C++ How to Program, 10th edition Published Paul Deitel Solution Manual

C++ How to Program, 10th edition Published BY Paul Deitel

Email: Richard@qwconsultancy.com

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1

Introduction to Computers and C++

Objectives In this chapter you’ll learn: ■

Exciting recent developments in the computer field.

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Computer hardware, software and networking basics.

■

The data hierarchy.

■

The different types of programming languages.

■

Basic object-technology concepts.

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Some basics of the Internet and the World Wide Web.

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A typical C++ program development environment.

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To test-drive a C++ application.

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Some key recent software technologies.

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How computers can help you make a difference.

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Chapter 1 Introduction to Computers and C++

Self-Review Exercises 1.1

Fill in the blanks in each of the following statements: a) Computers process data under the control of sets of instructions called .

ANS: programs. , , , , b) The key logical units of the computer are the and .

ANS: input unit, output unit, memory unit, central processing unit, arithmetic and logic unit, secondary storage unit. , and c) The three types of languages discussed in the chapter are .

ANS: machine languages, assembly languages, high-level languages. d) The programs that translate high-level language programs into machine language are called .

ANS: compilers. e) is an operating system for mobile devices based on the Linux kernel and Java.

ANS: Android. software is generally feature complete and (supposedly) bug free and ready for f) use by the community.

ANS: Release candidate. g) The Wii Remote, as well as many smartphones, uses a(n) which allows the device to respond to motion.

ANS: accelerometer.

1.2

Fill in the blanks in each of the following sentences about the C++ environment. a) C++ programs are normally typed into a computer using a(n) program.

ANS: editor. program executes before the compiler’s translation b) In a C++ system, a(n) phase begins.

ANS: preprocessor. program combines the output of the compiler with various library funcc) The tions to produce an executable program.

ANS: linker. program transfers the executable program from disk to memory. d) The ANS: loader.

1.3

Fill in the blanks in each of the following statements (based on Section 1.8): —although objects may know how to commua) Objects have the property of nicate with one another across well-defined interfaces, they normally are not allowed to know how other objects are implemented.

ANS: information hiding. , which contain data members and b) C++ programmers concentrate on creating the member functions that manipulate those data members and provide services to clients.

ANS: classes. c) The process of analyzing and designing a system from an object-oriented point of view . is called ANS: object-oriented analysis and design (OOAD). , new classes of objects are derived by absorbing characteristics of existing d) With classes, then adding unique characteristics of their own.

ANS: inheritance.

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Exercises

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e)

is a graphical language that allows people who design software systems to use an industry-standard notation to represent them.

ANS: The Unified Modeling Language (UML). f) The size, shape, color and weight of an object are considered of the object’s class.

ANS: attributes.

Exercises 1.4

Fill in the blanks in each of the following statements: a) The logical unit of the computer that receives information from outside the computer . for use by the computer is the ANS: input unit. b) The process of instructing the computer to solve a problem is called .

ANS: computer programming. c) is a type of computer language that uses English-like abbreviations for machine-language instructions.

ANS: Assembly language. d) is a logical unit of the computer that sends information which has already been processed by the computer to various devices so that it may be used outside the computer.

ANS: The output unit. and are logical units of the computer that retain information. e) ANS: The memory unit, the secondary storage unit. f) is a logical unit of the computer that performs calculations.

ANS: The arithmetic and logic unit (ALU). g) is a logical unit of the computer that makes logical decisions.

ANS: The arithmetic and logic unit (ALU). languages are most convenient to the programmer for writing programs h) quickly and easily.

ANS: High-level. . i) The only language a computer can directly understand is that computer’s ANS: machine language. j) is a logical unit of the computer that coordinates the activities of all the other logical units.

ANS: The central processing unit (CPU).

1.5

Fill in the blanks in each of the following statements: initially became widely known as the development language of the UNIX opa) erating system.

ANS: C. b) The programming language was developed by Bjarne Stroustrup in the early 1980s at Bell Laboratories.

ANS: C++.

1.6

Fill in the blanks in each of the following statements: a) C++ programs normally go through six phases— , , , , and .

ANS: edit, preprocess, compile, link, load, execute b) A(n) provides many tools that support the software development process, such as editors for writing and editing programs, debuggers for locating logic errors in programs, and many other features.

ANS: integrated development environment (IDE).

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Chapter 1 Introduction to Computers and C++

1.7 You’re probably wearing on your wrist one of the world’s most common types of objects— a watch. Discuss how each of the following terms and concepts applies to the notion of a watch: object, attributes, behaviors, class, inheritance (consider, for example, an alarm clock), modeling, messages, encapsulation, interface and information hiding.

ANS: The entire watch is an object that is composed of many other objects (such as the moving parts, the band, the face, etc.) Watch attributes are time, color, band, style (digital or analog), etc. The behaviors of the watch include setting the time and getting the time. A watch can be considered a specific type of clock (as can an alarm clock). With that in mind, it is possible that a class called Clock could exist from which other classes such as watch and alarm clock could inherit the basic features in the clock. The watch is an abstraction of the mechanics needed to keep track of the time. The user of the watch does not need to know the mechanics of the watch in order to use it; the user only needs to know that the watch keeps the proper time. In this sense, the mechanics of the watch are encapsulated (hidden) inside the watch.

The interface to the watch (its face and controls for setting the time) allows the user to set and get the time. The user is not allowed to directly touch the internal mechanics of the watch. All interaction with the internal mechanics is controlled by the interface to the watch. The data members stored in the watch are hidden inside the watch and the member functions (looking at the face to get the time and setting the time) provide the interface to the data.

Making a Difference Throughout the book we’ve included Making a Difference exercises in which you’ll be asked to work on problems that really matter to individuals, communities, countries and the world.

1.8 (Test Drive: Carbon Footprint Calculator) Some scientists believe that carbon emissions, especially from the burning of fossil fuels, contribute significantly to global warming and that this can be combatted if individuals take steps to limit their use of carbon-based fuels. Various organizations and individuals are increasingly concerned about their “carbon footprints.” Websites such as TerraPass http://www.terrapass.com/carbon-footprint-calculator-2/

and Carbon Footprint http://www.carbonfootprint.com/calculator.aspx

provide carbon footprint calculators. Test drive these calculators to determine your carbon footprint. Exercises in later chapters will ask you to program your own carbon footprint calculator. To prepare for this, research the formulas for calculating carbon footprints.

1.9 (Test Drive: Body Mass Index Calculator) By recent estimates, two-thirds of the people in the United States are overweight and about half of those are obese. This causes significant increases in illnesses such as diabetes and heart disease. To determine whether a person is overweight or obese, you can use a measure called the body mass index (BMI). The United States Department of Health and Human Services provides a BMI calculator at http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/guidelines/ obesity/BMI/bmicalc.htm. Use it to calculate your own BMI. An exercise in Chapter 2 will ask you to program your own BMI calculator. To prepare for this, research the formulas for calculating BMI. 1.10 (Attributes of Hybrid Vehicles) In this chapter you learned the basics of classes. Now you’ll begin “fleshing out” aspects of a class called “Hybrid Vehicle.” Hybrid vehicles are becoming increasingly popular, because they often get much better mileage than purely gasoline-powered vehicles.

Browse the web and study the features of four or five of today’s popular hybrid cars, then list as many

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Making a Difference

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of their hybrid-related attributes as you can. For example, common attributes include city-miles-pergallon and highway-miles-per-gallon. Also list the attributes of the batteries (type, weight, etc.).

