EPA – understanding the link between climate change and extreme weather https://www.epa.gov/climate-change-science/understanding-link-between-climate-change-andextreme-weather

In-Class and/or Group Activities The Coriolis effect Although there are diagrams and even animations of the Coriolis effect, for true student comprehension nothing beats the old-fashioned green globe, which you can rotate and have students draw a chalk line, say from 30 degrees north toward the Equator. They can see immediately the deflection toward the right. Then have them draw it from 30 degrees north toward 60 degrees north. Note again deflection to the right, setting up the clockwise circulation around a (Northern Hemisphere) High.

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National Geographic - Coriolis effect https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mPsLanVS1Q8 BBC4 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Wda7azMvabE NOVA PBS https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i2mec3vgeaI

Prevailing winds It is always a good idea to hand out a sheet with a circle representing a blank globe/Earth, and have students draw in cyclones and anticyclones, marked L and H, then draw prevailing wind systems and name them. Figure 6.16 is the “solution,” but it is important that students be able to reproduce this by remembering the mechanics, not just from “learning” the diagram.

Here is a strategy to remember the winds, which I learned from someone long ago, on a continent far, far away. Have the students sing—to the tune of the song of the seven dwarves (“Hi ho, hi ho. It’s off to work we go!”): High Low, High low Down from the pole we go It’s 90, 60, 30, Oh! High Low High Low (again….)

They never forget it!

Then if they simply remember that winds blow clockwise out of the subtropical high at 30, everything else falls into place for the Northern Hemisphere, and gets reversed for the Southern Hemisphere.

Tips for First-Time Lecturers Experience will soon show you that not all chapters are equal.

This is a dense chapter, full of important and memorable information and ideas, and students like to see the relevance and the human applications. It is therefore worth spending extra time on both the theoretical sections and the local winds and currents.

To make abstract wind systems memorable, it helps to: • tell grim stories of floating dead horses (see the song below too) and perishing Ancient Mariners (you can download the poem from http://www.gutenberg.org, both as text and as audio, and play it in the classroom for students to read while listening; for our texthandicapped learners this might be useful).

• play some sea shanties about winds, etc. http://shanty.rendance.org/lyrics/showlyric.php/horse http://www.southaustralianhistory.com.au/bound.htm (Beware that some are bawdy) Instructor’s Manual

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For ocean gyres, the Nike shoe story is fun: http://seawifs.gsfc.nasa.gov/OCEAN_PLANET/HTML/oceanography_currents_2.html You can make this phenomenon more dramatic by discussing the whole North Pacific garbage patch, but it is sometimes better to be lighter.

National Geographic Article http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2001/06/0619_seacargo.html

Nike Trainers and Rubber ducks Science education through Earth Observation http://www.seos-project.eu/modules/oceancurrents/oceancurrents-c01-p02.html

Relevant Web Links Pressure Maps Unisys Weather http://weather.unisys.com/index.php Environment Canada – Analyses and Modelling (select a surface analysis mean sea level pressure for map example) http://weather.gc.ca/analysis/index_e.html The Weather Network – Weather Systems Map https://www.theweathernetwork.com/maps/weather-systems National Weather Service – National Forecast Maps http://www.weather.gov/forecastmaps

Canadian Local Winds Chinook Canadian Encyclopedia – Chinook http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/chinook/ Weather Network https://www.theweathernetwork.com/news/articles/chinook-winds-and-alberta-weather/43265 Chinook http://apollo.lsc.vsc.edu/classes/met130/notes/chapter9/chinook.html CBC News http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/calgary/calgary-warm-weather-feb-2016-1.3440654 Government of Alberta http://www1.agric.gov.ab.ca/$department/deptdocs.nsf/all/sag6295

Ocean Gyres 5 Gyres Institute Instructor’s Manual

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https://www.5gyres.org/

Great Pacific Garbage Patch National Geographic http://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/great-pacific-garbage-patch/ NOAA http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/podcast/june14/mw126-garbagepatch.html CBC News http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/great-pacific-garbage-patch-researchers-devastated-by-sight1.3201111 Smithsonian Ocean Portal http://ocean.si.edu/ocean-news/ocean-trash-plaguing-our-sea Discover Magazine http://discovermagazine.com/2008/jul/10-the-worlds-largest-dump Scientific American https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/sea-unworthy-a-personal-journey-into-the-pacificgarbage-patch-slide-show/ National Science Foundation (Video) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=azwKxDVGmns Ted Talks (Video) https://www.ted.com/talks/capt_charles_moore_on_the_seas_of_plastic

* All web links active as of Feb 8, 2017

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CHAPTER 7 ATMOSPHERIC MOISTURE AND PRECIPITATION In this chapter, the student is introduced to the physical properties of water, leading to an examination of the hydrosphere and the hydrologic cycle. The three ways atmospheric humidity is measured lead to the concept of saturation and the dew point. After a short section on evaporation, adiabatic processes, associated lapse rates, and cloud formation, the chapter concludes with the classification of clouds. Finally, the four mechanisms causing precipitation are discussed.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES Upon completion of the chapter, the student should be able to: Learning Objective 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

Discuss the physical properties of water and the significance of latent heat to water’s phase changes.

Explain the concept of the hydrosphere and hydrologic cycle.

Compare and contrast the various kinds of humidity, and explain why dew-point temperature is an important variable in the hydrologic cycle.

Describe how water vapour enters the atmosphere through the process of evapotranspiration.

Describe the nature of adiabatic processes and why the dry and saturated adiabatic rates are used in moving bodies of air.

Describe the various types of clouds and explain why they occur.

Identify the two types of precipitation and compare and contrast orographic and convectional uplift.

Identify the effects of the 2015 drought in Western Canada.

Instructor’s Manual

Section Reference Physical Properties of Water

The Hydrosphere and the Hydrologic Cycle Humidity

Evaporation Adiabatic Processes

Cloud Formation and Classification Precipitation Human Interactions: 2015 Drought in Western Canada

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Lecture Lead-ins/Transitions If you feel inclined toward a little silliness, you can come to class wearing Mickey Mouse ears.

Many students will remember from middle school (or earlier) that this is the water molecule.

You might like to set up the hydrosphere demonstration described below and start with this demonstration.

The World Bank website has three sections dedicated to water: Water http://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/water Water resources management http://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/waterresourcesmanagement Water supply http://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/watersupply A World Bank report (2010) examining water and development stated the following: Water scarcity affects every continent of the globe. About 700 million people in 43 countries are under water stress, led by Ethiopia, Haiti, and Niger with the least amount of water available.

The United Nations calculates that even if the Millennium Development Goals for clean water supply are achieved, 800 million people will still lack access to safe drinking water in 2015 (World Bank Summary of Results 2010).

The summary of the report’s findings are available here: http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/EXTOED/EXTWATER/0,,contentMDK:22510243 ~pagePK:64829573~piPK:64829550~theSitePK:6817404,00.html The full 2010 report can be downloaded here: http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/EXTOED/EXTWATER/0,,contentMDK:22510516 ~pagePK:64829573~piPK:64829550~theSitePK:6817404,00.html?enableDHL=True The most recent report on water by the World Bank, ‘High and Dry: Climate Change, Water, and the Economy’ (2016) indicates that “Water scarcity, exacerbated by climate change, could cost some regions up to 6 percent of their GDP, spur migration, and spark conflict, according to a new World Bank report released today.”

“Water scarcity is a major threat to economic growth and stability around the world, and climate change is making the problem worse,” said World Bank President Jim Yong Kim. “If countries do not take action to better manage water resources, our analysis shows that some regions with large populations could be living with long periods of negative economic growth. But countries can enact policies now that will help them manage water sustainably for the years ahead.”

(World Bank Press Release May 3, 2016) 2016 World Bank Report ‘High and Dry: Climate Change, Water, and the Economy’: http://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/water/publication/high-and-dry-climate-change-water-andthe-economy

Lecture Demonstrations Instructor’s Manual

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There are many demonstrations that students may remember from their elementary or secondary education, but some students did not always have the most active teachers, so you may choose to do some of these demonstrations yourself.

For surface tension •

Rest a needle or razor blade on top of a container of water, and ask, why it does not sink?

•

With a dropper, count how many drops of water you can put onto a one-cent coin. Ask students to estimate before you start.

For capillary action •

A white carnation in a glass of water coloured blue with food dye.

For the relative size of components of the hydrosphere (my favourite, I admit) Requirements • Four graduated 1-litre containers, filling one with 1 litre of water • Box of salt • Blue food colour (optional) • Cooler-brick (flat blue plastic is best) • Flat rock large enough to rest on one cylinder • Eye dropper • Saucer Instructions • Start with all the water in the first container. 1000 ml represents the hydrosphere.

• Pour 30 ml into the second container.

• Now put a large spoonful of salt (and the blue colour if desired) into the 970 ml; this represents the oceans, which are too salty to drink.

• From the 30-ml container, pour 22 ml into the third container. Place the cooler-brick on top of that container. This represents ice caps and glacial ice, mostly in Antarctica and Greenland.

• Your “working container” now contains 8 ml. Ask whether it is available to us.

• Now pour 6 ml in the third container into the fourth container. Ask students whether this amount is available. [Answer: No, half is too deep to be accessible.] There are also significant costs associated with pumping groundwater. Put the flat rock over the container.

• You now have 2 ml left in the container you started with. Is it all for us? Is it potable?

[Answer: No, half is in salt lakes (e.g., the Caspian Sea and the Great Salt Lake).]

• Take out half (one drop) with the eye dropper, and drop it onto the saucer. This represents all the water in rivers, streams, and freshwater lakes.

Discussion Questions/Critical Thinking Questions a) You can follow this demonstration with a discussion of what might happen if all ice melts? Will we have more freshwater? Most of it will simply go into the oceans, making sea level higher, with a slight increase in atmospheric moisture. b) Can there be life of any kind without water?

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In-Class and/or Group Activities Relative humidity sometimes presents difficulties to students, so an actual measurement can be valuable for learning. Instructions are available for constructing a sling psychrometer, but a class set can be purchased from a science supplier such as Boreal Science (https://www.boreal.com/store/) or Fisher Scientific (https://www.fishersci.ca/ca/en/home.html).

(Note that these are not terribly sturdy, so students should be forewarned to treat them gently.)

Have students in groups of three. One student wets the wet bulb and swings the psychrometer.

Another student times the operation and reads the numbers. A third student records the temperatures on the worksheet. Each group should do one reading inside the classroom and one outside, so that tasks can be rotated.

You will use a sling psychrometer to measure relative humidity in a number of locations.

Requirements • Sling psychrometer • Hygrometric table • 1 tablespoon water in a cup or other container • Watch • Pencil Instructions Inside the classroom • Read the initial temperatures on both thermometers and write them down.

• Use your forefinger to wet the cloth surrounding the "wet" bulb only.

• Swing the psychrometer gently for one minute.

• Read both temperatures again. Record the results on the worksheet.

• Use the psychrometric table to calculate the RH. • Repeat this for an outside (sunny) location. Record the results on the worksheet.

What difference did you notice? Explain.

Why is the wet bulb temperature lower than the dry bulb?

What would be the result if you did this in the hot desert in summer? What about in the rain in Miami, during the summer?

Sketch a simple sling psychrometer and explain how it works.

Tips for First-Time Lecturers It is important to remind students that TV weather forecasters always say “humidity” when they mean “relative humidity.” The other two measures of humidity are important for atmospheric physicists but not for our general introduction to the atmosphere. Instructors may show students an example of a forecast page from Environment Canada or the Weather Network.

Example (Calgary) http://weather.gc.ca/city/pages/ab-52_metric_e.html Instructor’s Manual

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Instructors may wish to create an Excel graph to show changes in relative humidity with air temperature for a location near their school. What pattern(s) do the students observe?

100

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Relative Humidity (%)

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Temperature (oC)

Relative Humidity, Air Temperature and Dew Point Temperature for St. Catharines , ON

September 1 - 7, 2016 Air Temperature

Dew Point Temperature

Relative Humidity

Latent heat is sometimes a difficult concept. Give a familiar example. Ask students: Who has ever cooked spaghetti? How do you do it? Let them tell you. Then ask: When the water is boiling, is the temperature rising? No, it is still 100 degrees C. But you are still constantly adding heat from the gas flame (or other energy source). So what is happening to this heat? It is being used for the phase change from liquid to vapour. The temperature does not change, but energy is being used—latent energy. You can also do this for the case of ice melting in a drink.

A really difficult concept for students who are unable to deal with any numerical information (and have poor literacy) is lapse rate, along with the associated situation of stability and instability.

The diagrams with the parcel of air drawn as a balloon are useful here. Figure 7.16 alone is inadequate and unintelligible for many students.

Clouds a) However excellent a photograph may be, it does not show depth, so it is useful to take students outside on a good cloud day and let them identify the different types of clouds they can see. b) Students respond very favourably to the exercise of creating a cloud portfolio. This project is mentioned in the first week of class when students are asked to start taking photographs of clouds, being sure to note the date, time of day and location. (They often use cell phones, but artistic students submit artwork; others use vacation photographs.)

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Once work is done on this chapter, students are then given further requirements.

Cloud Portfolio Compile a collection of your personal photographs of clouds of various types. You should have four (4) to six (6) different cloud types (a picture may show more than one type of cloud).

For each image you must record date, time of day, and location.

Then write a paragraph on each cloud type giving information such as cloud name and meaning, description, height, shape, what this means for the weather, and any other information you wish. Length: not more than 200 words per cloud.

You may use older personal photographs—from vacations, for example—as they will be returned to you.

Do not use pictures from the Internet; this is plagiarism and is not acceptable. All images must be taken by the students.

This picture was taken on August 24, 2015 around 2 pm outside the Cairns Complex on the campus of Brock University in St. Catharines, ON facing almost directly south.

The sky that day had many cumulus clouds. These are low-level clouds that form below 2000 m (6000 ft). The word cumulus means ‘heap’ or ‘pile’, and these clouds can often be seen piling up, changing shape because of movement within the cloud. Cumulus clouds are puffy on top, with a flat bottom. Clouds such as those shown in this picture are fair-weather clouds. Cumulus Instructor’s Manual

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clouds are very common across Southern Ontario because we are close to the Great Lakes and have a generally warm, sunny climate during the summer; this means lots of evaporation, producing water vapour that condenses as it rises and cools into the water droplets that form these clouds. Cumulus clouds can vary tremendously in size, ranging from small "puffs" like cotton balls to very large clouds. Some artists like to paint cumulus clouds. Eric Sloane (http://www.askart.com/artist/Eric_Sloane/2855/Eric_Sloane.aspx & http://ericsloane.org/), for example, devoted his late years to painting clouds. The two pictures shown below show examples of Sloane’s painting of cumulus clouds.

(From: http://weatherhillfarm.com/category/ericsloaneart/)

(From: http://www.islandnet.com/~see/weather/almanac/arc2003/alm03sep.htm)

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A complete student cloud portfolio with 4-6 different cloud images may look similar to the following:

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Relevant Web Links Water Cycle Environment and Climate Change Canada http://www.ec.gc.ca/eau-water/default.asp?lang=En&n=23CEC266-1 USGS Water Cycle http://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/watercycle.html NASA https://pmm.nasa.gov/education/water-cycle

Clouds Environment and Climate Change Canada https://www.ec.gc.ca/meteoaloeil-skywatchers/default.asp?lang=En&n=5A0D647D-1 NOAA NWS http://www.srh.noaa.gov/jetstream/clouds/cloudchart.html NASA https://scool.larc.nasa.gov/printables-guides-CloudChart.html NASA NOAA http://gewa.gsfc.nasa.gov/clubs/sailing/IMAGES/MISCELLANEOUS/CloudChart.pdf FAA https://www.faa.gov/news/safety_briefing/2015/media/Cloud-Chart.pdf Metoffice http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/learning/clouds/cloud-spotting-guide

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CHAPTER 8 AIR MASSES AND CYCLONIC WEATHER SYSTEMS In this chapter, the student is introduced to air masses and fronts, leading to a survey of midlatitude cyclonic disturbances. This is followed by examination of thunderstorms, and then the smaller and more violent cyclonic circulations, tornadoes and tropical cyclones (hurricanes).

LEARNING OBJECTIVES Upon completion of the chapter, the student should be able to: Learning Objective 1.

2.

3.

4.

Define an air mass and describe the various air masses that influence North American climate.

Explain the evolution of midlatitude cyclones, their component parts, and how they typically migrate.

Describe the evolution of a typical thunderstorm and a supercell thunderstorm, and identify how, when, and where tornadoes typically form.

Define a tropical cyclone and explain how it forms and migrates.

Instructor’s Manual

Section Reference Air Masses and Fronts Evolution and Character of Midlatitude Cyclones Thunderstorms and Tornadoes

Tropical Cyclones

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Lecture Lead-ins/Transitions This is an easy chapter to attract students’ attention, since many of them have personal experience of storms and can relate their experiences to the class. While not generally as hard hit as the southern US states, hurricanes are a regular occurrence on Canada’s East Coast.

Recent Hurricanes that have impacted Eastern Canada include Sandy (2012), Irene (2011) Igor (2010), Noel (2007) and Juan (2003). In Southern Ontario, the benchmark for destructive impact is Hurricane Hazel in 1954 which saw over 200mm of precipitation leading to widespread flooding.

Although hurricanes are less frequent on the west coast of Canada due to atmospheric and ocean circulation, the remnants of such storms can impact the coast of British Columbia such as with Freda (1962), Ignacio (2015), and Oho (2015).

Freda (1962) CBC News http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/archives-typhoon-freda-1962-1.3806345 Weather Network https://www.theweathernetwork.com/news/articles/eight-devastating-canadian-hurricanes/34639

Oho (2015) National Post http://news.nationalpost.com/news/canada/remnants-of-hurricane-oho-to-hit-b-c-north-coastwith-120-kmh-gusts-up-to-300-mm-of-rain-over-thanksgiving-weekend CBC News http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/hurricane-oho-bc-coast-1.3263709 University of Wisconsin-Madison http://cimss.ssec.wisc.edu/goes/blog/archives/19750

Ignacio (2015) http://www.accuweather.com/en/weather-news/ignacio-stormy-weather-alaska-british-columbiacanada/52166553 Tornadoes have been the subject of several films, both factual and fantasy. There are always new clips on YouTube of these extreme wind events from various places. Canada experiences about 60 confirmed tornadoes annually but the only F5 tornado occurred in Elie, Manitoba in 2007.

