Career Development Interventions in the 21st Century, 3E Spencer G Niles Solution Manual

Instructor’s Manual and Test Bank

to accompany

Career Development Interventions in the 21st Century Third Edition

Spencer G. Niles Pennsylvania State University

JoAnn Harris-Bowlsbey Loyola College in Maryland

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Table of Contents Chapter 1: Introduction to Career Development Interventions…………………………. 1 Chapter 2: Understanding and Applying Theories of Career Development……………12 Chapter 3: Understanding and Applying Recent Theories of Career Development……29 Chapter 4: Career Development and Diverse Populations……………………………...39 Chapter 5: Assessment and Career Planning…………………………………………….50 Chapter 6: Career Information and Resources…………………………………………..63 Chapter 7: Using Technology to Support Career Counseling and Planning…………….71 Chapter 8: Career Counseling Strategies and Techniques for the 21st Century…………81 Chapter 9: Designing, Implementing, and Evaluating Career Development Programs and Services.....................................................................................................93 Chapter 10: Career Development Interventions in the Elementary Schools…………….104 Chapter 11: Career Development Interventions in Middle and High Schools…………..114 Chapter 12: Career Development Interventions in Higher Education………………….123 Chapter 13: Career Development Interventions in Community Settings………………135 Chapter 14: Ethical Issues in Career Development Interventions……………………...144

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Chapter 1 Introduction to Career Development Interventions The first chapter introduces students to some of the core concepts of career development interventions, relating these concepts to the practice of both career and general counseling. It also (1) traces the meaning of work across time while highlighting the link between work and selfworth, (2) provides detailed definitions of career terms, (3) reviews events in the history of career development interventions, and (4) discusses future trends in the field. Content covered in the chapter includes: •

•

Career development interventions help people derive meaning from their life experiences and translate that meaning into career decisions. Given the inextricable link between career and the other aspects of a client’s life, career development interventions require a full range of counselor competencies.

Career practitioners need to develop minimal competencies in career development theory, individual/group counseling skills, individual/group assessment, information/resources, program promotion, management, implementation, coaching, consultation, performance improvement, diverse populations, supervision, ethical/legal issues, research/evaluation, and technology.

The Meaning of Work Across Time • The meaning of work has evolved across time creating a need for adjustment on the part of the worker to new work ethics.

• Savickas notes that vocational and career ethics have dominated throughout U.S. history. We are now in the midst of an emerging ethic that seems to be more focused on achieving life balance and satisfaction.

Providing Systematic Career Development Interventions • Career development interventions need to be provided in a systematic fashion. This process includes helping people learn how to use both rational and intuitive approaches in career decision making, cope with ambiguity and change, develop and maintain self-awareness, engage in lifelong learning, search for jobs effectively, and develop and maintain skills in multicultural awareness and communication.

• Key terms include career, career development, career development interventions, career counseling, career education, and career development programs.

Important Events in the History of Career Development Interventions • Frank Parsons is a central figure in the history of career development interventions.

He delineated a systematic approach to career decision making that became known as the Parsonian or trait-and-factor approach.

• E. G. Williamson helped the advancement of trait-and-factor interventions. He outlined a six-step process to guide trait-and-factor career counseling.

• The Theory of Work Adjustment proposed by Dawis and Lofquist represents an important contribution to career development interventions. This theory highlights the correspondence between the individual and the environment.

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Future Trends in Career Development Interventions • Meeting the needs of diverse populations has been a critically important trend in career counseling during the past two decades.

• Future trends in career development interventions will include viewing career decisions as values-based, using objective and subjective assessments, providing counseling-based career assistance, providing culturally sensitive interventions, and focusing on multiple life roles.

Classroom Activities 1. Divide the class into small groups. If you have multiple counseling specialties present, divide the groups by the population with which they intend to work (e.g. elementary school, higher education, community). Ask each group to identify a list of career development tasks/issues clients might bring up in their counseling sessions.

2. Ask students to draw their lifeline and identify the important factors in their lives that have influenced their career development. As a larger group, create an aggregate lifeline including important factors volunteered from the class participants. Discuss themes that arise.

3. Provide the class with a career counseling case that involves multiple issues (work and non-work concerns). Discuss which of the issues are appropriate for career counseling.

Highlight the difficulty in separating career from personal issues in career interventions.

Class Discussion Questions 1. What myths about career counseling have you heard? Where do you think they come from? Are they (myths identified) justified?

2. What career development tasks/issues might you encounter in session during your future work as a counselor?

3. How is a career important to an individual? What value might it add to their life? How might it affect their self-concept?

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Test Bank – Chapter 1 Essay Questions 1. Describe the Parsonian approach to career decision making and its contribution to the career counseling profession.

2. Identify and discuss three skills that counselors can help their clients develop through the delivery of systematic career development interventions.

3. How can linking work with worth negatively impact a client’s well-being?

4. Identify and describe at least one future trend in career development interventions.

5. How does the “self-fulfillment ethic” impact ones career decision-making choices?

Multiple Choice 1. At the core of their role, career development practitioners focus on helping people to consider how they will A. develop and use their talents.

B. identify available jobs in a complex society.

C. maximize their earning potential.

D. land the perfect job and keep it.

2. By definition, _____________ involves the person’s creation of a career pattern, decision making style, integration of life roles, values expression, and life-role self-concepts.

A. career education B. the Parsonian approach C. career development D. career counseling 3. The idea that feelings in one area of life affect feelings in another area of living is know as A. true reasoning.

B. trait-and-factor approach.

C. values-based decisions.

D. spillover hypothesis.

4. Those adhering to a self-fulfilling work ethic are seeking a career that allows them to be A. free-spirited, allowing things to unfold over time, laissez-faire.

B. involved in family, community, leisure, and/or other life roles.

C. caring for others while maintaining one’s own needs and interests as well.

D. conservative, managing risk, and making sure one’s own opinion is heard.

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5. Entrepreneurial and career work ethics have been replaced by the A. wish-fulfillment ethic.

B. altruistic ethic.

C. self-fulfillment ethic.

D. self-containment ethic.

6. Career uncertainty and occupational dissatisfaction may cause A. both psychological and physical stress.

B. psychological stress.

C. physical stress.

D. none of the above.

7. A systematic process for occupational decision-making, labeled true reasoning, was developed by A. Parsons.

B. Super.

C. Herr.

D. Strong.

8. Forty years ago the prevailing term for one’s career was A. avocation.

B. vocation.

C. guidance.

D. career path.

9. The work of James Cattell, Alfred Binet, and Walter Bingham contributed extensively to the emphasis of ________ in career counseling.

A. decision-making B. group work C. psychoanalysis D. testing 10. Parsons’ tripartite model for vocational direction developed into the approach to career development interventions known as A. trait-and-factor.

B. developmental stage model.

C. cognitive behavioral.

D. values-based career decision making.

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11. The goal of the trait-and-factor approach to career counseling is to A. find a job for a person.

B. identify areas of one’s life that have affected the success or failure on a previous job and not make the same mistake again.

C. seek support and possibly refer an individual to a more skilled professional or an employment agency.

D. identify the degree of fit between the person and the occupation.

12. The Career Pattern Study was A. one of the first longitudinal studies of career development.

B. a study of jobs in the Third World.

C. a study of adolescent job preferences.

D. a study of the differences of women’s and men’s career development.

13. Which of the following was the first to shift the focus of career development interventions to that of an ongoing process?

A. Frank Parsons B. Carl Rogers C. Mark Savickas D. Donald Super 14. The main organization for professional career counselors is the A. National Career Development Association.

B. National Vocational Guidance Association.

C. National Association of Guidance Supervisors and Counselor Trainers.

D. American Association for Career Specialists in Group Work.

15. According to Savickas, the competencies which will become the main areas of focus for career counselors are A. job placement and performance.

B. job skills and competency.

C. critical thinking, self-affirmation, and commitment to community.

D. time of working and retirement.

CORRECT ANSWERS 1. A 2. C 3. D 4. B 5. C

6. A 7. A 8. B 9. D 10. A

11. D 12. A 13. D 14. A 15. C 5

Text for PowerPoint Presentation (available on web site) Misconceptions about Career Counseling • Focuses on occupational information and test administration • Requires different and less sophisticated skills • Requires the counselor to be directive • Is irrelevant to future work as a counselor Career Development Interventions • The skills and techniques required encompass and extend those required in more general counseling.

• The focus of counseling is to increase life satisfaction.

• Clients need a high level of self-awareness to translate their experiences into career choices.

Career Development Interventions, continued • People often need help in clarifying their values, life-role salience, interests, and motivation as they attempt to make career choices.

• Many clients come to career counseling with psychological distress, low self-esteem, weak self-efficacy, and little hope that the future can be more satisfying than the past.

Skills, Behaviors, and Attitudes People Need to Manage Careers • Learn new skills, cope with change, and tolerate ambiguity • Acquire general and specific occupational information • Interact with diverse co-workers • Adjust to changing work demands • Use technology Characteristics of Effective Interventions • Holistic, comprehensive, and systematic • Provided developmentally across the life span Meaning of Work Across Time • Survival (primitive societies) • Opportunity to share with others (early Christians) • Means of spiritual purification (Middle Ages) • Way to serve God (Protestant Reformation)

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Meaning of Work Across Time (continued) • Opportunity for self-sufficiency and self-discipline (19th century) • Challenge to find a fitting long-term career (20th century) • Means to self-fulfillment (21st century) Linking Work with Worth (Terrence Bell) • Means by which a person is tested and identified • Shapes the thoughts and life of a worker • Determines lifestyle • Determines self-image and image others have of an individual Definition of Work (Super) • The systematic pursuit of an objective valued by oneself and desired by others; directed and consecutive, it requires effort. It may be compensated or uncompensated. The objective may be intrinsic enjoyment of work itself, the structure given to life by the work role, the economic support which work makes possible, or the type of leisure which it facilitates.

Results of a Poll by the National Career Development Association • 39% of Americans do not have a career plan.

• 69% do not know how to make informed career choices.

• Almost half of all workers experience job-related stress and think that their skills are being underutilized in their jobs.

Career and Health • High levels of career uncertainty and occupational dissatisfaction are positively correlated with high levels of psychological and physical distress (Herr, 1989).

• High levels of unemployment are associated with increased rates of chemical dependency, interpersonal violence, suicide, criminal activity, and admissions to psychiatric facilities (Herr, Cramer, & Niles, 2004).

• Fritzsche and Parrish (2005) cite research supporting the “spillover hypothesis,” which suggests that feelings in one area of life affect feelings in other areas of living.

Learning from Systematic Career Development Interventions • How to use both rational and intuitive approaches in career decision making • How to assign importance to each life role and the values one seeks through those roles • How to cope with ambiguity, change, and transition • How to develop and maintain self-awareness

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Learning from Systematic Career Development Interventions • How to develop and maintain occupational and career awareness • How to develop and keep current occupational skills and knowledge • How to engage in lifelong learning • How to search for jobs effectively • How to provide and receive career mentoring • How to develop and maintain skills in multicultural awareness and communication Career • Today career is conceptualized as a lifestyle concept – the course of events constituting a life (Super, 1976) – the total constellation of roles played over the course of a lifetime (Herr, Cramer, & Niles, 2004) Career Development • The lifelong psychological and behavioral processes and contextual influences shaping one’s career over the life span • A person’s creation of a career pattern, decision-making style, integration of life roles, expression of values, and life-role self-concepts Career Development Interventions • Activities that empower people to cope effectively with career development tasks-– development of self-awareness – development of occupational awareness – learning decision-making skills – acquiring job search skills – adjusting to choices after their implementation – coping with job stress Career Counseling • A formal relationship in which a professional counselor assists a client or group of clients to cope more effectively with career concerns through – establishing rapport.

– assessing client concerns.

– establishing goals.

– intervening in effective ways.

– evaluating client progress.

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Career Education • The systematic attempt to influence the career development of students and adults through various types of educational strategies -- including – provision of occupational information.

– infusion of career concepts into the academic curriculum.

– offering of worksite-based experiences.

– offering career planning courses.

Career Development Program • A systematic program of counselor-coordinated information and experiences designed to facilitate individual career development (Herr & Kramer, 1996) Principles of Frank Parsons • It is better to choose a vocation than merely to hunt a job.

• No one should choose a vocation without careful self-analysis.

• Youth should survey many vocations, not just drop into a convenient or accidental position.

Principles of Frank Parsons, continued • Considering expert advice provided by those who have made a careful study of people, vocations, and the conditions of success improves decision making.

• Putting thoughts down on paper seems simple, but is of supreme importance.

The Parsonian Approach • Step 1: Develop a clear understanding of yourself -- aptitudes, abilities, interests, resources, limitations, and other qualities.

• Step 2: Develop knowledge of the requirements and conditions of success, advantages and disadvantages, pay, opportunities, and prospects of jobs.

• Step 3: Use true reasoning to relate these two groups of facts.

Basic Assumptions of Trait-and-Factor Theory • Because of one’s psychological characteristics, each worker is best fitted for a specific type of work.

• Workers in different occupations have different psychological characteristics.

• Occupational choice is a single, point-in-time event.

Basic Assumptions of Trait-and-Factor Theory, continued • Career development is mostly a cognitive process relying on rational decision making.

• Occupational adjustment depends on the degree of agreement between worker characteristics and work demands.

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Williamson’s Six-Step Process • Analysis • Synthesis • Diagnosis • Prognosis • Counseling • Follow-up Williamson’s Description of a Client’s Presenting Problem • No choice • Uncertain choice • Unwise choice • Discrepancy between interests and aptitudes Parsons’ Contributions • Paved the way for vocational guidance in schools and colleges • Began the training of counselors • Used the scientific tools available to him • Developed steps to be followed in the vocational progress of an individual • Organized the work of the Vocation Bureau as a model Parsons’ Contributions, continued • Recognized the importance of his work and secured publicity, financial support, and endorsements • Laid the groundwork leading to the continuance and expansion of the vocational guidance movement • Wrote Choosing a Vocation Later Developments • Testing movement (early 20th century) • Formation of NVGA (1913) • Formation of Department of Labor (1913) • Vocational Rehabilitation Act (1918) • Formation of United States Employment Service (1933) • First edition of Dictionary of Occupational Titles (1939)

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Later Developments, continued • Increased personnel testing and placement (World War II) • Carl Roger’s book Counseling and Psychotherapy (1942) • Formation of APA Division 17 (1947) • Formation of APGA (1951) • Theory development (1960’s) Later Developments, continued • Increase in number of career assessments (1960’s) • Development of computer-assisted career planning systems (late 1960’s) • Career education as a national priority (1970’s) • Attention to the career development of diverse populations (1990’s) Factors Influencing 21st Century Career Development • Global unemployment • Corporate downsizing • Demise of social contract • Dual careers • Work from home • Intertwining of work and family roles • Many job shifts • Need for lifelong learning Ways to Construct Responsive Interventions in the 21st Century • View career decisions as values-based decisions • Offer counseling-based career assistance (move beyond assessment) • Provide multicultural career interventions • Focus on multiple life roles

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Chapter 2 Understanding and Applying Theories of Career Development The second chapter introduces theories that have longstanding prominence in the field of career development, specifically those developed by Super, Gottfredson, Holland, and Krumboltz. Studying a variety of approaches to career theory is important because no single theory can sufficiently explain the whole of individual or group career behavior. Content covered in the chapter includes: •

•

Savickas (2002) notes that career theories emphasize either “individual differences” related to occupations (viewed as describing how people can find their fit within the occupational structure) or “individual development” related to careers (viewed as how people express career behavior across time) Six key questions are provided for evaluating career theories.

Super’s Life-Space, Life Span Theory • Super’s life span, life-space theory is segmented into three elements: life span, life space, and self-concept.

• Super’s provides 14 assumptions that act as an overarching framework for his theory.

• Life span addresses the longitudinal expression of career behavior and includes the stages of growth, exploration, establishment, maintenance, and disengagement. Each stage contains developmental tasks.

• The key terms career maturity and career adaptability are defined.

• Although career development in childhood and adolescence is relatively homogeneous, in adulthood it is more variable. Thus, adults do not necessarily encounter the career development stages in a linear fashion.

• Life space highlights the fact that while people are “busy earning a living, they are also busy living a life” (Super, Savickas, & Super, 1996).

• Work may be central for some, but on the periphery for others. Important values can be expressed multiple ways through multiple roles. Understanding the life role salience of each client is an important beginning step in the career counseling process.

• One’s occupational choice reflects the implementation of one’s self-concept in an occupational role.

• Helping people clarify and articulate their self-concepts usually requires providing objective and subjective career development interventions.

• The thematic extrapolation method is an approach to helping clients understand their subjective experience of career development.

• The Career Development Assessment and Counseling Model (C-DAC) represents Super’s translation of theory into practice through the systematic application of career assessment instruments.

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Linda Gottfredson’s Theory of Circumscription, Compromise, and Self-Creation • Gottfredson’s theory of circumscription, compromise, and self-creation answers the question, “Why do children seem to re-create the social inequalities of their elders long before they themselves experience any barriers to pursuing their dreams?”

(Gottfredson, 2002, p. 85).

• Gottfredson’s theory is a developmental and sociological view of career development that emphasizes that people attempt to place themselves in the broader social order through their career choices.

• A person’s conclusion as to where they fit into the broader social order constitutes their “social space” or “zone of acceptable occupational alternatives”.

• Circumscription involves the process of eliminating unacceptable occupational alternatives based primarily on gender and social class.

• Compromise involves the process of modifying career choices because of limiting factors such as the availability of jobs.

• Gottfredson proposes four stages of cognitive development to describe the circumscription process: orientation to size and power, orientation to sex roles, orientation to social valuation, orientation to the internal, and unique self.

John Holland’s Theory of Types and Person-Environment Interactions • Holland’s theory has been described as structural-interactive because it provides an explicit link between various personality characteristics and corresponding job titles and because it organizes massive data about people and jobs (Weinrach, 1984, p. 63).

• Holland’s theory contains four key assumptions.

• Holland proposes six personality types: realistic, investigative, artistic, social, enterprising, and conventional. The more a person resembles any particular personality type, the more likely it is that the person will manifest the behaviors and traits associated with that type.

• Environments can be described using the same six types.

• A key construct in Holland’s theory in congruence. Congruence describes the degree of fit between an individual’s personality types and current or prospective work environments. The better the fit, or the higher the congruence, the more likely it is that the person will find the occupation to be satisfying and rewarding. The opposite is also true (i.e., lower congruence results in less satisfaction).

• Differentiation describes the degree to which persons -- and environments --resemble the six types. For example, some people are highly differentiated (i.e., they primarily resemble one or a few of the types, and they clearly do not resemble the remaining types). Undifferentiated people resemble multiple types equally and, thus, may have greater difficulty making occupational decisions. Lack of differentiation can result from multipotentiality, poor decision-making skills, or lack of exposure to multiple environments.

• Consistency describes the degree of relatedness among the types. Holland used a hexagon to portray the degree to which the types are related to each other.

• Vocational identity is defined as the possession of a clear and stable picture of one’s goals, interests, and talent (Holland, 1985, p. 5).

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•

The Self-Directed Search, Vocational Preference Inventory, Position Classification Inventory, and My Vocational Situation are measures used in applying Holland’s theory.

John Krumboltz’s Learning Theory of Career Counseling • Krumboltz offers a learning theory of career counseling based largely on Bandura’s (1977, 1986) social learning theory.

• Krumboltz and his colleagues developed the Social Learning Theory of Career Decision Making. In this theory, four factors influence career decisions: genetic endowment and special abilities, environmental conditions and events, learning experiences, and task approach skills.

• These four factors lead to four outcomes: self-observation generalizations, worldview generalizations, task approach skills, and actions.

• Krumboltz describes a Learning Theory of Career Counseling that is based on four career-related trends identified by Mitchell and Krumboltz (1996).

• Krumboltz divides career development interventions into two categories: developmental/preventive and targeted/remedial.

• The Career Beliefs Inventory (Krumboltz, 1988) helps counselors and clients identify problematic beliefs and assumptions that might be impeding the client’s career development progress.

Activities 1. Ask students to divide a circle into segments representing their current pie of life representing the different roles they play and the amount of time and energy devoted to each. Discuss how the slices of their pie might represent the different life roles they play.

Ask students to then draw their preferred pie of life. Discuss the comparison of the two and how this comparison might be used in career counseling.

2. Provide students with a printout of a blank career rainbow and colored pencils. Give them time to draw their own career rainbow while depicting their life roles for the past, present, and projected future. Break students into small groups to discuss their career rainbows and the utility of this exercise.

3. Play the party game! Tape the six different Holland Types on the walls of the classroom to create six distinct gathering spots that represent the six points on the Holland Hexagon.

Tell the class that a party is going on, they are all invited, and they get to chose which area of the party they are most drawn to (represented by the Holland code they are most drawn to). After each has gone to their first choice, have the small groups discuss two questions: 1) Why did you chose this Holland code? And 2) What careers or work environments might best fit those who gather here? Students are then asked to congregate at their second and third choice codes as well. OPTION – if the hexagon is accurately represented in the room, this is a wonderful opportunity to demonstrate consistency.

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4. Ask students to draw a personal lifeline and identify the important events in their career development. Ask students to consider whether these events were internally or externally generated (i.e., things they initiated or things there were “done to them”). Break the students into small groups and ask them to discuss these events from the perspective of the developmental theory they are studying. OPTION - create a worksheet (to be used in Activity 5) so that they can keep notes on each theory.

5. Divide the class into small groups. Using the worksheet from Activity 4, ask groups to complete a case study using two of the four theories covered thus far. Identify how the conceptualization differs based on their use of each theory. In the larger group, discuss how theoretical perspective impacts case conceptualization.

Discussion 1. Should career development theories address life roles other than work? Why? 2. Identify at least one unique contribution from each of the four career development theories discussed in this chapter?

3. Which career development theory offers the best link to your future counseling practice/ population?

4. How well do the career development theories discussed in this chapter address persons from diverse backgrounds?

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Test Bank – Chapter 2 Essay Questions 1. You have a career counseling client whose Holland type is RIA. She is working in an environment that is classified as SEC. With regard to this client, what can you say about consistency and congruence?

2. List and briefly describe Super’s 5 Life Span Stages.

3. List and briefly describe the four stages of cognitive development described by Gottfredson.

4. Describe worldview generalizations and how, according to Krumboltz, they impact career decision-making.

5. Some theories highlight the career development process and others emphasize the content of making a career choice. Which of the theories discussed in this chapter highlight process and which emphasize content?

Multiple Choice 1. The theory that focuses on the career development process as it relates to the types of compromises people make in forming their occupational aspirations was presented by A. Krumboltz.

B. Holland.

C. Gottfredson.

D. Super.

2.

The three parts of Super’s segmental theory are life span, life space, and A. life time.

B. life concept.

C. life skills.

D. self-concept.

3.

In Super’s theory, adolescents’ readiness for career decision making is known as A. career adaptability.

B. career maturity.

C. social learning.

D. decisiveness.

4.

Self-concepts developed through comparison of the self with others are known as A. cognitive.

B. developmental.

C. subjective.

D. objective.

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5.

One factor that influences life role salience is A. genetics.

B. circumscription.

C. educational aspirations.

D. the dominant culture.

6.

According to Gottfredson, the ____ represents a person’s conclusions as to their fit in society.