• Manufacturer • Type of Hybrid—Battery hybrid (Hybrid Electric Vehicles), Plug-in hybrid, Fuel cell etc.

• Driver feedback system—so the driver can monitor fuel efficiency based on their driving • Energy recovery—for example, regenerative breaking • Carbon footprint—tons of CO2 per year • Fuel capacity • City-miles-per-gallon • Highway-miles-per-gallon • Two-mode hybrid propulsion system • Engine size—V6, V8, etc.

• Vehicle type—SUV, crossover, compact, mid-size, etc.

• Seating capacity • Horse power • Drive train (front wheel drive, all wheel drive) • Top speed • Torque • Price 1.11 (Gender Neutrality) Some people want to eliminate sexism in all forms of communication.

You’ve been asked to create a program that can process a paragraph of text and replace gender-specific words with gender-neutral ones. Assuming that you’ve been given a list of gender-specific words and their gender-neutral replacements (e.g., replace “wife” with “spouse,” “man” with “person,” “daughter” with “child” and so on), explain the procedure you’d use to read through a paragraph of text and manually perform these replacements. How might your procedure generate a strange term like “woperchild,” which is actually listed in the Urban Dictionary (www.urbandictionary.com)? In Chapter 4, you’ll learn that a more formal term for “procedure” is “algorithm,” and that an algorithm specifies the steps to be performed and the order in which to perform them.

ANS: Search through the entire paragraph for a word such as “wife” and replace every occurrence with “spouse.” Repeat this searching process for every gender specific word in the list. You could accidentally get a word like “woperchild” if you are not careful about how you perform replacements. For example, the word “man” can be part of a larger word, like “woman.” So, replacing every occurrence of “man” can yield strange results. Consider the process of replacing “man” with “person” then replacing “son” with “child.” If you encounter the word “woman,” which contains the word “man,” you’d replace “man” with “person” resulting in the word “woperson.” In a subsequent pass you’d encounter “woperson” and replace “son” with “child” resulting in the “woperchild.”

1.12 (Privacy) Some online e-mail services save all e-mail correspondence for some period of time. Suppose a disgruntled employee of one of these online e-mail services were to post all of the e-mail correspondences for millions of people, including yours, on the Internet. Discuss the issues.

1.13 (Programmer Responsibility and Liability) As a programmer in industry, you may develop software that could affect people’s health or even their lives. Suppose a software bug in one of your programs were to cause a cancer patient to receive an excessive dose during radiation therapy and that the person either was severely injured or died. Discuss the issues.

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Chapter 1 Introduction to Computers and C++

1.14 (2010 “Flash Crash”) An example of the consequences of our dependency on computers was the so-called “flash crash” which occurred on May 6, 2010, when the U.S. stock market fell precipitously in a matter of minutes, wiping out trillions of dollars of investments, and then recovered within minutes. Use the Internet to investigate the causes of this crash and discuss the issues it raises.

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Introduction to C++ Programming, Input/Output and Operators

2 Objectives In this chapter you’ll: ■

Write basic computer programs in C++.

■

Write input and output statements.

■

Use fundamental types.

■

Learn computer memory concepts.

■

Use arithmetic operators.

■

Understand the precedence of arithmetic operators.

■

Write decision-making statements.

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Self-Review Exercises

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Self-Review Exercises 2.1

Fill in the blanks in each of the following. a) Every C++ program begins execution at the function .

ANS: main. begins the body of every function and a(n) ends the body. b) A(n) ANS: left brace ({), right brace (}). c) Most C++ statements end with a(n) .

ANS: semicolon. d) The escape sequence \n represents the character, which causes the cursor to position to the beginning of the next line on the screen.

ANS: newline. e) The statement is used to make decisions.

ANS: if.

2.2 State whether each of the following is true or false. If false, explain why. Assume the statement using std::cout; is used. a) Comments cause the computer to print the text after the // on the screen when the program is executed.

ANS: False. Comments do not cause any action to be performed when the program is executed. They’re used to document programs and improve their readability. b) The escape sequence \n, when output with cout and the stream insertion operator, causes the cursor to position to the beginning of the next line on the screen.

ANS: True. c) All variables must be declared before they’re used.

ANS: True. d) All variables must be given a type when they’re declared.

ANS: True. e) C++ considers the variables number and NuMbEr to be identical.

ANS: False. C++ is case sensitive, so these variables are different. f) Declarations can appear almost anywhere in the body of a C++ function.

ANS: True. g) The remainder operator (%) can be used only with integer operands.

ANS: True. h) The arithmetic operators *, /, %, + and – all have the same level of precedence.

ANS: False. The operators *, / and % have the same precedence, and the operators + and have a lower precedence. i) A C++ program that prints three lines of output must contain three statements using cout and the stream insertion operator.

ANS: False. One statement with cout and multiple \n escape sequences can print several lines.

2.3

Write a single C++ statement to accomplish each of the following (assume that neither

using declarations nor a using directive have been used):

a) Declare the variables c, thisIsAVariable, q76354 and number to be of type int (in one statement) and initialize each to 0.

ANS: int c{0}, thisIsAVariable{0}, q76354{0}, number{0};

b) Prompt the user to enter an integer. End your prompting message with a colon (:) followed by a space and leave the cursor positioned after the space.

ANS: std::cout << "Enter an integer: ";

c) Read an integer from the user at the keyboard and store it in integer variable age.

ANS: std::cin >> age;

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Chapter 2 Introduction to C++ Programming, Input/Output and Operators d) If the variable number is not equal to 7, print "The variable number is not equal to 7".

ANS: if (number != 7) { std::cout << "The variable number is not equal to 7\n"; }

e) Print the message "This is a C++ program" on one line.

ANS: std::cout << "This is a C++ program\n";

f) Print the message "This is a C++ program" on two lines. End the first line with C++.

ANS: std::cout << "This is a C++\nprogram\n";

g) Print the message "This is a C++ program" with each word on a separate line.

ANS: std::cout << "This\nis\na\nC++\nprogram\n";

h) Print the message "This is a C++ program". Separate each word from the next by a tab.

ANS: std::cout << "This\tis\ta\tC++\tprogram\n";

2.4 Write a statement (or comment) to accomplish each of the following (assume that using declarations have been used for cin, cout and endl): a) Document that a program calculates the product of three integers.

ANS: // Calculate the product of three integers

b) Declare the variables x, y, z and result to be of type int (in separate statements) and initialize each to 0.

ANS: int x{0}; int y{0}; int z{0}; int result{0};

c) Prompt the user to enter three integers.

ANS: cout << "Enter three integers: ";

d) Read three integers from the keyboard and store them in the variables x, y and z.

ANS: cin >> x >> y >> z;

e) Compute the product of the three integers contained in variables x, y and z, and assign the result to the variable result.

ANS: result = x * y * z;

f) Print "The product is " followed by the value of the variable result.

ANS: cout << "The product is " << result << endl;

g) Return a value from main indicating that the program terminated successfully.

ANS: return 0;

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2.5 Using the statements you wrote in Exercise 2.4, write a complete program that calculates and displays the product of three integers. Add comments to the code where appropriate. [Note: You’ll need to write the necessary using declarations or directive.]