You may even find a topical event, such as one of the following: a) The huge dust storms in China in the spring of 2010 News websites such as the BBC often carries photographic coverage (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8577806.stm). b)

The Sahara Dust Storm in 2016. The Weather Channel and NASA also offer images of these types of events

Weather Network https://weather.com/science/weather-explainers/news/saharan-air-layer-african-dust-atlantic-

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basin NASA Earth Observatory http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=87566 Dust Storms are also common in the states of the US southwest Phoenix, AZ https://www.rt.com/usa/356736-phoenix-haboob-dust-storm/ Las Vegas, NV http://www.accuweather.com/en/videos/viral-huge-dust-storm-covers-las-vegas/4174792029001 You might alternatively use these examples in a later discussion of desertification or aeolian erosion.

Lecture Demonstrations For a tornado effect, many stores sell a small plastic gadget called “tornado in a bottle,” which provides an amusing effect (though it does nothing to explain the mechanism of tornado formation). You need two plastic soda bottles of a litre or so—one of them almost full of water.

There are also many potential videos using computer animation to explain the current understanding of tornado formation.

Discussion Questions/Critical Thinking Questions You can frame a question about the relative size and speed of different systems. Students can recall the diameter of a midlatitude depression, a hurricane, and a tornado. All three systems are travelling cyclones of varying scales and intensities—midlatitude depression or wave cyclone range from 1500–5000km, hurricanes or tropical cyclones can be 200–1000km in diameter, and tornadoes or intense cyclonic vortex’s average approximately 250m wide.

University of Illinois https://www.atmos.illinois.edu/~snodgrss/Midlatitude_cyclone.html Taiwan Central Weather Bureau http://www.cwb.gov.tw/V7e/knowledge/encyclopedia/me016.htm For each type of system, students can look at barometric charts of each system, at the same scale, as well as satellite imagery, and they should be able to conclude that these are all similar (low-pressure systems, winds rotating inward and counterclockwise). They can actually see the pressure gradient: As isobars are closer, wind speed is greater.

In-Class and/or Group Activities Air masses: A simple in-class activity is to have students draw the air masses affecting North America on a blank map and then to add the information about temperature and humidity characteristics.

Midlatitude depression: From late spring through winter, you can ask students to collect Instructor’s Manual

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one copy of the weather page from a newspaper or students can copy a weather map image from a weather or news website and bring it to class on an assigned date. The page should show at least one midlatitude depression, including cold and warm fronts.

Please note that many newspapers do not provide sufficient weather data for this exercise. It is also the case that newspaper reading is entirely foreign to most modern students, but they can be required to purchase a single issue. An online newspaper does not generally have sufficient information or maps.

Weather System maps can be found at: The Weather Network https://www.theweathernetwork.com/maps/weather-systems UNISYS weather http://weather.unisys.com/satellite/sat_sfc.php?inv=0&t=cur Environment Canada http://weather.gc.ca/jet_stream/index_e.html National Weather Service http://www.weather.gov/forecastmaps The student can then examine their page to complete the following exercise, which is submitted together with the relevant newspaper page.

Reading the weather page of a website or newspaper such as the Toronto Star, the Globe and Mail or other paper.

Some possible responses are indicated, but they will, of course, depend on the circumstances on any particular day.

1. Where are the highest temperatures?

2.

Where are the lowest temperatures?

Explain the main control(s) leading to this difference Latitude means that the warmest temperatures are in the south and the coldest in northern Canada.

Continentality means that the highest temperatures are in the southwest interior.

3. Where is there a low-pressure system?

4.

What do you notice?

A warm front and a cold front with the low pressure at the centre.

5.

Where is there precipitation? Rain or snow?

Students should be able to relate the location to the fronts, but there may, of course, also be precipitation elsewhere.

6.

Which large city is closest to this system?

Look at the current weather forecast and the prediction for the following day.

Describe the pattern and explain what is happening, and identify the causes.

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7.

With a pencil, draw in the wind directions associated with the system on your newspaper map.

I often expand this exercise to include further weather data with these questions.

If there is a UV index information: 8. What is the UV index?

How many minutes to burn?

Why do people need this information?

If pollution data is given: 9. Which pollutants are monitored?

When is pollution at its maximum level for a 24-hour period?

Why? During the day because of more automobiles and sunlight: 10. What is the length of daylight? (This can be calculated from the times of sunrise and sunset.)

Will it be longer or shorter tomorrow? Why? If it is winter in the Northern Hemisphere, it is good to ask students: 11. What is the temperature in Rio? Or in Sydney?

Or in Johannesburg?

Why is it so warm there?

Alternative midlatitude cyclone exercise—better for homework and after in-class preparation.

[The text always uses diagrams where there is a single house waiting for the warm front to approach; ditto for the cold front.]

•

I usually do an in-class role play. Project an image of an old barn with a rooster weathervane on top. I look up to the sky/ceiling, scratch my head, and say with a hokey accent “Better git those cows inter the barn, Ma.” Or something equally corny, as an example. I have had quite creative responses to this exercise.

•

Imagine you are living in a “little house on the Prairie” where you keep a diary. Write brief entries of your daily activities and observations for a 4- to 5-day period as a whole system passes through. [You should note changes in types of clouds (or clear), wind direction, temperature, precipitation, and pressure.]

It is also a good idea to put up Google Earth, not merely while doing this chapter, but throughout the climate section of this class, and simply look at cloud patterns to seek hurricanes, midlatitude cyclones, and the ITCZ. Satellite images are also available from: Environment Canada http://weather.gc.ca/satellite/index_e.html NOAA – GOES Satellite http://www.goes.noaa.gov/

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National Weather Service http://www.weather.gov/satellite

Tips for First-Time Lecturers •

•

The three-dimensional nature of these phenomena can make it difficult for students to visualize with diagrams and even animations. So a lot of hand waving and arm moving may be required, as you walk across the room, modelling an approaching front in four dimensions.

There is a good video titled Riders on the Storm in the old PBS four-part series “Savage Skies” with film footage of tornadoes followed by interviews with survivors, and so on.

Students have always enjoyed it because it combines reality with amusement and insight into human nature. They can contrast the scientific storm chasers with the hobbyist who takes “tornado tours.” Perhaps your school has the series.

PBS Video (1990s) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x2ojETaoruc

Relevant Web Links There are always YouTube videos, but they need to be preselected, as their quality is variable.

Hurricanes Environment and Climate Change Canada - Canadian Hurricane Centre (FAQ) https://www.ec.gc.ca/ouragans-hurricanes/default.asp?lang=En&n=3F0FD4CF-1 Environment and Climate Change Canada http://www.ec.gc.ca/ouragans-hurricanes/default.asp?lang=En&n=9fdfbf2c-1 CBC News http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/5-worst-storms-to-hit-the-east-coast-1.1138740 Weather Network https://www.theweathernetwork.com/news/articles/from-juan-to-hazel-and-beyond-a-look-backat-some-of-canadas-worst-hurricanes/7838 Global News http://globalnews.ca/news/248898/canadas-most-destructive-hurricanes-4/ Hurricane Tracks (Google Earth KML file) http://www.atmos.uiuc.edu/iswecs/Google.Earth/Tropical/Hurrtracks/Hurrtracks.kmz Active Hurricane Track (Google Earth KML file) http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/gis/

Tornadoes Public Safety Canada https://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/cnt/mrgnc-mngmnt/ntrl-hzrds/trnd-en.aspx

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Weather Network https://www.theweathernetwork.com/news/articles/tornadoes-in-canada-everything-you-need-toknow/25876/1/1 CTV News http://www.ctvnews.ca/canada/map-canada-s-worst-tornadoes-1.1875776 CBC News http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/saskatchewan/top-10-deadliest-tornadoes-in-canadian-history1.1267514 Global News http://globalnews.ca/news/1402255/is-canada-experiencing-more-tornadoes/

Tornado Video Wall Street Journal https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BMLZpjRYK9Q National Geographic https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cvOut9VUqKY National Geographic II https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=a_MuaWDg5Z0 National Geographic III https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iMWoYPaQx0Q Scientific American https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7bHSS1ImFQI National Science Foundation https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lhhmaHu_wv0 Naked Science – (Angry Skies - 50 minutes) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZCunblkAnik Ken Weathers https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TyZx-fk1kXA ABC News - Weather or not https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BmgGEgE0BIQ

Tornado Tours Storm Chasing Adventure Tours http://www.stormchasing.com/ Silver Lining Tours http://www.silverliningtours.com/ Extreme Tornado Tours Instructor’s Manual

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https://www.extremetornadotours.com/ * All web links active as of Feb 13, 2017

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CHAPTER 9 GLOBAL CLIMATES AND GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE In this chapter, the student is introduced to the classification of world climate types devised by Vladimir Köppen, based on average temperature and precipitation data. Each climate can be described and understood using a climograph and a map of locations. Evidence for past climates is discussed, leading to an analysis of issues in the current global climate change debate.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES Upon completion of the chapter, the student should be able to: Learning Objective 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Define the concept of climate and describe the large-scale factors that influence it on Earth.

Explain the Köppen climate classification system and how it is used to differentiate climate regions on Earth.

Discuss the characteristics and global distribution of the major Köppen climate regions.

Describe the various methods used to reconstruct past climate change, the patterns of climate change in the past 2 million years and the factors that have caused it, and why it is important to understand those fluctuations.

Discuss the issue of global warming and why most climate scientists feel it is caused by human industrial activity.

Instructor’s Manual

Section Reference Climate and the Factors that Affect It Climate Classification

Geography of Köppen Climates Reconstructing Past Climates

Human Interactions and Future Climate Change

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Lecture Lead-ins/Transitions Opening questions might be: • Travel plans: Suppose you won a trip to Paris in October. Would you pack a bikini and sunscreen? How could you find out what you might need? In an age of global tourism, we might want to know what to expect in a distant place. Are some places similar in climate to our own area?

•

Everyone talks about the weather (but nobody ever does anything about it)! Why do you like to live here (in your city)? Many students will respond that they like the weather/climate, because they like hiking, biking, surfing, or skiing, and so on. Ask them to imagine living in a very different climate. In Southern Ontario, one could then ask—How would you feel about living in Saskatoon? or Yellowknife? or Iqaluit? Why? Students like to hear about extremes: Imagine living in Cherrapunji India, where it once rained almost 10 meters in a single month! Or in Yakutsk, Siberia, where during 6 months of the year the average temperature is below freezing! Or Makkah (Mecca) Saudi Arabia where the average annual temperature is around 31oC!

•

Global climate change is on everyone’s lips: Do you think the climate is changing? Why?

•

Although the questions are slightly different there are some interesting discussion points between two recent surveys of Canadians with regard to climate change. A 2012 survey found that 32% of respondents believed climate change is happening because of human activity while in 2016, 44% of Canadians surveyed believed Earth is getting warmer mostly because of human activities. Both polls of Canadians show the differences in opinion across the country. Students could be asked the same questions from one or both of the studies.

2012 Survey CBC News http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/calgary/only-2-of-canadians-deny-climate-change-suggestspoll-1.1157215 National Post http://news.nationalpost.com/news/canada/climate-change-is-real-canadians-say-whiledisagreeing-on-the-causes

2016 Survey CBC News http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/montreal/climate-change-yale-project-montreal-study1.3458142 University of Montreal http://www.umontreal.ca/climat/engl/index.html •

Students usually agree that it is changing, based on some personal perceptions (e.g., hotter, wetter, drier). You can point out that they are really talking about quite short-term change (and that human perceptions are fallible and subjective). This insight leads to understanding the difference between (short-term) weather and (long-term/30-year) climate data and perhaps to the really long-term knowledge of paleoclimates.

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•

Media: Who has seen Al Gore’s film, An Inconvenient Truth? Most students have seen at least parts of it on television or in classes as varied as Sociology or Philosophy, and will have an opinion on the content.

Transitions After covering the Köppen classification, it is easy to move to the very topical issue of global climate change, being sure to remind students that “global warming” is not the correct term.

There are many visuals of glaciers retreating in Greenland or the Rocky Mountains, ice shelves breaking apart in Antarctica, or a lonely polar bear stranded on an small ice floe; these visuals always emphasize warming and melting, but in fact some places are getting colder, some wetter, some drier. (a) We have just seen that there is more to climate than temperature; and (b) the IPCC data is based on whole-Earth averages, so individual stations and regions can exhibit patterns that may have a wide variation from this average.

But we already know that some places have had very different climates in the past. Megafauna are a good topic: Dinosaur fossils are found in what is now desert, but these animals needed lush vegetation for food. What are the main techniques scientists use to show that climate was different in the past? Palynology, dendrochronology, and ice-core analysis are three scientific dating techniques used to examine paleoclimate. So if we know that climate was different, we now see a causal explanation: Orbital eccentricity, tilt obliquity, and orbital precession can be introduced.

Moving to the current debate, we can offer an anthropogenic explanation for global climate change: our “addiction” to fossil fuels, which has changed the mechanisms of the carbon cycle.

Lecture Demonstrations •

It is by no means certain that students can read a graph, so they should be asked, in a regular class (not just in a lab class), to construct a climograph for a typical city (perhaps your own city). Students should bring lead pencil, eraser, ruler, and red and blue pencils if possible. The instructor will need to supply: o a sheet of graph paper [see last page for graph paper printout] o a data set of monthly values—metric/SI units

•

The instructor will explain the difference between a line graph and a bar graph, and show how to use two different vertical scales, one for temperature and the other for precipitation.

After completing the graph, the students can use the Köppen table to give the coded classification and also compare their graph with the typical version in the textbook.

Climate Data is available from Environment and Climate Change Canada Canadian Climate Normals (1961–1990, 1971–2000, 1981–2010) http://climate.weather.gc.ca/climate_normals/index_e.html Selection of a city such as Toronto will display the data for students to make a climate graph as well as the climate graph for that station. Please note that not all towns/cities are available but you can search a list by province.

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Discussion Questions/Critical Thinking Questions See Section 1 for some ideas for discussion.

•

What do you classify in your daily life? Why do scientists classify?

•

What examples do you know of changed climates, where human life has been affected? (abandoned settlements in Greenland, Arizona, and New Mexico, for example)

•

What examples do you know of human activities affecting local climate? (large dams and irrigation projects, for example; overgrazing and dust storms; etc.)

•

Compare our short-term concern with global climate change with our knowledge of paleoclimates through geologic time. Which timescale do we prefer? Why?

In-Class and/or Group Activities A. TITLE: Factors Affecting Climate in Our Region and Province (I actually prefer the title Controls of Climate); this is a group or partner exercise.

TIME: Instructor Preparation time—perhaps 30 minutes. CLASS TIME: 20 minutes.

HANDOUTS: The instructor should collect the weather data for stations in the local area which exemplify the various controls individually. This would include: your own city; a place that is at a higher altitude; a place far inland if you are on the coast, or vice versa; a place at a higher latitude; and one at a lower latitude. Ask students to explain the major factors in each case.

Here are the stations I choose for Canada, and the questions for the handout/fill-in sheet: •

Vancouver, B.C. and Penticton, B.C. Why was it generally hotter in Penticton than in Vancouver? (continentality)

•

Or Vancouver and Winnipeg

•

International Example – San Francisco, CA & Yuma, AZ

•

Yellowknife, NWT, Whitehorse, YK or Iqaluit, NU Why was it colder in Yellowknife than Vancouver? (higher latitude)

•

Kimberly, BC Why was it cooler in Kimberly than Vancouver? (elevation)

•

International Example – Guayaquil, Ecuador & Quito, Ecuador

•

Lethbridge, AB Why did it rain in Vancouver but not in Lethbridge? (topography/rain shadow)

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CASE #1 Compare Vancouver and Penticton: TEMPERATURE at max .min Vancouver Penticton What do you notice and therefore conclude?

(It is warmer during the day and cooler at night.)

Which temperature control is most important and why is this case?

(Inland location/continentality). (Large water bodies moderate temperatures, because of properties of specific heat and latent heat.)

CASE #2 Compare Vancouver and Whitehorse: TEMPERATURE max min Vancouver Whitehorse, YK What do you notice and therefore conclude?

(Whitehorse is cooler both day and night.)

Which temperature control is most important and why?

(Whitehorse is considerably further north so that latitude is the main control.)

CASE #3 Compare Vancouver and Kimberly.

B. TITLE: Global Climate Change —a debate (Note that the emphasis is on presenting opposing arguments and opinions, not on the formal mechanics of a parliamentary-style debate.)

PREPARATION TIME: 10 minutes in class, choosing teams; remind the rest of the class that they are the judges and also need to know the arguments they expect to hear; students then prepare in their own time.

CLASS TIME: 40 minutes. Debate at the next class session—each speaker with a 5-minute limit, with whole class.

HANDOUTS: Students not debating receive the evaluation form with this rubric: Your name: Instructions – Circle the appropriate number and write your own comments, in ink.

SCALE: 1 = Weak, 2 = Average, 3 = Strong.

1. Participants’ statements are accurate and well researched.

1 2 3 Explain and give an example of at least one statement.

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concepts.

1 2 3 Explain and give an example of at least one statement.

3. Participants deliver ideas in a clear and concise manner.

1 2 3 Explain and give an example of at least one statement.

4. Each participant’s statements are relevant to the topic and appropriate for that side of the debate.

1 2 3 Explain and give an example of at least one statement.

5. Rebuttal statements are appropriate and show that participants listened to and understood the opposing arguments.

1 2 3 Explain and give an example of at least one statement.

6. Participants speak loudly and clearly enough to be heard by the audience.

1 2 3 Additional comments:

Tips for First-Time Lecturers •

Students may express dismay when they see the Köppen system, so they need reassurance that they need to understand how the classification works, not to memorize the arithmetic involved in its application.

•

Do not assume that students can read a graph.

•

It is important to stress the connection between climate, flora and fauna, and some soils.

This leads to an understanding of biomes.

Relevant Web Links Local Weather Weather Network https://www.theweathernetwork.com/ca Environment and Climate Change Canada http://weather.gc.ca/canada_e.html Weather Underground https://www.wunderground.com/ NOAA – NOAA archive of climate data has a “paleoperspective on changing climate.”