A. occupational choice.

B. compromise.

C. self-creation.

D. social space.

7.

According to Super, methods used to guide and clarify vocational identities for clients are A. cognitive behavioral.

B. developmental.

C. both of the above.

D. neither of the above.

8.

In Gottfredson’s model, the process of eliminating unacceptable occupational alternatives based primarily on gender and social class is labeled A. circumscription.

B. compromise.

C. congruence.

D. salience.

9.

According to Holland, personality types are A. both genetically and socially based.

B. both socially and environmentally based.

C. both genetically and environmentally based.

D. either genetically or environmentally based, but not both.

10. In terms of Holland’s theory, congruence describes the degree of fit between an individual’s personality type and that of his or her A. parents.

B. current boss.

C. current or prospective work environment.

D. siblings.

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11. In Holland’s model, the degree of relatedness within types, such that similar types are located next to each other and have more in common, is a concept called A. congruence.

B. circumscription.

C. adaptability.

D. consistency.

12.

Social learning theory identifies four factors that influence decision making, including all of the following except A. genetic endowment and special abilities.

B. environmental conditions and events.

C. instrumental and associative learning experiences.

D. self-observation generalizations.

13. According to Krumboltz, career concerns are least likely to arise from A. the absence of a goal (career indecision).

B. expressed feelings of concern about high aspirations (unrealism).

C. conflict between equally appropriate alternatives (multipotentiality).

D. a presence of too many goals (indecisiveness).

14. Krumboltz proposes to use indecision in the counseling process as A. a desirable quality that motivates clients to seek alternative jobs elsewhere.

B. a negative quality that motivates clients to engage in new learning experiences.

C. a desirable quality that motivates clients to engage in new learning experiences.

D. a negative quality that motivates clients to stick to their present situation .

15. The theory that has generated more research than any other seems to be that of A. Super.

B. Krumboltz.

C. Holland.

D. Gottfredson.

CORRECT ANSWERS: 1. C 2. D 3. B 4. D 5. C

6. D 7. D 8. A 9. C 10. C

11. D 12. D 13. D 14. C 15. C

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Text for PowerPoint Presentation (available on website) Questions to Ask About Theories • How well does the theory – describe the career development process for diverse populations?

– describe the career development process generally?

– identify the factors involved in career choice?

Questions to Ask About Theories, continued • How well does the theory – inform practice?

– provide documentation of empirical support?

– cover all aspects of career development?

Super’s Life-Span, Life-Space Theory • A differential-developmental-social-phenomenological career theory (Super, 1969) • Built on 14 assumptions Assumptions of Super’s Theory • People differ in their abilities, personalities, needs, values, interests, traits, and self-concepts.

• People are qualified, by virtue of these characteristics, for a number of occupations.

• Each occupation requires a characteristic pattern of abilities and personality traits.

Assumptions of Super’s Theory • Vocational preferences and competencies, the situations in which people live and work, and hence, their self-concepts change with time and experience.

• The nature of the career pattern…is determined by the individual’s parental socioeconomic level, mental ability, education, skills, personality characteristics, career maturity, and by the opportunities to which he or she is exposed.

Assumptions of Super’s Theory • Success in coping at any given life-career stage depends on the readiness of the individual to cope with these demands.

• Career maturity is a constellation of physical, psychological, and social characteristics.

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Assumptions of Super’s Theory • Development through the life stages can be guided, partly by facilitating the maturing of abilities and interests and partly by aiding in reality testing and the development of selfconcepts.

• The process of career development is essentially that of development and implementing occupational self-concepts.

Assumptions of Super’s Theory • Work satisfactions and life satisfactions depend on the extent to which the individual finds adequate outlets for abilities, needs, values, interests, personality traits, and self-concepts.

• Work and occupation provide a focus for personality organization for most men and women, although for some persons this focus is peripheral or even nonexistent.

Life Span • Growth - fantasy, interests, capacities • Exploration - crystallizing, specifying, implementing • Establishment - stabilizing, consolidating, advancing • Maintenance - holding, updating, innovating • Disengagement - decelerating, retirement planning, retirement living Life Space • While workers are busy earning a living, they are also busy living a life (Savickas) • The simultaneous combination of life roles we play constitutes the life style; their sequential combination structures the life space and constitutes the life cycle; the total structure is the career pattern. (Super) Life Space, continued • The salience people attach to the constellation of life roles they play defines life structure.

• The life space segment of the theory acknowledges that people differ in the degree of importance they attach to work.

Life Roles • People tend to play some or all of nine major roles -– Son or daughter – Student – Leisurite – Worker – Spouse (Partner) – Homemaker – Parent – Pensioner 20

Life Roles • The theaters for these life roles are the – home, – school, – workplace, and – community.

Self-Concept • Career decisions reflect our attempts at translating our self-understanding into career terms (Super, 1984) • Self-concepts contain both objective and subjective elements.

• Self-concepts continue to develop over time, making career choices and adjusting to them lifelong tasks.

Career Development and Assessment (C-DAC Model) • Super and his colleagues translated the three segments of the theory into the C-DAC Model.

• Assessments used in the model include – Career Development Inventory – Adult Career Concerns Inventory – Salience Inventory – Values Scale – Self-Directed Search Super’s Thematic Extrapolation Method • Addresses subjective career development • Gives counselors the role of historians who invite clients to construct autobiographical stories of development • Life stories are examined for recurrent themes or threads of continuity that make sense of the past, explain the present, and draw a blueprint for the future.

Steps in the Thematic Extrapolation Method • Step 1: Analyze past behavior and development for recurring themes and underlying trends.

• Step 2: Summarize each theme and trend, taking into account the other themes and trends.

• Step 3: Project the modified themes and trends into the future by extrapolation.

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Steps in Super’s Cyclical Model of Career Counseling • Nondirective problem exploration and self-concept portrayal • Directive topic setting • Nondirective reflection and clarification of feeling for self-acceptance and insight • Directive exploration for factual data • Nondirective exploration of attitudes and feelings • Nondirective consideration of possible actions Gottfredson’s Theory • Addresses the fact that men and women tend to differ in their occupational aspirations • Offers a developmental, sociological perspective of career development • Focuses primarily on the career development process as it relates to the types of compromises people make Gottfredson’s Theory, continued • Circumscription - the process of eliminating unacceptable occupational alternatives based primarily on gender and social class • Compromise - the process of modifying career choices due to limiting factors, such as availability of jobs Circumscription: Stages of Development • Stage 1: Orientation to size and power • Stage 2: Orientation to sex roles • Stage 3: Orientation to social valuation • Stage 4: Orientation to the internal, unique self

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Applying Gottfredson’s Theory to Practice • Programs should – be sensitive to the mental capabilities of the age group.

– introduce students to the full breadth of options – display for youngsters their circumscription of alternatives – be sensitive to the dimensions of self and occupations along which circumscriptions and compromise take place so that their role can be explored Gottfredson’s Criteria for Determining a Counselee’s Restriction of Options • Able to name one or more occupational options • Possesses interests and abilities adequate for the occupation(s) chosen • Satisfied with the alternatives identified • Has not unnecessarily restricted alternatives • Is aware of opportunities and realistic about obstacles

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Holland’s Theory of Person-Environment Interactions • Most persons can be categorized as one of six types: – Realistic – Investigative – Artistic – Social – Enterprising – Conventional Holland’s Theory, continued • There are six environments: – Realistic – Investigative – Artistic – Social – Enterprising – Conventional Holland’s Theory, continued • People search for environments that will let them use their skills and abilities, express their attitudes and values, and take on agreeable problems and roles.

• A person’s behavior is determined by an interaction between his or her personality and the characteristics of his or her environment.

The Realistic Type • Conforming • Humble • Frank • Materialistic • Persistent • Genuine • Practical • Hardheaded • Shy • Honest • Thrifty

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The Investigative Type • Analytical • Independent • Cautious • Intellectual • Pessimistic • Introverted • Precise • Critical • Rational • Curious • Reserved The Artistic Type • Imaginative • Original • Disorderly • Impractical • Intuitive • Emotional • Impulsive • Nonconforming • Expressive • Open The Social Type • Idealistic • Helpful • Cooperative • Kind • Sympathetic • Friendly • Patient • Tactful • Generous • Responsible • Understanding

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The Enterprising Type • Domineering • Optimistic • Adventurous • Energetic • Pleasure-seeking • Extroverted • Ambitious • Impulsive • Self-confident • Sociable • Popular The Conventional Type • Conforming • Inhibited • Persistent • Conscientious • Obedient • Practical • Careful • Orderly • Thrifty • Efficient • Unimaginative The Realistic Environment • Requires explicit, ordered, or systematic manipulation of objects, tools, machines, or animals • Encourages people to view themselves as having mechanical ability • Rewards people for displaying conventional values and encourages them to see the world in simple, tangible, and traditional terms The Investigative Environment • Requires the symbolic, systematic, and creative investigation of physical, biological or cultural phenomena • Encourages scientific competencies and achievements and seeing the world in complex and unconventional ways • Rewards people for displaying scientific values

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The Artistic Environment • Requires participation in ambiguous, free, and unsystematized activities to create art forms or products • Encourages people to view themselves as having artistic abilities and to see themselves as expressive, nonconforming, independent, and intuitive • Rewards people for the display of artistic values The Social Environment • Requires participation in activities that inform, train, develop, cure, or enlighten • Requires people to see themselves as liking to help others, as being understanding of others, and of seeing the world in flexible ways • Rewards people for the display of social values The Enterprising Environment • Requires participation in activities that involve the manipulation of others to attain organizational and self-interest goals • Requires people to view themselves as aggressive, popular, self-confident, and sociable • Encourages people to view the world in terms of power and status • Rewards people for displaying enterprising goals and values The Conventional Environment • Requires participation in activities that involve the explicit, ordered, or systematic manipulation of data • Requires people to view themselves as conforming, orderly, nonartistic, and as having clerical competencies • Rewards people for viewing the world in stereotyped and conventional ways Key Terms • Differentiation - the degree of difference between a person’s resemblance to one type and to other types; the shape of a profile of interests • Congruence - the degree of fit between an individual’s personality type and current or prospective work environment Key Terms, continued • Consistency - degree of relatedness between types • Vocational identity - possession of a clear and stable picture of one’s goals, interests, and talent

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Applying Holland’s Theory • Relies on assessment instruments used to measure congruence, differentiation, consistency, and vocational identity – Self-Directed Search – Vocational Preference Inventory – My Vocational Situation – Position Classification Inventory Applying Holland’s Theory • Code can be used to identify occupations, jobs, majors, and leisure activities • Types can be used to organize curriculum, career fairs, and information about occupations, jobs, and majors Krumboltz’ Learning Theory: Influential Factors • Genetic endowment and special abilities - sex, race, physical appearance, intelligence, abilities, and talents • Environmental conditions and events - cultural, social, political, and economic forces beyond our control • Instrumental and associative learning experiences Outcomes of the Factors Influencing Career Decision Making • Self-observation generalizations • World-view generalizations • Task approach skills • Actions Reasons Why People Prefer a Particular Occupation • They succeed at tasks they believe are like those performed in that occupation.

• They have observed a valued model being reinforced for activities like those performed by members of that occupation.

• A valued friend or relative stressed its advantages to them; they observed positive words and images associated with it.

The Learning Theory of Career Counseling (Mitchell & Krumboltz) • Counselors must be prepared to help clients cope with career concerns in four ways: – Expand their capabilities and interests – Prepare them for changing work tasks – Empower them to take action – Play a major role in dealing with all career problems 28

Ways Career Counselors Need to Help Clients • Correct faulty assumptions.

• Learn new skills and interests.

• Identify effective strategies for addressing issues emanating from interactions between work and other life roles.

• Learn skills for coping with changing work tasks.

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Chapter 3 Understanding and Applying Recent Theories of Career Development The third chapter introduces career theories that have emerged on the scene within the past two decades. These emerging theories are supported by research, address the developmental experiences of diverse populations, and represent two emerging trends: 1) increased development of cognitive theories in career counseling, and 2) the advent of the client as an active agent in constructing their own career process. Content covered in the chapter includes: •

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Several very promising career theories have recently emerged onto the scene. The social cognitive career theory Lent, Brown, and Hackett (1996, 2002), the cognitive information processing theory developed by Peterson, Sampson, Reardon, and Lenz (1996), the values-based model of career choice developed by Brown (1995), and the integrative life planning model developed by Hansen (1997) are each excellent examples of such theories.

A group of theories described as “postmodern” approaches to career development interventions have been developed to address the client’s “subjective” experiences of career development (Cochran, 1997; Young, Valach, & Collin, 1996). Approaches emphasizing the subjective career highlight the ways in which meaning is made out of life experiences and translated into a career choice (Cochran, 1988, 1990; Savickas, 1995).

Recent Theories • The social cognitive career theory (SCCT) provides a conceptual framework for understanding how people develop career-related interests, make occupational choices, and achieve career success and stability. SCCT builds on the assumption that cognitive factors play an important role in career development and decision making. It is particularly useful in addressing performance attainment and persistence in overcoming obstacles.

• The cognitive information processing (CIP) approach is rooted in the three-factor Parsonian model for making career choices (i.e., self-understanding, occupational knowledge, and bringing self-understanding and occupational knowledge together to make a choice). A pyramid model is used as a framework for providing career development interventions.

• The Sequence for Delivering Career Interventions (Peterson, Sampson, & Reardon) is outlined in detail.

• Brown (1995, 1996, 2002) has formulated a model of career development based on the importance of values in career decision making. He points out that values serve as standards by which people evaluate their own actions and the actions of others.

Thus values direct our behavior in specific directions and toward particular goals. A Life Values Inventory helps clients examine their values in ranked fashion as well as how they relate to their primary life roles.

• Hansen’s Integrative Life Planning (ILP) model emphasizes integrating the mind, body, and spirit. Career counselors are seen as change agents, helping clients to 30

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achieve more holistic lives. Hansen, Hage, and Kachgal (1999) developed the Integrative Life Planning Inventory to help clients identify where they are in relation to integrative thinking and planning. The ILP seems most useful as a framework for teaching an approach to life planning that emphasizes connectedness, wholeness, and community.

The label postmodern has been used to refer to those approaches (e.g., narrative, contextual, constructivist) that emphasize the importance of understanding our careers as they are lived or, to put it another way, our subjective experience of career development. Postmodernism embraces multicultural perspectives and emphasizes the belief that there is no fixed truth but rather we each construct our own realities and truths. These approaches also stress personal agency in the career construction process; the aim of career counseling is to enhance agency regarding career.

Activities 1. Using the values checklist from the chapter, have students write the top ten values that are most important to them on separate scraps of paper. Acting as their “values broker”, inform them that they will have to trade in five of their values. Then have them trade in two more; and then trade in one at a time. At the end of the activity, students will have prioritized their top three to five values. Discuss the exercise and how they might apply this to their counseling practice.

2. Divide the class into two groups, those who prefer to follow the seven step sequence for delivering career interventions outlined by Peterson, Sampson, & Reardon AND those who would prefer not to follow the sequence. Assign each group the task of identifying the strengths of their preferred approach. OPTION – each group can present their list of strengths or the two sides can hold a debate.

3. Assign the students the life chapters (Carlsen, 1988) exercise as a homework assignment.

Divide the class into triads and have each member share their life chapters for five minutes. The other two members of each triad will help the author to identify and discuss themes from the chapters of their life.

Discussion 1. How might you develop your own personal theoretical orientation of career counseling?

What factors might you consider?

2. Which activities practiced in class thus far can you see yourself using in your counseling practice? How does that fit in with your theoretical orientation?

3. How would you describe the differences between Krumboltz’s LTCC theory and Lent, Brown, and Hackett’s SCCT? 4. How well do the career development theories discussed in this chapter address persons from diverse backgrounds? What are some strengths and weaknesses that stand out?

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Test Bank – Chapter 3 Essay Questions 1. Identify and discuss the two trends of emerging theories including an example of each trend.

2. Identify and give and example of two of the four forces that shape self-efficacy beliefs.

3. How would you describe the concept of career construction to a client?

4. Draw and describe the pyramid of information-processing domains outlined in the CIP Approach.

5. How would you describe Hansen’s Integrative Life Planning Approach to a client?

Multiple Choice 1. According to the authors, the emerging theories of career counseling share all of the following except A. a solid foundation of research support.

B. applicability to diverse client populations.

C. reliable assessment instruments for use in counseling.

D. practical utility for advancing career development practice.

2. The sources that shape self-efficacy beliefs include A. external learning and physiological states and reactions.

B. personal performance accomplishments and internal learning.

C. internal learning and social persuasion.

D. vicarious learning and social persuasion.

3. Social cognitive theory focuses closely on A. addressing performance attainments and persistence in overcoming obstacles.

B. career advancement and persistence in overcoming obstacles.

C. career flexibility and persistence in the job search.

D. performance related evaluation and persistence in overcoming external constraints.

4. In the cognitive information-processing pyramid, A. decision-making skills and metacognitions form the foundation; knowledge of self and occupations build upon it.

B. knowledge of self and others form the foundation; decision-making skills and cognitions build upon it.

C. knowledge of self and occupations form the foundation; decision-making skills and metacognitions build upon it.

D. knowledge of self and occupations form the foundation; job-hunting and interviewing build upon it.

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5. In the executive processing domain of the CASVE model, control and monitoring are essential for deciphering the information needed A. to resolve a family problem.

B. for a job search .

C. to resolve a career problem and determine when to move to the next phase.

D. to make an executive decision.

6. The function of the executive processing domain in the cognitive information processing approach is to A. streamline storage of information and make it more efficient.

B. initiate, coordinate, and monitor the storage and retrieval of information.

C. monitor the retrieval of information.

D. expand the storage of information.

7. While evaluation of the CIP model is not extensive, additional research has been stimulated by the publication of the A. Life Values Inventory.

B. Salience Inventory.

C. Strong Interest Inventory.

D. Career Thoughts Inventory.

8. According to Brown, values serve as standards by which people evaluate their A. aptitudes.

B. skills.

C. interests.

D. own actions and the actions of others.

9. The Values-Based Approach is based on all of the following assumptions except A. making choices that coincide with values is essential to satisfaction.

B. high-functioning people have well-developed and prioritized values.

C. values are shaped by both genetics and environment.

D. values are assessed through qualitative, not quantitative, means.

10. Hansen’s integrative life planning model is unique in that its emphasis is on integrating A. the individual and support groups.

B. work, home, and social life.

C. the mind, body, and spirit.

D. intrarole and interrole conflict.

11. The tasks of the ILP model include all of the following except A. finding work that needs doing in changing global contexts.

B. weaving our lives into a meaningful whole.

C. connecting family and work.

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D. making the most money with the least effort.

12. The three post-modern approaches include all of the following elements except A. narrative.

B. contextual.

C. constructivist.

D. subtextual.

13. Constructivism is a concept that accepts that people A. are active organizers of their own experiences.

B. are passively receiving information about their own experiences.

C. construct meaning through the actions of others.

D. rarely revise their perceptions based on life experience.

14. The Role Construct Repertory Test is a more elaborate treatment of the A. ILP. B. value-based approach.

C. laddering technique.

D. CASVE. 15. In constructivist terminology, fruitfulness refers to the assumption that A. counselors should always provide fruit to a client because it helps stimulate thoughts about change.

B. counseling should result in a changed outlook or new perspective on some aspect of life.

C. counseling should result in a complete transformation of ideas from a seed to a fruit.

D. counseling should result in higher salaries for clients.

CORRECT ANSWERS: 1. C 2. D 3. A 4. C 5. C

6. B 7. D 8. D 9. D 10. C

11. D 12. B 13. A 14. C 15. B

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Text of PowerPoint Presentation (available on website) Characteristics of Emerging Theories • Draw upon a solid foundation of research support • Attempt to address the career development needs of diverse client populations • Reflect two major trends – emphasis on cognitive approaches – clients’ active role in career construction Lent, Brown, & Hackett’s Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT) • Builds on the assumption that cognitive factors play an important role in career development and decision making • Is closely linked to Krumboltz’ learning theory of career counseling • Incorporates Bandura’s triadic reciprocal model of causality Self-Efficacy (Bandura) • Defined as people’s judgments of their capabilities to organize and execute courses of action required to attain designated types of performances Forces Shaping Self-Efficacy Beliefs (Bandura) • Personal performance accomplishments • Vicarious learning • Social persuasion • Physiological states and reactions Triadic Reciprocal Model • The relationship among goals, self-efficacy, and outcome expectations is complex • This occurs within the framework of causality comprised of – personal attributes – external environmental factors – overt behavior.

SCCT Career Development Interventions • Directed toward • self-efficacy beliefs • outcome expectations

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The Cognitive Information Processing Model • Uses a pyramid to describe the domains of cognition involved in a career choice – self-knowledge – occupational knowledge – decision-making skills • The fourth domain is metacognitions and includes – self-talk – self-awareness – monitoring and control of cognitions CASVE Cycle • This is the second dimension of the CIP approach and represents a generic model of information processing.

• Skills included are – communication – analysis – synthesis – valuing – execution Applying the CIP Approach • The pyramid model can be used as a framework for providing career development.

• The five steps of the CASVE cycle can be used to teach decision-making skills.

• The executive processing domain provides a framework for exploring and challenging.

Sequence for Delivering Career Interventions (Peterson, Sampson, & Reardon) • Step 1 - Conduct initial interview with client.

• Step 2 - Do a preliminary assessment to determine the client’s readiness.

• Step 3 - Work with client to define the career problem(s) and analyze causes.

• Step 4 - Collaborate with client to formulate achievable problem-solving and decision-making goals.

Sequence for Delivering Career Interventions (Peterson, Sampson, & Reardon) • Step 5 - Provide clients with a list of activities and resources they need (individual learning plans).

• Step 6 - Require clients to execute their individual learning plans.

• Step 7 - Conduct a summative review of client progress and generalize new learning to other career problems.

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Values-Based Model of Career Choice (Brown) • Values with high priority are the most important determinants of choice from among alternatives.

• Values included in one’s value system are acquired from society; each person adopts a small number of these.

• Culture, sex, and socioeconomic status influence opportunities and social interaction, resulting in a wide variation of values in subgroups of society.

Propositions of Values-Based Model (Brown), continued • Making choices that coincide with values is essential to satisfaction.

• Life satisfaction is the result of role interaction.

• High functioning people have well- developed and prioritized values.

• Success in any role depends on the abilities required to perform the role’s functions.

Applying the Values-Based Approach • This approach classifies clients into two categories: – those making planned decisions – those making unplanned decisions • For all clients, counselors must assess whether – there are important intrapersonal value conflicts.

– mood problems exist.

– values have been crystallized and prioritized.

– client can use values-based information.

– client understands how career choices affect other life roles.

Clients Making Planned Career Changes • Counselors need to assess – how issues related to intrarole and interrole conflict may be contributing to client career dissatisfaction.

– degree of client flexibility related to geographical location, training opportunities, and qualifications.

Clients Making Unplanned Career Changes • Counselors must assess whether – there are mood problems.

– there are financial concerns.

– existing career opportunities can satisfy values.

– clients can make changes to increase the satisfaction they derive from other life roles.

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Hansen’s Integrative Life Planning (ILP) • ILP is a worldview for addressing career development rather than a theory that can be translated into individual counseling.