ANS: (See program below.)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

// Calculate the product of three integers #include <iostream> // enables program to perform input and output using namespace std; // program uses names from the std namespace // function main begins program execution int main() { int x{0}; // first integer to multiply int y{0}; // second integer to multiply int z{0}; // third integer to multiply int result{0}; // the product of the three integers

cout << "Enter three integers: "; // prompt user for data cin >> x >> y >> z; // read three integers from user result = x * y * z; // multiply the three integers; store result cout << "The product is " << result << endl; // print result; end line } // end function main

2.6 Identify and correct the errors in each of the following statements (assume that the statement using std::cout; is used): a) if (c < 7); { cout << "c is less than 7\n"; }

ANS: Error: Semicolon after the right parenthesis of the condition in the if statement.

Correction: Remove the semicolon after the right parenthesis. [Note: The result of this error is that the output statement executes whether or not the condition in the if statement is true.] The semicolon after the right parenthesis is an empty statement that does nothing. We’ll say more about the empty statement in Chapter 4. b) if (c => 7) { cout << "c is equal to or greater than 7\n"; }

ANS: Error: The incorrect relational operator =>.

Correction: Change => to >=, and you may want to change “equal to or greater than” to “greater than or equal to” as well.

Exercises NOTE: Solutions to the programming exercises are located in the ch02solutions folder.

2.7

Discuss the meaning of each of the following objects: a) std::cin ANS: This object refers to the standard input device that is normally connected to the keyboard. b) std::cout ANS: This object refers to the standard output device that is normally connected to the screen.

2.8

Fill in the blanks in each of the following:

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Chapter 2 Introduction to C++ Programming, Input/Output and Operators a)

are used to document a program and improve its readability.

ANS: Comments

b) The object used to print information on the screen is

.

ANS: std::cout

c) A C++ statement that makes a decision is

.

ANS: if

d) Most calculations are normally performed by statements.

ANS: assignment e) The object inputs values from the keyboard.

ANS: std::cin

2.9

Write a single C++ statement or line that accomplishes each of the following: a) Print the message "Enter two numbers".

ANS: cout << "Enter two numbers";

b) Assign the product of variables b and c to variable a.

ANS: a = b * c;

c) State that a program performs a payroll calculation (i.e., use text that helps to document a program).

ANS: // Payroll calculation program

d) Input three integer values from the keyboard into integer variables a, b and c.

ANS: cin >> a >> b >> c;

2.10

State which of the following are true and which are false. If false, explain your answers. a) All operators are evaluated from left to right.

ANS: False. Some operators are evaluated from left to right, while other operators are evaluated right to left. b) The following are all valid variable names: _under_bar_, m928134, t5, j7, her_sales, his_account_total, a, b, c, z, z2.

ANS: True. c) The statement cout << "a = 5;"; is a typical example of an assignment statement.

ANS: False. The statement is an output statement. The text a = 5; is output to the screen. d) A valid arithmetic expression with no parentheses is evaluated from left to right.

ANS: False. Arithmetic operators can appear in any order in an expression, so the expression is a = b + c * d; actually evaluates from right to left because of the rules of operator precedence. e) The following are all invalid variable names: 3g, 87, 67h2, h22, 2h.

ANS: False. h22 is a valid variable name. The others are invalid because they each begin with a digit.

2.11

Fill in the blanks in each of the following: a) What arithmetic operations are on the same level of precedence as multiplication? .

ANS: division and modulus. b) When parentheses are nested, which set of parentheses is evaluated first in an arithmetic expression? .

ANS: innermost. c) A location in the computer’s memory that may contain different values at various times throughout the execution of a program is called a(n) .

ANS: variable.

2.12 What, if anything, prints when each of the following statements is performed? If nothing prints, then answer “nothing.” Assume x = 2 and y = 3. a) cout << x;

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b) cout << x + x; ANS: 4

c)

cout << "x=";

ANS: x=

d) cout << "x = " << x; ANS: x = 2

e)

cout << x + y << " = " << y + x;

ANS: 5 = 5

f)

z = x + y;

ANS: nothing.

g)

cin >> x >> y;

ANS: nothing.

h) // cout << "x + y = " << x + y; ANS: nothing (because it is a comment).

i)

cout << "\n";

ANS: A newline is output which positions the cursor at the beginning of the next line on

the screen.

2.13

Which of the following statements contain variables whose values are replaced? a) cin >> b >> c >> d >> e >> f; b) p = i + j + k + 7; c) cout << "variables whose values are replaced"; d) cout << "a = 5"; ANS: (a) and (b)

2.14 Given the algebraic equation y = ax 3 + 7, which of the following, if any, are correct C++ statements for this equation? a) y = a * x * x * x + 7; b) y = a * x * x * (x + 7); c) y = (a * x) * x * (x + 7); d) y = (a * x) * x * x + 7; e) y = a * (x * x * x) + 7; f) y = a * x * (x * x + 7); ANS: (a), (d), (e) 2.15 (Order of Evaluation) State the order of evaluation of the operators in each of the following C++ statements and show the value of x after each statement is performed. a) x = 7 + 3 * 6 / 2 - 1; ANS: *, /, +, -, =, 15

b) x = 2 % 2 + 2 * 2 - 2 / 2; ANS: %, *, /, +, -, =, 3

c)

x = (3 * 9 * (3 + (9 * 3 / (3))));

ANS: innermost parentheses around 3, *, /, +, *, *, 324

2.22

What does the following code print? cout << "*\n**\n***\n****\n*****" << endl;

ANS: * ** *** **** *****

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Introduction to Classes, Objects, Member Functions and Strings

3 Objectives In this chapter you’ll: ■

Begin programming with the object-oriented concepts introduced in Section 1.8.

■

Define a class and use it to create an object.

■

Implement a class’s behaviors as member functions.

■

Implement a class’s attributes as data members.

■

Call an object’s member functions to make them perform their tasks.

■

Access and manipulate private data members through their corresponding public get and set functions to enforce encapsulation of the data.

■

Learn what local variables of a member function are and how they differ from data members of a class.

■

Use a constructor to initialize an object’s data.

■

Validate the data passed to a constructor or member function.

■

Become familiar with UML class diagrams.

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Chapter 3 Introduction to Classes, Objects, Member Functions and Strings

Self-Review Exercises 3.1

Fill in the blanks in each of the following: a) Every class definition contains the keyword followed immediately by the class’s name.

ANS: class. b) A class definition is typically stored in a file with the filename extension.

ANS: .h. and a(n) . c) Each parameter in a function header specifies both a(n) ANS: type, name. d) When each object of a class maintains its own version of an attribute, the variable that . represents the attribute is also known as a(n) ANS: data member. e) Keyword public is a(n) .

ANS: access specifier. f) Return type indicates that a function will perform a task but will not return any information when it completes its task.

ANS: void. g) Function from the <string> library reads characters until a newline character is encountered, then copies those characters into the specified string.

ANS: getline. h) Any file that uses a class can include the class’s header via a(n) preprocessing directive.

ANS: #include.

3.2

State whether each of the following is true or false. If false, explain why. a) By convention, function names begin with a capital letter and all subsequent words in the name begin with a capital letter.

ANS: False. Function names begin with a lowercase letter and all subsequent words in the name begin with a capital letter. b) Empty parentheses following a function name in a function definition indicate that the function does not require any parameters to perform its task.

ANS: True. c) Data members or member functions declared with access specifier private are accessible to member functions of the class in which they’re declared.