National Centers for Environmental Information Instructor’s Manual

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https://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/ Environment Canada and Climate Change https://www.ec.gc.ca/?lang=En Canada’s Sixth National Report on Climate Change http://www.ec.gc.ca/cc/0BA54AAB-6E8E-4D48-B42C-DCBB09B27D10/6458_EC_ID1180MainBook_high_min%20FINAL-s.pdf

Information on ‘An Inconvenient Truth’ IMDB http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0497116/ 10th Anniversary information http://www.takepart.com/ait10/ Wired Magazine https://www.wired.com/2016/05/wired-al-gore-climate-change/ Climate Reality Project https://www.climaterealityproject.org/blog/inconvenient-truth-then-and-now Weather Underground https://www.wunderground.com/resources/education/gore.asp National Geographic http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2006/05/060524-global-warming.html

Creating a climate graph in Excel University of Massachusetts http://www.geo.umass.edu/courses/climat/climo-excel.html National Geographic http://www.nationalgeographic.com/xpeditions/lessons/15/g912/creatingclimograph.pdf UCAR Center for Science Education https://scied.ucar.edu/sites/default/files/images/long-contentpage/GLOBEdata_climograph_FT.pdf

Köppen Climate Classification Sustainability Council http://www.thesustainabilitycouncil.org/resources/the-koppen-climate-classification-system/ Physical Geography.net http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/7v.html Köppen Classification Flowchart https://a.fsdn.com/con/app/proj/kcc/screenshots/Koppen%20Climate%20Flowchart_Page_2.png /1

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Graph Paper for Lecture Demonstration

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CHAPTER 10 PLANT GEOGRAPHY In this chapter, the student is introduced to the geographical distribution of plants on Earth and the variables that influence these patterns. An opening section on ecosystem principles and concepts leads to a survey of global terrestrial biomes, classed as forest, grassland, desert, and tundra. Environmental and human influences on biomes are presented, with an emphasis on deforestation.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES Upon completion of the chapter, the student should be able to:

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Learning Objective

Section Reference

Define the concept of an ecosystem and its various components.

Explain the process of photosynthesis and how it relates to biomass construction.

Explain the biome concept and describe the fundamental characteristics of Earth’s 12 biomes.

Ecosystems and Biogeography

Discuss how local and regional factors, including slope, aspect, vertical zonation, successional dynamics, and riparian environments, influence vegetation.

Describe the impacts humans are having on forests and grasslands on Earth.

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The Process of Photosynthesis The Relationship between Climate and Vegetation: The Character and Distribution of Global Biomes Local and Regional Factors That Influence the Geographic Distribution of Vegetation Human Interactions: Human Influence on Vegetation Patterns

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Lecture Lead-ins/Transitions An opening class on this topic might begin with a discussion of trees. You might bring in a selection of different leaf sizes and shapes, from large (e.g., Maple) through medium (e.g., Oak) to a twig of needle-leaf (e.g., Pine). While pictures might be used, experience shows that tangible, tactile “props” are more memorable, especially where urban students have little to no personal experience with plants beyond perhaps their little lucky bamboo or cactus.

This chapter is a logical progression from Köppen climates, as must be pointed out. Students sometimes see their classes as compartmentalized, and for physical geography it helps to keep reminding them that it is a seamless whole. As we said on the first day, “everything is linked to everything else.” Köppen’s original names for the climates were based on vegetation—tropical rainforest, tropical savannah, steppe, tundra, and so on.

Since it may be many years ago that students took a science class, it helps to remind them of the elementary or secondary school class on “What is an ecosystem?” Perhaps it was an aquarium or a herpetarium, or even a pet rat in the class. Was it an open system or a closed system? What were the inputs and outputs? Terms such as carrying capacity and sustainability can be reintroduced here.

Pictures and maps are essential for discussing the biomes. Most students can distinguish trees from grass, but what is a shrub?

In many high schools there has been an overemphasis on deforestation in Brazil, so it is also important to point out the loss of forest and grassland outside the tropics as well, due to agriculture and urbanization.

What other areas of the globe are experiencing deforestation?

Lecture Demonstrations •

Make a leaf collection to open this chapter, as described above.

•

When Kevin Costner was “in vogue,” a creative student compiled a 5-minute movie: Costner gazing at the enormous herds of bison (Dances with Wolves), cut to Costner pushing his way through dense corn (Field of Dreams)—an excellent way to highlight the loss of prairie grasslands and their associated fauna. This idea could be adapted to use moderately current movies for other biomes.

Discussion Questions/Critical Thinking Questions •

Tourists travel across the country to see fall colours. Why do these leaves change colour and fall?

•

Who has been to (your closest national or state park that has significant natural vegetation—Bruce Peninsula National Park, Point Pelee National Park, Riding Mountain National Park, Fundy National Park, Yoho National Park, Grasslands National Park, etc.)?

Ask students to make a short class presentation (for extra credit perhaps), with their own photographs. All students should then compare what they saw inside the park with the country surrounding, whether farmland, suburbia, and so on.

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•

Which biome has been reduced by the greatest area over the past 500 years? Which biome is now the most endangered? There can be active debate here on whether it might be tundra, tropical rainforest, or the like.

• Discuss the famous statement attributed to Chief Seattle: "We do not inherit the Earth from our fathers, we are borrowing it from our children."

Chief Seattle – Letter to All http://www.csun.edu/~vcpsy00h/seattle.htm

In-Class and/or Group Activities The Biome Biography is a very nice “capstone” group activity and is always popular with students.

Time: Give students a couple of weeks to meet and prepare, so announce this activity at the start of this section/chapter.

Note: This activity is best for a class of no more than 40 students, divided into about eight groups (biomes).

Ten minutes per presentation means that two class periods or one exam session need to be set aside.

THE BIOME BIOGRAPHY SOURCES: 1) your textbook 2) Department of Geospatial Science, Radford University https://php.radford.edu/~swoodwar/biomes/ 3) UCMP Berkeley – Worlds Biomes http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/glossary/gloss5/biome/ 4) Blue Planet Biomes http://www.blueplanetbiomes.org/world_biomes.htm (Do not waste time searching the Internet for more information.)

Procedures/ student instruction (a) Each group is to select the biome they wish to re-create and present (or the instructor can allocate randomly –I always forbid single-sex groups, and I have all groups of equal numbers of students). (b) Identify the characteristics of your biome—climate, flora, fauna, soils, current extent (be specific; use the "big" words of your text). (c) Point out its location on a world map; name typical places; refer to novels, travel books, films, topical articles, and so on. (d) Model/interpret the biome for the class; include the living and nonliving parts of the biome.

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(e) Discuss the present and the future of your biome, potential or actual threats, ways of retaining/saving/restoring.

TIME: 10 minutes per group Due Date: (instructor to choose) Requirements • PowerPoint (8 slides max). Come early to install on computer or email to me in advance.

• One-page handout summarizing your biome. (I will make handouts or put this on the class website.)

• Video and video-clips may be used selectively (remember the time limit).

• Ask me, if you have other ideas.

Assessment will be based on: • participation • accuracy of information • completeness • understanding • creativity Hints: *Dress appropriately for your biome (sunglasses, parka, safari hat, etc.). *Bring food samples, describe/prepare a biome menu. *Bring stuffed or real animals, plants, or pictures of these. *Use your ingenuity and imagination.

(Note: Students are also required to give the instructor a personal assessment of the quality of work of each group member—no free rides for laggards and slackers. They are told they will not get their full points if they do not submit this assessment.)

This is an average tropical rainforest group, with fruits and animals (note the orange boa). The presentation is not always quite accurate.

Another of the most creative efforts was presented in an evening class. The tundra group turned Instructor’s Manual

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out all the lights and played a recording of wolves howling; a student came in with a full-moon paper lantern, the lights came up slowly, and they were all dressed in parkas—the class loved it.

In one semester a different tundra group brought small tubs of ice cream as a starter; unfortunately, the class met at 8 a.m.!

Many groups like to make a small diorama, with beanie babies or plastic figures. The tropical savannah lends itself well to this presentation.

I used to put the photographs on the website, as an inspiration.

Tips for First-Time Lecturers If you choose to do the Biome Biography, do not let students just give a fragmented list of species and their characteristics.

Relevant Web Links http://www.mbgnet.net/

Native Species of Canada Ontario Tree Atlas https://www.ontario.ca/environment-and-energy/tree-atlas Field guide to Manitoba trees http://www.gov.mb.ca/sd/forestry/pdf/health/fieldguidefinal.pdf Trees of the Acadian Forest (Nova Scotia) http://novascotia.ca/natr/forestry/treeid/Trees_Of_Acadian_Forest2.pdf PEI Native Trees and Shrubs http://www.gov.pe.ca/photos/original/af_nt_shrubs_1c.pdf Common Trees and Shrubs of Alberta Instructor’s Manual

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http://www.insideeducation.ca/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/TreeShrub.pdf Learning to recognize trees of British Columbia https://www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfd/library/documents/treebook/TreeBook.pdf Hinterland Who’s Who – Coastal Rainforest http://www.hww.ca/assets/pdfs/factsheets/canadas-coastal-rainforest.pdf Newfoundland Tree Species http://www.faa.gov.nl.ca/forestry/our_forest/treespecies/index.html Quebec Native Plants http://espacepourlavie.ca/en/quebec-native-plants Field Guide to Ecosites of Saskatchewan’s Provincial Forests http://publications.gov.sk.ca/documents/66/38836-English.pdf Nunavut Plants http://nunavuttourism.com/things-to-see-do/plants-flowers Flora of Arctic Archipelago https://nature.ca/aaflora/data/aaintro/caaintr2.htm Boreal Forest http://www.thinktrees.org/my_folders/CFA_Teaching_Kits/Canadas_Forest_Teaching_Kits_Vol7 .pdf Urban Forestry https://www.td.com/document/PDF/economics/special/UrbanForestsInCanadianCities.pdf Trees, shrubs and vines of Toronto https://www1.toronto.ca/City%20Of%20Toronto/City%20Planning/Environment/Files/pdf/B/Tree s,%20Shrubs%20&%20Vines%20of%20Toronto.pdf Canadian Council of Forest Ministers - Vulnerability of Tree Species to Climate Change http://www.ccfm.org/pdf/TreeSpecies_web_e.pdf Natural Resources Canada – Trees https://tidcf.nrcan.gc.ca/en/trees Natural Resources Canada – State of Canada’s Forests http://www.nrcan.gc.ca/forests/report/16496 Natural Resources Canada – State of Canada’s Forests 2014 http://cfs.nrcan.gc.ca/pubwarehouse/pdfs/35713.pdf Natural Resources Canada – State of Canada’s Forests 2015 http://cfs.nrcan.gc.ca/pubwarehouse/pdfs/36553.pdf Tree Canada https://treecanada.ca/en/ Instructor’s Manual

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Invasive Species in Canada Invasive species Centre http://www.invasivespeciescentre.ca/ Ontario Invading Species Program http://www.invadingspecies.com/invaders/ Government of Canada – Invasive Species https://www.canada.ca/en/services/environment/wildlife/invasivespecies.html Hinterland Who’s Who – Invasive Species http://www.hww.ca/en/issues-and-topics/invasive-alien-species-in.html Canadian Food Inspection Agency http://www.inspection.gc.ca/plants/plant-pests-invasive-species/invasivespecies/eng/1328325263410/1328325333845 Canadian Food Inspection Agency – Invasive Alien Plants in Canada https://www.agrireseau.net/argeneral/documents/sipc%20report%20%20summary%20report%20-%20english%20printed%20version.pdf Royal Botanical Gardens – Invasive plants of Canada http://www.rbg.ca/archive/cbcn/en/projects/invasives/i_list.html

Deforestation National Geographic http://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/global-warming/deforestation/ Natural Resources Canada – Deforestation in Canada http://www.nrcan.gc.ca/node/13419 Global Forest Watch http://www.globalforestwatch.org/map Inhabitat – Google Interactive map of global deforestation http://inhabitat.com/google-launches-worlds-first-high-resolution-interactive-map-of-globaldeforestation/ University of Maryland - Global Forest Change http://earthenginepartners.appspot.com/science-2013-global-forest UN REDD Programme (United Nations Reducing Emissions from deforestation and Forest degradation) http://www.un-redd.org/ List of Canadian National Parks http://www.pc.gc.ca/listing/np-pn/recherche-search_e.asp?p=1

Biomes Instructor’s Manual

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WWF http://wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth/teacher_resources/webfieldtrips/major_biomes/ NASA Windows to the Universe http://www.windows2universe.org/earth/ecosystems.html University of Wisconsin - Global Biome Patterns https://www4.uwsp.edu/geo/faculty/lemke/geog101/lectures/16_global_biome_patterns.html NASA Earth Observatory http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Experiments/Biome/ * Web pages active as of Feb 20, 2017

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CHAPTER 11 THE DISTRIBUTION AND CHARACTER OF SOILS In this chapter, the student is introduced to soil formation, the development and characteristics of soils, and the current U.S. soil classification system, with illustrative photographs of each typical soil profile.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES Upon completion of the chapter, the student should be able to: Learning Objective 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Discuss the nature of soil and the pedogenic processes and soil-forming factors that influence its development.

Describe the measurable physical and chemical characteristics of soil and explain why they are important.

Define the concept of a soil horizon and explain how the classic sequence of horizons forms.

Describe the concept of soil classification and differentiate between the various soil orders in Canada.

Explain why soils are important natural resources and how they are managed in Canada.

Instructor’s Manual

Section Reference What Is Soil?

Measurable Soil Characteristics

Soil Profiles (Reading the Soil) Soil Science and Classification

Human Interactions with Soils

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Lecture Lead-ins/Transitions Ask students: Is soil the same as dirt?

Lead them to see that soil is the essential interface between all the spheres. A true soil has minerals (lithosphere), air (atmosphere), and moisture (soil water), as well as organisms, both plant and animal, and are down to microscopic in size (biosphere).

Since Earth has the only known biosphere in our solar system (and beyond?), soil is its basis.

You might in fact prefer to cover this chapter before moving on/back to plant geography in Chapter 10.

The importance of photosynthesis for the biosphere needs to be emphasized frequently if students have forgotten any high school science they may have taken.

You might then show a picture of a fully developed soil profile, asking: •

Can you see the changes in this soil? (e.g., colours of layers; regolith, and then bedrock visible)

•

Why is the upper layer so dark (humus)?

It is important here to stress that you are looking at soil, not at rock strata. Have perhaps another picture of the Niagara Escarpment, Rocky Mountains, or similar geologic formation.

Even better is a local road cutting or cliff face showing both the local strata and the overlying soil.

Lecture Demonstrations The lecture is for a class without a lab.

Soil Chemistry: You might like to acquire a simple soil test kit and ask a couple of students to bring in a small “baggie” of garden soil, about a cupful. You can test it for them or have a couple of students do the test for the presence of potassium, phosphorus, and nitrogen.

Soil acidity: You can use the same samples to test Ph. Soil texture: A small set of plastic sieves is also not too expensive, and sieving through the various meshes is always a student favourite. For this test get some sand samples from various locations. Two cupfuls is a good sample. You can explain how it is done in a true test lab.

Porosity: Use the same sand and pour some water through (be sure to do this after the sieving).

Soil colour: The Munsell chart/book is always of interest to students, but it is perhaps a little expensive if you have to purchase one for demonstration in only one class (it costs close to $200 USD).

Munsell Colour – Munsell Soil Colour Charts Instructor’s Manual

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http://munsell.com/color-products/color-communications-products/environmental-colorcommunication/munsell-soil-color-charts/ You might find one in another department or library.

Discussion Questions/Critical Thinking Questions Pictures of dust storms, mudslides, or rivers with a high sediment load lead easily to a discussion of soil loss.

This chapter is complemented by the first case study in Chapter 20, on soil salinization.

Students could be asked to read this chapter at home even to research a little further, in order to discuss the problem of salinization of agricultural lands on every continent.

In-Class and/or Group Activities I usually ask students to find a soil profile and take a picture on which they can identify the horizons. They need to be reminded to look for a building site where there is excavation (on campus if your institution is expanding, or maybe a new subdivision), or a road cutting, cliff face, etc.

SOIL PROFILE ACTIVITY #1 (serious) Student instructions: Find a soil profile, preferably in a fresh site, but a cliff or road cutting will also be satisfactory.

Make a labelled field sketch, or take a photograph and label it. Be sure to indicate an approximate scale.

Be sure to include the specific location information and date.

Can you tell in which soil order this belongs? Is there evidence of erosion? Salinization? Or a different process? Is this a good soil for agriculture?

SOIL PROFILE ACTIVITY #2(fun) You may find that you have students who like to prepare food. Here you can draw on their interest by asking one or two of them if they would like to make a class set of “Edible Soil”—a mélange of Oreos, pudding, gummy worms, and more. This is a well-known elementary-middle school lesson prop. You can find instructions in several places; some examples are provided below: USDA – Natural Resources Conservation Service – Edible Soil (South Dakota) https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/main/sd/people/teachers/ USDA – Natural Resources Conservation Service – Edible Soil (Montana) https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/mt/people/teachers/?cid=nrcs144p2_057811 Oregon Agriculture in the Classroom Foundation http://oregonaitc.org/lessonplan/edible-dirt-cakes/ Kansas Foundation for Agriculture in the Classroom http://www.ksagclassroom.org/teachers/lesson/Edible%20Soil%20Profile%20Final_101116.pdf

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In principle, I am not in favour of this oversweet concoction, especially since it needs disposable cups, spoons, and napkins. But it is always a winner.

Tips for First-Time Lecturers The soil classification part and the ten soil orders in the Canadian System of Soil Classification can prove an overload within a single class session. It is often better to concentrate on the more obvious connections with pedogenic processes including soil additions, depletions, translocations, transformations, and mixing as well as soil-forming factors (e.g., climate, organisms, relief, parent material and time).

Soil science can be fascinating, and it is more important to stress the human aspects and the personal applications (not always obvious to apartment or dorm-dwelling urban students), even if this means less detail about soil orders, chemistry, and such.

Always look for local applications. One semester, a nearby beach had been replenished, and the locals complained that it was not sand because it was reddish and coarse. This led to a nice example of how sand is a size, not a colour, and of how coarse sand is not the most comfortable material for a person to “lay on” at the beach. This application also tied in nicely to the coastal processes chapter. Why had the old beach eroded away?

Watch for construction sites on or near campus; your class can get a look at a fresh soil profile, with prior arrangement with the builders.

Students, as well as the general public, are often unaware that some provinces have a provincial soil (yes there is! usually a soil series).

Official provincial soils Nova Scotia: Queens Soil http://nslegislature.ca/index.php/about/symbols/queens_soil Prince Edward Island: Charlottetown Soil http://www.gov.pe.ca/infopei/index.php3?number=12320&lang=J New Brunswick: Holmesville Soil Series http://www2.gnb.ca/content/gnb/en/departments/government_services/symbols.html Quebec: Ste. Rosalie Soil http://sis.agr.gc.ca/cansis/publications/surveys/pq/index.html Ontario: Guelph Soil Series http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/about/prov-soil.htm & https://www.canadiangeographic.ca/article/guelph-soil-named-official-soil-ontario B.C.: Humo-Ferric Podzol http://prsss.landfood.ubc.ca/provincial-soil/ Manitoba: Newdale Soil http://manitoba-soils.ca/node/95

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Alberta: Breton Soil http://www1.agric.gov.ab.ca/$department/deptdocs.nsf/all/sag6903 This section may receive a good deal more emphasis if you are located in or near an agricultural region. For some urban students, it seems quite theoretical; the only “soil” they have contact with is in a local or regional park, but there are usually some students from a rural area, or from another country, who can relate to soil science.