• The integrative aspect of ILP relates to the emphasis on integrating the mind, body, and spirit.

• The life planning concept acknowledges that multiple aspects of life are interrelated.

Assumptions of ILP • Changes in the nature of knowledge support new ways of knowing related to career development.

• Broader kinds of self-knowledge and societal knowledge are critical to an expanded view of career.

• Career counseling needs to focus on career professionals as change agents.

Six Career Development Tasks Confronting Adults • Finding work that needs doing in changing global contexts • Weaving their lives into a meaningful whole • Connecting family and work • Valuing pluralism and inclusivity • Managing personal transitions and organizational change • Exploring spirituality and life purpose Applying ILP • Career counselors should help their clients – understand these six tasks.

– see the interrelatedness of the tasks.

– help clients prioritize the tasks according to their needs Post-Modern Approaches • These are theories and interventions that depart from – the positivistic scientific tradition that has dominated social and behavioral science research and – most of the normative career development research (Vondracek & Kawaski).

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Creating Narratives • Career counseling from the narrative approach emphasizes understanding and articulating the main character to be lived out in a specific career plot.

• This articulation uses the process of composing a narrative as the primary vehicle for defining character and plot.

• Howard (1989) noted that people tell stories that infuse parts of their lives with great meaning and de-emphasize other parts.

Ways in Which Narratives Help Clients (Cochran) • A narrative is a temporal organization with a beginning, middle, and end.

• A story is a synthetic structure that organizes many pieces into a whole.

• The plot of a narrative specifies what has been accomplished.

• The structure of a narrative communicates a problem, attempts at resolving it, and a resolution.

Ways to Use a Narrative Approach in Career Counseling • Elaborate a career problem.

• Compose a life history.

• Build a future narrative.

• Construct reality.

• Change a life structure.

• Enact a role.

• Crystallize a decision.

Contextualizing Career Development • Acts are viewed as purposive and as being directed toward specific goals.

• Acts are embedded in their context.

• Change plays a dominant role in career development.

• Contextualism rejects a theory of truth based on the correspondence between mental representations and objective reality.

Constructivist Career Counseling • How can I form a cooperative alliance with this client? (Relationship factor) • How can I encourage the self-helpfulness of this client? (Agency factor) • How can I help this client to elaborate and evaluate his/her constructions germane to this decision? (Meaning-making factor) • How can I help this client to reconstruct and negotiate personally meaningful and socially supportable realities? (Negotiation factor)

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Chapter 4 Career Development and Diverse Populations The fourth chapter provides an overview of important issues to consider in providing culturally sensitive career development interventions. It reviews topics such as ethnocentrism, acculturation, individualism, collectivism, and identity development models; it also discusses issues pertaining to culturally sensitive assessment strategies. Content covered in the chapter includes: • •

Changing demographics, multiple worldviews, and cultural plurality influence the career development intervention process.

Some changing demographics in the workplace include an aging workforce, more women entering the workforce, and immigrants and members of racial minorities comprising a large share of new entrants into the labor force.

Traditional Assumptions of Career Theories in the United States • Historically, traditional career development theories and interventions in the United States have emphasized a psychological perspective highlighting the role intraindividual variables play in shaping one’s career.

• Stead (2004) and Young , Marshall, and Valach (2007) argue that most extant career theories are deficient because of their ethnocentrism.

• Gysbers, Heppner, and Johnston (2003) point out that career development interventions in the United States have typically been based on five tenets: individualism and autonomy, affluence, structure of opportunity to all, the centrality of work in people’s lives, and the linearity of the career development process.

Universal Versus Cultural-Specific Models • Many statements pertaining to multicultural career development interventions reflect the tension between etic (i.e., universal) and emic (i.e., culturally specific) approaches.

• Etic perspectives contend that current career theories and techniques are robust enough to have universal applicability.

• Emic perspectives highlight the importance of designing career development interventions that are specific to the client’s culture.

• Fischer, Jome, and Atkinson (1998) propose a “common factors” perspective in multicultural counseling. The common factors that appear to be the universal elements of healing are as follows: the therapeutic relationship, shared worldview, client expectations, and ritual or intervention.

• When counselors assume that one value system is superior and preferable to another, they engage in ethnocentric behavior.

• An important variable to assess in providing culturally sensitive career development interventions is the client’s level of acculturation.

• Early models of acculturation had an either/or perspective (i.e., one either accepted the “new” culture and rejected the “old” or rejected the “new” culture and accepted 40

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the “old”).

More recent models of acculturation reflect a bicultural perspective. Such models embrace the notion that one can be highly acculturated to multiple cultures (a sort of both/and approach).

Identity Development Models • Atkinson, Morten, and Sue (1993) describe a five-stage model of racial identity development. The stages are conformity, dissonance, resistance and immersion, introspection, and synergistic.

• Cross’s Nigrescence theory also contains five stages: pre-encounter, encounter, immersion-emersion, internalization, and internalization-commitment.

• Downing and Roush (1985) propose a feminist identity model that is useful in providing career development interventions to women. Their model includes the following stages: passive acceptance, revelation, embeddedness-emancipation, synthesis, and active commitment.

• The Downing and Roush model can also be applied to men. Understanding the identity development status of men can help career development practitioners provide appropriate interventions.

• There is little research investigating the career development of gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgendered people.

• According to Cass (1979), persons who are gay or lesbian encounter six stages of identity development: confusion, comparison, tolerance, acceptance, pride, and synthesis.

• Sophie (1986) proposes a four-stage model of lesbian identity development that includes self-awareness of lesbian feelings, testing and exploration of emerging lesbian identity, identity acceptance, and identity integration.

• Individuals with disabilities lag behind those without disabilities in virtually every indicator of economic activity (Ettinger, 1996, p. 239).

• The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 stipulates that employers can consider only essential job functions when hiring or promoting employees.

• Zunker (1998) identifies the following career development issues as ones that confront persons with disabilities: adjusting to disabilities, confronting attitudinal barriers, overcoming generalizations, having a lack of role models, coping with issues associated with the age of onset of disability, developing social skills, developing a positive self-concept, and developing skills for independent living. The applicability of these issues obviously depends on the persons and their disability.

Assessment • Fouad (1993) notes that career counselors must be mindful that the client’s culture plays a significant role throughout all phases of the assessment process.

• When selecting a career assessment instrument, counselors must ensure that the instrument is valid, reliable, and appropriate for the client’s cultural and linguistic context.

• Fouad (1993) notes that career counselors must be sure that assessment instruments 41

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are functionally and conceptually equivalent for the client with whom the assessment will be used.

In addition to all other aspects of a person’s identity discussed in this chapter, one’s spirituality and/or religious beliefs are also important for a career counselor to consider.

Activities 1. Divide the class into small groups. Give each group the homework assignment of finding one newspaper article from the past week that addresses some aspect of both career development and diversity. Each group will lead a class discussion/activity using their article as the basis for the lesson. Aspects from the chapter can be included in the criteria for the assignment including the incorporation of an identity model, concepts of emic/etic perspectives, or other criteria.

2. Provide the class with a generic case study containing no information related to culture/ethnicity. Break the class into small groups and instruct students to begin discussing the case. Ask students to consider how they conceptualize the “client” and how they might work with the client if they were the client’s career counselor. After several minutes, stop the discussion and add a cultural variable to the case (e.g., ethnicity, gender, socioeconomic status). Then, ask the groups to resume their discussion. Repeat this “interruption” several additional times, each time adding a new variable to the case.

Then, ask the groups to discuss whether the additional variables made a difference in how they conceptualized the case and how they would work with the case as a career counselor.

3. Ask students to list three things they are good at and then reflect upon how their own cultural background influenced these skills or abilities. Ask for volunteers to share and then discuss the cultural influences that might encourage or discourage the development of these skills and/or abilities.

Discussion 1. Is it imperative to discuss culture in career counseling? Why? Advantages/disadvantages?

2. How might culture affect the efficacy of the career intervention strategies you chose?

3. Encourage the class to share instances in which they feel as though they have experienced bias and stereotyping in their career development.

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Test Bank – Chapter 4 Essay Questions 1. Choose one of the identity development models outlined in Chapter 4. Describe the stages and how a person’s career development might be impacted during one of the stages.

2. Describe both etic and emic approaches to counseling.

3. What are the implications of increasing heterogeneity in the workforce for career competencies that will be required of workers in the future?

4. Develop a case scenario that highlights the impact that acculturation can have a career development.

5. Discuss the five spheres of the “career-in-culture” interview.

Multiple Choice 1. A person who feels committed to multiple cultures would be called a A. ethnocentric person.

B. individualistic person.

C. fully formed person.

D. bicultural person.

2. Which of the following best describes “one’s beliefs, awareness, values, subjective experience, sense of purpose and mission, and an attempt to reach toward something greater than oneself”.

A. denomination.

B. religion.

C. spirituality D. sexual orientation.

3. Gysbers et al point out that career development interventions in the United States tend to favor tenets that reflect a European-American perspective. These tenets include all of the following except A. individualism and autonomy.

B. affluence.

C. structure of opportunity for all.

D. affordable housing.

4. Emic approaches to counseling support interventions that are A. one-on-one .

B. universally applicable.

C. culturally specific.

D. individualized.

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5. The process of adopting the traits or social patterns of another group is known as A. ethnocentrism.

B. cultural pluralism.

C. acculturation.

D. externalization.

6. The stages of racial identity development include all of the following except A. conformity.

B. dissonance.

C. introspection.

D. externalization.

7. The Nigrescence theory of black identity includes all of the following stages except A. pre-encounter.

B. ecounter.

C. immersion-emersion.

D. introspection.

8. Stereotypically, sex role socialization has exerted influence over the early development of girls by reinforcing A. competition and skill mastery.

B. job hunting and career skills.

C. relationships and connectedness.

D. home-making skills.

9. Oppressive environmental influences that restrict the career development of women occur most frequently in A. centers for women and women’s shelters.

B. the home, school, community, and workplace.

C. many counseling centers that support women.

D. television and movies.

10. Integrating gender into the career development intervention process is important for men because they are often A. restricted in levels of self-disclosure.

B. subject to oppressive environmental influences in the workplace.

C. focused strongly on family and relationship needs.

D. restricted in levels of competitive and physical behavior.

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11. Developmental issues that typically confront persons with disabilities include all of the following except A. confronting attitudinal barriers.

B. overcoming generalizations.

C. developing skills for independent living.

D. narrowing social outlets.

12. Typical domains for vocational assessments for persons with disabilities include A. psychological.

B. social.

C. educational/academic.

D. all of the above.

13. Walsh and Betz (1990) describe an assessment model which includes all of the following steps except A. clarifying the problem.

B. gathering information.

C. understanding the problem.

D. solving the problem.

14. The impact of culture on the assessment process is A. negligible.

B. noticeable in the initial phases only.

C. noticeable in the final phases only.

D. significant throughout the process.

15. Whether the scales of a test measure the same constructs across cultures is an indicator of A. functional equivalence.

B. metric equivalence.

C. conceptual equivalence.

D. linguistic equivalence.

CORRECT ANSWERS: 1. D 2. C 3. D 4. C 5. C

6. D 7. D 8. C 9. B 10. A

11. D 12. D 13. D 14. D 15. B

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Text for PowerPoint Presentation (available on website) Definition of Multicultural Counseling • A helping process that places the emphasis for counseling theory and practice equally on the cultural impression of both the counselor and the client (Axelson, 1985) Predictions by Johnston and Packer • Average age of workforce will rise while the pool of young workers will decrease.

• More women will enter the workforce.

• Minorities will make up a larger share of the new entrants into the workforce.

• Immigrants will make up the largest share of increase in the population and workforce since World War I. Some Basic Facts • Unemployment rate for African Americans has been above 11% each year since 1978 (2 1/2 times the rate for whites).

• Only 23% of African American and 15% of Hispanic persons are employed as executives, administrators, salespersons, and managers (compared to 32% for Whites).

Some Basic Facts, continued • More than half of employed Hispanic women are clerical workers or operatives.

• Poverty rate of Native Americans is twice (23.7%) that of the general population.

• Men are 18.7 times as likely to be in higher prestige occupations in science, math, or technology than women.

• Only 33.6% of persons with disabilities are in the workforce.

American Assumptions • Individualism and autonomy • Affluence • Opportunity open to all • Centrality of work in people’s lives • Linearity and rationality of the career development process Universal or Culture-Specific Models?

• Etic perspectives - maintain that career interventions for members of minority groups should be the same as those used for the majority.

• Emic perspectives - highlight the importance of offering career development interventions that are specific to the client’s culture.

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Universal Elements of Healing in All Cultures (Fischer, et al.)

• The therapeutic relationship • Shared world view • Client expectations • Ritual or intervention Acculturation • The process of adopting the cultural traits or social patterns of another group (Stein,1975) • Language familiarity and usage, cultural heritage, ethnicity, ethnic pride and identity, interethnic interactions, and interethnic distance influence acculturation (Padilla, 1980) • Persons may be marginal (not accepting either culture fully) or bicultural (accepting both fully) Racial Identity Models • Models of racial identity help us understand that the status of racial identity -- for both counselors and clients -- can influence the career intervention process at several levels.

Using Assessment • Must assure that assessment is valid, reliable, and appropriate for the client’s cultural and linguistic context.

• Must assure that the test does not have cultural bias.

Five Stages of Racial Identity Development (Atkinson, Morten, & Sue) • Conformity • Dissonance • Resistance and immersion • Introspection • Synergy Cross Model • Pre-encounter • Encounter • Immersion-Emersion • Internalization • Internalization-Commitment

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Gender Differences in Socialization • Stereotypically reinforces competition and skill mastery in boys, relationships and connectedness in girls • Affects initial selection of occupation and opportunities for mentoring and promotion Feminist Identity Model (Gysbers, Heppner, & Johnson) • Stage 1: Passive Acceptance • Stage 2: Revelation • Stage 3: Embeddedness-Emancipation • Stage 4: Synthesis • Stage 5: Active Commitment Special Needs of Women (Cook, Heppner, & O’Brien) • Dealing with attending to the needs of others • Learning to negotiate in the workplace • Accessing quality child care • Handling sexual harassment in the workplace • Accessing mentors Special Needs of Men • Understanding how socialization has influenced their career behaviors • Learning to express feelings • Learning how to manage and reduce stress • Identifying strategies to participate more fully in life roles other than work Four-Stage Model of Lesbian Identity Development (Sophie) • Stage 1: Awareness of homosexual feelings without disclosing these to others • Stage 2: Testing and exploration of emerging homosexual identity with limited disclosure to heterosexuals • Stage 3: Identity acceptance and preference for gay social interactions • Stage 4: Identify integration with movement from a dichotomous (homosexual, heterosexual) worldview to integrated

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Six-Stage Model of Identity Development for Gay Men and Lesbian Women (Cass, 1979) • Confusion • Comparison • Tolerance • Acceptance • Pride • Synthesis Five-Stage Model of Lesbian Identity Development (Chapman & Brannock) • Same-sex orientation - feeling different about females, but lacking a name for those feelings • Incongruence, social isolation, and confusion about heterosexual dating • Self-questioning and exploration with strong bonds with other females • Identification as lesbian • Choice of lifestyle - woman as long-term mate or not Definition of Persons with Disabilities • One who is y considered to be different from a normal person -- physically, physiologically, neurologically, or psychologically -- because of accident, disease, birth defect, or developmental problem (Herr & Cramer, 1996 Another Definition • A person who has physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more major life activities, or has a record of such impairment, or is regarded as having such an impairment (Americans with Disabilities Act, 1990) Americans with Disabilities Act • Employers can only consider essential job functions when hiring or promoting.

• Employers must make reasonable accommodations in the workplace.

Career Development Issues of Persons with Disabilities (Zunker, 1998) • Adjusting to disability • Confronting attitudinal barriers • Lack of role models • Developing social/interpersonal skills • Developing a positive self-concept • Developing skills for independent living

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Competencies for Working with Persons with Disabilities • Interpret and advise about legislation, policy, guidelines, and rights • Use diagnostic and informal assessment • Assess functional limitations and adapt methods of occupational exploration • Apply theory to assist with analysis of self-concept or developmental tasks deficits Competencies for Working with Persons with Disabilities, continued • Engage in effective individual and group counseling • Team with other specialists for career planning and placement • Work with employers to develop or restructure jobs • Plan and implement skill-building workshops or experiences Components of Culturally-Sensitive Career Interventions (Herr & Kramer) • Possession of knowledge and skills appropriate in any helping relationship • Recognition of personal attitudes and values • Knowledge of cultural context from which clients come • Ability to identify special needs Components of Culturally-Sensitive Career Interventions, continued • Ability to assist culturally different clients understand that they do have choices, some of which include consequences.

• Skill to assist culturally different individuals to deal effectively with discrimination when it does occur • Skill to discern between client deficits that result from socioeconomic class and those from membership in a racial or ethnic group

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Chapter 5 Assessment and Career Planning The fifth chapter provides a detailed introduction to assessment and its importance in career planning. Assessment plays multiple roles in helping clients learn about themselves in ways that inform the career planning process. Counselors must have a myriad of knowledge and skills to competently (and ethically) administer assessments in career counseling. These are detailed throughout the chapter. Content covered in the chapter includes: • • • • •

• •

Assessment is the use of any formal or informal technique or instrument to collect data about a client.

Assessment was used extensively in the 20th century as a method to assist individuals to learn more about themselves and then translate that self-knowledge into occupational alternatives.

Called the trait-and-factor approach, it had its beginnings with the three-step process of career choice proposed by Frank Parsons.

The trait-and-factor approach was fueled by World Wars I and II, during which much funding was provided for the development of assessment instruments to identify men who had ability for specific specialties needed in war time.

In the 21st century this approach is still a useful one, though its use should have additional dimensions, including that • test data are only one piece of a much larger puzzle.

• it should be used less for prediction and more for identifying new options.

The client should be more involved in making the decision about whether to use assessment and for what purposes.

The changing demographics of the United States necessitate the need for even more preparation when selecting and using assessments in counseling.

The Relationship of Assessment to the Career Planning Process • The career planning process can be described as a seven-step cyclical process.

Assessment can be used as an intervention at most steps: • At Step 1 (Become aware of need to make career decisions), a counselor may use instruments that measure career maturity, irrational beliefs, or readiness to make career choices.

• At Step 2 (Learn about or reevaluate vocational self-concept), inventories of interests, abilities, skills, values, and/or personality type are commonly used.

• At Step 3 (Identify occupational alternatives), the score report that follows use of assessment at Step 2 will likely suggest a list of occupational alternatives.

• At Step 4 (Obtain information about identified alternatives), assessment is not likely to be used.

• At Step 5 (Make tentative choices from among available alternatives), inventories of workrelated values may be used to assist a client to reduce the number of options.

• At Step 6 (Make educational choices), tests that attempt to predict success in college or measure achievement in specific subject matter areas may be administered.

• At Step 7 (Implement a vocational choice), tests that measure skills for a specific occupation or inventories that measure personality type may be used.

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Purposes of Assessment • There are three predominant reasons for using assessment: • Counselors can learn more about the needs of students or clients.

• Counselors can learn more about the characteristics of clients (interests, abilities, skills, values), and clients can learn more about themselves.

• Counselors can measure the progress of an individual or a group in matters related to career planning.

Responsibilities and Competencies of the Counselor • Ethics, related to assessment, is described in a document called the Code of Fair Testing Practices, developed by three professional associations. This document lists six specific ways in which counselors need to be prepared for using assessment. Counselors must • have a good base of general knowledge about assessment, including information about statistics used in tests, types of instruments, score reporting procedures, standardization and norms, reliability, and validity.

• have detailed knowledge about the specific instruments they use.

• know how to prepare clients/students for taking assessment.

• administer instruments properly.

• interpret instruments properly.

• follow through with clients appropriately after assessment.

• Given the dynamic population change in our country, and our clients, any instruments utilized in counseling practice must be evaluated for use with diverse populations relating to age, reading and comprehension level, race, ethnicity, gender, and disability among other aspects of diversity.

Informal Assessments • Characteristics of informal assessment include the following: • These instruments have not been subjected to scientific study; thus, properties such as reliability and validity are unknown.

• Those who take informal assessment cannot compare their results with those of others who took the same assessment.

• There is no standard linkage between the results of an informal assessment and occupational options.

• There is no standard way to interpret the results.

• Common types of informal assessments include the following: • checklists • games • career fantasies • forced-choice activities • card sorts • structured interviews

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Formal Assessments • Formal assessments may be timed, standardized tests or non-timed, standardized inventories.

• On tests, there are right or wrong answers; they are usually timed, though not necessarily.

• On inventories, there are no right or wrong answers; they are not timed.

• The word standardized means that there is a prescribed way to administer and interpret the instrument.

• Formal assessments have the following characteristics: • Known validity (evidence that the instrument measures what it claims to measure).

• Known reliability (evidence that a given person will respond to items in a very similar fashion if the inventory is taken again) • Fairness related to diversity (evidence that the instrument has been studied with a population as diverse as the one to which it will be administered; or a statement that its application may be limited because it was not studied with a diverse population).

• One or more measures of comparison, either rank-ordering the attributes it measures for the examinee or comparing these attributes with those of others judged to be similar to the examinee.

Types of Formal Assessments (examples are listed throughout the chapter) • Purpose 1: to identify the needs of clients • Purpose 2: to learn more about clients Ways in which Assessment Instruments may be Administered • Print form, with scoring manually or by optical scanning machines • Computer-delivered and computer-scored, non-secure sites • Computer-delivered and computer-scored, secure sites • Internet-delivered and scored Types of Reports • Raw scores -- individuals know the rank order and difference between their own scores but cannot compare their scores with those of others (idiosyncratic).

• Percentile scores -- individuals can compare their own scores to those of other groups (norm groups).

• Stanines – a way to divide percentiles into 9 ranges • Standard score – a way to indicate how far (in standard deviations) an individual’s score is from the middle (50th percentile) of a distribution of scores • Band of confidence – a range within which an individual score falls Steps in Selection of Instruments • Determine the purpose(s) for giving an instrument.

• Consider the characteristics of the person or group to determine if there are special considerations in selection of an instrument.

• Find out about the norm group for the instrument and how it compares with the population you have in mind.

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• • • • •

Find out about the reliability and validity of the instrument.

Read critical reviews, and talk to other professionals about the instrument.

Acquire a sample copy, take it yourself, and read the publisher’s materials.

Administer it to a few individuals, practicing administration and interpretation.

Determine cost and options for administration and scoring.

Activities 1. Well in advance of the course, contact National Career Assessment Services, Inc. or Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc. to request free administrations of the Kuder Career Planning System ™ and/or Self-Directed Search ™. Instruct students to complete the instrument of choice as a homework assignment and print out the results for class.

Provide a short group tutorial on interpreting the reports. Break the class in dyads and have them role play interpreting the results with a client in session.

2. Assign students one formal assessment each using the list provided in the chapter. Ask each student to research the instrument (sources such as the A Counselor’s Guide to Career Assessment Instruments or the website http://www.unl.edu/buros might help) to prepare a one-page memo for their hypothetical supervisor about the instrument. The memo should include information about validity, reliability, and fairness related to diversity. These memos can then be compiled for the class as a resource book for career assessment instruments.