ANS: True. d) Variables declared in the body of a particular member function are known as data members and can be used in all member functions of the class.

ANS: False. Such variables are local variables and can be used only in the member function in which they’re declared. e) Every function’s body is delimited by left and right braces ({ and }).

ANS: True. f) The types of arguments in a function call must be consistent with the types of the corresponding parameters in the function’s parameter list.

ANS: True.

3.3

What is the difference between a local variable and a data member?

ANS: A local variable is declared in the body of a function and can be used only from its

declaration to the closing brace of the block in which it’s declared. A data member is declared in a class, but not in the body of any of the class’s member functions. Every object of a class has each of the class’s data members. Data members are accessible to all member functions of the class.

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Exercises

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3.4 Explain the purpose of a function parameter. What’s the difference between a parameter and an argument?

ANS: A parameter represents additional information that a function requires to perform its task. Each parameter required by a function is specified in the function header. An argument is the value supplied in the function call. When the function is called, the argument value is passed into the function parameter so that the function can perform its task.

Exercises NOTE: Solutions to the programming exercises are located in the ch03solutions folder.

3.5 (Default Constructor) What’s a default constructor? How are an object’s data members initialized if a class has only a default constructor defined by the compiler?

ANS: A default constructor is the constructor that is called when you create an object without specifying any arguments to a constructor. You can write a default constructor that initializes data members any way you choose. The compiler provides a default constructor with no parameters in any class that does not explicitly include a constructor. The default constructor provided by the compiler creates an object without assigning any initial values to the object’s fundamental type data members—data members must be initialized using the object’s member functions. Every constructor implicitly calls the constructors of any data member objects before the body of the class’s constructor executes.

3.6

(Data Members) Explain the purpose of a data member.

ANS: A class provides a data member (or several data members) when each object of the

class must maintain data separately from all other objects of the class. For example, a class called Account that represents a bank account provides a data member to represent the balance of the account. Each Account object maintains its own balance but does not know the balances of the bank’s other accounts.

3.7 (Using a Class Without a using Directive) Explain how a program could use class string without inserting a using directive.

ANS: A program could create string variables without a using declaration if each occurrence of the word string were prefixed by the namespace std and the binary scope resolution operator (::), as in std::string.

3.8 (Set and Get Functions) Explain why a class might provide a set function and a get function for a data member.

ANS: A data member is typically declared private in a class so that only the member functions of the class in which the data member is declared can manipulate the variable.

A class typically provides a set function and a get function for a data member to allow clients of the class to manipulate the data member in a controlled manner. A set function should validate the data it is setting to ensure that invalid data is not placed in the object. A get function can return the value of a data member without allowing clients to interact with the data member directly. In addition, set and get functions hide the internal data representation. For example, a Time class might represent the time as the total number of seconds since midnight. Such a class can provide member functions getHour, getMinute and getSecond to calculate the hour, minute and second, respectively—even if the underlying data representation does not contain hour, minute and second data members. Similarly, a Time class could provide member func-

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Chapter 3 Introduction to Classes, Objects, Member Functions and Strings tions setHour, setMinute and setSecond to set the current hour, minute or second value. This would require each set function to perform calculations that update the data member containing the total number of seconds since midnight.

3.14 (C++11 List Initializers) Write a statement that uses list initialization to initialize an object of class Account which provides a constructor that receives an unsigned int, two strings and a double to initialize the accountNumber, firstName, lastName and balance data members of a new object of the class.

ANS: Instructor note: We initially introduced the term "list initializer" in this chapter, but this was moved later before publication. This problem statement should have simply asked the reader to "Write a statement that initializes an object of class Account which provides a constructor that receives an unsigned int, two strings and a double to initialize the accountNumber, firstName, lastName and balance data members of a new object of the class."

ANS: Account account1{100, "Jane", "Green", 50.00};

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4

Algorithm Development and Control Statements: Part 1

Objectives In this chapter you’ll: ■

Learn basic problem-solving techniques.

■

Develop algorithms through the process of top-down, stepwise refinement.

■

Use the if and if…else selection statements to choose between alternative actions.

■

Use the while iteration statement to execute statements in a program repeatedly.

■

Use counter-controlled iteration and sentinelcontrolled iteration.

■

Use nested control statements.

■

Use the compound assignment operator and the increment and decrement operators.

■

Learn about the portability of fundamental data types.

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Chapter 4 Algorithm Development and Control Statements: Part 1

Self-Review Exercises 4.1

4.2

Answer each of the following questions. a) All programs can be written in terms of three types of control statements: , and .

ANS: Sequence, selection and iteration. b) The selection statement is used to execute one action when a condition is true or a different action when that condition is false.

ANS: if…else. c) Repeating a set of instructions a specific number of times is called iteration.

ANS: Counter-controlled or definite. d) When it isn’t known in advance how many times a set of statements will be repeated, value can be used to terminate the iteration. a(n) ANS: Sentinel, signal, flag or dummy.

Write four different C++ statements that each add 1 to integer variable x.

ANS: x = x + 1; x += 1; ++x; x++;

4.3

Write C++ statements to accomplish each of the following: a) In one statement, assign the sum of the current value of x and y to z and postincrement the value of x.

ANS: z = x++ + y;

b) Determine whether the value of the variable count is greater than 10. If it is, print "Count is greater than 10".

ANS: if (count > 10) { cout << "Count is greater than 10" << endl; }

c) Predecrement the variable x by 1, then subtract it from the variable total.

ANS: total -= --x;

d) Calculate the remainder after q is divided by divisor and assign the result to q. Write this statement two different ways.

ANS: q %= divisor; q = q % divisor;

4.4

Write C++ statements to accomplish each of the following tasks. a) Declare variable sum to be of type unsigned int and initialize it to 0.

ANS: unsigned int sum{0};

b) Declare variable x to be of type unsigned int and initialize it to 1.

ANS: unsigned int x{1};

c) Add variable x to variable sum and assign the result to variable sum.

ANS: sum += x;

or sum = sum + x;

d) Print "The sum is: " followed by the value of variable sum.

ANS: cout << "The sum is: " << sum << endl;

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4.5 Combine the statements that you wrote in Exercise 4.4 into a program that calculates and prints the sum of the integers from 1 to 10. Use the while statement to loop through the calculation and increment statements. The loop should terminate when the value of x becomes 11.

ANS: See the following code: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

// Exercise 4.5: Calculate.cpp // Calculate the sum of the integers from 1 to 10 #include <iostream> using namespace std; int main() { unsigned int sum{0}; unsigned int x{1}; while (x <= 10) { // while x is less than or equal to 10 sum += x; // add x to sum ++x; // increment x } cout << "The sum is: " << sum << endl; }

The sum is: 55

4.6 State the values of each of these unsigned int variables after the calculation is performed.

Assume that, when each statement begins executing, all variables have the integer value 5. a) product *= x++; ANS: product = 25, x = 6; =

b) quotient /= ++x; ANS: quotient = 0, x = 6;

4.7

Write single C++ statements or portions of statements that do the following: a) Input unsigned int variable x with cin and >>.

ANS: cin >> x;

b) Input unsigned int variable y with cin and >>.

ANS: cin >> y;

c) Declare unsigned int variable i and initialize it to 1.

ANS: unsigned int i{1};

d) Declare unsigned int variable power and initialize it to 1.

ANS: unsigned int power{1};

e) Multiply variable power by x and assign the result to power.