There are also ‘State’ soils in the United States. For information please see: USDA Natural Resources Conservation Services https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/soils/edu/?cid=stelprdb1236841

Relevant Web Links Soil vs Dirt Edmonton Journal http://edmontonjournal.com/life/homes/gardening/soil-vs-dirt-discovering-the-secrets-to-healthysoil Science News https://www.sciencenews.org/blog/science-public/dirt-not-soil Treehugger http://www.treehugger.com/green-food/soil-is-not-dirt-why-words-matter-in-protecting-ourearth.html Soil Science Society of America http://www.soils4teachers.org/lessons-and-activities/teachers-guide/its-not-dirt

Importance of Soil Scottish National Heritage http://www.snh.org.uk/publications/on-line/livinglandscapes/soils/important.asp Soils for Life http://www.soilsforlife.org.au/why-is-soil-important Soil Science Society of America https://soils.org/files/science-policy/sssa-marketing-2013.pdf

Munsell Soil Chart PDFs Munsell Soil Colour Chart http://biophysics.sbg.ac.at/protocol/soilchart.pdf Four H Tennessee https://ag.tennessee.edu/watersheds/Documents/The%20Color%20of%20Soil%20%20Student%20Handout.pdf Munsell Soil Colour Chart http://www.envirothonpa.org/documents/munsellcharts.pdf

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Munsell Soil Colour Chart https://nishat2013.files.wordpress.com/2013/11/munsell-soil-color-charts-book.pdf Munsell Soil Colour Chart http://www.vcsu.edu/cmsfiles/327/b2fc4f5ebb.pdf

Soils of Canada Soils of Canada http://www.soilsofcanada.ca/

Canadian Soil Classification System Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada http://sis.agr.gc.ca/cansis/taxa/cssc3/index.html Canadian Soil Information Service http://sis.agr.gc.ca/cansis/ Canadian Soil Classification System (PDF) http://sis.agr.gc.ca/cansis/publications/manuals/1998-cssc-ed3/cssc3_manual.pdf Canadian Society of Soil Science http://csss.ca/ Natural Resources Canada (Soil) http://www.nrcan.gc.ca/forests/canada/conservation-protection/13205 National Atlas of Canada – Interactive Soil Map http://sis.agr.gc.ca/cansis/publications/webmaps.html Forests Ontario – Soil Classification http://www.forestsontario.ca/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/Canadian-Soil-Classification.pdf Canadian Soil Information System (1982 Revised) https://uwaterloo.ca/library/geospatial/sites/ca.library.geospatial/files/uploads/files/canadasoilinf ormationsystem.pdf Government of Manitoba – Manual for Describing Soils in the field https://www.gov.mb.ca/agriculture/land/soilsurvey/pubs/manual_for_describing_soils_in_the_field.pdf

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CHAPTER 12 EARTH’S INTERNAL STRUCTURE, ROCK CYCLE, AND GEOLOGIC TIME In this chapter, the student is introduced to the structure of the Earth as crust mantle and core, to rocks and minerals, and their creation and destruction in the rock cycle, and to the concept of immense geologic time.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES Upon completion of the chapter, the student should be able to: Learning Objective 1.

2.

3.

Compare and contrast the various structural layers of Earth.

Explain the differences among igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks and discuss the various kinds of rocks that occur in each of these categories.

Describe the geological timescale and how it is subdivided, including the Anthropocene Epoch.

Section Reference Earth's Inner Structure Rocks and Minerals in Earth’s Crust

Geologic Time

Lecture Lead-ins/Transitions For a first lecture: Could we dig through the centre of the Earth from here to China?

•

This could be a chance for a gentle reminder of the concept of an antipode.

•

To demonstrate the layered nature of the Earth, it may be useful to bring to the first lecture some real props, to illustrate in particular the thinness of the crust. You might use a peach, or other stone fruit, but the shape is not spherical. A hard-boiled egg is good for the hardness as well as thinness of the crust/shell, as well as the relative size of the mantle/yolk. You can crack the eggshell and cut the egg in half to show this. (Again the difference in shape needs to be pointed out.)

•

Few students nowadays will have seen the “old” movie The Core (2003), in which scientists pilot a special ship down to the core to save the Earth; time permitting, a short clip from this film might grab students’ attention. The ship used for this adventure is made of unobtanium, a term students would now know from the movie Avatar. This is a useful tie-in to the discussion on minerals that follows the Earth structure section.

•

As a lead-in to the geologic time, you might like to give a thumbnail history of James Hutton, the Bishop of Ussher, and Hadrian’s Wall.

•

You might end the chapter with pictures of tremendous earthquake damage (current or historic).

•

You could bring to class two boiled eggs, using the first to show crust, mantle, and core as above. With the second intact egg, you can point out that Earth’s crust is not as intact as the shell of an egg, but comprises separate shards (plates). Crack the boiled egg gently here, so that the pieces remain in place. However, and unlike the eggshell pieces, the pieces/plates of Earth’s crust can and do move, separate, and collide, causing immense energy release and great destruction. This is the topic of our next class.

Lecture Demonstrations See above for the first class on this chapter.

EARTH MODEL Yet another fun item is a model Earth made of coloured playdough. It is quite some work but again an attention-grabbing prop for students.

There are hundreds of recipes at http://www.playdoughrecipe.com/ This is not to be eaten, so I have found that cooked playdough with lots of salt (half a cup at least) and cream of tartar keeps in the refrigerator in an air-tight container for a very long time.

The KISS (or Keep it simple) recipe: Mix together in a saucepan: • 1 cup flour • ½ cup salt • 1 tablespoonful of oil

• •

2 teaspoons of cream of tartar 1 cup water (with drops of food colouring added)

Stir slowly but constantly with a wooden spoon and cook over medium to medium-low heat. It will eventually form into a ball. Cool slightly and then knead slightly to make a smooth ball. Store in air-tight container.

Roughly, you will need one quantity for the core. You can split it and make one-third, the inner core, a darker colour, and the rest lighter.

Then you need a triple quantity for the mantle, and again you might like to use one-third for the lower mantle and the rest for the upper mantle (or do this in two separate cooking operations).

Finally, depending on the recipe you choose, you will probably need a double quantity for the crust (remember it is thin, but the upper circumference is now considerable).

After you chill it in the refrigerator overnight, you can bring it to class and cut it in half for the class. You need a very sharp and thin knife, or even better, a wire such as a cheese-cutter.

ROCKS and MINERALS To begin the section on rocks and minerals, an instructor might bring to class a selection of coarse-grained rocks and some crystals. Have these at the front of the room so that students can examine them as they enter the class; for a small class, you might be able to pass them around. After agreeing that these minerals are visible to the naked eye, you can introduce the idea of much smaller minerals.

Discussion Questions/Critical Thinking Questions Why would we want to drill to the centre of the Earth?

Why are some minerals so valuable?

Why are diamonds so valuable?

(Point out to students that they are not really scarce and that they have important industrial uses.)

In-Class and/or Group Activities This activity takes only 10 minutes for a small class: Ask each student to bring to the next class “my favourite rock”; you could perhaps even refer to the 1960s “pet rock” fad. They often have at home a marble object, jade, stones from a fish tank or a herpetarium, a rock they picked up on vacation. They should tell the class whether it is igneous extrusive, igneous intrusive, sedimentary, where they got it, and why. I have had jewellery shown, including an impressive diamond engagement ring, but more likely shown are geodes, marble slabs for cutting cheese, bathroom and floor tiles, and pumice.

Tips for First-Time Lecturers This chapter engages students easily and can include some fun activities without consuming too

much class time. The rock cycle is easily comprehended. The Earth age can be impressive when a metaphorical compression into 24 hours is used. This may be a time to mention our common “failure” of judging phenomena in terms of a single human life span (in the climate change “debate,” for example).

Beware of students with fundamentalist beliefs who will want to argue about the Earth’s age, the coexistence of dinosaurs and humans, the young Earth, and so on. This is increasingly the case, not only in physical geography but in anthropology and biology classes as well. One quick solution to prevent class disruption is to ask them to visit you during office hours for a discussion of their views.

You might find that the intrusive volcanic landforms described in this chapter would fit better with the extrusive, volcanic landforms of the next chapter. This is a matter of personal preference.

If you are in a real Earth science environment, you might have a geology museum where students can observe a wide variety of interesting crystals or minerals. Alternatively, you could suggest they visit a local natural history museum with such a display.

Relevant Web Links Tangible items are best suited to the chapter, but there are many websites with colourful images of minerals, crystals, geodes, and more.

The Core IMBD http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0298814/plotsummary Trailer for ‘The Core’ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=foAyvN6mVwQ Interesting thoughts on good and bad geology in the movie http://geolor.com/The_Core_Movie-Facts_and_Fiction.htm

James Hutton Encyclopedia Britannica https://www.britannica.com/biography/James-Hutton American Museum of Natural History http://www.amnh.org/explore/resource-collections/earth-inside-and-out/james-hutton-thefounder-of-modern-geology/ Smithsonian Magazine http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/father-modern-geology-youve-never-heard-180960203/ BBC Video https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lMfPSdrrjZI British Geological Survey – Siccar Point https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JCEDCcHcpYE

Ian Stewart – Siccar Point https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=39LT_x1cW4g

Bishop of Ussher Lock Haven University https://www.lhup.edu/~dsimanek/ussher.htm Scientific American https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/history-of-geology/october-23-4004-bc-happy-birthdayearth/ Journal of Geoscience Education http://nagt-jge.org/doi/abs/10.5408/0022-1368-30.1.18?code=gete-site Encyclopedia Britannica https://www.britannica.com/biography/James-Ussher

Hadrian’s Wall English Heritage http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/visit/places/hadrians-wall/ UK National Trails http://www.nationaltrail.co.uk/hadrians-wall-path Encyclopedia Britannica https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hadrians-Wall Live Science http://www.livescience.com/24460-hadrians-wall.html BBC http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/romans/hadrian_gallery.shtml Geological Society https://www.geolsoc.org.uk/ks3/gsl/education/resources/rockcycle/page3671.html Hadrian’s Wall Country http://hadrianswallcountry.co.uk/sites/default/files/3.%20%20HWIF_The%20natural%20and%20 cultural%20landscape%20of%20Hadrian's%20Wall.pdf

Earthquakes Natural Resources Canada http://www.earthquakescanada.nrcan.gc.ca/index-en.php Southern Ontario Seismic Network http://www.gp.uwo.ca/welcome.html

Geologic Time Scale CBC Geologic Journey http://www.cbc.ca/geologic/

CBC Geologic Journey - Geologic Time Scale http://www.cbc.ca/geologic/teachersguide/GeologicJourneyTRG%20figures.pdf Natural Resources Canada – Atlas of Canada – Geology and Geosciences http://www.nrcan.gc.ca/earth-sciences/geography/atlas-canada/selected-thematic-maps/16876 UC Berkley http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/help/timeform.php UC Berkley http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/exhibit/histgeoscale.html Geologic Society of America https://www.geosociety.org/GSA/Education_Careers/Geologic_Time_Scale/GSA/timescale/hom e.aspx USGS https://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2007/3015/ USGS https://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3059/pdf/FS10-3059.pdf USGS: Geologic time https://geomaps.wr.usgs.gov/parks/gtime/ University of Kentucky http://www.uky.edu/KGS/education/geologictimescale.pdf National Park Service https://www.nature.nps.gov/geology/education/concepts/concepts_geotime.cfm

Rocks and Minerals Boreal Science – Rocks and Minerals Classroom set https://www.boreal.com/store/product/8868997/canadian-rock-and-mineral-set Mastermind Toys – Rocks and Minerals set http://www.mastermindtoys.com/Canadian-Gems-and-Minerals.aspx Smithsonian – National Museum of Natural History http://geogallery.si.edu/index.php/gems-minerals-meteorites-rocks

Anthropocene Smithsonian http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/what-is-the-anthropocene-and-are-we-in-it164801414/ Quaternary Stratigraphy Working Group https://quaternary.stratigraphy.org/workinggroups/anthropocene/

Guardian Newspaper https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2016/aug/29/declare-anthropocene-epoch-expertsurge-geological-congress-human-impact-earth Guardian Newspaper https://www.theguardian.com/books/2016/apr/01/generation-anthropocene-altered-planet-forever Nature International Weekly Journal of Science http://www.nature.com/news/anthropocene-the-human-age-1.17085 National Geographic http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2011/03/age-of-man/kolbert-text British Geological Survey http://www.bgs.ac.uk/anthropocene/ New Yorker http://www.newyorker.com/tech/elements/holocene-anthropocene-human-epoch New York Times https://www.nytimes.com/2017/02/14/magazine/is-the-anthropocene-era-a-condemnation-ofhuman-interference-or-a-call-for-more.html?_r=0 TED Talks https://www.ted.com/playlists/439/what_is_the_anthropocene * Web pages active as of Feb 21, 2017

Arbogast, Ford, and Dagesse, Discovering Physical Geography, Canadian Edition

CHAPTER 13 TECTONIC PROCESSES AND LANDFORMS In this chapter, the student is introduced to the theory of plate tectonics and the different types of plate movements. The Appalachian Mountains is discussed as a case study in folding and resultant landforms. Earthquakes and faults are examined in detail, with examples of famous earthquakes, followed by a section on tsunamis. Volcanoes, volcanic landforms, and hotspots bring this chapter to a close.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES Upon completion of the chapter, the student should be able to: Learning Objective 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

Describe the theory of plate tectonics and the evidence supporting the concept of continental drift.

Explain the various types of plate movements and how they shape the landscape.

Describe why earthquakes occur, the difference between the focus and epicentre, how earthquake location can be determined, and the ways earthquake magnitude can be measured.

Compare and contrast the various kinds of faults that occur on Earth.

Describe the human hazards associated with earthquakes and the status of earthquake prediction.

Compare and contrast the various types of volcanoes and explain why they occur.

Instructor’s Manual

Section Reference Plate Tectonics Types of Plate Movements Earthquakes

Types of Faults Human Interactions: The Impact of Earthquakes on People Volcanoes

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Lecture Lead-ins/Transitions For a first lecture: There can be no problem in calling students’ attention to a recent catastrophic earthquake— Italy (2016), Nepal (2015), Japan (2011), Haiti and Chile (2010), China [Sichuan] (2008), Pakistan [Kashmir] (2005), Indian Ocean (2004), Iran (2003), Mexico, Turkey (1999), and so many more. Attention-grabbing images of older events, such as San Francisco (1906), New Madrid (1895, good map at USGS), Los Angeles-Northridge (1993), and Loma Prieta (1989), are easily found on the Internet.

The largest earthquakes in Canada include a magnitude 9 off the southwest coast of Vancouver Island (1700), a magnitude 8 on the Yukon-Alaska border (1899), a magnitude 8.1 offshore from Haida Gwaii, and the most recent large earthquake (mag 7.7) also occurring off Haida Gwaii in 2012. In Eastern Canada in 1929, a 7.2 magnitude quake occurred south of Newfoundland, a magnitude 6.1 quake on the Quebec-Ontario border in 1935, and the largest quake in Eastern Canada more recently was the 5.9 magnitude quake in the Saguenay region (1988).

This leads to our interest in earthquake prediction, and the question becomes not when (every newspaper will tell us that it is overdue for the San Andreas or Vancouver!), but where, in which regions. While we cannot give a specific place or time, we now know the regions where earthquakes represent a significant hazard and where residents should be prepared for such an event. Modern earth science technologies show us that the Earth’s crust is broken into pieces (plates) and that they move about. How did we arrive at the theory of plate tectonics?

Lecture Demonstrations A good animation of the breakup of Pangaea is essential.

Tanya Atwater’s animations are also an excellent teaching tool, but you probably need to download these in advance, since they are large files. http://emvc.geol.ucsb.edu/1_DownloadPage/Download_Page.html University of California Museum of Paleontology http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/geology/tectonics.html

Discussion Questions/Critical Thinking Questions •

A good deal of interest has arisen in how to predict when and where the next “BIG” earthquake will occur. This knowledge could save lives. Can you also suggest reasons why such knowledge might not be desirable?

•

Consider the island of Java; the Vancouver or Los Angeles to San Francisco region; Montserrat; Pompeii…. (choose your own examples).

Why do millions of people live in regions where natural hazards (volcanic eruptions, earthquakes) are inevitable?

•

Why was the theory of continental drift unacceptable to Anglophone scientists?

•

Why do some people refuse to leave their homes, even in the event of imminent disaster?

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In-Class and/or Group Activities There are numerous locations online where students can find worksheets they can download or print off. The various sites use common classroom materials (e.g., glue, paints, cardboard, etc.) to make 3-D models of volcanoes or tectonic plates. These are not essential for learning at this level, but many students hope to become teachers, and these are good resources with which they should become familiar. As well, they usually enjoy this simple activity themselves.

You can buy, or make, simple blocks of wood painted with “rock” strata, which students can manipulate to show the different types of faults.

Windows to the Universe http://www.windows2universe.org/teacher_resources/teach_strata.html NAGT – Layered cake = rock layers http://www.nagt-jge.org/doi/pdf/10.5408/0022-1368-35.1.33?code=gete-site Some students will also be familiar with “make a volcano,” perhaps from an elementary school science project. Instead of doing this yourself, you might ask a student to volunteer to do this for the class.

Oregon State http://volcano.oregonstate.edu/volcano-models An interesting brainstorming topic is to ask students: Why would we not want to be able to predict exactly where and when a large quake will occur?

You can also point out that real estate disclosures in some counties or cities require the seller to note the proximity to a fault line.

Institute for Catastrophic Loss Reduction – Earthquake Risk Mapping Tool (by postal code) https://www.iclr.org/homeowners/earthquakerisktool.html ICLR Report https://www.tdinsurance.com/system/assets/pdf/Earthquake_document.pdf

Tips for First-Time Lecturers This is the one part of the Physical Geography course with which you can expect most students to have some knowledge from their earlier school years.

At some stage you may like to talk to students, about the Mohole Project. This is always of interest—the Cold War, the science race, the physical challenges, and how the Glomar Challenger then became a key piece in the puzzle that finally fitted together into the theory of plate tectonics.