3. Lead the class through a career fantasy exercise.

4. Set up a series of work stations with examples of informal assessments including checklists, games, forced-choice, and card sorts. Divide the class into the appropriate number of teams (equal to the number of stations) and give each team 10 minutes to practice at each station. Discuss.

Discussion 1. How can assessment be used when working with middle school students? high school students? college-age students? adults?

2. What are some of the dangers or pitfalls of giving assessment?

3. What are some advantages of informal assessment?

4. How does assessment fit into the career decision-making process?

5. How could assessment be used to design different types of career interventions for students or clients from diverse populations?

6. How can assessment be used to evaluate the progress of an individual client or a group of clients?

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Test Bank – Chapter 5 Essay Questions 1. List the steps of the career planning process, and describe how assessment might be used as an intervention in at least two of the seven steps.

2. Imagine that you work with (specify a population) and that your supervisor asks you to select formal assessment instruments for use with these students (clients). Describe the process you would use to select instruments.

3. A student receives the following score report after taking the Kuder Career Search™: Scale Score Profile Business Detail 93 XXXXXXXXX Sales & Management 77 XXXXXXX Social & Personal Services 65 XXXXXX Arts & Communication 44 XXXX Science & Technical 25 XX Outdoor & Mechanical 12 X What do the numbers under the second column, labeled Score, mean?

4. Choose one of the informal assessments discussed in this chapter. Describe in detail how you would introduce, use, and evaluate this assessment with a client.

5. How have changes in the demographics of the United States population impacted the use of assessment in counseling?

Multiple Choice 1. Assessment is defined as A. a standardized test.

B. any formal or informal technique used to collect data about a client.

C. an informal method of acquiring information.

D. an evaluative measure.

2. Though assessment may be used in several steps of the career planning process, its greatest usefulness is likely to be at Step A. 1.

B. 2.

C. 4.

D. 7.

3. All of the following are reasons to administer assessment except so that the A. counselor can learn more about the needs of the client.

B. counselor can determine the progress of an individual or group.

C. client can learn more about himself or herself.

D. counselor can prescribe the best course of action for the client.

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4. Which of the following have “right and wrong answers”?

A. assessments B. informal activities C. measures D. tests 5. 5. A forced-choice activity is a/an A. formal assessment instrument.

B. informal assessment instrument.

C. type of career fantasy.

D. way of measuring abilities.

6. All of the following are true of formal assessments except that they A. have no standard method of interpretation.

B. have no standard way to compare one person’s scores with those of others.

C. have known reliability.

D. are usually free of charge.

7. A raw score indicates A. how some characteristic of one individual compares with that of others.

B. whether a person’s scores are in the top quartile.

C. how many standard deviations a score is from the middle of the distribution.

D. the total number of responses related to some category.

8. The Career Maturity Inventory (Crites and Savickas) is an example of an instrument that can be used to measure A. interests.

B. readiness to make career decisions.

C. work skills.

D. values.

9. Any of the following could be used to measure interests except A. The Self-Directed Search.

B. The Kuder Career Search.

C. WorkKeys.

D. Campbell Interest and Skill Survey 10. One good reason to suggest that clients take assessment via the Internet rather than in print form is that A. score reports are available immediately.

B. instruments administered in this mode have been thoroughly researched.

C. instruments are always free of charge.

D. scores are more reliable.

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11. When planning to administer an assessment instrument to a student/client, it is important to tell the person all of the following except A. the purpose of giving the assessment.

B. the history of the development of the instrument.

C. what the items in the instrument are like.

D. who will see the results and for what purpose.

12. When interpreting an inventory, all of the following are important except A. checking to see if the client/student agrees with the results.

B. indicating that the results of the inventory are the best sources of information.

C. asking about school work and experience that may confirm the results of the inventory.

D. suggesting what the student/client may do next in order to continue with planning.

13. A primary characteristic of informal assessment is that A. the results are norm-referenced.

B. the techniques used have high reliability.

C. it can be interesting and stimulate good discussion.

D. its results are standardly interpreted by all counselors.

14. An acceptable test-retest reliability coefficient is A. 3.5.

B. 4.0.

C. 6.0.

D. 8.0.

15. If, on the Kuder Career Search interest inventory, for example, a person has a score at the 88th percentile on the scale called Outdoor, it means that A. the person got 88% of the items right.

B. 10% of those in a norm group scored higher on Outdoor than this person.

C. the person has low interest in Outdoor activities.

D. the person’s interest in Outdoor activities is higher than 88% of those in a norm group.

CORRECT ANSWERS: 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

B B D D B

6. D 7. D 8. B 9. C 10. A

11. B 12. B 13. C 14. D 15. D

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True-False Items 1. A band of confidence is the same as a standard deviation.

2. A student whose score on a scale on an interest inventory is in the 1st stanine has very high interest in that area.

3. A norm group is the group of individuals whose scores on an instrument are the benchmark for assigning percentile scores to others who take it.

4. A checklist is one type of informal assessment.

5. If a test is valid, there is evidence that it measures what its publishers claim that it will measure.

CORRECT ANSWERS: 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

F F T T T

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Text for PowerPoint Presentation (available on the website) Introduction • Assessment is the use of any formal or informal technique to collect data about a client.

• It is a tool of the trait-and-factor approach, which had its beginning with the three-step career choice process introduced by Frank Parsons.

Guidelines for Use of Trait-and-Factor Approach in 21st Century • Test data – are only one piece of a much larger puzzle.

– should be used less for prediction and more for identifying new options.

• The client should be more involved in making the decision about whether to use assessment and for what purposes.

Assessment and the Career Planning Process • Step 1 - Become Aware of the Need to Make Career Decisions • Step 2 - Learn About or Reevaluate Vocational Self-Concept Assessment and the Career Planning Process • Step 3 - Identify Occupational Alternatives • Step 4 - Obtain Information About Identified Alternatives • Step 5 - Make Tentative Choices from Among Available Occupations Assessment and the Career Planning Process • Step 6 - Make Educational Choices • Step 7 - Implement a Vocational Choice Purposes of Assessment • Counselors can learn more about the needs (decision making skill, career maturity, removal of irrational beliefs) of clients.

• Counselors can learn more about the characteristics (interests, abilities, skills, values, personality) of clients.

Purposes of Assessment • Clients can learn more about themselves (such as their interests, skills, abilities, work values, personality type).

• Counselors can measure the progress (in acquiring career maturity, decision-making skills, career decidedness) of an individual or group of individuals.

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Counselor Responsibilities • Follow ethical guidelines provided by professional associations • Possess knowledge – basic principles of assessment – details of specific instruments to be used – evaluate the instrument for usefulness with diverse populations – how to prepare clients/students – how to administer properly – how to interpret properly Characteristics of Informal Assessment • Instruments not subjected to scientific study • Results for one person cannot be compared with those of others • No standard linkage between results and occupational choices • No standard way to interpret results Types of Informal Assessment • Checklists • Games • Career fantasies • Forced-choice activities • Card sorts • Structured interviews Characteristics of Formal Assessment • Known validity (instrument measures what it claims to measure) • Known reliability (results of a later administration will be highly similar to those of first administration) Characteristics of Formal Assessment • Fairness related to diversity (instrument adequately researched with kinds of individuals who will later take the instrument) • Measures of comparison (compares the scores of one individual with those of others)

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Common Interest Inventories • Career Assessment Inventory (CAI) • Career Occupational Preference Survey (COPS) • Career Quest • Harrington-O’Shea Career Decision-Making System (CDMS) Common Interest Inventories, continued • Interest Determination, Exploration, and Assessment System (IDEAS) • Interest Explorer • Jackson Vocational Interest Survey (JVIS) • Kuder Career Search with Person Match • O*Net Interest Profiler Common Interest Inventories, continued • Self-Directed Search (SDS) • Strong Interest Inventory (SII) • Unisex Edition of the ACT Interest Inventory (UNIACT) • Vocational Interest Inventory Common Instruments to Measure Skills and Abilities • Campbell Interest and Skill Survey (CISS) • SkillScan • WorkKeys • Passion Revealer • The Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB) • Career Planning Survey • O*Net Ability Profiler

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Other Inventories • Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) - measures personality type • O*Net Work Importance Profiler - measures the importance of six work values • Super’s Work Values Inventory - measures the importance of 12 work values Steps of the Assessment Process • Prepare students/clients for assessment • Administer instrument(s) properly • Interpret instrument(s) properly • Follow through to assist students/clients to use results for action planning Ways to Administer and Interpret Assessment • Print form - manual or optical scoring; counselor interpretation • Computer (standalone or networked) - administration and scoring; counselor or computer interpretation • Internet - administration, scoring, and interpretation Advantages of Internet Delivery • Can be taken from anywhere 24/7 • Immediate scoring and feedback • Standard interpretation, though customized • Capability to share report with others electronically No-Fee Assessment Websites • University of Waterloo Career Services - www.cdm.uwaterloo.ca/steps.asp • CareerKey - www.ncsu.edu/careerkey • University of Missouri Career Center - http://career.missouri.edu (Select Career Interests Game) • Motivational Assessment of Personal Potential - www.assessment.com For-Fee Assessment Websites • DISCOVER – www.act.org • Kuder Career Planning System - www.kuder.com • Self-Directed Search - www.self-directed-search.com

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Types of Reports • Raw scores - provide a tally of responses in a specific category; examinee cannot compare personal scores with those of others • Percentile scores - compare the scores of one person with those of a selected norm group Steps in Selection of Instruments • Determine purpose of assessment.

• Consider characteristics of those to be assessed.

• Determine if norm group for instrument includes characteristics of persons to be tested.

• Investigate the reliability and validity of the instrument.

Steps in Selection of Instruments • Read critical reviews and talk to other professionals.

• Acquire a sample copy, take it, and read publisher’s materials.

• Administer instrument to a few individuals and practice interpretation.

• Determine cost and options for administration and scoring.

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Chapter 6 Career Information and Resources The sixth chapter provides a framework for understanding and organizing the overwhelming amount of career information available. Included in the chapter are dozens of upto-date career resources, both print and electronic. Content covered in the chapter includes: • • • •

The availability of data is essential to the career decision-making process.

Data are the central resources that support the career decision-making process.

Types of data needed vary with the step in the process and the age of the client.

Data may be contained in print sources, computer-assisted career guidance systems, websites, or people.

The Counselor’s Role in Providing Data • The role of counselors is to assist clients to turn data into information (that is, cause it to inform one’s decision making) and includes the responsibility to • select sources of high quality.

• make sources of data known to clients in a user-friendly way.

• assist the client make meaningful use of the data.

• Clients may have barriers to receiving data related to physical, mental, or intellectual deficits.

• Clients have different decision-making styles, and this fact affects their ability to process and use data effectively. Styles are as follows: • Planful • Agonizing • Impulsive • Intuitive • Compliant • Delaying • Fatalistic • Paralytic • Clients may bring a myriad of diversity related issues to career counseling requiring flexibility on the part of the counselor to provide appropriate resources or accommodation.

The Clients’ Roles in Receiving Data • Complete the data-gathering “homework” given by counselors.

• Engage in activities with the counselor that will help make personal application of the data collected.

• Assume responsibility for their own decision making.

Types of Data Needed by Clients • Descriptions of programs of study (post-secondary majors) • Military programs • Apprenticeships and internships • Occupations • Schools 64

• • •

• Proprietary vocational-technical schools • Community colleges • Four-year colleges and universities • Graduate schools Job-related training Financial aid Job openings

Organizing Occupations • Holland’s system • ACT’s World-of-Work Map • Guide to Occupational Exploration clusters • O*Net system • U.S. Department of Education clusters The Career Center • The career center is the physical place where databases and resources are stored. It • is centrally located.

• is user-friendly.

• must contain computers for use of software and websites.

• has equipment for viewing videos.

• is staffed with trained persons.

• organizes materials by type, content, career planning step, or life role.

• The Internet offers the possibility for online, virtual career centers. It • Includes linkages to websites that provide data resources.

• may be supported by cybercounseling or assistance.

Activities 1. Have students research one occupation by use of at least three standard sources of occupational information: a) The Occupational Outlook Handbook (print or online at www.bls.gov/oco), b) CareerInfoNet (www.acinet.org), and c) O*Net (http://online.onetcenter.org/). You may fold this assignment into a case study in which they have to help a student research an occupation, using these three resources.

2. Have students use one of the college search websites (CollegeNet, GoCollege, Peterson’s, etc.) listed in the chapter. As above, you may fold this assignment into a case study in which a student states several important characteristics for a college, and the counselor helps him or her identify college options.

3. Have students design an ideal career center, complete with physical layout, list of resources, and staffing.

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4. Have students think of as many practical ways as possible that ACT’s World-ofWork Map could be used to assist with a career guidance program at the high school level.

Discussion 1. By what criteria can a counselor judge the quality of a career database or resource?

2. What is the relationship between an individual’s decision-making style and his or her ability to use data effectively? How does this vary across decision-making styles?

3. Describe the sources of occupational information provided by the United States Department of Labor.

4. What are some ways a counselor can help a client turn data into meaningful information?

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Test Bank – Chapter 6 Essay Questions 1. Identify and describe three of the eight decision-making styles outlined in the textbook.

2. Name one resource you explored in this course that you will use with your clients in the future. Provide a detailed description of the strengths and weaknesses of this resource.

Write a one paragraph description of how you might introduce this resource to a client.

3. Identify and describe three types of data clients might need.

Multiple Choice 1. At Step 4 of the career decision-making process, students or clients are most likely to need information about A. financial aid.

B. occupations.

C. colleges.

D. majors and programs of study.

2. A counselor has the responsibility to A. make good career choices for students.

B. assist students to turn data into information that helps with decision making.

C. develop standards of quality for occupational information.

D. read and summarize information for students.

3. The website called O*Net is a replacement for the former Department of Labor publication A. The Occupational Outlook Handbook.

B. The Guide to Occupational Exploration.

C. The Dictionary of Occupational Titles.

D. The Classification of Instructional Programs.

4. The most comprehensive Department of Labor website for occupational information is called A. Monster Board.

B. America’s Talent Bank.

C. America’s Job Bank.

D. CareerInfoNet. 5. Holland’s typology is very useful in career guidance programs because A. occupations can be organized by the six types.

B. individuals can find out their personal types by taking assessment.

C. majors and programs of study can be organized by the six types.

D. all of the above are true.

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6

The Bobby Standards identifies compliance of websites that are likely to be accessible to A. those with auditory disability.

B. those with visual disability.

C. those from non-English speaking cultures.

D. veterans.

7. Which of the following is not a type of data typically provided by career centers?

A. Benefits packages B. Programs of study C. Occupations D. Financial aid 8. ACT’s World-of-Work Map A. organizes occupations based on work with three dimensions -- data, people, and . things.

B. shows 20 families of jobs.

C. is based on Holland’s typology.

D. is an integral part of CHOICES, a computer-based system.

9. All of the following are true for effective career centers except that they need to A. have computers, software, and Internet connections.

B. be located in a central, easy-to-find place.

C. be organized in some meaningful way.

D. be staffed by a certified counselor.

10. A person who habitually makes decisions by doing what others suggest is called a/an A. compliant decider.

B. intuitive decider.

C. planful decider.

D. fatalistic decider.

11. Of the various types of deciders described by Dinklage, the type most likely to have the easiest time making a vocational choice is the A. paralytic.

B. fatalistic.

C. planful.

D. painful.

12. The purpose in following a planful process of decision making is to A. assure that the consequences are good.

B. increase the probability of achieving good outcomes..

C. get to a choice more quickly.

D. give someone else the responsibility for your decisions.

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13. Several websites that are particularly useful for career planning and information have been developed by the A. Bush administration.

B. Department of Education.

C. Department of Labor.

D. Department of Human Services.

14. The most difficult part of helping people make a vocational choice or change is A. interpreting the assessment you give them.

B. finding good sources of career information.

C. helping them process the data and make a choice.

D. dealing with their lack of motivation.

15. When choosing a system for organizing occupations, it is better for guidance purposes if A. the system includes all 13,000 occupations.

B. occupations are divided by industries.

C. occupations are divided by level of job demand.

D. there is a way to link what the person knows about self to occupational options.

CORRECT ANSWERS 1. B 2. B 3. C 4. D 5. D

6. B 7. A 8. C 9. D 10. A

11. C 12. B 13. C 14. C 15. D

True - False 1. Unlike its impact on other areas, the Internet has little to offer in the way of career information.

2. One way of assuring that clients/students will make a satisfying career decision is to make multiple information sources available to them.

3 There is a high relationship between an individual’s decision-making style and his or her ability to make good use of data sources.

4. The most definitive source of occupational information is the U. S. Department of Labor.

5. It is possible to get training for civilian occupations while in the military.

Correct Answers 1. F 2. F 3. T 4. T 5. T 69

Text for PowerPoint Presentation (available on the website) Relationship between Data and Decision Making • Having reliable data is essential to career decision making.

• Data may be acquired from print sources, computer-assisted career guidance systems, websites, and/or people.

• The counselor’s role is to assist clients/students to turn data into information.

Barriers and Decision Styles • Clients/students may have difficulty dealing with data – because of physical, mental, or emotional deficits.

– because of their usual decision-making style.

• Planful . Compliant • Agonizing . Delaying • Impulsive . Fatalistic • Intuitive . Paralytic Client Roles • Complete the data-gathering homework given by counselors.

• Apply data collected to personal career choices, aided by the counselor.

• Assume responsibility for their own decision making.

Counselor Roles • Select sources for data that are of high quality.

• Make sources of data known to clients and assist them to know how to use them.

• Assist clients to make meaningful use of data.

Types of Data Needed by Clients • Occupational descriptions • Descriptions of schools • Descriptions of programs of study • Descriptions of military occupations • Descriptions of apprenticeships/internships • Listing of jobs • Descriptions of financial aid

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Ways to Organize Occupations • Holland’s system (R, I, A, S, E, C) • ACT’s World-of-Work Map clusters and job families • Guide to Occupational Exploration clusters • O*Net system clusters • U.S. Department of Education clusters Physical Career Center • Centrally located • User-friendly • Equipped with computers and Internet connections • Equipped with video display devices • Staffed with trained persons • Organized by material type, content, career planning step, or life role Virtual Career Center

• May include -

assessment linkages to websites that provide data resources cybercounseling assistance

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Chapter 7 Using Technology to Support Career Counseling and Planning The seventh chapter addresses the impact of technology on the career counseling and planning process. Various kinds of technology have affected the field over the course of its history, but no technology has had more impact than the computer, including the Internet.

Content covered in the chapter includes: Computer-Assisted Career Guidance Systems • A computer-assisted career guidance system (CACGS) is a group of activities, delivered by computer, designed to help with one or more steps of the career planning process.

• These systems had their genesis in the late 1960s.

• Invention of the cathode ray tube made interactive dialogue (simulating an interview) technically possible.

• Early developers were Harris, Impelleteri, Katz, Super, and Tiedeman.

• The theorists (Katz, Super, and Tiedeman) in the group saw computer-assisted systems as a vehicle for teaching their theoretical perspective and having clients internalize it.

• Katz and his team developed the System for Interactive Guidance Information (SIGI) at Educational Testing Service.

• Super and his team developed the Education and Career Exploration System (ECES) as consultants to IBM. • Tiedeman and his team developed the Information System for Vocational Decisions (ISVD) at Harvard University.

• Impelleteri and his team developed the Computer Occupational Information System (COIS) at Pennsylvania State University.

• Harris and her team developed the Computerized Vocational Information System (CVIS) at Willowbrook High School (IL).

• The early systems were quite comprehensive in career planning content and had the following characteristics: They • offered a prescribed sequence of activities, though the user could abort the sequence.

• were based on the career development theory of their time.

• stored a user record so that data could be kept at each session and reviewed at later sessions.

• taught a career decision-making process overtly or covertly.

• were supported by external sources of funding.

• operated on large mainframe computers and pressed the limits of the available technology.

• In the 1970’s a different breed of computer–assisted system emerged, called a career information system.

• Bruce McKinlay of the University of Oregon was a leading developer.

• These systems focused on databases (occupations, schools, etc.) and search strategies through them and did not include a user record, online assessment, or instruction on the decision-making process.

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•

•

Databases were customized for specific states, including employment outlook and salary data by state and region within state.

• These systems typically did not store a user record.

• A federal organization called the National Occupational Information Coordinating Committee (NOICC) took an active part in encouraging and funding the development of customized state systems.

Representing a synthesis of these earlier efforts, systems of the 21st century include the following: • Almost all are Web-based rather than stand-alone on individual computers.

• Dynamic graphics, audio, and streaming video are used to enhance the message.

• Multiple linkages to outside websites are embedded in the system allowing the user to be shepherded in and out of the primary system they are using.

• The option of maintaining an e-portfolio, or on-line electronic portfolio, over the course of their career lifespan. These tools often include the option of storing documents such as resume, cover letters, and essays for dissemination to employers.

• Individual systems are increasingly being designed for multiple audiences (K-12, postsecondary, adult, etc.).

• Two trends, 1) for individual states to provide no-fee websites for their citizens, and 2) for sites and assessments to be offered in both English and Spanish, continue.

Computer Capabilities • Computers have unique capabilities that can be used effectively to assist individuals with career planning, including • administering and interpreting tests and inventories.

• searching large databases by multiple characteristics.

• linking (crosswalking) files.

• providing a standard set of services with customization.

• monitoring the progress of the user.

• delivering instruction.

• making linkages between resources within the program and those on the Internet.

• Computer programs alone cannot effectively serve the career planning needs of students/clients because • they may have needs that are masked under the rubric of career concerns.

• some individuals do not profit from services provided by computer because of their learning or personality style.

• research indicates that the most effective career intervention is a combination of computer and counselor.

• Counselor responsibilities and capabilities, used in conjunction with computer interventions, include • determining the readiness of the client to receive information from a computer and use it effectively.

• expanding on the interpretation of tests and inventories administered and interpreted by the computer.

• assisting the client to identify personal values that will assist in reducing the long list 73

• •

of options provided by the computer. providing motivation and emotional support for continued work and exploration. suggesting creative alternatives beyond the computer’s “knowledge.”

The Internet as the Deliverer of Computer-Assisted Systems • Most computer-assisted career guidance systems now have an Internet-delivered version.

Internet delivery provides the following advantages: • Users can access the system from home, library, and many other places, 24/7.

• The system serves an incredibly large audience.

• E-portfolios can be developed and maintained on a website.

• Databases can be updated more frequently.

• Linkages to other websites can be included seamlessly.

• Counselor support can be provided online during or following use.

• Internet delivery has the following disadvantages: • Access and operation can be slow.

• Bandwidth and other technical concerns make use of audio, video, and complex graphics unfeasible.

• The Internet is not a secure environment.

Types of Computer-Assisted Systems • Assessment systems – have the sole purpose of administering and interpreting one or more tests or inventories.

• Career information systems – specialize in databases and searches.

• Career planning systems – may serve both of the above functions, also offer a complete career planning process, and typically store a user record.

Choosing a Computer-Assisted Career Guidance System • When comparing systems and making a selection, use the following criteria: • theoretical base of the system, if any • capability to take assessment inventories online • quality and comprehensiveness of databases • ease of searches • comprehensiveness of system content • user-friendliness and appeal • multimedia capabilities • quality and service of vendor The Counselor and the Computer • Counselor competencies include • detailed knowledge of the content of the computer-assisted system or websites.