ANS: power *= x;

or power = power * x;

f) Preincrement variable i by 1.

ANS: ++i;

g) Determine whether i is less than or equal to y.

ANS: if (i <= y)

h) Output integer variable power with cout and <<.

ANS: cout << power << endl;

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Chapter 4 Algorithm Development and Control Statements: Part 1

4.8 Write a C++ program that uses the statements in Exercise 4.7 to calculate x raised to the y power. The program should have a while iteration statement.

ANS: See the following code: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

// Exercise 4.8 Solution: power.cpp // Raise x to the y power. #include <iostream> using namespace std; int main() { unsigned int i{1}; // initialize i to begin counting from 1 unsigned int power{1}; // initialize power cout << "Enter base as an integer: "; unsigned int x; // base cin >> x; // input base

// prompt for base

cout << "Enter exponent as an integer: "; // prompt for exponent unsigned int y; // exponent cin >> y; // input exponent // count from 1 to y and multiply power by x each time while (i <= y) { power *= x; ++i; } // end while cout << power << endl; // display result } // end main

Enter base as an integer: 2 Enter exponent as an integer: 3 8

4.9

Identify and correct the errors in each of the following: a) while (c <= 5) { product *= c; ++c;

ANS: Error: Missing the closing right brace of the while body.

Correction: Add closing right brace after the statement ++c;. b) cin << value; ANS: Error: Used stream insertion instead of stream extraction.

Correction: Change << to >>. c) if (gender == 1) { cout << "Woman" << endl; else; { cout << "Man" << endl; }

ANS: Error: Semicolon after else is a logic error. The second output statement always ex-

ecutes.

Correction: Remove the semicolon after else.

4.10

What’s wrong with the following while iteration statement?

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Exercises

5

while (z >= 0) { sum += z; }

ANS: The value of the variable z is never changed in the while statement. Therefore, if the

loop-continuation condition (z >= 0) is initially true, an infinite loop is created. To prevent the infinite loop, z must be decremented so that it eventually becomes less than 0.

Exercises 4.11

(Correct the Code Errors) Identify and correct the error(s) in each of the following: a) if (age >= 65); { cout << "Age is greater than or equal to 65" << endl; } else { cout << "Age is less than 65 << endl"; }

ANS: The semicolon at the end of the if condition should be removed. The closing double

quote after the second endl should be placed after 65. b) if (age >= 65) { cout << "Age is greater than or equal to 65" << endl; else; { cout << "Age is less than 65 << endl"; }

ANS: The semicolon after the else should be removed. The closing double quote after the

second endl should be placed after 65. c)

unsigned int x{1}; unsigned int total; while (x <= 10) { total += x; ++x; }

ANS: Variable total should be initialized to 0. d) While (x <= 100) total += x; ++x;

ANS: The W in while should be lowercase. The while’s body should be enclosed in braces {}.

e)

while (y > 0) { cout << y << endl; ++y; }

ANS: The variable y should be decremented (i.e., --y;), not incremented (++y;).

4.12

(What Does this Program Do?) What does the following program print?

ANS: The program prints the squares of the integers from 1 to 10 and the sum of those

squares. Instructor Note: We should have changed line 10 to int y{x * x}; 1 2 3

// Exercise 4.12: Mystery.cpp #include <iostream> using namespace std;

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Chapter 4 Algorithm Development and Control Statements: Part 1

int main() { unsigned int x{1}; unsigned int total{0}; while (x <= 10) { int y = x * x; cout << y << endl; total += y; ++x; } cout << "Total is " << total << endl; }

For Exercises 4.13–4.16, perform each of these steps: a) Read the problem statement. b) Formulate the algorithm using pseudocode and top-down, stepwise refinement. c) Write a C++ program. d) Test, debug and execute the C++ program.

4.13 (Gas Mileage) Drivers are concerned with the mileage obtained by their automobiles. One driver has kept track of several trips by recording miles driven and gallons used for each trip. Develop a C++ program that uses a while statement to input the miles driven and gallons used for each trip. The program should calculate and display the miles per gallon obtained for each trip and print the combined miles per gallon obtained for all tankfuls up to this point.

Enter miles driven (-1 to quit): 287 Enter gallons used: 13 MPG this trip: 22.076923 Total MPG: 22.076923 Enter miles driven (-1 to quit): 200 Enter gallons used: 10 MPG this trip: 20.000000 Total MPG: 21.173913 Enter the miles driven (-1 to quit): 120 Enter gallons used: 5 MPG this trip: 24.000000 Total MPG: 21.678571 Enter the miles used (-1 to quit): -1

ANS:

Top: Determine the current and combined miles/gallon for each trip First refinement: Initialize variables For each trip, input the miles driven and gallons used, then calculate and print the miles/gallon for that trip Calculate and print the overall average miles/gallon Second refinement: Initialize totalGallons to zero

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7

Initialize totalMiles to zero Prompt the user to enter the miles used for the first trip Input the miles used for the first trip (possibly the sentinel) While the sentinel value (-1) has not been entered for the miles Prompt the user to enter the gallons used for the current trip Input the gallons used for the current trip Add miles to the running total in totalMiles Add gallons to the running total in totalGallons If gallons is not zero Calculate and print the miles/gallon If totalGallons is not zero Calculate and print the totalMiles/totalGallons Prompt the user for the next trip’s number of miles Input the miles used for the next trip 4.14 (Credit Limits) Develop a C++ program that will determine whether a department-store customer has exceeded the credit limit on a charge account. For each customer, the following facts are available: a) Account number (an integer) b) Balance at the beginning of the month c) Total of all items charged by this customer this month d) Total of all credits applied to this customer's account this month e) Allowed credit limit The program should use a while statement to input each of these facts, calculate the new balance (= beginning balance + charges – credits) and determine whether the new balance exceeds the customer’s credit limit. For those customers whose credit limit is exceeded, the program should display the customer’s account number, credit limit, new balance and the message “Credit Limit Exceeded.”

Enter account number (or -1 to quit): 100 Enter beginning balance: 5394.78 Enter total charges: 1000.00 Enter total credits: 500.00 Enter credit limit: 5500.00 New balance is 5894.78 Account: 100 Credit limit: 5500.00 Balance: 5894.78 Credit Limit Exceeded.

Enter Account Number (or -1 to quit): 200 Enter beginning balance: 1000.00 Enter total charges: 123.45 Enter total credits: 321.00 Enter credit limit: 1500.00 New balance is 802.45 Enter Account Number (or -1 to quit): -1

ANS:

Top:

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8

Chapter 4 Algorithm Development and Control Statements: Part 1 Determine if each of an arbitrary number of department store customers has exceeded the credit limit on a charge account

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Exercises

9

First refinement: Input customer’s data For each customer, calculate and display the customer’s new balance, and display a message if user’s balance exceeds credit limit Process next customer Second refinement: Prompt the user for the first customer’s account number Input the first customer’s account number While the sentinel value (-1) has not been entered for the account number Prompt the user for the customer’s beginning balance Input the customer’s beginning balance Prompt the user for the customer’s total charges Input the customer’s total charges Prompt the user for the customer’s total credits Input the customer’s total credits Prompt the user for the customer’s credit limit Input the customer’s credit limit Calculate and display the customer’s new balance If the balance exceeds the credit limit Print the account number Print the credit limit Print the balance Print “Credit Limit Exceeded” Input the next customer’s account number 4.15 (Sales-Commission Calculator) A large company pays its salespeople on a commission basis.