Relevant Web Links Natural Disasters 101 has sections on earthquakes and volcanoes (as well as wildfires, hurricanes, and tornadoes): Instructor’s Manual

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http://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/natural-disasters-weather/

Earthquakes Natural Resources Canada – Earthquakes http://www.earthquakescanada.nrcan.gc.ca/index-en.php Excellent article about Canada’s Earthquakes from Geoscience Canada https://journals.lib.unb.ca/index.php/GC/article/view/15300/16403 Excellent article on Canada’s Significant Earthquakes 1600 – 2006 http://www.earthquakescanada.nrcan.gc.ca/historichistorique/GSCOF5539/SRL2008_Lamontagne_etal.pdf

Vancouver Earthquakes – Cascadia Subduction Zone City of Vancouver http://vancouver.ca/home-property-development/earthquake-facts.aspx CBC News (many articles such as this on the news services) http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/5-1-magnitude-earthquake-hits-off-west-coastof-vancouver-island-1.3924328 CBC News http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/b-c-megathrust-earthquake-could-rupture-likea-zipper-expert-says-1.2917261 CBC News http://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/earthquake-british-columbia-public-safety-tsunami-cascadiafema-exercise-1.3951749 BC Department of Energy and Mines http://www.empr.gov.bc.ca/Mining/Geoscience/PublicationsCatalogue/Papers/Documents/P200 3-02_06.pdf Pacific Northwest Seismic Network https://www.pnsn.org/outreach/earthquakesources/csz USGS Cascadia Subduction Zone https://earthquake.usgs.gov/data/crust/cascadia.php Oregon State University http://oregonstate.edu/ua/ncs/archives/2012/jul/13-year-cascadia-study-complete%E2%80%93-and-earthquake-risk-looms-large USGS https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/pp1661f/ CNN News http://www.cnn.com/2016/02/11/us/cascadia-subduction-zone-earthquakes/ Simon Fraser University Instructor’s Manual

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http://www.sfu.ca/~acalvert/Web%20Site/Research/Cascadia%20Deep/CascadiaDeep.htm BBC documentary https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vEgLjgnv_3c

Vancouver – Waiting for the ‘big one’ CBC News http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/bc-earthquake-science-big-one-1.3384894 CBC News http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/earthquakes-bc-slow-slip-1.3794192 Globe and Mail http://www.theglobeandmail.com/real-estate/vancouver/financial-fault-lines-the-earthquake-riskof-vancouvers-condo-boom/article31354381/ The New Yorker http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2015/07/20/the-really-big-one

More Earthquakes USGS Earthquake Program https://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/ USGS Earthquake Hazards Program http://earthquake.usgs.gov/ Japanese Meteorological Agency – Earthquake Information http://www.jma.go.jp/en/quake/ Geoscience Australia Earthquakes http://www.ga.gov.au/earthquakes/ European – Mediterranean Seismology Centre http://www.emsc-csem.org/#2 Edinburgh Earth Observatory http://www.geos.ed.ac.uk/~quakes/v6_beta/map.html Virtual Earthquake http://www.sciencecourseware.org/VirtualEarthquake/ Incorporated Research Institute for Seismology: Rock Elasticity https://www.iris.edu/hq/inclass/video/earthquake_machine_elastic_rebound__the_rock_demons tration

Plate tectonics National Geographic Video ‘Colliding Continents’ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KCSJNBMOjJs USGS Instructor’s Manual

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https://geomaps.wr.usgs.gov/parks/pltec/ USGS – Dynamic Earth https://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic/dynamic.html Scientific American – Oil/plate tectonics https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/why-is-oil-usually-found/

Volcanoes Natural Resources Canada – Volcanoes http://chis.nrcan.gc.ca/volcano-volcan/index-en.php Natural Resources Canada – Maps http://www.nrcan.gc.ca/earth-sciences/geography/atlas-canada/selected-thematic-maps/16876 Natural Resources Canada – Maps http://geogratis.gc.ca/api/en/nrcan-rncan/ess-sst/de376fde-8893-11e0-bee7-6cf049291510.html Natural Resources Canada: Volcanoes in Canada http://publications.gc.ca/collections/collection_2008/nrcan/M4-59-3-2008E.pdf Environment & Climate Change Canada – Volcanic Ash https://weather.gc.ca/eer/vaac/index_e.html http://www.ec.gc.ca/meteo-weather/default.asp?lang=En&n=6B59FE0C-1 USGS – Volcano Hazards Program https://volcanoes.usgs.gov/index.html USGS Hawaiian Volcano Observatory https://hvo.wr.usgs.gov/ Alaska Volcano Observatory https://avo.alaska.edu/ Smithsonian – Global Volcanism Program http://volcano.si.edu/reports_weekly.cfm Stomboli Online http://www.swisseduc.ch/stromboli/ World Organization of Volcano Observatories http://www.wovo.org/observatories

Mohole Project Smithsonian http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/decades-long-quest-drill-earths-mantle-maysoon-hit-pay-dirt-180957908/ National Academies http://www.nationalacademies.org/history/mohole/ Instructor’s Manual

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Live Science http://www.livescience.com/13374-mantle-drilling-project-resurrected.html USGS – Glomar Challenger https://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic/glomar.html Ocean Drilling Program http://www-odp.tamu.edu/glomar.html International Ocean Discovery Program http://joidesresolution.org/

Websites were active as of March 11, 2017

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CHAPTER 14 WEATHERING AND MASS MOVEMENT In this chapter, the student is introduced to mechanical and chemical weathering, with acid rain as a case study; then to the different types of mass wasting.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES Upon completion of the chapter, the student should be able to: Learning Objective 1.

2.

3.

Section Reference

Describe the process of weathering and compare and contrast mechanical, chemical, and biological weathering.

Explain the concept of acid rain.

Weathering

Define the concept of mass wasting and compare and contrast the various kinds of mass wasting.

Mass Wasting

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Human Interactions: Acid Rain

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Lecture Lead-ins/Transitions The listing of different types of weathering can be rather pedestrian, unless some vivid examples are given. A picture of a split boulder can be used, asking students: What could have split that rock so cleanly? Be prepared for them to answer—lightning, not frost wedging. Images of vast scree slopes are visually arresting.

Of course, the mass-wasting section can be illustrated with many dramatic and tragic examples and images of mudslides, debris flows, flash floods, and more. YouTube is a source to search for a recent event.

You might like to read aloud the dramatic section of John McPhee’s The Control of Nature titled “Los Angeles against the Mountains,” which describes the close escape from a debris flow of a family living in the San Gabriel foothills. This segment is also used as a lead-in to a role-play exercise in an older USGS publication “Land and People: Finding a Balance.” http://online.wr.usgs.gov/outreach/landpeople/main/ There are fun cartoons that could be put up before class starts, for student comments.

Actually, this chapter marks the beginning of the section that falls under geomorphology, so it may be useful to give an overview before starting into weathering. Experience has shown this overview to be useful, and necessary, because students raised on PowerPoint see only sequential linkages and fail to grasp the “big picture” of geomorphology. If they can develop the overview personally, their comprehension increases tremendously. Please see the section below, “Tips for First-time Lecturers.”

Lecture Demonstrations If you wanted to spend the time, you might do the old elementary/middle school task of growing sugar crystals, evaporating salt to make crystals, or watching a piece of iron rust. This will require a week of lead time for results to be observable on the day(s) when weathering is covered in class.

Various stores sell “popcorn rock,” which is an easy and great display of crystal growth, but you need to have it on display for several days.

Discussion Questions/Critical Thinking Questions Does weathering occur only in rocks?

You might have to remind students of an outdoors person with a weather-beaten face. They may mention rust on cars or weathered wood on old buildings.

In-Class and/or Group Activities See the USGS Land and People case study noted above.

For field investigation, students could be asked to visit a local area where landslides are common, and to observe and record the different methods used to prevent loss of property; these are often multimillion dollar properties (Santa Monica, Laguna, etc.). This provides Instructor’s Manual

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material for a discussion of the effectiveness of various measures, such as plastic sheeting, concrete cover, retaining walls, and plantings.

Tips for First-Time Lecturers Solifluction is sometimes difficult for students to grasp, and illustrations are not always as clear as one would like. On the other hand, soil creep as evidenced on tombstones and fences is often encountered.

Local news events are always a good source to use if there has been a recent rockfall or similar event.

This next suggestion was mentioned in section 2 above.

The following study guide/overview may be useful to your students. First, have them draw a flowchart diagram showing that weathering leads to erosion and ultimately to deposition (Figure 1). Explain that landforms differ depending on whether they are formed by erosion or by deposition; then point out that different agents produce different landforms. This is the basis of the whole of the geomorphology section.

In this first class, the various types of weathering should be entered into the diagram before the class concludes (Figure 2).

At a later class session, students should make a full-page diagram, leaving room to enter the names of the various landforms, as you cover each of the following chapters on fluvial, glacial, and other processes (Figure 3).

The instructor may choose to make this a one-page handout, with columns blank except for the headings, but the real physical process of drawing and writing by individual students is absolutely the best way to promote understanding. Therefore, I prefer to have students draw the small diagram first, and later to draw up and complete the full table, giving an overview of the whole section on geomorphology.

Figure 1 GEOMORPHOLOGY: The study of landforms mechanical By various agents

Weathering chemical V erosion

biological

V deposition

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Figure 2 GEOMORPHOLOGY: The study of landforms: Focus on weathering.

types

mechanical • Freeze thaw • Crystal growth • Pressure release • Hydration • Thermal expansion

weathering chemical • Oxidation • Hydrolysis • Carbonation • Solution

biological • Plants • Burrowers • Birds • Lichen • HUMAN!!

V erosion V deposition

Figure 3. GEOMORPHOLOGY: The big picture I can create this in toto (for the instructors), if you want the full table. My message is that students should make it themselves. I feel that instructors might be tempted just to photocopy the table and hand it out—which totally defeats the purpose of this (constructivist) learning method.

Weathering mechanical freeze thaw etc.

chemical oxidation etc.

V V Erosion

Types of erosion AGENTS LANDFORMS of erosion

Mass wasting (gravity)

fluvial (running water)

glacial (ice)

aeolian (wind)

cliffs etc.

valley etc.

glacial trough etc.

deflation hollow etc.

coastal (waves)

Transport Types of transport Instructor’s Manual

slides

solution

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creep etc.

traction etc.

etc.

etc.

etc.

dunes etc.

beach etc.

V V Deposition LANDFORMS of deposition

talus

flood plain etc.

drumlin etc.

Relevant Web Links USGS http://online.wr.usgs.gov/outreach/landpeople/main/

Acid Rain Environment and Climate Change Canada – Acid Rain https://www.ec.gc.ca/air/default.asp?lang=En&n=AA1521C2-1 Environment and Climate Change Canada – Canada/US Air quality agreement https://www.ec.gc.ca/air/default.asp?lang=En&n=83930AC3-1 Nature International Weekly Journal of Science: Acid Rain is still hurting Canada http://www.nature.com/news/2005/050810/full/news050808-10.html Weather Network https://www.theweathernetwork.com/news/articles/acid-rain-the-sort-of-environmental-successstory/44801 Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment http://www.ccme.ca/en/resources/air/acid_rain.html CBC News http://www.cbc.ca/news/technology/acid-rain-has-lingering-impact-on-canadian-lakes-study1.733163 Toronto Star https://www.thestar.com/business/tech_news/2008/11/27/acid_rain_caused_longterm_damage_ to_lakes_study.html

Mass Wasting California State University Long Beach https://web.csulb.edu/depts/geology/facultypages/bperry/Mass%20Wasting/Types_of_Mass_W Instructor’s Manual

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asting.htm University of Hawaii https://www.soest.hawaii.edu/GG/FACULTY/POPP/Oct21_Ch_15.pdf Tulane University http://www.tulane.edu/~sanelson/Natural_Disasters/masswastproc.htm National Park Service https://www.nature.nps.gov/geology/hazards/mass_wasting.cfm

Frank Slide Government of Alberta http://history.alberta.ca/frankslide/ Canadian Encyclopedia http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/frank-slide-feature/ CBC News http://www.cbc.ca/archives/entry/1903-90-seconds-of-terror-in-the-frank-rockslide University of Lethbridge http://www.uleth.ca/vft/crowsnest/frankslide.html NRC Research Press – Reexamination of the geology of Frank Slide http://www.nrcresearchpress.com/doi/pdf/10.1139/t73-054 Alberta Energy and Utilities Board http://ags.aer.ca/document/ESR/ESR_2007_03.PDF EGS Fieldtrip http://www.egs.ab.ca/Resources/EGS%20Fieldtrips/44%20SW%20Alberta_%20Geology%20of%20the%20Frank%20Slide_2003_EGS.pdf Michigan Tech http://www.geo.mtu.edu/EHaz/VolcanoInstability_class/froese/pdf/TMMP%20Overview%20Pap er%20_final_.pdf IAEG 2006 http://iaeg2006.geolsoc.org.uk/cd/PAPERS/IAEG_772.PDF

Leda Clay Carleton University http://carleton.ca/linr/wp-content/uploads/5-Soil-Part-1-The-exciting-world-Quick-Leda-Clays.pdf CBC News http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/ottawa/ottawa-on-leda-clay-1.1498210 Geological Survey of Canada – Lithofacies of Leda Clay in the Ottawa Basin http://open.canada.ca/data/en/dataset/2a7f7dcc-d4fd-53f9-a28d-6ee806707dd1 Instructor’s Manual

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Canadian Soil Information Service - Soils of the Ottawa Carleton http://sis.agr.gc.ca/cansis/publications/surveys/on/on58/on58-v1_report.pdf Globe and Mail http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/national/devastating-slide-in-quebec-was-like-the-end-ofthe-world/article4353052/ Ottawa Gatineau Geoheritage – Lemieux Landslide https://www.ottawagatineaugeoheritage.ca/subsites/11

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CHAPTER 15 GROUNDWATER AND KARST LANDSCAPES In this chapter, the student is introduced to the groundwater component of the hydrologic cycle in detail. The High Plains (Ogallala) aquifer is discussed as a case study in resource depletion.

The second part of the chapter deals with karst topography, which is a fascinating field of exploration and adventure.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES Upon completion of the chapter, the student should be able to: Learning Objective 1.

2.

3.

Describe the way that groundwater is absorbed into the ground and stored within it.

Explain the geography and formation of aquifers and human interactions with them, and understand the concept of groundwater contamination.

Discuss the different processes that form caves, and how these contribute to the development of karst topography.

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Section Reference Movement and Storage of Groundwater Human Interactions with Groundwater Karst Landforms and Landscapes

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Lecture Lead-ins/Transitions You might start this section by showing part of the National Geographic video “The Power of Water.” It has a nice segment on a farming family in the Ogallala aquifer who have changed from irrigation to dry-farming. The section is less than 15 minutes long. This video was made in 1994, so it needs to be supplemented with current data. (A different place to use this material might be during the biomes section, for the human alteration of the Prairie grassland biome.)

Ogallala Aquifer – National Science Foundation & NBC News https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XXFsS94HF08 Naturally, the world of speleology is quite dramatic, and limestone caverns are exciting phenomena. There is no difficulty in involving students in this material.

For a film opening, a short segment of a Chinese film showing the tower karst of Guilin would present a landscape familiar to many students. Crouching Tiger is just one example. Students who have been to Southeast Asia will also have pictures of the dramatic coastal karst features, such as Ha Long bay in Vietnam or the coast of southern Thailand.

Lecture Demonstrations A few drops of acid on a piece of limestone can provide a good example of the effect of rainwater (not to be done by students, of course).

Online example https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iIMEVOwS24w

Discussion Questions/Critical Thinking Questions You might like to show a few Chinese scroll paintings where the towering mountains and swirling mists overwhelm a tiny human figure.

Why are Chinese artists so fond of painting these landscapes?

Why do Chinese people venerate such places?

In-Class and/or Group Activities •

This chapter provides opportunities to draw on student experiences, and allows students to give short talks about a visit to Mammoth cave, Carlsbad Caverns, or places beyond.

•

USGS has online tours of the above two parks.

Carlsbad Caverns National Park http://3dparks.wr.usgs.gov/cave/index.html Mammoth Cave National Park https://www.nps.gov/media/photo/gallery.htm?id=8C3F542C-1DD8-B71C-0728C0BC176BA864 •

There are some fun, but time-consuming, paper models here if students are interested in such activities; the colour models are effective. This activity should be done at home, perhaps for extra credit.

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http://www.usgs.gov/education/animations/karst97-536/karst.pdf

Tips for First-Time Lecturers •

Students may be confused by the widespread application of the term sinkhole to any small, or large, ground subsidence. They need to know that this does not always indicate a karst region, especially in an urban area, where there are underground tunnels or infrastructure, and where heavy rain or burst pipes can cause a sinkhole in a road surface. It is a popular news item for local newspapers.

USGS – Difference between a sinkhole and pothole https://www2.usgs.gov/faq/node/7903 Toronto Star https://www.thestar.com/news/gta/2015/03/24/toronto-get-ready-for-sinkhole-season.html •

This chapter sits awkwardly—distant from the chapter on the hydrologic cycle, where groundwater is first introduced, and preceding the chapter on fluvial erosion, which is of much greater extent and geomorphologic importance. This is a case where you might want to use the groundwater concepts earlier and the karst section later in your syllabus.