• capability to diagnose a client’s needs to determine if technology-based intervention is appropriate.

• capability to motivate the client to invest the time.

• capability to assist the client to process the data into meaningful information.

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•

• capability to move the client beyond information to an action plan.

Counselor-computer models include • one-to-one counseling plus use of technology.

• group guidance or classroom plus technology.

• group counseling plus technology.

• Cybercounseling.

Issues Related to Cybercounseling • Environment – lack of face-to-face contact and warm counseling environment • Presenting problems – need to discern which problems can be dealt with in this mode • Clients – need to discern which clients can profit from service in this mode • Security – concerns related to the fact that the Internet is an insecure environment • Training – need to identify competencies crucial to cybercounselors and develop appropriate pre- and inservice training • Supportive services – need to discern when clients need additional supportive services and know how to provide them Activities 1. Divide the class into four teams. Teams will be asked to prepare a presentation to an appropriate panel for the class’s counseling specialty (school board, board of trustees, community government). Teams will be divided into the following groups: cybercounseling (pro and con) and e-portfolio (pro and con). Highlight the fact that the panel they are presenting to is making difficult budgetary decisions therefore their arguments must address both client service and cost/benefit ratio. OPTION – asking outside guests (community members, faculty, or doctoral students) to play the part of the panel adds an element of importance to the occasion.

2. Ask each student to create an e-portfolio. Provide a grading rubric so that they have specific criteria to meet. Include creativity as an element of the rubric.

3. Demonstrate and critique one predominant career information or guidance system in class.

Use the NCDA document Software Review Guidelines to inform the critique.

Discussion 1. What groups or populations might experience technology as a barrier to accessing career planning resources? How might technology be a barrier? What are potential solutions?

2. Can you see yourself cybercounseling? Why or why not?

3. Of the four models of computer and counselor services, which do you prefer? For what populations? Which is most cost-effective?

4. Where might technology take career planning/counseling in the future? Current technologies that might become career planning tools? (Ipod, cell phone, others?)

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Test Bank – Chapter 7 Essay Questions 1. Describe five ethical concerns related to cybercounseling.

2. How would you describe computer-assisted career guidance systems of the 21st century compared to earlier versions?

3. Describe the advantages of creating an e-portfolio for one specific client population.

4. Describe three competencies that counselors who use technology-based systems must develop.

5. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of Internet based career planning tools.

Multiple Choice 1. The first computer-assisted career guidance systems were developed A. in the 50’s.

B. in the 60’s.

C. in the 70’s.

D. after the widespread use of the Internet.

2. The early computer-assisted systems had all of the following except A. a theoretical base.

B. a user record.

C. full-motion video.

D. a decision-making process.

3. DISCOVER is a good example of a A. career information system.

B. career planning system.

C. virtual career center.

D. system supported by cybercounseling.

4. Career information systems that include state-specific data were encouraged by A. the U.S. Department of Education.

B. NOICC. C. the United States Department of Labor.

D. the University of Oregon.

5. All of the following are strong assets of a computer-based system except the capability to A. provide instruction.

B. identify whether the user can profit from its use.

C. administer and interpret inventories and tests.

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D. keep a record of use.

6. Research about the use of computer-based systems indicates that A. there is no need for counselor assistance in addition to computer use.

B. the use of computer-based systems is actually harmful to clients.

C. the best gains are made by a client when technology and counselor support are combined.

D. they are much more effective with males than with females.

7. One of the primary ethical issues with cybercounseling is A. security of communication.

B. its cost.

C. that it can take place 24/7.

D. lack of eye contact.

8. The primary player(s) in setting ethical guidelines for cybercounseling is/are the A. American Counseling Association.

B. National Career Development Association.

C. National Board for Certified Counselors.

D. the three organizations above.

9. Which of the following describes a career planning tool, created by the client that they develop and maintain over time?

A. e-portfolio.

B. cybercounseling.

C. assessment system.

D. CACGS. 10. The term crosswalking refers to A. updating databases.

B. linking related databases.

C. accessing databases.

D. exporting databases.

11. All of the following are characteristics of career information systems except that they typically A. offer multiple, extensive databases.

B. provide labor market information.

C. store a user record.

D. are not theory-based.

12. One way in which high touch can be added to high tech while serving multiple students is A. group counseling.

B. one-to-one counseling.

C. assignment of websites.

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D. classroom instruction.

13. Disadvantages to use of the Internet to provide career planning assistance include all of the following except that A. access and operation can be slow.

B. bandwidth and other technical concerns diminish the effectiveness of audio and video C. databases can be updated more frequently.

D. the Internet is not a secure environment.

14. All of the following are characteristics of career planning systems except that they typically include A. online assessment or entry of scores from offline assessment.

B. monitoring of the user’s progress through the system.

C. a strong theory base.

D. no searchable databases.

15. When selecting a computer-based system, counselors and their administrators should consider the A. theoretical base, if any, of the system.

B. quality and comprehensiveness of the databases.

C. presence of online inventories.

D. all of the above.

CORRECT ANSWERS 1. B 2. C 3. B 4. B 5. B

6. C 7. A 8. D 9. A 10. B

11. D 12. A 13. C 14. D 15. D

True-False 1. Research indicates that students profit most from computer-assisted career guidance systems when their use is supported by a counselor.

2. Donald Super was the developer of an early computer-assisted career guidance system.

3. The practice of cybercounseling is so new that there are no guidelines or ethical standards yet.

4. It is likely that the use of technology to support or deliver career counseling will decline in the future.

5. None of the state career information delivery systems (CIDS) have been placed on the Internet yet.

CORRECT ANSWERS: 1. T 2. T

5. F 78

3. F 4. F Text for PowerPoint Presentation (available on website) Definition of Computer-Assisted Career Guidance System

• A group of activities, delivered by computer, designed to assist with one or more steps of the career planning process Early Systems - 1960s • Super (with IBM) - Education and Career Exploration System (ECES) • Tiedeman (Harvard) - Information System for Vocational Decisions (ISVD) • Katz (ETS) - System for Interactive Guidance Information (SIGI) Early Systems - 1960s • Impelleteri (Penn State) - Computer Occupational Information System (COIS) • Harris (Willowbrook High School) - Computerized Vocational Information System (CVIS) Characteristics of Early Systems • Offered a prescribed sequence of activities • Based on career development theory • Stored an ongoing user record • Taught a decision-making process • Supported by external funding • Operated on large mainframe computers Career Information Systems - 1970s • McKinlay (Univ. of Oregon) developed the Career Information System (CIS).

• System focused on quality databases and search strategies.

• Occupational and educational information was customized by state.

• A federal agency,NOICC, encouraged development through funding.

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Best Computer Capabilities • Administering and interpreting assessment • Searching large databases • Linking (crosswalking) files • Providing standard service to all users • Monitoring the progress of the user • Delivering instruction • Linking internal resources to others on web Reasons for Combining Computer and Counselor • Students/clients mask other problems under the rubric of career concerns.

• Some individuals do not profit from use of technology because of learning or personality style.

• Research indicates that the most effective intervention is a combination of technology and counselor support.

Counselor Responsibilities • Determine readiness of the client to use a computer system effectively • Expand on the interpretation of assessment • Assist individuals to identify values that guide decision making • Provide motivation and emotional support • Suggest creative alternatives Advantages of Internet Delivery of Career Information and Interventions • Provides access from many places, 24/7.

• Can serve very large and dispersed audience.

• Databases can be updated frequently from one central source.

• Linkages to other websites can be incorporated.

• Counselor support can be provided online.

Disadvantages of Internet Career Planning Services • Access and operation may be slow.

• Use of audio and video may not be feasible because of bandwidth and other technical concerns.

• The Internet is not a secure environment.

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Types of Computer-Assisted Systems • Assessment - sole purpose of administering and interpreting assessment instrument(s) • Career information system - includes several databases and search strategies through them • Career planning system - in addition to above, provides assessment and a career planning process and stores a user record Selection of a Computer-Assisted Career Guidance System • Theoretical base, if any • Use of assessment (online or entering scores) • Quality and comprehensiveness of databases • Ease of searches • Comprehensiveness of system content

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Selection of a Computer-Based Career Guidance System, continued • User friendliness and appeal • Multimedia capabilities • Linkage to websites • Quality and service of vendor Counselor Competencies Needed • Detailed knowledge of the system or site • Capability to diagnose the user’s needs and capability to profit from use of technology • Capability to motivate user to invest time • Capability to assist user to turn data into information • Capability to move user beyond information to an action plan Counselor-Computer Models • One-to-one counseling + computer-based system or website(s) • Group guidance + computer-based system or website(s) • Group counseling + computer-based system or website(s) • Cybercounseling + use of assigned websites Issues Related to Cybercounseling • Environment - lack of face-to-face contact • Problems - need to discern which can be dealt with in this mode • Clients - need to discern who can profit from service in this mode Issues Related to Cybercounseling, continued • Security - need to protect confidentiality • Counselor Training - need to identify competencies and train for them • Supportive services - need to discern when to refer

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Chapter 8 Career Counseling Strategies and Techniques for the 21st Century This chapter introduces basic information about conducting individual and group career counseling, emphasizing strategies appropriate for the 21st century. It includes topics such as providing counseling-based career assistance, providing support in career counseling, and attending to life structure issues. It also introduces a framework for conducting career counseling. Content covered in the chapter includes: • •

Career counselors must expand the limited view of career counseling that has dominated the field.

Acknowledging the substantial overlap between personal and career counseling is a good starting place for expanding the limited view of career counseling.

Career Counseling in the 21st Century • Career counseling is both a counseling specialty and a core element of the general practice of counseling.

• Most current definitions of career counseling highlight the fact that career counselors are those who have developed expertise in providing career development interventions.

• Career counselors need to provide counseling-based career assistance, offer support in career counseling (emotional, informational, and appraisal support), and attend to life structure issues in the career counseling process.

• Amundson and associates suggest the P.L.E.A.S.E. framework for expressing mattering to career clients.

A Framework for Career Counseling • Isaacson (1985) suggests that over the course of career counseling six issues are addressed: helping clients to get started, deal with change, engage in self-assessment, learn about the world of work, narrow or expand choices, and make plans.

• Gysbers, Heppner, and Johnston (1998) view the career counseling process as progressing through the following phases: opening, gathering information, working, and final (i.e., termination).

• Niles and Harris-Bowlsbey suggest that career counseling commonly involves a beginning or initial phase, a middle or working phase, and an ending or termination phase.

• Brown and Brooks (1991) suggest four possible reasons why premature closure occurs in career counseling: clients believe that they have achieved their goals, the experience does not meet the clients’ expectations, clients fear what may be uncovered, and clients lack commitment to career counseling.

Career Counseling Groups • Group career counseling interventions offer an approach that can be used in addition to, or instead of, individual career counseling, depending on the client and the client’s concern.

• Career counseling groups can be either process-oriented or structured.

• The skills required for providing group career counseling are the same as those required to 83

• • •

provide any group counseling experience.

Pyle (2000) identifies four stages of group career counseling: opening, investigation, working, and decision/operational.

There is mixed research evidence related to the effectiveness of career counseling groups.

Hansen and Cramer (1971) identify six criteria that contribute to successful group experiences.

Activities 1. Distribute a career counseling case to students, divide them into triads, and assign one student the role of counselor, another the role of client, and the third student the role of observer. Conduct a career counseling “session” and ask the observer and client to provide feedback to the counselor. Rotate roles so that each student has the opportunity to be a counselor, client, and observer. OPTION – you may assign a theoretical orientation for each student to practice.

2. Divide the class into small groups, and have each group member share any experience he or she feels comfortable sharing in the context of being a career counseling client. Have a recorder note the comments made without assigning them to a particular person.

Discuss in the large group any themes that emerge regarding the career counseling experience.

3. Break the class in to small groups, and assign each group the task of developing their own career counseling theory. Have each group report their theory to the large group. Then, as a class, discuss what aspects of theory class members think are necessary for a “good” career theory.

Discussion 1. Discuss the stereotypical assumptions people have pertaining to what career counseling “looks like.” Discuss whether this stereotype is accurate.

2. Discuss ways in which students think that career counseling strategies need to be revised to be more appropriate for today’s context.

3. Discuss the importance of groups in delivering career interventions. When are groups appropriate, and when are they not?

4. Discuss why many students in counseling programs think that career counseling is not interesting.

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Test Bank – Chapter 8 Essay Questions 1. What are some things a career counselor can do to increase the likelihood of positive outcomes for their clients?

2. Discuss three causes of client resistance and three guidelines you might follow to cope with these causes.

3. Amundson and his colleagues suggest the acronym PLEASE as an aid for expressing mattering to client. Please explain each aspect of this acronym.

4. Differentiate between the types of questions one would approach with subjective assessment versus objective assessment strategies.

5. Describe the three phases of career counseling outlined in the text.

Multiple Choice 1. Historically, the counseling profession developed or emerged from all of the following except A. vocational/career guidance.

B. psychological measurement.

C. personality development.

D. Freudian psychoanalysis.

2. The practice of career counseling has a close theoretical and practical relationship with A. psychotherapy.

B. hypnosis.

C. psychoanalysis.

D. psychosomatic.

3. Crites contends that career counseling is described by all of the following except that it A. is more effective than psychotherapy.

B. should follow psychotherapy.

C. can be therapeutic.

D. is less difficult than psychotherapy.

4. Students of counseling and mental health practitioners often lack enthusiasm for the practice of career counseling because they view it as a process that A. is very directive and limited to test administration and interpretation.

B. has outlived its professional usefulness.

C. is limited to providing people with job hunting information only.

D. is too broad in scope and too difficult to master.

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5. According to Brown and Brooks, if a client does not have cognitive clarity, the career counselor should A. suggest postponing interest assessment and focus directly on the client’s aptitudes.

B. administer an interest inventory.

C. suggest postponing the client’s career concerns until cognitive clarity is attained.

D. treat this client just like every other client.

6. Static definitions of career development and career counseling interventions are A. adequate because they treat the process as a one-time event.

B. inadequate because they treat substance, methods, and context as fairly constant.

C. inadequate because they assume very little change in how one defines work.

D. inadequate because they do not assume that substance, methods, and context as well as definitions for work are rapidly changing.

7. The basic skills career counselors need are A. resume writing and job interviewing.

B. the same as for any other counselor.

C. the same as those needed by economists.

D. psychoanalytic in nature.

8. Providing caring, trust, and empathy to clients is an example of the kind of support known as A. informational.

B. appraisal.

C. Emotional.

D. Psychoanalytic.

9. A taxonomy for classifying various forms of client resistance has been developed by A. Brammer.

B. Herr & Niles.

C. Savickas.

D. Otani.

10. General phases of career counseling include all of the following except A. beginning or initial.

B. middle or working.

C. placement.

D. ending or termination.

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11. Regardless of the theoretical perspectives used by career counselors, broad topics addressed in the first phase include all of the following except the client’s A. view of self and the world.

B. potential employers.

C. family.

D. significant work and life experiences.

12. Goals in career counseling have all of the following attributes except A. specific.

B. observable.

C. time specific.

D. global.

13. The acronym PLEASE has been proposed as a guide to A. provide informational support.

B. meet the client’s expectations.

C. show clients that their views matter.

D. setting career goals.

14. A career style assessment model used as a strategy to help clients identify subjective themes that guide their career development has been developed by A. Carlsen.

B. Super.

C. Neimeyer.

D. Savickas.

15. Two broad categories used to describe types of group career counseling are A. structured and process oriented.

B. unstructured and structured.

C. process oriented and psychoeducational.

D. process oriented dyads and triads.

CORRECT ANSWERS: 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

D A D A C

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

D B C D C

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

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B D C D A

Text for PowerPoint Presentation (available on the website) Career Development Interventions • Career development interventions provide the historical foundation for the counseling profession (Dorn).

• The counseling field emerged from three distinct movements (Herr & Cramer): – vocational/career guidance – psychological measurement – personality development Career Interventions, continued • We know relatively little about the career counseling process (Niles & Anderson).

• Career counselors rarely study how career counseling actually works.

What Do We Know?

• There is a positive relationship between counselor confidence in establishing therapeutic relationship and client confidence in coping with career transitions.

• Career counseling clients devote considerable attention to non-career concerns in sessions.

What We Know • Career counselors tend to give information and set limits more frequently during career counseling than during general counseling.

• Career counseling participants identify aspects of self-exploration, support, and educating as the most important and helpful career counseling interventions.

What We Know • There seems to be a close relationship between the processes of psychotherapy and career counseling.

• Developing an effective working alliance is critical to positive outcomes in career counseling.

Expanding the Limited View of Career Counseling • Students often conclude that career counseling is a sequence of interventions that resembles the following: – Step 1: Client presents for career counseling.

– Step 2: Counselor gathers client information and administers a test battery.

– Step 3: Counselor interprets tests and identifies a few appropriate occupational options for the client.

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Characteristics of This Approach • Counselor is in charge of the process.

• Counselor is directive and authoritative.

• Clients are passive recipients of a predetermined test battery.

• Career counseling becomes something that is done to clients rather than something the counselor and client participate in collaboratively.

Career Counseling and Mental Health Counseling (Niles & Pate) • Given the relationship between work and mental health, it is perplexing that there has been an artificial distinction between career counseling and mental health counseling.

• Career counseling and personal counseling are often referred to as if they were completely separate entities.

• In fact, there are few things more personal than a career choice.

Career Counseling in the 21st Century (CACREP) • Career counseling is both a counseling specialty and • a core element of the general practice of counseling.

Crites’ View • The need for career counseling is greater than the need for psychotherapy.

• Career counseling – can be therapeutic.

– should follow psychotherapy.

– is more effective than psychotherapy.

– is more difficult than psychotherapy.

Definition of Career Counseling (Brown and Brooks) • Career counseling is an interpersonal process designed to assist individuals with career development problems.

Designing Career Counseling Strategies for the 21st Century • Career counselors must respond to – global unemployment – corporate downsizing – jobless economy – global competition of small companies via information highway – workerless factories

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Designing Career Counseling Strategies for the 21st Century, continued – redefinition of social contract between employers and employees – increase in the number of companies offering daycare and parental leave – increase in the number of families with dual incomes – increase in the number of people working from home Requirements of Today’s Workplace • Using computer technology • Engaging in lifelong learning • Interacting effectively with diverse co-workers • Tolerating ambiguity in job security • Being vigilant about maintaining a high level of self and occupational awareness to maintain marketability.

Characteristics of Career Development Interventions that Foster Self-Affirmation • Provide counseling-based career assistance • Provide support to their clients • Attend to their clients’ life structure issues • Empower clients to clarify their self-concepts and construct their own lives • Exhibit understanding that every counseling relationship is cross-cultural Classifying Forms of Client Resistance • Response quantity resistance • Response content resistance • Response style resistance • Logistic management resistance Types of Support • Emotional support • Informational support • Assessment support

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Skills for Working with Resistant Clients • Using presuppositions • Using embedded questions and directives • Correcting transformational errors • Labeling and reframing • Recognizing and dealing with resistance • Identifying irrational beliefs • Identifying distorted thinking • Using reflective judgment stages • Focusing on excuses Savickas’ Career Style Assessment • Identify life themes (early experiences, role models, books, movies, etc.).

• Turn life themes into career goals.

Types of Clients Who Benefit from Subjective Interventions • Indecisive clients • “Difficult cases” or clients who have received but not profited from counseling • Mid-career changers • Culturally diverse clients Strengths of Subjective Assessment • Help clients understand themselves at a deep level • Help clients consider the relevance of their life experiences to their career development • Help clients attach a sense of purpose to their activities • Are inexpensive to use • Actively engage clients in the counseling process • Results are clearly connected to client responses Strengths of Objective Assessment • Allow client to make comparisons with others • Are outcome-oriented • Do not require as much counselor time as subjective assessments • Provide a useful starting point for subsequence consideration of career options

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A Framework for Career Counseling • Getting started • Helping clients deal with change • Helping clients engage in self-assessment activities • Helping clients learn more about the world of work • Helping clients expand or narrow choices • Helping clients make plans Phases of the Career Counseling Process (Gysbers, Heppner, & Johnston) • Opening phase • Phase of information-gathering • Working phase • Final phase Phases of the Career Counseling Process (Niles & Harris-Bowlsbey) • Beginning or Initial Phase – establish effective relationship – begin to gather information about the client – define preliminary goals for counseling • Middle or Working Phase – explore concerns and goals in depth – develop and implement a specific plan of action Phases of the Career Counseling Process (Niles & Harris-Bowlsbey), continued • Ending or Termination Phase – Connect the work done in the beginning and middle phases by assessing client’s current status – Relate current status to client’s goals for counseling Premature Closure in Career Counseling (Brown & Brooks) • Clients believe they have achieved their goal.

• The career counseling experience does not meet the client’s expectations.

• Clients fear what might be uncovered in career counseling.

Clients lack commitment to counseling

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Questions to Ask About Termination • Did I – review the content of what happened in counseling?

– review the process of what happened in counseling?

– reemphasize the client’s strengths that were evident in counseling?

– evaluate what went well and what went poorly?

Questions to Ask About Termination, continued • Did I – explore things unsaid in counseling?

– discuss feelings related to the ending of the counseling relationship?

– provide clear and direct structure for the client’s next steps?

Career Counseling Groups • Group counseling offers a mode of service delivery that can be used instead of, or in addition to, individual counseling.

• Hansen and Cramer describe group counseling as an intervention for 5-15 members, with 5-8 members viewed as optimal.

Career Counseling Groups, continued • Structured career counseling groups address a specific issue that is a common concern.

• Structured career counseling groups typically meet for 3-7 sessions.

• Less structured career counseling groups focus on the intrapersonal and interpersonal concerns that clients have about career development.

Career Counseling Groups, continued • Less structured career counseling groups tend to be more affective-oriented than structured groups.

• Less structured groups meet over a longer period of time than structured groups.

Stages in Group Career Counseling (Pyle) • Opening stage • Investigation stage • Working stage • Decision/Operational stage

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Why Use Career Groups? (Kivlighan) • Members learn new information about themselves and others.

• Members receive social and emotional support from other group members.

• Members learn from peers who are in similar situations.

• Members can share resources and ideas.

Criteria for Successful Groups • Members – are in open communication with each other.

– share a common goal.

– set norms that direct and guide their activities.

– develop a set of roles to play within the group.

– develop a network of interpersonal attraction.

– work toward satisfaction of individual needs.

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Chapter 9 Designing, Implementing, and Evaluating Career Development Programs and Services The ninth chapter focuses on the process of designing career intervention programs and then delivering them to the students or clients for whom they are developed. The step-by-step process of design, development, delivery, and evaluation is described, and five sample programs are presented as examples. The evaluation of programs is given special consideration. Content covered in the chapter includes: •

•

It is important for counselors to engage in program design because • It is impossible for counselors in most settings to provide all needed career services costeffectively to their clients on a one-on-one basis.

• Program planning ensures that services are carefully thought out before delivery.

Counselors play multiple roles related to career development programs and services: • advocacy • coordination • participation • design and development

Steps for Designing and Implementing a Career Development Program • The planning process can be divided into ten steps. Specific examples of each step are provided for multiple counseling environments: • Step 1: Define the target population and its characteristics.

• Step 2: Determine the needs of the target population.

• Step 3: Write measurable objectives.