The salespeople each receive $200 per week plus 9% of their gross sales for that week. For example, a salesperson who sells $5000 worth of chemicals in a week receives $200 plus 9% of $5000, or a total of $650. Develop a C++ program that uses a while statement to input each salesperson’s gross sales for last week and calculates and displays that salesperson’s earnings. Process one salesperson’s figures at a time.

Enter sales in dollars (-1 to end): 5000.00 Salary is: $650.00 Enter sales in dollars (-1 to end): 6000.00 Salary is: $740.00 Enter sales in dollars (-1 to end): 7000.00 Salary is: $830.00 Enter sales in dollars (-1 to end): -1

ANS:

Top:

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Algorithm Development and Control Statements: Part 1

For an arbitrary number of salespeople, determine each salesperson’s earnings for the previous week First refinement: For each salesperson Input the salesperson’s sales for the week Calculate and print the salesperson’s wages for the week Second refinement: Prompt the user for the first salesperson’s sales in dollars Input the first salesperson’s sales in dollars While the sentinel value (-1) has not been entered for the sales Calculate the salesperson’s wages for the week as 200 dollars added to 9 percent of the salesperson’s sales (calculated by multiplying the sales with .09) Print the salesperson’s wages for the week Prompt the user for the next salesperson’s sales in dollars Input the next salesperson’s sales in dollars 4.16 (Salary Calculator) Develop a C++ program that uses a while statement to determine the gross pay for each of several employees. The company pays “straight time” for the first 40 hours worked by each employee and pays “time-and-a-half” for all hours worked in excess of 40 hours.

You are given a list of the employees of the company, the number of hours each employee worked last week and the hourly rate of each employee. Your program should input this information for each employee and should determine and display the employee’s gross pay.

Enter hours worked (-1 to end): 39 Enter hourly rate of the employee ($00.00): 10.00 Salary is $390.00 Enter hours worked (-1 to end): 40 Enter hourly rate of the employee ($00.00): 10.00 Salary is $400.00 Enter hours worked (-1 to end): 41 Enter hourly rate of the employee ($00.00): 10.00 Salary is $415.00 Enter hours worked (-1 to end): -1

ANS:

Top: Determine the gross pay for an arbitrary number of employees First refinement: For each employee Input the hours worked Input the hourly rate Calculate and display worker’s gross pay Second refinement: Prompt the user for the hours worked for the first employee

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Exercises Input the hours worked for the first employee While the sentinel value (-1) has not been entered for the hours Prompt the user for the employee’s hourly rate Input the employee’s hourly rate If the hours input is less than or equal to 40 Calculate gross pay by multiplying hours worked by hourly rate Else Calculate gross pay by multiplying hours worked above forty by 1.5 times the hourly rate and adding 40 hours worked by the hourly rate Display the employee’s gross pay.

Input the hours worked for the next employee 4.21 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

(What Does this Program Do?) What does the following program print?

// Exercise 4.21: Mystery2.cpp #include <iostream> using namespace std; int main() { unsigned int count{1}; while (count <= 10) { cout << (count % 2 == 1 ? "****" : "++++++++") << endl; ++count; } }

ANS:

**** ++++++++ **** ++++++++ **** ++++++++ **** ++++++++ **** ++++++++

4.22 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

(What Does this Program Do?) What does the following program print?

// Exercise 4.22: Mystery3.cpp #include <iostream> using namespace std; int main() { unsigned int row{10}; while (row >= 1) { unsigned int column{1};

11

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Chapter 4

Algorithm Development and Control Statements: Part 1

while (column <= 10) { cout << (row % 2 == 1 ? "<" : ">"); ++column; } --row; cout << endl; } }

ANS:

>>>>>>>>>> <<<<<<<<<< >>>>>>>>>> <<<<<<<<<< >>>>>>>>>> <<<<<<<<<< >>>>>>>>>> <<<<<<<<<< >>>>>>>>>> <<<<<<<<<<

4.23 (Dangling-else Problem) C++ compilers always associate an else with the immediately preceding if unless told to do otherwise by the placement of braces ({ and }). This behavior can lead to what is referred to as the dangling-else problem. The indentation of the nested statement if (x > 5) if (y > 5) cout << "x and y are > 5"; else cout << "x is <= 5";

appears to indicate that if x is greater than 5, the nested if statement determines whether y is also greater than 5. If so, the statement outputs the string "x and y are > 5". Otherwise, it appears that if x is not greater than 5, the else part of the if…else outputs the string "x is <= 5". Beware! This nested if…else statement does not execute as it appears. The compiler actually interprets the statement as if (x > 5) if (y > 5) cout << "x and y are > 5"; else cout << "x is <= 5";

in which the body of the first if is a nested if…else. The outer if statement tests whether x is greater than 5. If so, execution continues by testing whether y is also greater than 5. If the second condition is true, the proper string—"x and y are > 5"—is displayed. However, if the second condition is false, the string "x is <= 5" is displayed, even though we know that x is greater than 5.

Equally bad, if the outer if statement’s condition is false, the inner if…else is skipped and nothing is displayed. For this exercise, add braces to the preceding code snippet to force the nested if…else statement to execute as it was originally intended.

ANS:

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13

if (x > 5) { if (y > 5) { cout << "x and y are > 5"; } } else { cout << "x is <= 5"; }

4.24 (Another Dangling-else Problem) Based on the dangling-else discussion in Exercise ANS: , state the output for each of the following code snippets when x is 9 and y is 11 and when x is 11 and y is 9. We eliminated the indentation from the following code to make the problem more challenging. [Hint: Apply indentation conventions you’ve learned.] a) if (x < 10) if (y > 10) cout << "*****" << endl; else cout << "#####" << endl; cout << "$$$$$" << endl;

ANS: When x is 9 and y is 11 ***** $$$$$

ANS: When x is 11 and y is 9 $$$$$

b) if (x < 10) { if (y > 10) cout << "*****" << endl; } else { cout << "#####" << endl; cout << "$$$$$" << endl; }

ANS: When x is 9 and y is 11 *****

ANS: When x is 11 and y is 9 ##### $$$$$

4.25 (Another Dangling-else Problem) Based on the dangling-else discussion in Exercise ANS: , modify the following code to produce the output shown. Use proper indentation techniques. You must not make any additional changes other than inserting braces. We eliminated the indentation from the following code to make the problem more challenging. [Note: It’s possible that no modification is necessary.] if (y == 8) if (x == 5) cout << "@@@@@" << endl; else cout << "#####" << endl; cout << "$$$$$" << endl; cout << "&&&&&" << endl;

a) Assuming x = 5 and y = 8, the following output is produced.

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@@@@@ $$$$$ &&&&&

ANS: if (y == 8) { if (x == 5) { cout << "@@@@@" << endl; } else { cout << "#####" << endl; } } cout << "$$$$$" << endl; cout << "&&&&&" << endl << endl;

b) Assuming x = 5 and y = 8, the following output is produced. @@@@@

ANS: if (y == 8) { if (x == 5) { cout << "@@@@@" << endl; } else { cout << "#####" << endl; cout << "$$$$$" << endl; cout << "&&&&&" << endl; } }

c) Assuming x = 5 and y = 8, the following output is produced. @@@@@ &&&&&

ANS: if (y == 8) { if (x == 5) { cout << "@@@@@" << endl; } else { cout << "#####" << endl; cout << "$$$$$" << endl; } } cout << "&&&&&" << endl << endl;

d) Assuming x = 5 and y = 7, the following output is produced. [Note: The last three output statements after the else are all part of a block.]