Relevant Web Links Groundwater Environment & Climate Change Canada – Groundwater https://www.ec.gc.ca/eau-water/default.asp?lang=En&n=300688DC-1 Natural Resources Canada – Groundwater & Aquifers http://www.nrcan.gc.ca/earth-sciences/science/water/groundwater/10988 Natural Resources Canada - Groundwater Geoscience Program http://www.nrcan.gc.ca/earth-sciences/resources/federal-programs/groundwater-geoscienceprogram/10909 http://www.nrcan.gc.ca/evaluation/reports/2013/11142 Council of Canadian Academies http://www.scienceadvice.ca/en/assessments/completed/groundwater.aspx Globe and Mail – Need a new approach to groundwater http://www.theglobeandmail.com/opinion/canada-needs-a-new-approach-to-protectinggroundwater/article24663977/ CBC News http://www.cbc.ca/news/technology/study-maps-canada-s-hidden-water-to-stave-off-shortages1.785598 Canadian Geographic http://www.canadiangeographic.com/watersheds/map/?path=english/themes/groundwater

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Canadian Geographic https://www.canadiangeographic.ca/article/first-global-map-hidden-groundwater-vs-canadassupply USGS https://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/circ1139/

Ogallala Aquifer USGS High Plains Aquifer monitoring study https://ne.water.usgs.gov/ogw/hpwlms/ USGS Groundwater depletion https://water.usgs.gov/edu/gwdepletion.html USGS – Geology https://ne.water.usgs.gov/ogw/hpwlms/hydsett.html

Karst Canadian Encyclopedia http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/karst-landform/ BC Ministry of Forests – Karst in BC https://www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfp/publications/00192/Text.htm Karst Map of Southern Ontario https://docs2.neb-one.gc.ca/lleng/llisapi.dll/fetch/2000/90464/90552/92263/2671190/2882977/2937936/2949461/3025064/A7 8981%2D18_Attachment_18_Karst%2Dmap_%2D_A5E5E5.pdf?nodeid=3025265&vernum=-2 Parks Canada – Wood Buffalo National Park http://www.pc.gc.ca/eng/pn-np/nt/woodbuffalo/visit/visit7/visit10.aspx Great Canadian Parks – Nahanni http://www.canadianparks.com/northwest/nahninp/page6.htm Parks Canada – Nahanni http://www.pc.gc.ca/eng/pn-np/nt/nahanni/natcul/natcul1c.aspx Hamilton Conservation Authority – Eramosa Karst http://conservationhamilton.ca/conservation-areas-2/eramosa-karst/ USGS https://pubs.usgs.gov/sir/2008/5023/pdf/06hollings.pdf USGS https://water.usgs.gov/ogw/karst/ National Geographic http://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/karst/

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University of Kentucky https://www.uky.edu/KGS/water/general/karst/karst_landscape.htm

Caving Canadian Caving Conservancy http://www.canadiancaveconservancy.ca/ Alberta Speleological Society http://www.caving.ab.ca/caves_and_karst

What is a ‘sink hole’?

USGS https://water.usgs.gov/edu/sinkholes.html National Geographic http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2013/08/130812-florida-sinkhole-disney-worldexplainer-urban-science/ & http://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/sinkhole/ Independent http://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/sinkholes-what-are-they-how-do-they-form-andwhy-are-we-seeing-so-many-9136235.html’ ABC News http://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-02-08/what-is-a-sinkhole/8251282 Live Science http://www.livescience.com/44123-what-are-sinkholes.html

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CHAPTER 16 FLUVIAL SYSTEMS AND LANDFORMS In this chapter, the student is introduced to the hydrologic concepts of streams, drainage basins, drainage patterns, and density. Channel geometry is used to develop an understanding of flooding, with the Mississippi River floods of the 1990s used as a case study. Fluvial erosion processes, transport, and deposition are described, with the associated multitude of landforms.

The chapter concludes with human alterations of rivers, including urbanization, levee construction, and dams.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES Upon completion of the chapter, the student should be able to: Learning Objective 1.

2.

3.

4.

Describe the concept of a drainage basin (or watershed) and how such basins are arranged from a hierarchical perspective.

Discuss the various components of hydraulic geometry and the way that water flows in channels.

Describe fluvial process and landforms, including how erosional and depositional processes create rills and gullies; the process of stream gradation and the importance of base level; the creation of stream meanders and braided streams; and the formation of deltas.

Describe the various ways that humans impact streams and how they have both positive and negative outcomes.

Instructor’s Manual

Section Reference Overland Flow and Drainage Basins Hydraulic Geometry and Channel Flow Fluvial Processes and Landforms

Human Interactions with Streams

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Lecture Lead-ins/Transitions Flood footage is always an attention grabber—showing houses being washed down a turbulent stream and people being helicoptered out of raging waters. Again there is plenty of dramatic footage on YouTube or in the Savage Skies series mentioned in earlier chapters of this manual.

These visuals lead to an awareness that people have been trying to control rivers, especially the Red River or Mississippi, for more than a century.

Have we succeeded?

This chapter is basically the key to the whole of geomorphology, since fluvial processes are the dominant influence on landforms.

Lecture Demonstrations Physical geography lab manuals usually have actual topographic maps showing different stream patterns, rather than the abstract diagrams of the textbook. You can project a page from the lab manual to show students that these places really exist.

You can also use aerial imagery to show stream patterns: NASA – Astronaut Photography https://eol.jsc.nasa.gov/ Topographic Maps Canada - National Topographic System Maps http://www.nrcan.gc.ca/earth-sciences/geography/topographic-information/maps/9767 Some provinces have online GIS tools that have topographic or water feature layers associated with them that could be used to illustrate stream patterns.

British Columbia – GeoBC - Topographic Map Viewer http://geobc.gov.bc.ca/base-mapping/imagery/topographic.html Viewer http://apps.gov.bc.ca/pub/dmf-viewer/?siteid=5628311639164388216 Alberta Environment and Parks – Online Mapping http://aep.alberta.ca/forms-maps-services/maps/online-mapping-services.aspx Alberta Online Mapping – Fish and Wildlife Internet Mapping Tool https://maps.srd.alberta.ca/FWIMT_Pub/Viewer/?TermsOfUseRequired=true&Viewer=FWIMT_ Pub Saskatchewan – GIS.saskatchewan.ca – Access Geographic Information for the Province of Saskatchewan https://www.saskatchewan.ca/government/notarize-documents-queens-printer-maps-and-otherpublications/maps Saskatchewan – Sask Interactive Mapping https://gisappl.saskatchewan.ca/Html5Ext/index.html?viewer=saskinteractive Ontario Topographic Maps Instructor’s Manual

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https://www.ontario.ca/page/topographic-maps ONMRF – Online GIS Application - Make a Topographic Map http://www.gisapplication.lrc.gov.on.ca/matm/Index.html?site=Make_A_Topographic_Map&view er=MATM&locale=en-US Newfoundland Geoscience Atlas http://geoatlas.gov.nl.ca/Default.htm PEI Land online http://142.176.0.108/landonline/Map.aspx Nova Scotia – GeoNOVA https://geonova.novascotia.ca/home New Brunswick – GeoNB http://www.snb.ca/geonb1/e/index-E.asp The USGS EROS centre has images of rivers and streams http://eros.usgs.gov/#/Science/Landscape_Dynamics/Topographic_Research/Rivers_and_Strea ms University of Georgia – Department of Geology: Bruce Railsback - Aerial Photographs, satellite images and maps http://www.gly.uga.edu/railsback/FieldImages2.html

Discussion Questions/Critical Thinking Questions What is the difference between a river and a stream?

This is a topic that can puzzle even the best students.

How is it possible to estimate the time at which a flood will arrive at a downstream location?

How do hydrologists calculate the capacity of a dam?

In-Class and/or Group Activities Calculating stream order is always enjoyable as students can chuckle about how 1 = 1 + 2 but 2 + 2 = 3, 3 = 3 + 4…

Tips for First-Time Lecturers The idea of channel flow and equilibrium, and the associated variables of velocity, depth: A personal favourite concept and location is the Continental Divide or in the case of Western Canada – the Triple Continental Divide. I tell students how exciting it is to approach the divide; to stand there, wishing it would rain so that the rain would run down one shoulder and end in the one ocean while rain from the other shoulder would end in the another ocean. There are many places along Western North America from New Mexico and Colorado in the south to British Instructor’s Manual

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Columbia and the Yukon in the north where a person can hike/climb to the Continental Divide.

In Jasper National Park, there is an unique divide between drainage basins. The 3456m Mount Snow Dome in the Canadian Rocky Mountains is part of the Columbia Icefield and it is considered an important hydrological apex in Canada and around the world. Meltwater from the snow and ice on the mountain ultimately flows to three oceans – the Pacific via the Columbia River; the Arctic via the Athabasca River; and the Atlantic via the North Saskatchewan River.

It would seem that this exercise should resonate with all geography students, but it may be your misfortune (like mine), incomprehensively, to encounter a lack of feeling for the natural environment among the majority of your students.

Relevant Web Links It is interesting to see how exploration of Mars and high-resolution imagery allow scientists to see undoubted evidence of fluvial process there in the past http://www.uahirise.org/katalogos.php Many images of the Continental Divide found by Google search.

Calculating Stream Order ArcGIS online http://pro.arcgis.com/en/pro-app/tool-reference/spatial-analyst/how-stream-order-works.htm

Drainage basins – Canada Canadian Encyclopedia http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/drainage-basin/ Natural Resources Canada – Water maps http://www.nrcan.gc.ca/earth-sciences/geography/atlas-canada/selected-thematic-maps/16888

Streams Discharge Government of Canada – Water level and flow https://wateroffice.ec.gc.ca/ Government of Canada – Wateroffice – Real time hydrometric data map https://wateroffice.ec.gc.ca/google_map/google_map_e.html Water Survey of Canada http://publications.gc.ca/collections/collection_2014/ec/En56-245-1999-eng.pdf

Flooding Alberta Flood Hazard Map Application http://maps.srd.alberta.ca/floodhazard/ City of Calgary – Flood Maps http://www.calgary.ca/UEP/Water/Pages/Flood-Info/Calgary-flood-maps/Flood-maps.aspx City of Calgary – Floodway/Flood fringe http://www.calgary.ca/PDA/pd/Pages/Flood/Floodway-flood-fringe-maps.aspx Instructor’s Manual

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Manitoba Flood Information http://www.gov.mb.ca/flooding/ Ontario Flood Forecasting and Warning Program https://www.ontario.ca/law-and-safety/flood-forecasting-and-warning-program

St. Lawrence Estuary National Geographic http://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/estuary/

Department of Fisheries and Oceans Canada St. Lawrence Estuary http://www.qc.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/golfe-gulf/index-eng.html & http://www.qc.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/gestionmanagement/estuaire-estuary-eng.html http://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/library/318989_e.pdf St. Lawrence estuary – Laurentian Channel https://www.researchgate.net/figure/230911764_fig1_Figure-1-Map-of-eastern-Canadashowing-the-Estuary-and-the-Gulf-of-St-Lawrence-adapted Marine Conservation Institute - MPAtlas – St. Lawrence Estuary http://www.mpatlas.org/campaign/st-lawrence-estuary/

Continental Divide National Geographic – Continental Divide http://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/continental-divide/ Canadian Geographic – Watersheds - Triple Continental Divide http://www.canadiangeographic.com/atlas/themes.aspx?id=watersheds&sub=watersheds_flow_ canadaswatersheds&lang=En CNtraveler http://www.cntraveler.com/stories/2013-10-07/maphead-mount-snow-dome-canada-kenjennings Summit Post.org – Snow Dome http://www.summitpost.org/snow-dome/154157 Mountain Nature.com http://www.mountainnature.com/Geology/LandformResult.asp?ID=83 Encyclopedia Britannica – Columbia Icefield https://www.britannica.com/place/Columbia-Icefield

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CHAPTER 17 GLACIAL AND PERIGLACIAL PROCESSES AND LANDFORMS In this chapter the student is introduced to glaciers and the landforms they create through the processes of erosion and deposition. Glacial periods of Earth’s past are discussed, emphasizing the impact on the North American continent of continental glaciers during the most recent glacial periods. In the concluding section, glacial melting is related to current research into global climate change.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES Upon completion of the chapter, the student should be able to: Learning Objective 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Describe how glaciers develop and move and the environmental conditions that are required.

Discuss the various kinds of glaciers that occur and the types of landscapes in which they are found.

Compare and contrast the various erosional and depositional glacial landforms.

Explain the history of glaciation on Earth, particularly the number of Pleistocene glaciations that occurred.

Discuss periglacial processes, the environments in which they occur, and the impact they have on the landscape.

Instructor’s Manual

Section Reference Development of a Glacier Types of Glaciers Glacial Landforms History of Glaciation on Earth

Periglacial Processes and Landscapes

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Lecture Lead-ins/Transitions Openers There are many video clips of glaciers calving into the ocean.

What is happening here?

Why is this happening?

For example, this sequence from the documentary film ‘Chasing Ice’ shows the largest calving event ever filmed https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hC3VTgIPoGU Also, spectacular pictures of icebergs abound on the Internet.

Where did these icebergs come from?

How big are they really?

Some students will have personal experience of mountain glaciers retreating in their own lifetime. One place students may have experience from is in Jasper National Park where visitors can literally walk the path of the retreating Athabasca glacier.

Parks Canada – Columbia Icefield http://www.pc.gc.ca/eng/pn-np/ab/jasper/activ/explore-interets/glacier-athabasca.aspx The glacier has retreated approximately 1.5 kilometres since the late 1800s and continues to retreat today. As with other glaciers around the world, the Athabasca glacier could disappear within a generation.

Nature Geoscience http://www.nature.com/ngeo/journal/v8/n5/full/ngeo2407.html Journal of Glaciology – Glacier Change of the Columbia Icefield http://couplet.unbc.ca/pdfs/Tennant_menounos_2013.pdf CBC News http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/calgary/athabasca-glacier-could-disappear-within-generationsays-manager-1.2653641 Macleans http://www.macleans.ca/news/canada/athabasca-glacier-melting-at-astonishing-rate/

In 2016, climbers climbed INTO the Athabasca Glacier CBC News http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/calgary/will-gadd-athabasca-glacier-climb-1.3910369 CBC News: Audio interview http://www.cbc.ca/player/play/829449283654 Background Document on Athabasca Glacier Instructor’s Manual

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http://earthsciencescanada.com/geovista/PDFs_en/vistas8_agci.pdf Glacial scenery is so dramatic that many great photographs can be used, ranging from the personal to Ansel Adams.

Why is this waterfall here?

What created this steep-sided valley?

Ansel Adams Gallery http://anseladams.com/ Ansel Adams – National Parks Service https://www.nps.gov/yose/learn/historyculture/ansel-adams.htm Ansel Adams – National Archives https://www.archives.gov/research/ansel-adams Interesting anecdotes related to the life of Louis Agassiz (the father of glaciology) can be interpolated into classroom discussions but I would use only one—there are many more interesting geoscience characters for students to hear about.

The following list is in order of personal preference and use: • Agassiz’s grave is marked by a glacial erratic, the money for it raised by public subscription.

•

He was a “rock-star” of his day, as the ladies jostled to get into the room to hear his public lectures; he was tall, handsome, and greatly admired.

•

He devised a method to measure glacial movement.

•

He invented the term Ice Age.

•

He trained generations of scientists.

•

Poems were written about him.

Lecture Demonstrations An elementary school demonstration involves making a glacier by freezing water, with sand, gravel, and a few angular pebbles inside a milk carton. Tear away the paper at the bottom, and it can be used to carve out a trough, make striations, or even melt into moraine.

Other examples include: Louisiana State University – Make a Glacier https://www.lsu.edu/mns/files/exhibit/Antarctica8.pdf SERC Carleton – Make a glacier http://serc.carleton.edu/eslabs/cryosphere/3c.html

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Discussion Questions/Critical Thinking Questions What are the different methods used by scientists to show the direction of glacial movement?

The extent of former glaciation?

In-Class and/or Group Activities Reading the landscape of a series of photographs is a good way to reinforce nomenclature, which some students find difficult. The Visual Concept Checks in the text can be used for starters.

At about this time in the semester, you might like to give students a small research task which I sometimes call “Great Persons in Earth Science.” You generally have to provide the names. Be sure to point out again that geography is very broad and that these persons contributed to different fields—some to climatology, some to landforms, and so on.

The students’ task is to tell the class their specific contribution to physical geography/earth science; this involves only where they were born, where they worked, what time frame, in what field, and major discoveries. There should be no “padding” with irrelevant personal facts that one can glean from any biography (details of their maternal grandmother, for example).

Below is a pantheon that you can expand on. It is roughly chronological; you might like to arrange it thematically instead.

1. Pythagoras 2. Eratosthenes 3. Muhammad Al Idrisi 4. Ptolemy (of the map) 5. Christopher Columbus 6. Evangelista Torricelli 7. Alexander von Humbolt 8. Gabriel Daniel Fahrenheit 9. Anders Celsius 10. Immanuel Kant 11. Karl Linnaeus 12. John Harrison 13. Carl Ritter 14. James Cook 15. James Hutton 16. Charles Lyell 17. Arnaldo Faustini 18. Luke Howard 19. Charles Darwin 20. Alfred Russel Wallace 21. Chief Joseph 22. John Wesley Powell 23. Wladimir Köppen 24. Louis Agassiz 25. William Morris Davis 26. Alfred Wegener Instructor’s Manual

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27. Inge Lehman 28. Charles Richter 29. Andreja Mohorovicic 30. Carl Sagan Many more are possible—more explorers, for example. For example, student may select one of the following explorers: Alexander MacKenzie, David Thompson, John & Jane Franklin, Robert Bylot, Samuel de Champlain, Peter Fidler, Roald Amundsen, William Baffin, Samuel Hearne, John Cabot, Henry Hudson, Daniel Greysolon, Sieur du Lhut, Martin Frobisher, and Leif Erickson.

Canadian Explorers – Canada’s History http://www.canadashistory.ca/Explore/Exploration/Canada-s-Greatest-Explorers Canadian Geographic – Canada’s Greatest Explorers http://www.canadiangeographic.com/canadian-explorers/ Canadian Museum of History – The Explorers http://www.masters.ab.ca/bdyck/early-canada/explorers/ The danger is for students not to be selective and simply want to regurgitate (or condense) a whole biography. You should insist that it be focused on geography, and not be longer than a one-page article or a 3-minute talk (with three PowerPoint slides if you like).

Tips for First-Time Lecturers Use of current media event coverage: In a winter or spring semester when the Winter Olympic games are being held, you have the opportunity to discuss ice formation, snow formation and accumulation, and glacial ice formation. The lack of snow at the 2010 Vancouver games is an excellent example. What will snow conditions be like in PyeongChang, South Korea in 2018?

Another option for discussion may be the calving of ice sheets and glaciers from Antarctica or Greenland.