• Step 4: Determine how to deliver the services.

• Step 5: Determine the content of the services.

• Step 6: Determine the resources needed and the cost of delivering the services.

• Step 7: Plan and begin promotion of the services.

• Step 8: Deliver the services.

• Step 9: Evaluate the services (whether measurable objectives were achieved).

• Step 10: Revise the services for next delivery.

Planning Evaluation • In planning evaluation it is necessary to follow several standard steps that will provide the structure for the implementation of the evaluation plan: • Step 1: Determine whether evaluation is formative, summative, or both.

• Step 2: Determine what specific knowledge, skills, attitudes, or behaviors are to be evaluated.

• Step 3: Determine what the source(s) of the evaluation data will be.

• Step 4: Determine how the data will be collected.

• Step 5: Determine how the data will be analyzed.

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• •

•

•

•

Stakeholders are those receiving the services and who cares about them, profits from them, needs to be informed, and provides the approval and funding for their continuation.

Two categories or types of data collected for program evaluation are quantitative and qualitative.

• Qualitative - measures the perceived value of the services and the extent to which measurable objectives have been reached - in ways other than numbers • Quantitative - collects and reports numbers Evaluation data should be benchmarked, or compared, against some standard of expectation for program outcomes such as: • Goals of individual clients (one-to-one counseling) • Measurable objectives • National Career Development Guidelines • State or local guidelines • Theory The are several common methods of collecting data for evaluation: • Questionnaire or interview • Administration of more formal instruments • Follow-up study Roadblocks to evaluation include: • Staff has fear of negative results and possible consequences.

• Guidance services are often non-systematic, not lending themselves to evaluation.

• Some counselors believe that their work cannot be quantified and evaluated.

• Time is always insufficient, so evaluation is given low priority.

Activities 1. Divide the class into groups and ask each to develop a ten-fifteen question career development needs assessment survey for their classmates. Once completed, ask each group to administer the survey to one of the other groups (so that each group is doing one designed by another). Upon completion of their surveys, each group should evaluate their results and write two career development objectives based on the needs assessment.

As a class, discuss the process and any career development themes that arise.

2. Keeping the same groups as activity 1, ask each group to write a 1-2 page memo to the administration of their agency outlining steps 4-7 of the planning process outline in the chapter. The purpose of this memo can be framed as a precursor to a meeting where they will request funds for the program.

3. Keeping the same groups as activity 1 and 2, ask each group to develop an evaluation plan for their program. The plan should include the five steps outlined in the chapter for planning evaluations.

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Discussion 1. What are the potential pitfalls of not designing, implementing, and evaluating programs effectively?

2. Think of an event that you have attended that was implemented effectively. What were the characteristics of its planning that made it so? Now think of an event that you attended that was not effective. What were the characteristics of its planning that made it so?

3. Why is program planning for group career interventions so important?

4. What would you say to a busy counselor to convince them of the importance of program planning?

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Test Bank – Chapter 9 Essay Questions 1. Identify one career development need for your population of choice. Write three measurable objectives for meeting this need.

2. Define both quantitative and qualitative data. Include how you would use each in evaluating a career intervention and give one example of each.

3. Suppose that the career planning services provided in your community college had three objectives as follows: Students will be able to • define the primary area (out of six possible ones) of their interests.

• select a major in college related to that field of interest.

• identify jobs that can be classified into their primary area of interest.

In what ways could you, as director of the career planning program, evaluate whether these objectives have been met this year?

4. List and describe the 5 steps of the program evaluation process.

5. Describe two roadblocks to program evaluation and one way to overcome each.

Multiple Choice 1. In the role of advocacy, counselors A. design services.

B. deliver services.

C. evaluate services.

D. convince stakeholders of the importance of services.

2. A target population is a group A. used as a focus group.

B. designated to receive services.

C. designated not to receive services.

D. that will serve as an advisory board.

3. Purposes for writing measurable objectives include A. defining the benchmarks for evaluation.

B. requiring the program designer to specify desired outcomes.

C. determining the content of the program.

D. all of the above.

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4. One of the most feasible ways to deliver career planning services at the high school level is A. a virtual website with cybercounseling.

B. one-to-one counseling.

C. group guidance.

D. a one-semester credit course.

5. Evaluation of career planning services must be closely tied to A. budget B. methods of delivery.

C. measurable objectives.

D. target population.

6. Where it is problematic in a school setting to get dedicated time to deliver career planning services, perhaps the best single approach is to A. infuse them into existing curriculum.

B. give students take-home self-help materials.

C. include after-school meetings with students.

D. schedule evening meetings with students and parents.

7. Using a pre-post assessment for evaluation implies that you are expecting A. people to be more honest when they complete it the second time.

B. some change in a positive direction as a result of your services.

C. the results of the first assessment to be inaccurate.

D. some change in a negative direction as a result of your services.

8. Of the following, the most easily measured objective is A. …will be able to understand how occupations are organized.

B. …will be able to explain how occupations are organized.

C. …given the titles of 18 occupations, will be able to sort them correctly into six clusters D. …will be able to apply organizational skills to sorting occupational titles.

9. After completion of a first delivery of some career planning service, it is expected that A. there would be no need for revision of any aspect.

B. objectives, content, and/or methods of delivery might be revised.

C. no evaluation would be necessary.

D. no promotion efforts would be needed for the next delivery.

10. Measurable objectives are used to A. indicate how the services should be delivered.

B. indicate how the services should be promoted.

C. determine the resources needed.

D. clearly define the desired outcomes.

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11. If the purpose of evaluation is to improve career planning services, you would choose the kind of evaluation known as A. formative.

B. summative.

C. formal.

D. informal.

12. Stakeholders are persons who A. provide career planning services.

B. are affected in any way by services or programs.

C. are always positive about your services or programs.

D. collaborate in the delivery of career planning services.

13. For a curriculum offered to students for career guidance purposes, evaluation would be guided by A. measurable objectives developed up front.

B. how students felt about the experience.

C. student success on quizzes.

D. long-term follow up of student decisions.

14. The first step in planning an evaluation is to A. organize data in ways that will answer specific evaluative questions.

B. identify the best ways to measure outcomes.

C. determine the indicators of success in meeting objectives.

D. determine specific measurable objectives of the services.

15. If some planners of the evaluation are pleased with results but others are not, it is probable that A. the evaluation design is flawed.

B. different stakeholders have different desired outcomes.

C. the data have been incorrectly reported.

D. objectives were not measured systematically.

CORRECT ANSWERS: 1. D 2. B 3. D 4. C 5. C

6. A 7. B 8. C 9. B 10. D

11. A 12. B 13. A 14. D 15. B

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True-False 1.

Measurable objectives should begin with words similar to “At the end of this curriculum, students will be able to…”

2.

If there are three measurable objectives, there should always be three different evaluation instruments to measure their accomplishment.

3.

One reason that evaluation is important is to sustain administrative support for your program.

4.

One of the earliest steps in the program planning process is to design promotional activities.

5.

The National Career Development Guidelines can serve as a good skeleton for program development.

6.

Each stakeholder related to career services is likely to want different kinds of data from evaluation.

7.

When developing methods to collect data for use in evaluation, it is important to determine the indicators or behaviors that program participants should exhibit if desired outcomes have been reached.

8.

Qualitative data are not useful at all in evaluating career services.

9.

Often it is important to combine collection of data that could be used for both summative and formative evaluation.

10.

It is not possible to evaluate a program or service without having standards by which to compare it.

CORRECT ANSWERS: 1. T 2. F 3. T 4. F 5. T 6. T 7. T 8. F 9. T 10. T 101

Text for PowerPoint Presentation (available on the website) Reasons for Program Planning • Not possible to provide career planning services to all students on one-to-one basis - other approaches are needed.

• Using a systematic development process improves the quality.

Counselor Roles in Program Planning • Advocacy - convincing other of the importance of career planning services • Coordination - working closely with other stakeholders -- department heads, teachers, employers, etc.

• Participation - helping to deliver services • Design and development - designing services by following the program planning process Step 1: Define the target population.

• Determine whom your program will serve.

• Identify their characteristics -- such as gender, racial-ethnic mix, socioeconomic class, reading level.

Step 2: Determine the needs of the target population.

• Look at data that may already exist.

• Use a questionnaire or focus groups.

• Use knowledgeable consultants who can identify typical developmental needs.

• Review the needs of the environment.

Step 3: Write measurable objectives.

• An objective is a clear statement of a desired outcome, often including how to determine whether the outcome is achieved.

• Writing objectives – forces counselors to specify what they want to accomplish.

– lays the basis for content and evaluation.

Format for Writing Objectives • By the end of this (curriculum, workshop, unit), participants will be able to –( ).

–( ).

–( ).

–( ).

– Remember that each of these endings must be measurable.

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Step 4: Determine how to deliver the services.

• Offer special career planning courses or units within existing curriculum • Offer workshops • Use career planning software • Develop or use websites • Provide self-help materials Step 5: Determine the content of the program.

• Content flows from the objectives -- since it is the content that will produce the desired outcomes.

• Break content into units, then determine – time needed – whether curriculum or other resources can be acquired, or need to be developed Step 6: Determine the cost of the program.

• Staff time • Software, if any • Equipment • Materials • Duplication costs • Facilities • Etc. Step 7: Begin to promote the services.

• Consider using an advisory group that can help with promotion.

• Communicate clearly and often to supervisors so that there will be adequate administrative support.

• Promote to those who will receive the services and potentially their parents.

• Consider starting with a pilot test.

Step 8: Deliver the full-blown program.

• This step will be easy if the first seven steps have been completed.

Step 9: Evaluate the program.

• Reasons to evaluate – Did program produce the outcomes stated in the objectives?

– How can the program be improved the next time it is delivered?

– What information should be provided to supervisors and other stakeholders?

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Methods of Evaluation • Questionnaire • Exit interview • Pre-post questionnaire or test • Follow-up study Why Evaluation is Important • Determine if participants are reaching the predetermined objectives • Improve services • Provide accountability • Determine whether outcomes are worth expenditures Types of Evaluation • Formative - purpose is to improve an ongoing program • Summative - purpose is to determine whether to retain a program Steps in Planning Evaluation • Decide whether to do formative, summative, or both • Identify the specified attitudes or behaviors to be evaluated • Identify the sources of the evaluation data • Determine how and when to collect data • Determine how the data will be analyzed Stakeholders • A stakeholder is any person or entity who is affected by a program of services.

• Stakeholders must be considered when planning evaluation.

• Different stakeholders may desire different kinds of feedback (evaluative data).

Types of Data • Qualitative - measures the perceived value of the services and the extent to which measurable objectives have been reached - in ways other than numbers • Quantitative - collects and reports numbers

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Benchmarks for Evaluation • Outcomes must be compared to a desired standard, such as the following: – Goals of individual clients (one-to-one counseling) – Measurable objectives – National Career Development Guidelines – State or local guidelines – Theory Using the Results of Evaluation • To determine if services met the needs of the participants • To improve the services • To provide feedback to stakeholders • To determine if outcomes were worth the expenditures Roadblocks to Evaluation • Staff has fear of negative results and possible consequences.

• Guidance services are often non-systematic, not lending themselves to evaluation.

• Some counselors believe that their work cannot be quantified and evaluated.

• Time is always insufficient, so evaluation is given low priority.

Step 10: Revise the Program • No program is ever perfect at first delivery.

• Be sure to gather information from others involved in the program soon after its completion.

• Make notes about changes you want to make next time.

• Revise the program at next delivery.

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Chapter 10 Career Development Interventions in the Elementary Schools This chapter begins with an overview of career development interventions in the schools.

It suggests strategies for systematic planning in career services delivery, emphasizing the identification of career development tasks for elementary school children. It offers goals for career development interventions at the elementary school level and proposes guidelines for elementary school students and interventions for addressing those guidelines. Content covered in the chapter includes: Overview of Career Development Interventions in the Schools • The National Standards for School Counseling Programs (Campbell & Dahir, 1997) and the American School Counselor Association (ASCA) National Model for School Counseling (ASCA, 2005) identify career development as an essential element in effective school counseling programs (Dimmitt & Carey, 2007).

• The National Career Development Guidelines provides a framework that closely aligns with the goals of No Child Left Behind.

• Many who question the relevance of career development interventions in the schools do not understand how careers evolve developmentally and/or have a political agenda that leads them to argue for resources being expended in different ways (because of their misconception that career interventions are not related to academic success).

Systematic and Coordinated Planning for Career Development Programs in the Schools • Herr and Cramer recommend a five-stage planning model for systematic career planning: develop a program rationale, state program goals and objectives, select program process, develop an evaluation design, and identify program milestones.

• Walz and Benjamin (1984) also provide recommendations for developing systematic career development intervention programs. Among other things, they recommend involving a team of professionals, parents, and community members in planning, using developmentally appropriate interventions, basing programs on student needs, and having an evaluation component to assess whether goals have been achieved.

• Program planners must be sensitive to the political climate in which they operate.

• Take a team approach to program development and implementation.

• Counselors can help other school personnel and parents to understand the career development process and why interventions are relevant K-12.

Career Development in the Elementary Schools • Erickson’s stages of development provide indicators concerning important career development behaviors. For example, during elementary school, children encounter developmental stages related to developing initiative and industry. The successful achievement of these tasks provides a solid foundation for, and is closely linked with, career development.

• Havighurst (1972) notes that during infancy and early childhood (ages 0 to 5), children encounter a series of critical developmental tasks. Havighurst also notes that 104

•

to progress to subsequent stages of development, children must be successful in coping with these tasks.

Career development guidelines for elementary school students have been articulated by the National Occupational Information Coordinating Committee. The guidelines address competencies in the areas of self-knowledge, educational and occupational exploration, and career planning.

Parental Involvement • Herr and Cramer (1996) identify eight ways parents can help their children advance in their career development. These include the following: encouraging children to analyze important self-characteristics, communicating accurate information about various work environments, exposing children to work environments, providing children with the opportunity to make decisions, and discussing the importance of values in work behavior.

• Helping parents become aware of their own attitudes toward work and occupations, exposing children to work opportunities in the home and community, and providing support to children as they engage in career decision-making tasks are all ways to help children cope effectively with the career development process.

Activities 1.

Divide the class into three groups. Assign one group the task of supporting career development interventions in the elementary school, another group the task of arguing against such programs, and the third group to serve as the school board. The first two groups will prepare their argument keeping in mind both monetary and student development factors. The third group will prepare questions and criteria by which they will make their decision. Process the activity as a larger group after the mock meeting.

2.

Break the class into small groups. Assign each group the task of identifying strategies for involving parents/guardians in the career development process of their elementary age children. What information is important for parents to know? What strategies would you use to advocate for involving parents?

3.

Assign students the task of interviewing elementary school children about career development. Develop a list of questions to ask children and then report the responses to the class.

Discussion 1. Are career development programs needed in elementary schools? Why or why not?

2. What influences (outside of school) impact the career development of elementary age children?

3. What strategies do you think are useful for getting more support for career development programs in elementary schools?

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Test Bank – Chapter 10 Essay Questions 1. Consider yourself recently hired as an elementary school counselor. How would you go about instituting a new career development program in your school? What issues might you address?

2. Discuss the importance of systematic planning in developing and implementing a career development program.

3. What are the career development tasks confronting elementary age children?

4. Identify and summarize the three domains outlined in the National Career Development Guidelines.

5. Identify and discuss two environmental constraints that may negatively impact an elementary age student’s career development.

Multiple Choice 1. In order to justify limiting career-related activities in schools, critics have cited A. time spent away from academic disciplines.

B. students’ right to be in charge of their career decisions.

C. neither of these.

D. both of these.

2. The Herr and Cramer five-stage planning model for facilitating the implementation of systematic career development intervention programs includes all of the following except A. developing a program rationale and philosophy.

B. stating program goals and behavioral objectives.

C. selecting program processes.

D. marketing the program.

3. Program planners in schools should be sensitive to the political climate in which they operate because A. funding of programs requires backing and support by school administrators and school boards.

B. school counselors’ jobs are in jeopardy.

C. seeking a raise for underpaid school counselors requires savvy maneuvering.

D. schools must be coaxed along to see the value of guidance counselors.

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4. When it comes to planning and disseminating information about career program delivery, counselors should collaborate with A. both teachers and parents.

B. both teachers and grandparents.

C. both parents and clergy.

D. teachers, parents, community leaders/employers.

5. Careers start to unfold and develop in A. adolescence.

B. adulthood.

C. infancy.

D. pre-school years.

6. According to Havighurst, when children aged 0-5 fail to navigate through developmental tasks, they may experience A. fear, lashing out, and delinquency.

B. unhappiness, disapproval of society, and difficulty with later tasks.

C. bed-wetting.

D. depression and anxiety resulting from their inability to live up to their potential.

7. According to Havighurst, activities involved during middle childhood (ages 6-11) include all of the following except A. develop self-monitoring skills.

B. learn appropriate language/communication practices.

C. seek appropriate guidance for a preliminary career decision.

D. develop academic skills in reading, writing, and mathematics.

8. Gottfredson’s perspective indicates that A. careers that are not deemed gender appropriate are eliminated first.

B. careers that are not socially prestigious are eliminated first.

C. only careers that are not gender appropriate are eliminated.

D. only careers that are not socially prestigious are eliminated.

9. Because elementary school aged children have not yet had the opportunity to explore career options fully, counselors should A. act quickly to present them with a career path.

B. urge them to develop a career path.

C. work toward counteracting environmental factors that pressure students to commit prematurely to occupational options.

D. not focus on the career needs of elementary aged children.

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10. Super, Savickas, and Super (1996) identified all of the following as major career development tasks that children should accomplish except A. become concerned about the future.

B. develop increased personal control over their lives.

C. adhere to gender and work roles fitting the dominant culture.

D. convince themselves to achieve in school and at work.

11. The National Assessment of Educational Progress’s Career and Occupational Development Project evaluated schools on the tasks outlined by Super. The Project found that A. elementary schools are doing a better job than high schools.

B. elementary schools are doing as good a job as high schools.

C. elementary schools have not been doing a very effective job.

D. results are inconclusive.

12. Domains identified by NOICC as appropriate career development competencies for elementary school children include all of the following except A. self-knowledge.

B. skill building.

C. educational and occupational exploration.

D. career planning.

13. Skills like being reliable, getting along with one’s co-workers, being trustworthy, and completing assignments on time are called A. job content.

B. functional.

C. interpersonal.

D. self-management.

14. Educational and occupational activities can be infused within a given curriculum by all of the following means except A. writing about careers in short story assignments.

B. drawing, painting, or photographing workers.

C. finding out about different work around the world for social studies or geography.

D. participating in gym or art class.

15. The greatest influence on the career development of children derives from A. community leaders.

B. parents.

C. peers.

D. grandparents.

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CORRECT ANSWERS 1.

D 2.

D 3.

A 4.

A 5.

D

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

B D A C C

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

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C B D D B

Text for PowerPoint Presentation (available on the website) Overview of Career Development Interventions in Schools • The National Standards for School Counseling Programs (Campbell & Dahir, 1997) identify career development as an essential element in effective school counseling programs.

• Career education programs are the primary method used for providing career development assistance to students.

National Standards for School Counseling Programs (Career Development Domain) • Standard A: Students will acquire the skills to investigate the world of work in relation to knowledge of self and to make informed career decisions.

• Standard B: Students will employ strategies to achieve future career goals with success and satisfaction.

• Standard C: Students will understand the relationship between personal qualities, education, training, and the world of work.

Criticisms of Career Education • Takes time away from core academic subjects • Pressures students to pursue work immediately after high school rather than postsecondary education • Topic not appropriate at elementary and secondary levels • Programs not systematic and coordinated Five-Stage Planning Model • Stage 1: Develop a program rationale and philosophy.

• Stage 2: State program goals and behavioral objectives.

• Stage 3: Select program processes.

• Stage 4: Develop an evaluation design.

• Stage 5: Identify program milestones.

How to Develop a Systematic Career Intervention • Involve knowledgeable professionals, parents, and representatives from the community in all phases of planning.

• Use developmentally appropriate interventions.

• Communicate program goals and objectives clearly to all stakeholders.

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How to Develop a Systematic Career Intervention, continued • Assure that the program is based on student needs.

• Evaluate outcomes to determine the degree to which program goals and objectives were achieved.

• Assure the competence of those involved in program delivery.

Career Development in the Elementary School • Careers unfold and develop throughout the life span.

• For children and adolescents, school and leisure activities are their work.

Career Development Before Elementary School - Erikson • Children move through the first two of Erikson’s eight stages prior to entering elementary school.

• Those who coped successfully with these stages have developed trust and autonomy.

• When students do not develop trust and autonomy, they experience consequences of mistrust, doubt, and shame.

Developmental Tasks of Infancy and Early Childhood - Havighurst • From ages 0-5 children learn to – walk – eat solid food – talk – control elimination of body wastes – identify sex differences and behave with modesty – relate emotionally to family members – prepare to read – identify the difference between right and wrong Career Development During Elementary School (Erikson) • During elementary school years, students need to develop initiative (ages 4-6) and industry (ages 6-12).

• When these tasks are accomplished, they use curiosity to gather information about themselves and the world.

• These behaviors result in personal effectiveness that is rewarded by positive outcomes.

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Middle Childhood Developmental Tasks (Havighurst) • Develop physical skills for participation in games • Build positive attitudes toward oneself • Develop interpersonal skills • Become more tolerant • Learn appropriate gender social roles Middle Childhood Developmental Tasks (Havighurst), continued • Develop academic skills in reading, writing, and mathematics • Achieve a greater sense of independence • Develop attitudes toward groups and institutions Goals of Career Interventions at Elementary School Level (Super & Savickas) • Encourage students to participate in activities related to their interests • Help children – become concerned about the future – increase personal control over their lives – convince themselves to achieve in school and at work – develop competent work habits and attitudes Career Development Guidelines for Elementary School Students • Self-Knowledge – knowledge of the importance of self-concept – skills to interact with others – awareness of the importance of growth and change Career Development Guidelines for Elementary School Students • Educational and Occupational Exploration – awareness of the benefits of educational achievement – awareness of the relationship between work and learning – skills to understand and use career information – awareness of the importance of personal responsibility and good work habits – awareness of how work relates to the needs and functions of society

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Career Development Guidelines for Elementary School Students • Career Planning – understanding how to make decisions – awareness of the interrelationship of life roles – awareness of different occupations and changing male-female roles – awareness of the career planning process Considerations in Planning Career Development Interventions • Become a constant observer of children.

– Notice how they approach tasks.

– Notice the activities they choose.

– Encourage initiative.

– Notice the thematic patterns that emerge.

Considerations in Planning Career Development Interventions, continued • Consider the processing of an activity as important as the activity itself.

– Focus feedback on the specifics of a child’s efforts to develop a sense of industry rather than inferiority.

– Provide opportunities for children to express their beliefs about themselves in relation to various occupations.

Parental Involvement • Parents have substantial influence over the career development of their children.

– They provide greatest amount of direct and indirect exposure to work.

– Their influence is most effective when it is planned, intentional, and goal-oriented.

– They, however, possess minimal knowledge of career development theory and how environmental factors affect development.

Ways in Which Parents Can Assist Children (Herr & Kramer) • Encourage children to analyze self-characteristics (interests, capacities, values) • Communicate work requirements to children.