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Exercises

15

##### $$$$$ &&&&&

ANS: if (y == 8) { if (x == 5) { cout << "@@@@@" << endl; } } else { cout << "#####" << endl; cout << "$$$$$" << endl; cout << "&&&&&" << endl; }

4.32 What’s wrong with the following statement? Provide the correct statement to accomplish what the programmer was probably trying to do. cout << ++(x + y);

ANS: The ++ operator must be used in conjunction with variables. The programmer prob-

ably intended to write the statement: cout << x + y + 1;.

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Algorithm Development and Control Statements: Part 1

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5

Control Statements: Part 2; Logical Operators

Objectives In this chapter you’ll: ■

Learn the essentials of counter-controlled iteration.

■

Use the for and do…while iteration statements to execute statements in a program repeatedly.

■

Understand multiple selection using the switch selection statement.

■

Use the break and continue program-control statements to alter the flow of control.

■

Use the logical operators to form compound conditions in control statements.

■

Understand the representational errors associated with using floating-point data types to hold monetary values.

■

Understand some of the challenges of processing monetary amounts as we begin building a DollarAmount class, which uses integers and integer arithmetic to represent and manipulate monetary amounts.

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Chapter 5 Control Statements: Part 2; Logical Operators

Self-Review Exercises 5.1

Fill in the blanks in each of the following statements: a) Typically, statements are used for counter-controlled iteration and statements for sentinel-controlled iteration.

ANS: for, while. b) The do…while statement tests the loop-continuation condition executing the loop’s body; therefore, the body always executes at least once.

ANS: after. c) The statement selects among multiple actions based on the possible values of an integer variable or expression.

ANS: switch. d) The statement, when executed in an iteration statement, skips the remaining statements in the loop body and proceeds with the next iteration of the loop.

ANS: continue. e) The operator can be used to ensure that two conditions are both true before choosing a certain path of execution.

ANS: && (conditional AND). f) If the loop-continuation condition in a for header is initially , the program does not execute the for statement’s body.

ANS: false.

5.2

State whether each of the following is true or false. If the answer is false, explain why. a) The default case is required in the switch selection statement.

ANS: False. The default case is optional. Nevertheless, it’s considered good software engineering to always provide a default case. b) The break statement is required in the default case of a switch selection statement to exit the switch properly.

ANS: False. The break statement is used to exit the switch statement. The break statement is not required when the default case is the last case. Nor will the break statement be required if having control proceed with the next case makes sense. c) The expression (x > y && a < b) is true if either the expression x > y is true or the expression a < b is true.

ANS: False. When using the && operator, both of the relational expressions must be true for the entire expression to be true. d) An expression containing the || operator is true if either or both of its operands are true.

ANS: True.

5.3

Write a C++ statement or a set of C++ statements to accomplish each of the following: a) Sum the odd integers between 1 and 99 using a for statement. Use the unsigned int variables sum and count.

ANS: unsigned int sum{0}; for (unsigned int count{1}; count <= 99; count += 2) { sum += count; }

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3

b) Print the value 333.546372 in a 15-character field with precisions of 1, 2 and 3. Print each number on the same line. Left-justify each number in its field. What three values print?

ANS: cout << fixed << left << setprecision(1) << setw(15) << 333.546372 << setprecision(2) << setw(15) << 333.546372 << setprecision(3) << setw(15) << 333.546372 << endl;

Output is: 333.5

333.55

333.546

c) Calculate the value of 2.5 raised to the power 3 using function pow. Print the result with a precision of 2 in a field width of 10 positions. What prints?

ANS: cout << fixed << setprecision(2) << setw(10) << pow(2.5, 3) << endl;

Output is: 15.63

d) Print the integers from 1 to 20 using a while loop and the unsigned int counter variable x. Print only 5 integers per line. [Hint: When x % 5 is 0, print a newline character; otherwise, print a tab character.]

ANS: unsigned int x{1}; while (x <= 20) { if (x % 5 == 0) { cout << x << endl; } else { cout << x << '\t'; } ++x; }

e) Repeat Exercise 5.3(d) using a for statement.

ANS: for (unsigned int x = 1; x <= 20; ++x) { if (x % 5 == 0) { cout << x << endl; } else { cout << x << '\t'; } }

5.4

Find the errors in each of the following code segments and explain how to correct them. a) unsigned int x{1}; while (x <= 10); { ++x; }

ANS: Error: The semicolon after the while header causes an infinite loop.

Correction: Delete the semicolon after the while header.

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4

Chapter 5 Control Statements: Part 2; Logical Operators b) for (double y{0.1}; y != 1.0; y += .1) { cout << y << endl; }

ANS: Error: Using a floating-point number to control a for iteration statement.

Correction: Use an unsigned int and perform the proper calculation to get the values. for (unsigned int y = 1; y != 10; ++y) { cout << (static_cast<double>(y) / 10) << endl; }

c)

switch (n) { case 1: cout << "The number is 1" << endl; case 2: cout << "The number is 2" << endl; break; default: cout << "The number is not 1 or 2" << endl; }

ANS: Error: Missing break statement in the first case.

Correction: Add a break statement at the end of the first case. This is not an error if you want the statement of case 2: to execute every time the case 1: statement executes. d) The following code should print the values 1 to 10. unsigned int n{1}; while (n < 10) { cout << n++ << endl; }

ANS: Error: Improper relational operator used in the loop-continuation condition.

Correction: Use <= rather than <, or change 10 to 11.

Exercises NOTE: Solutions to the programming exercises are located in the ch05solutions folder.

5.5

Describe the four basic elements of counter-controlled iteration.

ANS: The four elements of counter-controlled repetition are: a control variable (or loop

counter); the control variable’s initial value; the control variable’s increment that’s applied during each iteration of the loop and the loop-continuation condition that determines if looping should continue.

5.6 Compare and contrast the while and for iteration statements.

ANS: Both iteration statements execute their bodies zero or more times. The for statement can declare all the elements of counter-controlled repetition in its header, whereas the while statement header contains only a required loop-continuation condition. In the for statement, eliminating the loop-continuation condition results in an infinite loop, whereas in a while statement this is a syntax error.

5.7 Discuss a situation in which it would be more appropriate to use a do…while statement than a while statement. Explain why.

ANS: A do…while statement executes its body zero or more times, so if you want to guarantee that the loop body executes at least once, you’d choose a do…while statement over a while statement.

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5

Compare and contrast the break and continue statements.

5.8

ANS: The break statement terminates a switch or a loop immediately. The continue state-

ment terminates the current iteration of a loop and moves to the next iteration.

(Find the Code Errors) Find the error(s), if any, in each of the following: a) For (unsigned int x{100}, x >= 1, ++x) {

5.9

cout << x << endl; }

ANS: For should be for. The commas should be semicolons. The ++ should be a decre-

ment such as --. b) The following code should print whether integer value is odd or even: switch (value % 2) { case 0: cout << "Even integer" << endl; case 1: cout << "Odd integer" << endl; }

ANS: case 0 needs a break statement.

c) The following code should output the odd integers from 19 to 1: for (unsigned int x{19}; x >= 1; x += 2) { cout << x << endl; }

ANS: += should be -=. d) The following code should output the even integers from 2 to 100: unsigned int counter{2}; do { cout << counter << endl; counter += 2; } While (counter < 100);

ANS: While should be while. Operator < should be <=.