Some examples can be found at the following:

2017 BBC http://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-38522954 Science Daily https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2017/01/170106131954.htm Scientific American https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/large-iceberg-looks-poised-to-break-off-fromantarctica/ Earth Observatory http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=89638

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2016 AGU http://blogs.agu.org/fromaglaciersperspective/2016/04/11/nansen-ice-shelf-april-2016-calvingevent/

2015 The Register https://www.theregister.co.uk/2015/08/24/european_space_agency_spots_greenland_glacier_c alving_massive_iceberg/ The Guardian https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2015/mar/26/collapse-antarcticas-glaciers-ice-meltsooner-than-thought-scientists-warn Earth Observatory http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=86436 IFL Science http://www.iflscience.com/environment/greenland-glacier-just-shed-chunk-ice-could-covermanhattan/ CBS News http://www.cbsnews.com/news/greenland-glacier-loses-chunk-the-size-of-manhattan/ BBC http://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-34041531

2014 CNN http://www.cnn.com/2014/04/22/world/asia/antarctic-iceberg/ University of Washington http://www.washington.edu/news/2014/02/03/greenlands-fastest-glacier-sets-new-speed-record/

2013 Earth Observatory http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=82392 Livescience http://www.livescience.com/38078-pine-island-glacier-iceberg.html

Relevant Web Links All about glaciers http://nsidc.org/glaciers/ Natural Resources Canada – Glacial Map of Canada http://geogratis.gc.ca/api/en/nrcan-rncan/ess-sst/44560cf7-7ac1-5933-836d-ebc8c044e3d6.html

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Natural Resources Canada – Glaciers http://www.nrcan.gc.ca/earth-sciences/science/permafrost-ice-snow/glaciers/10917 Canadian Cyrosphic Information Network https://ccin.ca/home/ Canadian Cyrosphic Information Network – Glacier Distribution https://ccin.ca/home/ccw/glaciers/distribution Environment and Climate Change Canada – Canadian Ice Service https://www.ec.gc.ca/glaces-ice/ USGS – Glaciers of North America – Glaciers of Canada https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/p1386j/canadianrockies/canrock-lores.pdf National Geographic – Glacial Power https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cIBFAke90SI BBC Explore – Inside a glacier https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Gbfu2-Z_iDI BBC Men of Rock – The Big Freeze https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RIjFP6FJTyc Extreme Ice Survey http://extremeicesurvey.org/ Documentary Film – ‘Chasing Ice’ https://chasingice.com/ Louis Agassiz – UCMP Berkeley http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/history/agassiz.html Louis Agassiz – Encyclopedia Britannica https://www.britannica.com/biography/Louis-Agassiz Louis Agassiz – Michigan Tec http://www.geo.mtu.edu/KeweenawGeoheritage/Glaciers/Louis_Agassiz.html Louis Agassiz – BBC – Men of Rock Preview video https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Cl6pM8lKKFY Louis Agassiz – Chicago Humanities Festival https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_IQQWX0lcLI Louis Agassiz’s grave http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=13 UAF Alaska – What is glacial calving? https://www.asf.alaska.edu/blog/what-is-glacial-calving/

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CHAPTER 18 ARID LANDSCAPES AND AEOLIAN PROCESSES This chapter begins with a brief review of the climatic factors causing desert environments, before moving to actual desert geomorphology. Fluvial landforms of arid regions are covered before discussion of the aeolian processes of erosion, transport, and deposition. In conclusion, human influences on desertification are examined for the Sahel and the Canadian Prairies.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES Upon completion of the chapter, the student should be able to: Learning Objective

Section Reference

1.

Describe the physical geography of arid landscapes. Arid Landscapes

2.

Understand the character of aeolian processes and how they erode and transport sediment.

Understand how aeolian processes result in deposition of windblown sediment and the resulting landforms this creates.

Discuss human interactions with arid landscapes and aeolian processes in the African Sahel and the Canadian Prairies.

3.

4.

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Aeolian Erosion and Transport Aeolian Deposition and Landforms Human Interactions with Arid Landscapes and Aeolian Processes

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Lecture Lead-ins/Transitions A nice classroom addition is a display of a sand collection. It is always good to clear up the misconception that a desert is a sea of sand dunes and ridges. So, at the start of this section, you can ask the students to look at the display case of different sands from around the region, country, or globe if one is available, noting different sizes and colours.

If labels are visible, students can see where each sample was collected, but you can ask: Is this all from different deserts?

Of course, much of it will come from beaches, so this display is also useful for coastal chapter.

World Atlas of Sands http://www.sand-atlas.com/en/ International Sand Collectors Society http://www.sandcollectors.org/SANDMAN/Directorslettx.html Google Earth can then be used effectively to zoom in on any chosen desert landscape, showing mountains and rocky landforms. This can be done, of course, even without the sand collection.

Google Earth (Try searching the following desert locations in the search function.)

1. Sahara 2. Great Basin 3. Syrian 4. Chihuahuan 5. Patagonian 6. Great Victoria 7. Kalahari 8. Gobi 9. Arabian 10. Colorado 11. Mojave 12. Atacama 13. Namib 14. Takla Makan 15. Thar 16. Great Sandy 17. Sonoran 18. Turkestan 19. Iranian 20. Libyan 21. Yuma 22. Gibson 23. Simpson 24. Negev 25. Lut 26. Rub’ al-Khali 27. Karakum 28. Kyzylkum 29. Kavir Instructor’s Manual

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30. Arctic 31. Antarctic Some examples of specific dune types that can be viewed with Google Earth: Star Dunes, Algeria: 29.943333, 8.314722 Barchan Dunes, Peru: -16.713302, -71.828388 Transverse Dunes, Peru: -15.159878, -74.715011 Parabolic Dunes, New Mexico, USA: 32.921497, -106.206944 Linear Dunes, Namibia: -24.160833, 15.711111 Google Earth: Mars (input the following locations into the search tool to zoom to Martian dunes:) Dunes - 74.98°N 300.02°E Dunes - 76.47°N 297.45°E Dunes - 77.50°N 300.11°E Dunes - 80.04°N 245.85°E Dunes - 81.51°N 139.62°E Dunes - 76.49°S 168.13°E An alternative opening scene is the world-famous landscape of Monument Valley.

Is this a desert?

What made those landforms?

What do they make you think of?

What are they called by a geoscientist?

Why do you think they have a special meaning to the Native Americans who live here?

An interesting conversation may be developed from the following idea: Did humans create the Sahara Desert?

Science Daily https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2017/03/170314111320.htm Frontiers in Earth Science http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/feart.2017.00004/full An interesting side note: Dunes are moving into one of the sets used in Star Wars.

BBC News Instructor’s Manual

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http://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-23375344 National Geographic http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2013/07/130724-star-wars-phantom-menace-setsand-dunes-science/ New York Daily News http://www.nydailynews.com/news/world/anakin-skywalker-home-threatened-huge-movingsand-dune-article-1.1404394 Planetary.org http://www.planetary.org/blogs/guest-blogs/2013/dunes-on-tatooine.html Geomorphology http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0169555X13003486 Mos Espa set in desert – Google Earth location: 33.994167, 7.843056

Lecture Demonstrations There are easy demonstrations of aeolian transport that can be done with sand (in a tray) and a fan blowing over it, but these can turn out to be messy. Slides and video clips are the best tools for this section, showing the forward movement of a barchan, for example.

Dramatic visuals can make this a memorable chapter (Try YouTube.)

Flash floods in the desert https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_yCnQuILmsM

A drowning in Las Vegas after a short rain shower Desert News http://www.deseretnews.com/article/106540/WOMAN-DROWNS-IN-LAS-VEGAS-FLASHFLOODING.html?pg=all

Camels in snow in a high desert BBC News http://www.bbc.co.uk/newsround/30778785 FOX31 http://kdvr.com/2017/02/15/camels-loving-the-snow/ It is important to remind students that we can see the naked landscape in deserts and appreciate the distinctive appearance, but the same fluvial processes are at work, shaping the major landforms of alluvial fans, bajada, and badlands.

Discussion Questions/Critical Thinking Questions How is it that most desert landscapes are created by running water, even though there is so little precipitation?

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What are the relative roles of population pressure, overgrazing, and climate change in (choose one of the regions where desertification is visible) the Dust Bowl, the Sahel, western China, Western Australia, and so on?

Try to explain the relative importance of structure, geology, and faults, as well as climate, in shaping your choice (Death Valley, Monument Valley; any bolson-playa assemblage you choose).

In-Class and/or Group Activities A nice opening is to ask students to quickly sketch a desert on a loose sheet of paper; this can be individually or in small groups. Students should note why they chose the particular features (e.g., camel, date palm, sand dune).

What influenced this image?

Television or Movies generally are the greatest influence; students will come to see that the Hollywood “desert” is as unreal as the Hollywood “jungle.”

Time permitting, students can choose/be assigned to a group that looks at one desert, giving a brief overview of location, climate, landforms, biota, human occupants, and problems. Namib, Atacama, Kalahari, Mojave, Gobi, and Simpson are good choices.

Tips for First-Time Lecturers Although the chapter begins with a review of the climatology of deserts, it is usually better to “dive” into the fascination of the landforms and landscapes, and review the causes later.

This seems excessively trivial, but it is *always* important to point out, more than once, that a desert is not something one eats after dinner.

Relevant Web Links Deserts Annenberg Learner – Earth Revealed – #22 Wind, Dust & Deserts http://www.learner.org/resources/series78.html USGS – What is a desert? https://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/deserts/what/ Desert USA – has some interesting and some fun items, and good photographs—more for outdoor types than scientists, but students enjoy it http://www.desertusa.com/ UCMP Berkeley – The Desert Biome http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/glossary/gloss5/biome/deserts.html National Geographic – Deserts http://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/habitats/deserts/

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World Wildlife Fund – Deserts https://www.worldwildlife.org/habitats/deserts

Canada’s ‘Desert’ Toronto Star https://www.thestar.com/life/travel/2009/06/24/osoyoos_canadas_lone_desert.html Canadian Geographic http://www.canadiangeographic.com/wildlife-nature/?path=english/ecozones/desert Canadian Encyclopedia http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/desert/

Dunes USGS – Types of Dunes https://www.nps.gov/grsa/learn/nature/dune-types.htm National Park Service - Great Sand Dunes National Park and Preserve https://www.nps.gov/grsa/index.htm & https://www.handsontheland.org/grsa/resources/star.htm Michigan Natural Features Inventory https://mnfi.anr.msu.edu/pub/dunes/majordunetypes.html

Earth Observatory – Images and Description Star Dunes, Algeria https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=81996 Sand Dunes, Libya https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=36675 Linear Dunes, Egypt https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=78151

Dunes on the Canadian Prairies Nature Canada https://naturecanada.ca/news/blog/why-are-there-sand-dunes-in-the-middle-of-saskatchewan/ Aeolian Research – Declining Sand dune activity in the Southern Canadian Prairies http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1875963710000248 Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences - Late 18th Century drought induced sand dune activity, Saskatchewan http://cjes.geoscienceworld.org/content/38/1/105

Canadian Dunes Canadian Geographic - Athabasca Sand Dunes https://www.canadiangeographic.ca/article/sandland-athabasca-sand-dunes-provincialwilderness-park

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Encyclopedia of Saskatchewan – Athabasca Sand Dunes http://esask.uregina.ca/entry/athabasca_sand_dunes.html

Sahel Region Encyclopedia Britannica https://www.britannica.com/place/Sahel UN Africa Renewal http://www.un.org/africarenewal/magazine/december-2013/sahel-one-region-many-crises UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs http://www.unocha.org/sahel PBS http://www.pbs.org/wnet/africa/explore/sahel/sahel_overview_lo.html FAO http://www.fao.org/emergencies/crisis/sahel/en/ World Food Program http://www.wfp.org/crisis/sahel BBC News http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-19074859 Aljazeera News http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/spotlight/saheldrought/2012/06/2012616174721352901.html

Rain Shadow Canadian Geographic http://www.canadiangeographic.com/atlas/themes.aspx?id=pacific&sub=pacific_features_rain&l ang=En Weather Network https://www.theweathernetwork.com/uk/news/articles/why-of-weather-what-is-the-rain-shadoweffect/59595

Hoodoo Rock Canadian Encyclopedia http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/hoodoo-rock/ University of Lethbridge http://www.uleth.ca/vft/milkriver/hoodoos.html Field BC – Yoho NP http://www.field.ca/yohonationalpark/leanchoilhoodoos/ Royal Tyrell Museum Alberta http://www.tyrrellmuseum.com/exhibits/1674.htm

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Canada’s Historic Places http://www.historicplaces.ca/en/rep-reg/place-lieu.aspx?id=8813 Bryce Canyon National Park, USA http://www.myutahparks.com/hoodoos/

Palliser’s Triangle Encyclopedia of Saskatchewan http://esask.uregina.ca/entry/palliser_triangle.html Canadian Encyclopedia http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/drought-in-pallisers-triangle-feature/ University of Lethbridge http://www.uleth.ca/vft/lethbridge/palliser.html University of Manitoba http://home.cc.umanitoba.ca/~mlast/publications/page10/assets/GUIDE1996.pdf Western Development Museum http://www.wdm.ca/skteacherguide/WDMResearch/SkWeather_Climate_Soils.pdf

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CHAPTER 19 COASTAL PROCESSES AND LANDFORMS This chapter opens with facts about the hydrosphere, moving on to processes of eustatic change, tides, and, finally, wave formation, movement, and transport. Features and processes of erosional coasts and of depositional coasts are treated in detail, followed by a short treatment of coral formations. Human actions in the form of coastal management and engineering are discussed. The chapter concludes with a treatment of the effects of global climate change on sea level and on corals.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES Upon completion of the chapter, the student should be able to: Learning Objective 1.

2.

3.

4.

Distinguish among oceans, seas, and gulfs on Earth, and describe the differences in seawater composition.

Discuss the processes that operate along coastlines.

Compare and contrast erosional and depositional coastal landforms.

Discuss the various ways that humans interact with (and manage) coastlines, including the effects of climate change.

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Section Reference Oceans and Seas on Earth

The Nature of Coastlines: Intersection of Earth’s Spheres Coastal Landforms Human Interactions with Coastlines

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Lecture Lead-ins/Transitions Beaches and coasts are inherently interesting to students, so this is an easy chapter to draw interested participation. You can start with unusual formations such as sea arches, blowholes, sand spits, and sea stacks, asking who has seen one.

Where?

How was it formed?

Surfers will always offer to give details of wave conditions they have encountered and will be able to explain what causes “good” waves.

Surfing in Canada Ibackpackcanada http://ibackpackcanada.com/best-surf-locations-in-canada/ Toronto Sun http://www.torontosun.com/2013/07/16/top-places-to-surf-in-canada CTV News http://london.ctvnews.ca/top-surfing-spot-in-canada-may-not-be-where-you-d-expect-1.1857038 Canadian Geographic https://www.canadiangeographic.ca/article/canadas-best-spots-surf-year-round Cottage Life http://cottagelife.com/canadiana/a-beginners-guide-to-cold-water-surfing-in-canada & http://cottagelife.com/entertaining/essential-steps-to-start-surfing-in-ontario Nova Scotia Surfing http://www.novascotia.com/see-do/outdoor-activities/surfing Vancouver Island Surfing http://www.surfingvancouverisland.com/surf/ Great Lakes http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/toronto/programs/metromorning/surf-great-lakes-1.3355526 Great Lakes http://www.greatlakesurfers.com/ Surf Radar Great Lakes http://surfradar.info/ Surf Forecast on Great Lakes http://www.thirdcoastsurfshop.com/surf-forecast-a/137.htm Surfline http://www.surfline.com/surf-report/great-lakes_71630/map/

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Environment Canada – Wave Models http://weather.gc.ca/model_forecast/wave_e.html

Lecture Demonstrations Two students can hold the ends of a rope, and show deepwater wave motion—the energy moves through the rope, but the rope returns to its original place. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VE520z_ugcU https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SCtf-z4t9L8 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BSSecjKRxEE https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=klN2-bCzJb4 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iT4KAc0Ag1E There is an ancient Encyclopedia Britannica video “The Beach—a River of Sand.” It shows California beaches with offshore bars in summer and erosion in winter; a wavetank model of Santa Barbara harbour; and sand spit formation. The language is also old, but students enjoy the quaintness, and the science is still valid. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FqT1g2riQ30 Griffith University - River of Sand https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XIfvVcVss7Y

Discussion Questions/Critical Thinking Questions How much should we spend on the stabilization or replenishment of beaches?

Who benefits?

Ask students to recollect a coastal environment they have visited, and then to consider the processes operating there—erosion or deposition; the particular features they saw—sea stacks, lagoon, bar; and the effects of human activity—if any—they may choose a natural place like a provincial park.

If you live near the coast, students can be asked to describe a local structure (jetty, pier, breakwater) and evaluate its effects.

Harbour and port facilities replace 90% of our former wetlands.

Do economic benefits outweigh ecosystem destruction?

Watch the newspapers for litigious examples—hotels suing adjacent landowners for loss of beach sand; houses built on barrier islands and washed away.

The big question—who “owns” the coast?

A very good question and here is some information to get the discussion started: Ontario – Act to create right of passage http://www.ontla.on.ca/web/bills/bills_detail.do?locale=en&Intranet=&BillID=2652 Ontario Instructor’s Manual

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https://ca.news.yahoo.com/blogs/dailybrew/idyllic-ontario-cottage-country-feuds-over-publicaccess-164729803.html Toronto Star https://www.thestar.com/news/queenspark/2013/08/09/group_fights_for_public_access_to_onta rio_beaches.html Shorewalk Association http://shorewalk.ca/index.html Niagara at Large https://niagaraatlarge.com/2010/04/15/water-water-everywhere-but-who-has-access-to-ourgreat-lakes-shores/ Ontario http://www.krcmar.ca/sites/default/files/1999_Fall_Water%20Boundaries%20in%20Southern%2 0Ontario_1.pdf Coastal and Ocean Information Network (Atlantic Canada) http://coinatlantic.ca/index.php/coastal-and-industrial-development/coastal-access Independent Newspaper (UK) http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/crime/lines-in-the-sand-the-right-to-roam-on-britishbeaches-411795.html BC Nature http://www.bcnature.ca/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/Section4-17.pdf Hawaii http://seagrant.soest.hawaii.edu/coastal-access-hawaii The Telegraph http://seagrant.soest.hawaii.edu/coastal-access-hawaii North Carolina http://www.coastalreview.org/2016/09/public-trust-doctrine-owns-beach/

In-Class and/or Group Activities If you have a geographically literate class, it is fun to use a world map and to play with the various names of parts of the oceans, not only pointing out that some gulfs are bigger than some bays, but that a (salt) lake is called a sea, and even adding extra terms such as bight, strait, cove, estuary (perhaps already used in fluvial chapter), kill (if in New York), sound, wetland, and not to forget fjord and ria which occur later in this chapter. Estuary seems to amuse students sometimes, without any clear reason.

Tips for First-Time Lecturers Sand collection. Most students believe that a beach must be made of sand and that all sand is yellow. You can show them the reality.

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As mentioned in the previous chapter, you might like to make a classroom set of sand. You need clear jars: If you have money, it is good to purchase a set of clear, straight-sided glass jars, with screw caps, capacity 200–250 ml. Label each sample. (Qorpak is a supplier; your biology lab might use these already - http://www.qorpak.com/.) Once you have a collection of different colours and grain sizes, it is a great introduction to use not only for beaches but for soil texture. I allow students to open the jars and feel the sands. You can ask students to bring you sand when they travel (remind them not to take sand from a national park. I do not take glass jars when I travel, but instead use “baggies”; be sure to double bag to prevent a suitcase full of sand or gravel).