• Discuss the importance of work values in work behavior.

• Explain the relationship among work, pay, and the economic condition of the family.

Ways in Which Parents Can Assist Children (Herr & Kramer) • Connect children with informational resources (workers, books, films).

• Be careful to avoid stereotyping occupational alternatives and workers.

• Provide children with opportunities for work in the home and community.

• Provide children with opportunities to learn and practice decision-making skills.

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Chapter 11 Career Development Interventions in Middle and High Schools Students in middle and high school are presented with a more sophisticated set of developmental tasks than they experienced in their elementary school years. Havighurst (1972) offers specific tasks that students must cope with successfully in middle and high school to be prepared for their post-secondary experiences. The chapter includes a discussion of career development tasks of the middle and high school years, career development guidelines, and appropriate interventions. Content covered in the chapter includes: Middle/ Junior High School • Data from the National Assessment of Education Progress indicate that adolescents experience mixed success in coping with the career development tasks they confront in middle and high schools.

• This variability points to the importance of being clear about the societal expectations placed upon students in the middle and high school years.

• Adolescents must be able to achieve new and more sophisticated peer relationships, achieve emotional independence from parents, set vocational goals, prepare for life after high school, develop skills in civic competence, and set realistic goals and make plans for achieving these goals.

• The National Career Development Guidelines address competencies in the areas of enhancing self-understanding, engaging effectively in educational and occupational exploration, and career planning that are necessary for middle and high school students to cope effectively with the career development tasks confronting them.

• Herr, Cramer, and Niles (2004) offer four career planning considerations for middle middle/junior high school students.

• The U. S. Office of Education clusters occupations according to whether they involve producing goods or providing services. These two broad categories are then divided into 15 occupational clusters. Within each cluster there is a hierarchy of occupations ranging from professional to unskilled.

• Clustering systems can be used to guide career exploration by using the clusters to organize career information resources.

• Middle school students need assistance in career and educational planning. An educational and career planning portfolio is one technique that school counselors can use to help middle school students plan effectively.

High School • As students transition from middle school to high school, they focus more directly on the task of identifying occupational preferences and clarifying career/lifestyle choices.

• According to Super (1957), the essential tasks are crystallizing, specifying educational preferences, and implementing tentative career choices.

• Most secondary school students in the United States enter work immediately upon leaving high school or do not finish college (Marshall & Tucker, 1992).

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• • • • • • •

A majority of adolescents must acquire workforce readiness to cope successfully with their school-to-work transition.

Baker and Gerler (2008) emphasizes the importance of school counselors’ providing “transition enhancement” assistance to secondary school students as they progress toward further education, training, or employment.

Herr, Cramer, and Niles (2004) identify four potential issues confronting high school students.

Secondary school students need emotional support to lessen the anticipatory anxiety they may experience as they consider the transitions they will encounter.

Transition skills build upon the self-awareness, occupational awareness, and decisionmaking skills students have developed throughout their educational experience.

Marcia (1966) identified a taxonomy of adolescent identity development which contains four identity statuses: (a) diffused or confused, (b) foreclosed, (c) moratorium, and (d) achieved.

Herr and Cramer (1966) noted that high school students need assistance in developing and implementing a career plan, engaging in full career exploration of post-secondary employment and educational experiences, and coping with the internal and external pressures they experience in making career decisions.

Activities 1. Ask students to interview a middle school or high school student and ask him or her to identify what has been most helpful in their career development thus far. Students could also ask their interviewee what type of assistance would be most helpful currently in their career development.

2. Divide the class into groups. Each group will be asked to present an age-appropriate classroom guidance lesson lasting 30 minutes. The guidance lesson must address at least one of the competencies identified in the National Career Development Guidelines.

3. Invite a panel of local high school students and first year college students to discuss their career development. As a homework assignment, have students prepare questions ahead of time to ensure active participation.

Discussion 1. What are the career development issues for middle/high school students who will attend college one day? Other postsecondary institutions? Go directly into the world of work?

2. What career directions are the easiest to help students explore (e.g. sciences)? The hardest? Is there a historical basis for these differences?

3. Discuss ways in which counselors can get parents/guardians more/better involved in providing career development assistance to their children.

4. What changes, if any, do you envision for the delivery of career planning and counseling 115

in middle/high schools in the future?

Test Bank – Chapter 11 Essay Questions 1. What strategies would you use to develop and implement a successful career development program in a secondary school setting?

2. Why is it important to evaluate the effectiveness of career development programs in the schools?

3. How do the National Career Development Guidelines enhance our ability to serve the career development needs of middle/ high school students?

4. Identify and discuss two unique career development needs of middle/junior high school students.

5. Identify and discuss two unique career development needs of high school students.

Multiple Choice 1. An adolescent makes strides toward independence by developing A. physically and psychologically.

B. maturity.

C. socially and physically.

D. socially and psychologically.

2. Teachers, counselors, and curriculum designers expect middle school students to A. make a career plan and stick to it for most of their career.

B. begin to know what careers are and how to write a resume to get the job they want.

C. learn about themselves and the world of work and then translate this learning into an educational plan for the remainder of their secondary school education.

D. wait until later to worry about career goals.

3. The National Career Development Guidelines recommend that middle school students learn all of the following except A. self-understanding.

B. family knowledge.

C. educational and occupational exploration.

D. career planning.

4. It is important for career interventions to continue to stimulate curiosity in middle school students because A. those who are curious about their emerging self-concepts are more likely to engage in exploratory behavior to acquire the information they need.

B. those who have no idea about the world of work need to be encouraged to look at a new concept.

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C. students are rarely stimulated in middle school, but careers and career decisions interest them.

D. exploratory behavior leads to self-concept clarification, but only in regard to a career choice.

5. The most useful foundation for the exploration process is provided by A. aptitude tests.

B. skills inventories.

C. combining interest inventories with aptitude test results.

D. exposure to work.

6. According to Super, the tasks of crystallizing, specifying, and implementing tentative career choices occur during all of the following stages except A. early adulthood (21-24).

B. late adolescence (18-20).

C. middle adolescence (16-17).

D. early adolescence (12-15). .

7. Acquiring reading and writing skills and a good attitude are all aspects of A. career maturity.

B. workforce readiness.

C. self-knowledge.

D. values clarification.

8. The readiness to cope with the various career development tasks confronting an individual is known as A. career maturity.

B. workforce readiness.

C. self-knowledge.

D. values clarification.

9. Crisis/exploration and commitment are central to the career development process developed by A. Super.

B. Muuss.

C. Hansen.

D. Marcia.

10. Appropriate career goals for high school students, as proposed by the National Career Development Guidelines, include all of the following except A. self-knowledge.

B. educational and occupational exploration.

C. career development.

D. career planning.

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11. Suggestions provided in the text to encourage parental involvement in their children’s career development include A. provision for babysitting.

B. career guidance for parents.

C. evening information sessions and newsletters.

D. GED classes.

12. Assessment tools to measure interests and abilities include all of the following except the A. Self-Directed Search.

B. Differential Aptitude Test.

C. Myers-Briggs Type Indicator.

D. Career Assessment Inventory.

13. Career choice readiness is important to adolescent career development because it is a necessary precursor to effective A. retirement planning.

B. use of ability and interest assessment.

C. salary negotiations.

D. identity development.

14. Career choice readiness includes A. a planful attitude toward coping with career stages and tasks.

B. gathering information about educational and occupational opportunities.

C. exploring the world of work and knowing how to make a good decision.

D. all of the above.

15. Indications of the qualities people desire and seek in activities in which they engage, in the situations in which they live, and in the objects they make or desire are all aspects of A. career maturity.

B. workforce readiness.

C. values clarification.

D. career choice readiness.

CORRECT ANSWERS 1.

D 2.

C 3.

B 4.

A 5.

C

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

A B A D C

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

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C C B D C

Text for PowerPoint Presentation (available on website) Developmental Tasks of Middle/Junior High School • Achieve new and more sophisticated relations with peers • Achieve emotional independence from parents and other adults • Set vocational goals • Prepare for marriage and family life • Develop skills for civic competence Developmental Tasks, continued • Acquire a set of values and an ethical system as a guide to behavior • Set realistic goals and make plans for achieving these goals Goal of Middle/High School Career Guidance (Super & Savickas, 1996) • To help students cope successfully with the tasks of crystallizing and specifying occupational preferences ASCA National Standards • Acquire skills to investigate the world of work in relation to knowledge of self and to make informed career decisions • Employ strategies to achieve future success and satisfaction • Understand the relationship between personal qualities, education and training, and the world of work Career Development Guidelines for Middle/High School Students • Self-Knowledge – Knowledge of the influence of a positive self-concept – Skills to interact with others – Knowledge of the importance of growth and change Career Development Guidelines for Middle/High School Students • Educational and Occupational Exploration – Knowledge of the benefits of educational achievement to career opportunities – Understanding of the relationship between work and learning – Skills to locate, understand, and use career information – Knowledge of skills necessary to seek and obtain jobs – Understanding of how work relates to needs and functions of the economy and society

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Career Development Guidelines for Middle/High School Students • Career Planning – Skills to make decisions – Knowledge of the interrelationships of life roles – Knowledge of different occupations and changing male-female roles – Understanding of the process of career planning Career Planning Considerations (Herr & Cramer, 1996) • Since junior high is a transition from the structured elementary to the less structured high school environment, students need an opportunity to explore their personal characteristics and educational options.

• Because students have a wide range of career maturity, interests, values, and abilities, a great variety of intervention methods is needed.

Career Planning Considerations, continued (Herr & Cramer, 1996) • Although junior high students are capable of verbal and abstract behavior, exploration is enhanced with concrete, hands-on direct experiences.

• Search for identity is a fundamental part of the junior high experience. Therefore, career guidance must encourage students to explore feelings, needs, and uncertainties.

Career Planning Interventions • Assessment • Learning an organizational system • Exploring and learning about different clusters of occupations • Job shadowing • Portfolio development

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United States Office of Education (USOE) Occupational Clusters • Business & Office • Marketing & Distribution • Communications & Media • Construction • Manufacturing • Transportation • Agribusiness & Natural Resources • Marine Science • Environment • Public Services • Health • Recreation & Hospitality • Personal Services • Fine Arts & Humanities • Consumer & Homemaking Education Marcia’s Taxonomy of Adolescent Identity • The identity-diffused person has not yet experienced an identity crisis or exploration and has not made a personal commitment to an occupation -- or a set of goals, values, and beliefs.

• The foreclosed person has not yet experienced an identity crisis or exploration but has committed to an occupation and a set of goals, values, and beliefs.

Marcia’s Taxonomy of Adolescent Identity, continued • The moratorium person is engaged in an active struggle to clarify personally meaningful values, goals, and beliefs.

• The identity-achieved person has sorted through the process of identity clarification and resolved these issues in a personally meaningful way.

Career Development Guidelines for High School Students • Self-Knowledge – Understanding the influences of a positive self-concept – Skills to interact positively with others – Understanding the impact of growth and development

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Career Development Guidelines for High School Students • Educational and Occupational Exploration – Understanding the relationship between educational achievement and career planning – Understanding the need for positive attitudes toward work and learning – Skills to locate, evaluate, and interpret career information – Skills to prepare to seek, obtain, maintain, and change jobs.

– Understanding how societal needs and functions influence the nature and structure of work Career Development Guidelines for High School Students • Career Planning – Skills to make decisions – Understanding the interrelationship of life roles – Understanding the continuous changes in male-female roles – Skills in career planning Potential Issues Confronting High School Students (Herr & Cramer, 1996) • Need to develop and implement a career plan • Need to catch up on career development tasks because past interventions have not been systematic • Need to combat internal and environmental pressure that surrounds career decisions • Need to examine advantages and disadvantages of various post-secondary school options Career Interventions in High School • Instruction on tasks related to career maturity (career choice readiness) • Assessment • Learning how the world of work is organized • Occupational research • Consideration of the importance of work in life • Values clarification • Parent involvement

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Chapter 12 Career Development Interventions in Higher Education Chapter twelve makes note of the increasing diversity of students in higher education, which requires career development professionals to ensure that their services meet the needs of all groups comprising the student body in their respective institutions. It reviews career competencies for adults as well as models, services, and standards for career development interventions in higher education. The CAS Standards are outlined as a tool for issues pertaining to the management of career services in higher education. Content covered in the chapter includes: The Career Needs of Higher Education Students • In 2007, slightly more than 18 million students were enrolled in postsecondary education in the United States.

• Fewer than one in six students in higher education fits the description of a traditional student (between the ages of 18-22, living on campus, enrolled full-time).

• There are approximately six million adults attending college each year.

• Adult students must often balance their pursuit of higher education with child rearing and other life-role responsibilities.

• Women make up 56 percent of the undergraduate and 59 percent of the graduate student population.

• International students are another group that represents a substantial percentage of those enrolled in higher education. There were approximately 500,000 international students enrolled in higher education in the United States in 2001.

• More than 130,000 students with disabilities currently attend college in the United States.

• The percentage of students enrolled in higher education who are members of ethnic minority groups has also increased in recent years. The total enrollment for ethnic minorities represented 22.5% of all students in higher education in 1992-1993.

• Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgendered students encounter numerous contextual barriers in their career development. Unfortunately, their career development needs have long been ignored by career service providers in higher education.

• Each of the student groups comprising the population in higher education has similar, but also distinct, career development needs. Career service providers in higher education have done a better job addressing the former needs than they have the needs in the latter category. Comprehensive career services must address the needs of the entire student body.

The Evolution of Career Development Interventions in Higher Education • Career services in higher education began with an emphasis on job placement that was typically provided by a student’s professor.

• In the early 1800s commercial employment agencies offered placement services to graduates from teacher training programs. By the late 1800s there were nearly 200 employment agencies in the United States.

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• •

• •

•

Yale University established a placement office in 1919 to provide vocational guidance to students and to match them with employment positions during the academic year, the summer months, and after graduation.

The focus on placement in career services resulted in the separation of placement offices from other student affairs functions that were more focused on student development. Rather than training in counseling, career placement “officers” tended to have a variety of backgrounds, many times linked to business.

A shift occurred in career services beginning in the late 1950s and early 1960s.

Career planning activities that had been a part of many counseling centers were relocated to placement offices and combined with placement services.

Today, there is no single type of career development and placement center in higher education. Whitely, Mahaffey, and Geer (1987) provide evidence of five major types of career services centers: (1) macrocenter, (2) counseling orientation center, (3) general-level service center, (4) career planning and placement center, and (5) minimal service center.

Healy and Reilly report that students in higher education typically desire the following sort of career assistance: help knowing more about themselves, help identifying career goals, assistance in becoming more certain of their career plans, assistance in exploring various career options, help with career planning, and guidance in learning job search skills.

Career Development Competencies in Adulthood • The National Occupational Information Coordinating Committee identified career development competencies for adults that are relevant to students in higher education.

• These competencies include three domains: self-knowledge, educational and occupational exploration, and career planning.

Models, Services, and Standards for Career Development Interventions in Higher Education • Various models of career services in higher education have been described in the literature (e.g., Powell & Kirts, 1980; Rayman, 1996; Reardon, 1996).

• Career services in higher education include courses, workshops, individual counseling, group counseling, and placement services with increasing emphasis being placed on appropriate use of technology in each.

• The CAS Standards (2006) provide useful guides for delivering career development interventions in higher education.

Managing Career Services in Higher Education • A primary issue in the organization of career services in higher education relates to whether services are centralized or decentralized. Herr, Rayman, and Garis (1993) have identified pro’s and con’s of both approaches.

• Rayman (1999) identified 10 imperatives, detailed in this chapter, for career services in the next millennium.

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Activities 1. Divide the class into small groups. Assign each a student population (e.g., international students, students with disabilities, etc.). Ask each group to identify the unique career concerns confronting their student population.

2. Coordinate with your campus career services center to schedule a tour during class time.

3. Ask each student to utilize one of the services offered by your career service center (e. g. resume review, mock interview, career fair, group, or workshop) and then write a one page reflection on the experience.

4. Divide the class into groups. Assign each group a specific student population outlined in the chapter. Ask each group to identify a specific career intervention for their student population and then develop a marketing plan for their program.

Discussion 1. What student populations on your campus are underserved by career services? What are the challenges faced by career services to better serve these populations?

2. How will your university career service center change in the next ten years?

3. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages related to centralized and decentralized career services in higher education.

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Test Bank – Chapter 12 Essay Questions 1. Choose one specific student population and identify two unique needs of this student group and one intervention designed to address each need.

2. Identify and discuss three types of career assistance commonly requested by higher education students.

3. Identify and discuss three categories of career services in higher education as identified

by Herr (1989).

4. Many career services offices in higher education do not engage in true career counseling, but rather provide career advising and assessment services to their students. Why is this the case? Do you think this is a good approach?

5. Discuss the pro’s and con’s of using computer-assisted career guidance systems in career services in higher education.

Multiple Choice 1. The prevalent reason that adults return to college is to A. take a break from work.

B. follow wishes of their parents.

C. enhance career opportunities.

D. learn about a new field.

2. All of the following groups face unique challenges regarding career issues in higher education except A. adults returning to school.

B. international students.

C. people with disabilities.

D. people without financial concerns.

3. As a result of the changing demographics of higher education career development interventions should A. be comprehensive and planned systematically.

B. remain the same.

C. be the same for all students.

D. be planned individually.

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4. The shift in the 1950’s and 60’s that moved career planning activities to a career planning and placement office reflected A. a change in American universities to consolidate services.

B. a narrowing perspective of career services.

C. an expanded perspective of career services.

D. none of these.

5. The competencies suggested in adulthood regarding the domain of self-knowledge include the skills to A. write an effective resume and cover letter.

B. maintain a positive self-concept, maintain effective behaviors, and understand developmental changes and transitions.

C. make decisions regarding educational decisions.

D. find out about job openings.

6. Johnson’s four types of decision-making styles include all of the following except A. systematic.

B. spontaneous.

C. internal.

D. controlled.

7. The steps in typical career development process that students go through in higher education are A. exploring, searching, making a commitment, and implementing.

B. searching, making a commitment, and implementing.

C. exploring and crystallizing.

D. exploring, crystallizing, making a commitment, and implementing.

8. The phases of Powell and Kirts’ (1980) approach to career services in higher education include all of the following except A. awareness programming.

B. self-assessment activities.

C. job interviewing skills.

D. exposure as students engage in career exploration.

9. According to Reardon, modules of the Florida State curricular career information services (CCIS) include all of the following except A. providing students with an introduction to the service.

B. orienting students to the career decision-making process.

C. helping students with their coursework.

D. helping students engage in self-assessment.

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10. Self-knowledge competencies include the skills to A. enter and participate in education and training.

B. participate in work and life-long learning.

C. locate, evaluate, and interpret career information.

D. maintain effective behaviors.

11. Skills in stress management and interpersonal communication contribute to coping with A. a collective activity.

B. occupational information.

C. transitions.

D. career information libraries.

12. As career counselors become more familiar with computers, they should integrate technology into their work by balancing A. “high tech” with “high resolution.”

B. “high tech” with “high touch.”

C. “high tech” with “low tech.”

D. none of these.

13. According to Hale, the role of teachers/professors in the delivery of career services is to advise and help students to A. make career choices and direct them into the academic path that they themselves took.

B. find financial aid.

C. translate career choices into educational goals.

D. all of these.

14. Although research has shown that while individualized counseling is the most effective approach to career development, comprehensive programs should make use of A. computerized delivery systems.

B. group counseling.

C. workshops.

D. a wide range of approaches.

15. Chief administrators of career services offices on college campuses most often report to the A. vice president for alumni services.

B. vice president for student services.

C. president of the college.

D. provost.

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CORRECT ANSWERS 1.

C 2.

D 3.

A 4.

C 5.

B

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

D D C C D

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

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C B C D B

Text for PowerPoint Presentation (available on website) Career Needs of Students in Higher Education • Today’s students have diverse backgrounds, characteristics, developmental levels, and career development needs.

• Approximately 6 million adults (over the age of 25) attend college each year.

• Approximately 500,000 international students were enrolled in higher education in 2001.

Career Needs of Students in Higher Education, continued • More than 130,000 students with learning disabilities are currently attending college.

• Women now constitute the majority (57.5%) of students enrolled in higher education.

• Ethnic minorities made up 22.5% of students in higher education in 1999.

Career Needs of Students in Higher Education, continued • Career development needs of lesbian, gay, and bisexual students have long been ignored.

• This increased heterogeneity suggests that career development interventions in higher education must be comprehensive and systematic.

The Evolution of Career Development Interventions • Professor/advocate • Job placement • Employment agencies • Placement offices • Diverse services (no single type of counseling center or placement center) Five Major Approaches for Delivering Career Services • Macrocenter • Counseling orientation • General-level service • Career planning and placement • Minimal service

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Why College Students Seek Career Assistance • Learn more about themselves • Identify career goals • Become more certain of their career plans • Explore career options • Do educational planning • Learn job search skills Career Development Competencies in Adulthood • Self-Knowledge – Skills to maintain a positive self-concept – Skills to maintain effective behaviors – Ability to understand developmental changes and transitions Career Development Competencies in Adulthood • Educational and Occupational Exploration – Skills to enter and participate in education and training – Skills to participate in work and lifelong learning – Skills to locate, evaluate, and interpret career information – Skills to seek, obtain, maintain, and change jobs – Ability to understand how the needs and functions of society influence the nature and structure of work Career Development Competencies in Adulthood • Career Planning – Skills to make decisions – Ability to understand the impact of work on individual and family life – Ability to understand the continuing changes in male-female roles – Skills required to make career transitions Goals of Career Interventions in Higher Education • Help students learn to identify and transfer career interests to a plan of action • Help students relate interests and goals to opportunities • Help students relate their career plans to life goals and opportunities • Help students learn how to evaluate their progress toward career goals through academic preparation.

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Career Interventions in Higher Education (Crites’ Model) • Explore a variety of options.

• Crystallize a narrow range of specific options.

• Make a commitment to a choice and specify college major.

• Implement the choice of major.

Powell and Kirts Model • Proposes a systems approach to career services in higher education • Starts by providing an overview of services to new students • Continues by providing self-assessment • Then focuses on exposure as students engage actively in career exploration • Finally provides training in job search skills The Florida State Model • A curricular career information service (CCIS) model with five modules, as follows: – Introduction to the service – Orientation to the decision-making process – Self-assessment – Career information – Matching of majors and jobs Career Services • Courses, workshops, and seminars -- structured group experiences on topics such as career decision making, career planning, and job search skills • Group counseling activities for students dealing with career indecision, career indecisiveness, and job search anxiety • Individual career counseling • Placement programs Goals of Career Interventions in Higher Education (Herr & Kramer) • Provide assistance in the selection of a major • Provide self-assessment and self-analysis • Assist students to understand the world of work • Assist students to learn decision-making skills • Provide assistance with unique needs of sub-populations • Provide assistance with access to jobs

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Career Development Goals in Higher Education (Griff) • Increase career and self-awareness • Develop decision-making skills • Acquire knowledge of current and emerging occupational options • Develop job search skills • Crystallize career goals • Participate in academic planning Council for the Advancement of Standards (CAS) Guidelines • Essential components of career services – Leadership – Organization and management – Human resources – Financial resources – Facilities, technology, and equipment – Acceptance of legal responsibilities CAS Standards, continued • Equal opportunity, access, & affirmative action • Campus and community relations • Diversity • Ethics • Assessment and evaluation Advantages of Centralized Services • More likely to have a critical mass of professional staff • Efficiencies and economies of scale in use of facilities and support staff • Vibrant, challenging environment because of heterogeneity of student population Disadvantages of Centralized Services • May be viewed by students as less personal due to size • May be located farther away from places where students spend most of their time

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Ten Imperatives for Career Services (Rayman, 1999) • 1: Acknowledge lifelong nature of career development and challenge students to take responsibility for their own career destiny • 2: Accept and embrace technology as an ally in service delivery • 3: Continue to refine and strengthen professional identity • 4: Acknowledge and accept that individual career counseling is at the core or our work Ten Imperatives for Career Services (Rayman, 1999) • 5: Forge relationships with other professionals and parents to achieve a “multiplier effect” • 6: Redouble efforts to meet needs of an increasingly diverse student body • 7: Maintain focus on quality career services while also filling relationship role with corporate America Ten Imperatives for Career Services (Rayman, 1999) • 8: Acknowledge that on-campus recruiting is a thing of the past and develop new approaches • 9: Resolve the nature of the university’s role with alumni, eliciting support rather than providing services to them • 10: Advocate effectively for resources to maintain and increase services and use existing resources efficiently

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Chapter 13 Career Development Interventions in Community Settings Chapter thirteen focuses on a counseling specialty that has long struggled for recognition: community settings. The chapter outlines counselor competencies specific to those working in community settings. Content covered in the chapter includes: • • • • • • • •

Frank Parsons’ Bureau in Boston was community-based.

High school guidance was the first counseling specialty to be officially recognized – through the National Defense Education Act of 1958.

The American Personnel and Guidance Association (APGA) was formed in 1952 with four divisions related to career counseling, school counseling, college student personnel work, and counselor education and supervision.

Through its divisions, the American Counseling Association recognizes 17 specialties.

All of these divisions/specialties are comprised of professional counselors who have been trained for competency in eight specific areas.

Counselor education programs at institutions that train counselors may be approved by the Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs (CACREP).

Individuals may be certified by the National Board for Certified Counselors (NBCC), which has a requirement of 48 semester hours of course work, two academic terms of supervised field experience, and two years of post-master’s counseling experience.

Counselors must meet the requirements for licensure as defined in their own state’s law.

Additional Competencies for Community-Based Counselors • Community counseling is “the application of counseling principles and practices in agency, organization, or individual practice settings that are located in and interact with the surrounding community.” (Hershenson, Power, & Waldo, 1966) • Community counseling requires at least four additional competencies to that of other counseling specialties – coordination, consultation, advocacy, and case management.

Coordination • Coordination is a process whereby a counselor brings together the needs of a client and the resources of the community.

• Schlossberg’s four-step model provides a helpful framework for assessing – through interviews – a client’s strengths and barriers.

• It is also necessary to identify resources available in the community and become thoroughly knowledgeable about them in order to assist clients to reduce barriers.

• This model involves five steps: 1) identify client needs, 2) match client needs and community resources, 3) introduce the client to these resources, 4) refer the client to identified resources, and 5) follow through with the client and the agency (ies) to which referral was made.

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Consultation • Consultation is the work of one professional with another in an attempt to find ways to reach compromise that will address the needs of a third party (the client).

Advocacy • Advocacy is the act of exerting pressure on some aspect of the community in order to improve the resources available to clients.

Case Management • The goal of case management is to assure that a client receives the sequence of services needed in a timely and coordinated fashion.

• Its instrument is the case plan.

• Its tasks include coordinating, sequencing, communicating, and following through.

Similarities and Differences Between Community Counseling and Other Specialties • Similarities Practice draws on the same base of counseling theories.

Counselors deal with similar client problems across settings.

•

Differences Community counselors typically deal with adults.

Options offered as interventions are subject to availability in the community.

Counselor may spend as much time with those in the community who are likely to provide resources for a client as with the client.

Counselor tasks include finding resources (such as housing or training opportunities), advocating on behalf of the client, and removing or minimizing barriers.

The work setting is the community.

•

Work Settings • Private practice • The World Wide Web (cybercounseling) • Mental health centers • Substance abuse centers • Rehabilitation settings • Corrections and probation • Military settings • Job Service offices and one-stop centers • Corporations and other organizations

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Activities 1. Divide the class into groups. Ask each group to identify one local community agency they will introduce to the class. Their class presentation can include a formal presentation, guest speaker, or a panel of guests.

2. Invite a community-based counselor from any setting described in this chapter to come to class and to cover the following topics: a) description of setting, b) description of types of clients served, c) services provided, d) cost (if any) of services, and e) how clients can be referred to the service.

4. Provide a case study of an adult who comes to a community-based counselor for assistance. Ask students to analyze the case related to the four steps of the Schlossberg model: a) describe the situation, b) identify client’s strengths of personality or character that will help the person through the transition or problem described, c) assess the support system that the client has, and d) develop strategies for dealing with the case.

Discussion 1. How are community agencies – typical sites for a community counselor -- funded?

2. In what ways does the work of a community counselor differ from that of a school counselor? College counselor?

3. What are benefits and limitations of having a private practice in counseling?

4. What are some of the agencies in our geographic area that are typical of those with which community counselors would collaborate? What types of services do they provide?

5. What is a case management plan, and why is it important?

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Test Bank – Chapter 13 Essay Questions 1. Given this case study (include one), what would a community-based counselor do to meet this client’s needs?

2. Describe competencies that a community-based counselor needs in addition to those for other counseling specialties, and indicate why they are needed.

3. In what ways is the work of a community-based counselor different from that of a counselor in schools or universities?

4. Outline Schlossberg’s four step model for controlling transition effectively.

5. Why is advocacy an important competency for community counselors? Give an example of how advocacy might impact the life of a community counselor’s client.

Multiple Choice 1. The specialty of school counseling was the first to be recognized by legislation. It A. is based on entirely different competencies than community counseling.

B. does not have its own division of the American Counseling Association.

C. was not represented as one of the original four divisions that formed the American Personnel and Guidance Association (APGA).

D. is represented by the American School Counselors Association (ASCA).

2. CACREP is a A. division of the American Counseling Association.

B. body that certifies counselors.

C. body that approves counselor education programs of study.

D. new piece of legislation that protects the confidentiality of clients.

3. As prerequisites to certification, the National Board for Certified Counselors requires A. thirty-six (36) hours of graduate work and a semester of supervised internship,.

B. forty-eight (48) hours of graduate work, two semesters of supervised field experience, two years of post-master’s counseling experience, and passing a national exam.

C. thirty-six (36) hours of graduate work and passing a national certification exam.

D. forty-eight (48) hours of course work and one year of supervised field experience.

4. One of the unique features about the work of community-based counselors, compared to other counseling specialties, is that they A. deal primarily with teenagers.

B. make a lot more money.

C. may spend as much time working with community resources as with clients.

D. base their work on different counseling theories.

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5. Schlossberg’s theory is helpful to community counselors because it A. provides a structure for interviewing and doing a case plan.

B. relates primarily to adults.

C. offers a cognitive approach to dealing with problems.

D. does all of the above.

6. Good competency in coordination is required of community counselors because A. there are more things to coordinate for a person who comes for services in the community.

B. the primary task of community counselors it to link clients to services that can meet their needs.

C. the clients they serve are not capable of doing this for themselves.

D. it is one of the 12 basic competencies required of all counselors.

7. Consultation is the process of A. hiring consultants to help with program development or delivery.

B. accepting supervision from a person with more training than you have.

C. working with another professional in order to address the needs of a client.

D. seeking the advice of others about how to deal with a client.

8. Advocacy is an important competency for community-based counselors for all of the following reasons except A. resources for clients are always limited.

B. many clients do not know how to advocate for themselves.

C. all referral agencies make decisions with the best interests of their clients in mind.

D. there are typically more clients than agencies can adequately serve.

9. The primary vehicle for assuring that clients receive the services they need when they need them is A. Schlossberg’s 4-S approach.

B. an action plan.

C. a case management plan.

D. a sequence of consultation activities.

10. A community-based setting that is associated with the U.S. Employment Service is A. the Division of Vocational Rehabilitation.

B. a military post.

C. a community mental health center.

D. a one-stop center.

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11. Types of services in mental health centers are most similar to those in A. private practice.

B. substance abuse centers.

C. rehabilitation settings.

D. military settings.

12. Career development in prison settings focuses on A. a wide range of services.

B. career planning and job placement.

C. assessment, advisement, and individual counseling.

D. on-the-job training.

13. Counselors in mental health centers typically have A. a smaller caseload than those in private practice.

B. more time to spend with clients.

C. reduced responsibility for promotion, marketing, and management.

D. a limited network for consultation and referral.

14. Coordination is the process whereby A. the counselor brings together the needs of a client and the resources of the community.

B. one professional works with another to find ways to reach compromise that will address a client’s needs.

C. pressure is applied to some aspect of the community to improve resources available to the client.

D. clients are assured a sequence of services they need in a timely and integrated fashion.

15. Career counselors in private practice require, to a greater extent than those in other settings, the ability to A. aid in transition situations.

B. facilitate a promotion.

C. make varied resources available.

D. apply business skills.

CORRECT ANSWERS: 1. A 2. C 3. B 4. C 5. D

6. B 7. C 8. C 9. C 10. D

11. A 12. B 13. C 14. A 15. D

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True-False 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

There is a special division of the American Counseling Association for counselors who work in community settings.

There is an entirely different set of competencies in which a community-based counselor is trained compared to other specialties of counseling.

A community-based counselor is likely to spend as much time identifying and working with referral agencies as with one-to-one counseling with the client.

By the year 2010 it should be possible to provide counseling services to clients via the Internet.

Many corporations employ career counselors to assist their employees with career management.

CORRECT ANSWERS 1. T 2. F 3. T 4. F 5. T

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Text for PowerPoint (available on website) Introduction • Community-based counseling has had a long struggle for recognition, though Parsons’ Bureau in Boston was community-based.

• School counseling was the first specialty to be recognized -- in the National Defense Education Act of 1958.

Introduction • The American Personnel and Guidance Association (now the American Counseling Association) was formed in 1952 by four specialties, not including community-based.

• ACA currently has 17 divisions, none that specifically represent community-based counselors.

Qualifications of Professional Counselors • Counselor education programs may be approved by the Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Programs (CACREP), which has high standards.

• Individuals may be certified by the National Board for Certified Counselors (NBCC).

• In addition, counselors may hold state licensure, required in 49 states.

Definition • Community counseling is the application of counseling principles and practices in agency, organization, or individual settings that are located in and interact with the surrounding community.

Competencies • All professional counselors are trained in the same 12 basic competencies.

• Community counseling requires skill in four additional competencies -- coordination, consultation, advocacy, and case management.

Coordination • This is a process of bringing together the needs of a client and resources of the community.

• Schlossberg’s 4-step model provides a helpful framework for identifying client strengths and barriers.

• Counselors need to identify community resources available and know them well.

• Working with a client is a 5-step process: – Identify client needs.

– Match client needs and community resources.

– Introduce client to the resources.

– Refer the client.

– Follow through with the client.

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Consultation • Consultation is the work of one professional with another in an attempt to find ways to reach compromise that will address the needs of a third party (the client).

Advocacy • Advocacy is the act of exerting pressure on some aspect of the community in order to improve the resources available to clients.

Case Management • Its goal is to assure that a client receives the sequence of services needed in a timely and coordinated way.

• Its instrument is the case plan.

• Its tasks include coordinating, sequencing, communicating, and following through.

Community Counseling and Other Specialties • Similarities – Practice draws on the same base of counseling theory.

– Counselors deal with similar client problems.

• Differences – Community counselors deal with adults.

– Options are limited to those in community.

– Counselor may spend equal time with client and resources.

– Work setting is the community.

Typical Work Settings • Private practice • The World Wide Web (cybercounseling) • Mental health centers • Substance abuse centers • Rehabilitation settings • Corrections and probations • Job Service offices and one-stop centers • Corporations and other organizations

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Chapter 14 Ethical Issues in Career Development Interventions The final chapter addresses ethical issues facing both career counselors and those working in other counseling specialties that do career development work. Students often raise questions regarding whether career work is “real” counseling. This bias towards career work makes the discussion of ethical issues in this arena imperative. Content covered in the chapter includes: •

Common ethical issues that confront career practitioners include the possibility of dual relationships, business ethics, use of the Internet in career services, and training issues.

Ethical Dilemmas Versus Moral Temptations • It is important to note that not all issues involving ethics or proper behaviors deserve the title “dilemma.” Kidder (1995) contends that an ethical dilemma occurs only in instances when there are competing “rights” or there is a struggle to determine the “least bad” course of action.

• A code of ethics cannot guarantee ethical behavior. Moreover, a code of ethics cannot resolve all ethical issues confronting career practitioners.

Using Principles to Resolve Ethical Decisions • VanHoose (1986) recommends that counselors use five principles to guide their professional practice: (1) autonomy, (2) nonmaleficence, (3) beneficence, (4) justice, and (5) fidelity.

• Beauchamp and Childress (2001) identified three principles as relevant for professional-patient relationships: (1) veracity, (2) privacy, and (3) confidentiality.

• Corey and Herily (2006) offer six virtue ethics to consider: (1) prudence, (2) respectfulness, (3) integrity, (4) self-awareness, (5) acknowledgement of emotions, and (6) connectedness with community.

The Role of Values in Defining Career Development Interventions • Values assumptions underlie all questions (and answers) related to ethical behavior in career development interventions.

• Tjeltveit (1986) recommends strategies career practitioners can use to behave in ways that are sensitive to their clients’ values. These include becoming informed about the variety of values held in society, being aware of one’s own values, being committed to the client’s freedom of choice, respecting differences in values, and consulting with others when necessary.

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Using Ethical Codes • Most readers of this chapter are, or will be, subject to the ethical codes of the American Counseling Association (2005), the National Career Development Association (2007), the American Psychological Association (2002), the International Association of Educational and Vocational Guidance (1996), and/or the National Board for Certified Counselors (2005).

• Progress is reported on three areas relevant to career professionals: the definition of a career counseling relationship, given the fact that not all career interventions constitute therapy; ethical standards for the appropriate and proper role of those who provide career services but are not professionally trained counselors; and the ethical use of the Internet to provide or enhance services.

• The National Career Development Association has developed guidelines for using the Internet in career service delivery (1) to deliver occupational information, (2) to provide on-line job searches, and (3) to deliver interactive career counseling.

Activities 1. What do you think would be proper behavior of the career counselor faced the following challenges? a. A school counselor has reservations about military service. The father of the client, who the counselor knows to be caring and concerned, asks the counselor about giving his child information about military service as a means to mature and live up to their high potential. The counselor knows the child has high potential but lacks self-discipline. The counselor tends to agree with the father but questions the military as source of that discipline. b. A small career services office counselor helps a second-year 32 year old college student write a resume and then has no further contact with the student until the counselor enrolls in a yoga class in which the student is also enrolled. The student asks the counselor for coffee after class. c. A career counselor in private practice is counseling an executive about her career plans. She shares information about her excitement about an offer she will accept and tells the counselor about the IPO Corporation and the client’s excitement about a position with stock options. The client believes the stock options will multiply over a short-term. The counseling is terminated and the counselor wonders about an investment in IPO. The counselor doe not think there is a counseling dilemma because the gain or loss could not affect the terminated counseling relationship. d. A high school counselor meets with a student who is excited about military service due recent advertisements about the military service providing resources for higher education. The student has no resources for further study and no potential family support. The student has great potential but the counselor is concerned about recent press information about the military attitude toward gays and lesbians in military. Rumors about the young person’s sexual orientation abound in the school but the counselor has not information no has the student ever mentioned their sexuality.

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e. An elementary school counselor is planning career related activities and has arranged a class trip to a large nearby dairy that has supported the school. A parent objects not only to his child’s participation but also to any participation of the school because the parent believes dairy farming is an unethical exploitation of animals. The parent has been written the local press and been on “call in radio” objecting to the school serving milk, in spite of meetings with officials that have demonstrated legal requirement for serving milk in lunch program.

2. Using the cases above. Ask the students to place the issues in the appropriate quadrant in the 2 X 2 matrix presented in this chapter.

3. Role play the cases presented above to practice addressing this ethical concerns with clients.

Discussion 1. Where do the ethics of our profession come from? How do we know they are “right”?

2. What is the proper course of action if you disagree with an element of the ethical code?

What do we do if we have a dilemma and the codes under which we operate disagree?

3. In what ways do values assumptions influence ethical standards?

4. What are the unique ethical dilemma in regards to the Internet? Cybercounseling?

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Test Bank – Chapter 14 Essay Questions 1. How can you increase the probability of engaging in ethical practice as a career counselor?

2. What ethical concerns are associated with using the Internet in career development interventions?

3. Discuss two of the most common ethical issues in career counseling?

4. List and define the five guiding principles of professional practice outlined by VanHoose (1986).

5. Provide an ethical case study and have the students respond.

Multiple Choice 1. The 2 x 2 matrix used to classify career practitioners’ actions includes behavior that is A. right and wrong.

B. both moral and legal.

C. true and false.

D. legal and ethical.

2. In terms of legal and ethical issues, consultation is A. a valuable tool to avoid jail and lawsuits.

B. unnecessary, as counselors learn more than they need to know in their classes.

C. a strategy to avoid legal and ethical pitfalls.

D. not important if counselors can prove that they talked to somebody.

3. State laws and ethical standards are congruent A. always.

B. rarely.

C. never .

D. not always.

4. According to Kidder (1995), an “ethical dilemma” involves A. a decision between right and wrong.

B. instances when there are competing ‘rights” or there is a struggle to determine the “least bad” course of action.

C. a decision that can not be boiled down to right and wrong but involves the best choice to make.

D. instances when there are competing “truths” or there is a struggle to determine the best course of action.

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5. Compared to ethical codes or statutes, ethical principles A. are equally helpful.

B. are less helpful.

C. provide a more solid framework for decision making.

D. are less flexible and allow an individual to know exactly what to do in a given situation.

6. Regarding medical ethics, Beauchamp and Childress (1995) address A. veracity, privacy, and confidentiality.

B. veracity, euthanasia, and fidelity.

C. privacy, malpractice, and fidelity.

D. confidentiality, licensing, and fidelity.

7. The “platinum rule” suggests that you treat another individual A. as you would like to be treated.

B. the way the other individual would like to be treated.

C. with as much respect as possible.

D. with the understanding that that individual may treat you the same way.

8. Related to ethical codes, A. malpractice is increased by the presence of so many sets of ethical codes.

B. malpractice is decreased by the presence of so many sets of ethical codes.

C. it would be desirable (according to the authors) to have one integrated set of ethical codes.

D. there are only two sets of codes that affect counselors.

9. Underlying all questions (and answers) related to ethical and legal behavior in career development interventions are A. legal statutes.

B. values clarifications.

C. moral opinions.

D. values assumptions.

10. When a client’s concerns include depressive feelings, low self-esteem, and other serious mental health issues, career counselors should A. automatically refer the client to a competent mental health professional.

B. assess whether they can adequately deal with the problem at hand or should refer the client to another professional.

C. handle the case as they have been trained to do.

D. assess what the client wants to work on.

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11. Dealing with ethical issues and values, Herr and Niles (1988) stress awareness of all of the following except A. personal values.

B. the client’s values.

C. values being propagated at the national level.

D. values the client and clinician share.

12. Career development programs, initiatives, and interventions typically receive funding A. regardless of the relevant issues because educational bodies understand the importance of their pupils finding work.

B. based on their relative importance at the time.

C. based on their ability to put money back into the educational facility housing the program.

D. based on their size and strength relative to the facility housing the program.

13. The authors suggest a practitioner adequately address the issue of personal competence through A. continuous quality improvement.

B. continuing education.

C. competent referrals.

D. receiving objective consultation.

14. In research settings the federally required body to protect human subjects is the A. institutional review board.

B. judicial review board.

C. institutional subject board.

D. advisory and steering board for research.

15. The Internet can be used to provide career services to clients in all of the following ways except to A. deliver occupational information.

B. provide on-line searches of occupational databases.

C. eliminate the need for counselor support.

D. provide on-line job searches.

CORRECT ANSWERS 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

D C D B C

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

A B C D B

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

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D B D A C

Text for PowerPoint Presentation (available on website) Classifying Practitioner Behavior

• Ethical and Legal • Ethical and Illegal • Unethical and Legal • Unethical and Illegal Ethical “Rules of Thumb” • Dual relationships with the potential to exploit client trust and vulnerability are unethical.

• Consult with professional colleagues who understand career interventions when unsure about how to resolve a dilemma.

• Be aware of client’s values and those imbedded in career intervention models.

Ethical Dilemmas vs. Moral Temptations • Kidder (1995) contends that an ethical dilemma occurs only in instances when there are competing “rights” or there is a struggle to determine the “least bad” course of action.

Using Principles to Resolve Ethical Decisions • Van Hoose (1986) recommended that counselors use ACA’s five principles to guide their ethical practice: – Autonomy – Nonmaleficence – Beneficence – Justice – Fidelity (Herlihy & Corey, 1996, p. 4-5) Additional Principles • Beauchamp and Childress (1995) identified additional relevant principles to guide professional-client relationships: – Veracity: Tell the truth and do not lie or deceive others.

– Privacy: Allow individuals to limit access to information about themselves.

– Confidentiality: Allow individuals to control access to information they have shared.

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Relevant Ethical Codes for Career Practitioners • American Counseling Association (ACA) • National Career Development Association (NCDA) • American Psychological Association (APA) • International Association of Educational and Vocational Guidance (IAEVG) • National Board for Certified Counselors (NBCC) Strategies for Minimizing Insensitivity to Clients’ Values • Become informed about variety of values held in society.

• Be aware of your own values.

• Present value options to clients in an unbiased manner.

• Be committed to client’s freedom of choice.

Strategies for Minimizing Insensitivity, continued • Respect clients with values that differ from your own.

• Consult with others when necessary.

• Consider referring clients to another counselor when substantial moral, religious or political value differences exist.

Special Ethical Challenges • Are all individual career interventions counseling?

• Should those without traditional training and credentials provide career services?

• How should the Internet be used in career development interventions?

Reasons for Using the Internet in Career Service Delivery (current NCDA ethical guidelines) • To deliver occupational information • To provide online searches of occupational databases for the purpose of identifying occupational options • To deliver interactive career counseling and career planning services • To provide online job searches

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Six Sections of NCDA Ethical Standards • Section A - General • Section B - The Counseling Relationship • Section C - Measurement and Evaluation • Section D - Research and Publication • Section E - Consulting • Section F - Private Practice Ethical Standards and Ethical Practice for Career Counselors • Offer only services they are competent to offer.

• Respect and value individual differences among clients and potential clients.

• Treat information received from and about clients as owned by the client and held in trust by the counselor.

Ethical Standards, continued • Do not engage in any professional relationship in which the counselor’s objectivity and ability to work for client’s welfare might be impaired.

• Assume professional responsibility for clients and, if unable to assist, help the client obtain alternative services.

Ethical Standards, continued • Recognize that you have obligations to other members of the profession and to society to act in responsible ways and to consider the effects of their behavior on others.

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