It is generally unwise to begin with a world map, looking at oceans and seas. Get students’ attention with a more immediate image or object first, and cover the chapter opening section later.

Relevant Web Links Coastline Change Earth Observatory https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/WorldOfChange/cape_cod.php USGS – Understanding Coastal Change https://marine.usgs.gov/research/coastal-change.php USGS – Coastal Change Hazards https://marine.usgs.gov/coastalchangehazards/ https://marine.usgs.gov/coastalchangehazardsportal/ UNESCO http://www.unesco.org/csi/act/cosalc/coastch.htm

Twelve Apostles Twelve Apostles Marine National Park http://parkweb.vic.gov.au/explore/parks/twelve-apostles-marine-national-park Visit Victoria – Great Ocean Road http://www.visitvictoria.com/regions/great-ocean-road/things-to-do/nature-and-wildlife/beachesand-coastlines/12-apostles Coastal Care – Australia’s Twelve Apostles http://coastalcare.org/2010/12/australias-twelve-apostles/ How many Apostles?

London Bridge ABC News http://www.abc.net.au/local/photos/2015/02/16/4181113.htm

Tides – Bay of Fundy Youtube Instructor’s Manual

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OP0cpXpw8yk Fundy National Park https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=budXQlGL8Dc Hopewell Rocks https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dmcMQU5AAg4 Hopewell Rocks https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EnDJ6_XpGfo

Tides - Mont St. Michel Normandy Tourism https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=znNMDaq5TtE Youtube https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=glOSH8WQ_RI Youtube https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sxrluqDnKBw An excellent series on our coasts & there are short clips on Youtube BBC & BBC2 – Coast http://www.bbc.co.uk/coast/archive/ http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b006mvlc Coast on the Open University http://www.open.edu/openlearn/whats-on/ou-on-the-bbc-coast Youtube BBC https://www.youtube.com/user/BBC/search?query=coast

Coastal erosion Great Lakes erosion London Free Press http://www.lfpress.com/2016/06/19/shippers-are-riding-high-but-expect-less-elbow-room-atsome-of-southwestern-ontarios-famed-beaches Toronto Star https://www.thestar.com/news/gta/2013/04/22/scarborough_bluffs_65_million_erosion_preventi on_project_offers_hope_to_those_living_on_the_edge.html Globe and Mail http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/toronto/erosion-threatens-toronto-islands-gibraltar-pointfeared-at-the-brink/article33055200/

Atlantic Canada erosion Globe and Mail http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/national/small-east-coast-island-losing-land-to-climatechange-coastal-erosion/article30057790/ Instructor’s Manual

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CBC News http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/nova-scotia/cape-breton-coastal-erosion-a-growing-problemsays-acap-1.2952960 PEI http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/prince-edward-island/coastal-erosion-environment-issue1.3429580

British Columbia erosion CBC News http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/vancouver-sea-level-1.3783440 Toronto Star https://www.thestar.com/business/2015/11/14/prince-edward-island-coastal-real-estate-and-theimpact-of-climate-change.html

Arctic Coast erosion CBC News http://www.cbc.ca/news/technology/arctic-coast-eroding-up-to-8-metres-a-year-study-1.1002730 National Geographic http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2011/04/110418-arctic-erosion-global-warming-iceenvironment/ CTV News http://www.ctvnews.ca/study-finds-canada-s-arctic-coastline-eroding-fastest-1.632934 CBC http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/north/report-impact-climate-change-arctic-coastline-1.3540707

California erosion La Jolla Light http://www.lajollalight.com/news/local-news/sdljl-where-is-sand-la-jolla-2016may11-story.html San Diego http://www.sandiegorealestatebuzz.com/blog/controversial-sand-replenishment-project-movingahead-for-beaches-in-encinitas-solana-beach

United Kingdom erosion The Guardian Newspaper https://www.theguardian.com/news/2015/apr/02/sinking-isle-coastal-erosion-east-angliaenvironment Daily Mail http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2964728/Britain-s-vanishing-communities-Hundredshomes-set-disappear-North-Sea-century-rampant-coastal-erosion-devours-roads-villages.html

Climate Change impact on coastal zones in Canada Instructor’s Manual

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Coastal and Ocean information network http://coinatlantic.ca/index.php/climate-change/sea-level-rise Natural Resources Canada – Canada’s Marine Coasts in a changing climate http://www.nrcan.gc.ca/sites/www.nrcan.gc.ca/files/earthsciences/files/pdf/NRCAN_fullBook%20 %20accessible.pdf Stockholm Environmental Institute - Costing climate impacts and Adaptation – A Canadian Study on Coastal Zones http://sei-us.org/Publications_PDF/SEI-Canada-coastal-zones-June-2010.pdf Department of Fisheries and Oceans Climate Change and the Canadian Coast http://www2.mar.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/science/review/1996/Shaw/Shaw_e.html Impacts of Sea Level Rise and Climate Change on the coastal zone (New Brunswick) http://publications.gc.ca/collections/Collection/En84-45-2006E.pdf Sea Level Rise adaptation Primer (British Columbia) http://www2.gov.bc.ca/assets/gov/environment/climate-change/policy-legislation-andresponses/adaptation/sea-level-rise/slr-primer.pdf Planning for Climate Change and Coastal Zone Management (Nova Scotia) http://ccns.chebucto.org/Planning_CZM.pdf Past and Present sea level change (Newfoundland) http://nlhfrp.ca/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/Past-and-Future-Sea-Level-Change-in-NL...pdf

Great Lakes & Climate Change Nature Conservancy & NOAA https://www.nature.org/ourinitiatives/regions/northamerica/areas/greatlakes/explore/great-lakeslake-levels-case-study.pdf Columbia University – State of the Planet http://blogs.ei.columbia.edu/2009/12/22/how-will-climate-change-affect-the-great-lakes/ EPA https://www.epa.gov/climate-indicators/great-lakes David Suzuki http://www.davidsuzuki.org/publications/reports/2003/confronting-climate-change-in-the-greatlakes-region/

Coastal Vulnerability Index USGS https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1999/of99-593/pages/cvi.html USGS – Woodshole Coastal and Marine Science Centre https://woodshole.er.usgs.gov/project-pages/cvi/ Europe Climate Adaptation Platform Instructor’s Manual

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http://climate-adapt.eea.europa.eu/metadata/tools/coastal-vulnerability-index-2013-cvi ** Web links were current as of March 18, 2017

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CHAPTER 20 RELEVANCE OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY TO ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES This chapter introduces the student to issues in human–environmental interaction. It opens with a section on demography and major associated problems. The student is then introduced to three case studies ranging across the breadth of time and space; soil salinization in arid and semi-arid regions is a worldwide problem for agriculture and food production; the development of unconventional oil supplies in North America and potential environmental impacts; and faunal extinction through loss of habitat is highlighted in a focus on Giant panda conservation efforts.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES Upon completion of the chapter, the student should be able to:

1.

2.

3.

4.

Learning Objective

Section Reference

Discuss the history of human population and the factors that have fuelled its growth over time.

Describe the various ways that soil salinization occurs and why it is a major problem in arid and semi-arid lands such as California, Australia, and the Canadian Prairies.

Discuss the general history of oil production in Canada and the United States, current efforts to develop unconventional sources, and potential environmental impacts.

Discuss the nature of panda habitat and how it has been progressively fragmented over time. Explain how geographical principles are being used in an effort to stabilize panda populations in the wild.

A Short History of Human Population Case 1: Soil Salinization in Arid and Semi-Arid Lands

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Case 2: Developing Unconventional Oil Supplies in North America Case 3: Giant Panda Conservation in China

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Lecture Lead-ins/Transitions It is important throughout the semester to make students constantly aware of the relevance of physical geography to their own everyday lives and to their future. The materials in this chapter might be used as a capstone, but they could also be integrated into the instructional program at an appropriate stage following the introduction of the relevant material. Water scarcity could follow a study of the hydrosphere (Chapter 7). Soil salinization could follow the chapters on plants and soils (Chapters 10 and 11). Animal extinctions could be tied to plants and biomes, and to chapters dealing with climate change, especially Chapter 9.

Lecture Demonstrations I would suggest integrating these case studies into earlier chapters, but a concluding word on the problems of population growth, and the associated mass consumption, pollution, and urban sprawl, is certainly a fitting way to conclude with the emphasis on the need for all of us to be stewards of sustainability in the global community.

Discussion Questions/Critical Thinking Questions Students can be asked to brainstorm: How might population growth be slowed? Ethically and unethically?

How might pollution be lessened? With technology or through lifestyle changes?

How should we live? In high-density cities with mass public transport, or in Wright’s Broadacre City?

New Yorker http://www.newyorker.com/culture/culture-desk/frank-lloyd-wright-tried-to-solve-the-city Museum of Modern Art https://www.moma.org/explore/inside_out/2014/02/03/frank-lloyd-wrights-living-city-lives-onconserving-the-broadacre-city-model/ Curbed http://www.curbed.com/2017/1/4/14154644/frank-lloyd-wright-broadacre-city-history What are the arguments for vegetarianism? Ethnical and practical?

How can humans move toward a more sustainable society? What needs to be done?

In-Class and/or Group Activities These three case studies could be used as group projects, with students presenting their findings, perhaps with a PowerPoint presentation or in poster format. After almost a semester of class, the instructor might know which students are studying related courses, such as anthropology, biology, environmental science, and chemistry; or could ask what students are studying and what their career plans might be. Students with these special interests could become group leaders for a presentation.

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Only a small amount of class time should be given to allowing students to exchange contacts and organize to meet as a group to prepare.

For all group projects, an evaluation rubric should be used by the instructor (for content and quality), and a different evaluation should be used by each students, to ensure no “free riders.”

Student Instructions for group presentation should include the following information: Assessment will be based on: • participation • accuracy of information • completeness • understanding • creativity

Tips for First-Time Lecturers Some students, usually the best ones, are opposed to groupwork, because they feel they do most (or all) of the work, while others “slack off” but still get a good grade. It is important for an instructor to ensure that this cannot happen. (Emphasize that there will be “no free rides.”) One way to get honest feedback on the extent of participation is to make each student email you his or her evaluation of other group members. This way they are under no pressure to be a “good guy” and just say that someone worked when they did not. There should be a bonus point or two for completing the evaluation, to make sure you do receive it.

In this very last section I would like to insert a personal plea, even though I feel like King Canute telling the tide not to advance.

Part of the exhortation to our students that they should all become stewards of the Earth might involve use of the familiar phrase “Mother Earth.” This approach is marginally acceptable, since our Earth does indeed nurture us, providing a home, food, shelter, and clothing. On the other hand, it is abhorrent to hear the journalistic cliché “Mother Nature,” and our students are so accustomed to it that it falls from their lips and pens automatically and mindlessly. My plea to geography instructors is to stamp out this usage. Observe when the words are used, and you will note that it is in news coverage of catastrophes and natural disasters of the worst kind; so it is worth pointing out that mothers in fact nurture, shelter, and protect; they do not take lives in a violent, merciless, and seemingly random manner.* Furthermore, the anthropomorphic figure is misleading. Our whole semester has been devoted to showing, explaining, and understanding the natural processes that operate on humankind and in turn the effects of human actions on the environment.

Examples follow:

Mother Nature delivers winter storm tonight with up to 45 cm of snow CBC News http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/new-brunswick/new-brunswick-weather-brennan-allen1.4023786

Mother Nature delivers mild day for Winnipeggers to dig out of storm Instructor’s Manual

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CBC News http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/manitoba/weather-forecast-winnipeg-manitoba-1.3913864

Mother Nature proving difficult for annual pond hockey tournament CTV News Barrier http://barrie.ctvnews.ca/mother-nature-proving-difficult-for-annual-pond-hockey-tournament1.3238929

Smithers in a battle with Mother Nature as ice jams on river continues to grow Global News http://globalnews.ca/news/2437855/smithers-in-a-battle-with-mother-nature-as-ice-jams-onriver-continues-to-grow/

Battling Mother Nature behind the wheel of a Halifax snow plow Global News http://globalnews.ca/news/3254950/battling-mother-nature-behind-the-wheel-of-a-nova-scotiasnow-plow/

Mother Nature at her most powerful BBC News http://www.bbc.com/travel/story/20131212-mother-nature-at-her-most-powerful

MWC Western Division Teams Face Off with Mother Nature on Final Day of the Lake Oahe Tournament May 9, 2010 After a relatively peaceful day on the water yesterday, the 44 Pro Teams making up the MWC Western Division event here on Lake Oahe are faced once again with the challenges that old Mother Nature can dish out. The forecast for today is calling for showers, mainly before 1 p.m., a high near 54 degrees, and breezy, with a southeast wind between 20 and 25 mph, with gusts as high as 34 mph. Chance of precipitation is 80%. http://www.walleyecentral.com/articles/?a=2396

Relevant Web Links The National Geographic “State of the Earth” series of videos is available online, and they are short enough for use in class as interludes.

National Geographic – State of the Earth: Climate Change http://video.nationalgeographic.com/video/climate-change National Geographic – State of the Earth: Water http://video.nationalgeographic.com/video/water National Geographic – State of the Earth: Air http://www.dailymotion.com/video/x2u4hrt National Geographic – State of the Earth: Land Instructor’s Manual

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kxEibKw1J-A National Geographic – State of the Earth: Turning Point https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_QyU-VJpAHw National Geographic – State of the Earth: Wildlife https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h-DAFphKhNo National Geographic – State of the Earth: Population https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mJRbV7IsewQ&spfreload=10

Giant Pandas Chengdu Giant Panda Foundation http://www.panda.org.cn/english/ World Wildlife Fund https://www.worldwildlife.org/species/giant-panda National Geographic http://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/g/giant-panda/ Toronto Zoo http://www.torontozoo.com/pandas/ Smithsonian https://nationalzoo.si.edu/animals/giant-panda Inhabitat http://inhabitat.com/giant-pandas-removed-from-the-endangered-species-list-in-hugeconservation-win/ Time magazine http://time.com/4616673/giant-panda-snowman-toronto-zoo/ BBC News http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-37273337 Arkive http://www.arkive.org/giant-panda/ailuropoda-melanoleuca/ Earthwatch http://earthwatch.org/expeditions/on-the-trail-of-giant-pandas-in-china

“Fracking” Pro - Oil/Gas Canada’s Natural Gas http://www.canadasnaturalgas.ca/en/explore-topics/hydraulic-fracturing Petroleum Services Assocation of Canada http://www.oilandgasinfo.ca/fracopedia/hydraulic-fracturing-explained/ Instructor’s Manual

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Canadian Association of Petroleum Producers http://www.capp.ca/publications-and-statistics/publications/218125 Canadian Association of Petroleum Producers http://www.capp.ca/media/commentary/dont-fear-fracking Canada Mines https://canadamines.ca/fracking-truths/

Against Council of Canadians http://canadians.org/fracking & http://canadians.org/fracking/fracker-tracker Alternatives Journal http://www.alternativesjournal.ca/energy-and-resources/fracking-hotspots Canadian Water Network http://www.cwn-rce.ca/assets/resources/pdf/2015-Water-and-Hydraulic-Fracturing-Report/CWN2015-Water-and-Hydraulic-Fracturing-Report.pdf Wilderness Committee https://www.wildernesscommittee.org/fracking Greenpeace http://www.greenpeace.org/usa/where-fracking-was-banned-this-year/ Stop Fracking Ontario https://stopfrackingontario.wordpress.com/

News CBC News http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/more-than-90-of-larger-earthquakes-inwestern-canada-triggered-by-fracking-1.3510812 Globe and Mail http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/british-columbia/study-confirms-link-between-frackingearthquakes-in-western-canada/article29427905/ CTV News http://www.ctvnews.ca/canada/what-is-fracking-and-why-is-it-so-controversial-1.1505246 Metro News http://www.metronews.ca/news/canada/2014/05/08/where-is-fracking-happening-in-canada.html Fraser Institute https://www.fraserinstitute.org/article/rescue-canadas-poorest-provincial-economies-allowfracking Alternatives Journal Instructor’s Manual

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http://www.alternativesjournal.ca/community/blogs/current-events/ontario-anti-fracking-billpasses-second-reading

‘Nature of Things’ Documentary on Fracking Shattered Ground http://www.cbc.ca/natureofthings/episodes/shattered-ground

International Fracking The Guardian https://www.theguardian.com/sustainable-business/2016/sep/29/fracking-shale-gas-europeopposition-ban Huffington Post http://www.huffingtonpost.com.au/2017/03/07/victoria-becomes-first-state-to-ban-fracking/ IFLScience http://www.iflscience.com/environment/new-york-state-has-banned-fracking/

Soil Salinization Government of Canada – Soil Salinization http://www.agr.gc.ca/eng/science-and-innovation/agricultural-practices/soil-and-land/soilsalinization-indicator/?id=1462912470880 Government of Canada – Soil Degradation Risk – Soil Salinity maps http://sis.agr.gc.ca/cansis/publications/maps/risk/1m/salinity/index.html Government of Canada - Soil Salinity http://www5.agr.gc.ca/resources/prod/doc/env/naharp-pnarsa/pdf/chap15_e.pdf Government of Canada – Soil Salinity and Drainage problems http://publications.gc.ca/collections/collection_2015/aac-aafc/A53-1314-1968-eng.pdf Government of Alberta – Determination of historical changes in Salinity http://www1.agric.gov.ab.ca/$department/deptdocs.nsf/all/aesa8421 Government of Manitoba – Soil Salinity https://www.gov.mb.ca/agriculture/environment/soil-management/soil-management-guide/soilsalinity.html Government of Saskatchewan – Nature and Management of salt affected land in Saskatchewan http://publications.gov.sk.ca/documents/20/84797-2d20bb89-4290-4eea-b265dfd3a155cc51.pdf NRC Research Press – Occurrence of soil salinity in the dry lands of SW Alberta http://www.nrcresearchpress.com/doi/abs/10.4141/cjss68-009 Canadian Society of Soil Science - Soils of Canada – Solonetzic http://www.soilsofcanada.ca/orders/solonetzic/ Canadian Journal of Soil Science – Prediction of soil salinity risk by digital terrain modelling in Instructor’s Manual

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the Canadian Prairies http://iflorinsky.psn.ru/Florinsky-2000b.pdf Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) http://www.fao.org/docrep/x5871e/x5871e06.htm

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