5.10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

What does the following program do?

// Exercise 5.10: Printing.cpp #include <iostream> using namespace std; int main() { for (int i{1}; i <= 10; i++) { for (int j{1}; j <= 5; j++) { cout << '@'; } cout << endl; } }

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6

Chapter 5 Control Statements: Part 2; Logical Operators ANS: This program outputs 10 rows of five @ symbols. Ouput:

@@@@@ @@@@@ @@@@@ @@@@@ @@@@@ @@@@@ @@@@@ @@@@@ @@@@@ @@@@@

5.18

Assume that i = 1, j = 2, k = 3 and m = 2. What does each of the following statements print? a) cout << (i == 1) << endl; ANS: 1. b) cout << (j == 3) << endl; ANS: 0. c) cout << (i >= 1 && j < 4) << endl; ANS: 1. d) cout << (m <= 99 && k < m) << endl; ANS: 0. e) cout << (j >= i || k == m) << endl; ANS: 1. f) cout << (k + m < j || 3 - j >= k) << endl; ANS: 0. g) cout << (!m ) << endl; ANS: 0. h) cout << (!(j - m)) << endl; ANS: 1. i) cout << (!(k > m)) << endl; ANS: 0.

5.26

What does the following program segment do? for (unsigned int i{1}; i <= 5; i++) { for (unsigned int j{1}; j <= 3; j++) { for (unsigned int k{1}; k <= 4; k++) { cout << '*'; } cout << endl; } cout << endl; }

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Exercises

7

ANS:

**** **** **** **** **** **** **** **** **** **** **** **** **** **** ****

5.27 (Replacing continue with a Structured Equivalent) Describe in general how you’d remove any continue statement from a loop in a program and replace it with some structured equivalent.

Use the technique you develop here to remove the continue statement from the program in Fig. 5.14.

ANS: A loop can be rewritten without a continue statement by moving all the code that appears in the body of the loop after the continue statement to an if statement that tests for the opposite of the continue condition. Thus, the code that was originally after the continue statement executes only when the if statement’s conditional expression is true (i.e., the “continue” condition is false). When the “continue” condition is true, the body of the if does not execute and the program “continues” to the next iteration of the loop by not executing the remaining code in the loop’s body.

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Functions and an Introduction to Recursion

6 Objectives In this chapter you’ll: ■ Construct programs modularly from functions.

■ Use common math library functions.

■ Use function prototypes to declare a function.

■ Use random-number generation to implement game-playing applications.

■ Use C++14 digit separators to make numeric literals more readable ■ Understand how the visibility of identifiers is limited to specific regions of programs.

■ Understand how the function call/return mechanism is supported by the function-call stack and activation records.

■ Understand the mechanisms for passing data to functions and returning results.

■ Use inline functions, references and default arguments.

■ Define with the same name overloaded functions that perform different tasks based on the number and types of their arguments.

■ Define function templates that can generate families of overloaded functions.

■ Write and use recursive functions.

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2

Chapter 6 Functions and an Introduction to Recursion

Self-Review Exercises 6.1

Answer each of the following: a) Program components in C++ are called and .

ANS: functions, classes. . b) A function is invoked with a(n) ANS: function call. c) A variable known only within the function in which it’s defined is called a(n) .

ANS: local variable. d) The statement in a called function passes the value of an expression back to the calling function.

ANS: return. e) The keyword is used in a function header to indicate that a function does not return a value or to indicate that a function contains no parameters.

ANS: void. f) An identifier’s is the portion of the program in which the identifier can be used.

ANS: scope. , g) The three ways to return control from a called function to a caller are and .

ANS: return;, return expression; or encounter the closing right brace of a function. h) A(n) allows the compiler to check the number, types and order of the arguments passed to a function.

ANS: function prototype. i) Function is used to produce random numbers.

ANS: rand. is used to set the random-number seed to randomize the number j) Function sequence generated by function rand.

ANS: srand. variable. k) A variable declared outside any block or function is a(n) ANS: global. l) For a local variable in a function to retain its value between calls to the function, it must . be declared ANS: static. m) A function that calls itself either directly or indirectly (i.e., through another function) function. is a(n) ANS: recursive. n) A recursive function typically has two components—one that provides a means for the case and one that expresses the probrecursion to terminate by testing for a(n) lem as a recursive call for a slightly simpler problem than the original call.

ANS: base. o) It’s possible to have various functions with the same name that operate on different . types or numbers of arguments. This is called function ANS: overloading. enables access to a global variable with the same name as a variable in the p) The current scope.

ANS: unary scope resolution operator (::). qualifier is used to declare read-only variables. q) The ANS: const. r) A function enables a single function to be defined to perform a task on many different data types.

ANS:

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Self-Review Exercises

3

6.2 For the program in Fig. 6.1, state the scope (global namespace scope or block scope) of each of the following elements: a) The variable x in main.

ANS: block scope. b) The variable y in function cube’s definition.

ANS: block scope. c) The function cube.

ANS: global namespace scope. d) The function main.

ANS: global namespace scope. e) The function prototype for cube.

ANS: global namespace scope.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

// Exercise 6.2: ex06_02.cpp #include <iostream> using namespace std; int cube(int y); // function prototype int main() { int x{0}; for (x = 1; x <= 10; x++) { // loop 10 times cout << cube(x) << endl; // calculate cube of x and output results } } // definition of function cube int cube(int y) { return y * y * y; }

Fig. 6.1 | Program for Exercise 6.2.

6.3 Write a program that tests whether the examples of the math library function calls shown in Fig. 6.2 actually produce the indicated results.

ANS: See the following program: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

// Exercise 6.3: ex06_03.cpp // Testing the math library functions. #include <iostream> #include <iomanip> #include <cmath> using namespace std; int main() { cout << fixed << setprecision(1); cout << "sqrt(" << 9.0 << ") = " << sqrt(9.0); cout << "\nexp(" << 1.0 << ") = " << setprecision(6) << exp(1.0) << "\nexp(" << setprecision(1) << 2.0 << ") = " << setprecision(6) << exp(2.0); cout << "\nlog(" << 2.718282 << ") = " << setprecision(1) << log(2.718282) << "\nlog(" << setprecision(6) << 7.389056 << ") = " << setprecision(1) << log(7.389056);

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4

Chapter 6 Functions and an Introduction to Recursion

19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37

cout << "\nlog10(" << 10.0 << ") = " << log10(10.0) << "\nlog10(" << 100.0 << ") = " << log10(100.0) ; cout << "\nfabs(" << 5.1 << ") = " << fabs(5.1) << "\nfabs(" << 0.0 << ") = " << fabs(0.0) << "\nfabs(" << -8.76 << ") = " << fabs(-8.76); cout << "\nceil(" << 9.2 << ") = " << ceil(9.2) << "\nceil(" << -9.8 << ") = " << ceil(-9.8); cout << "\nfloor(" << 9.2 << ") = " << floor(9.2) << "\nfloor(" << -9.8 << ") = " << floor(-9.8); cout << "\npow(" << 2.0 << ", " << 7.0 << ") = " << pow(2.0, 7.0) << "\npow(" << 9.0 << ", " << 0.5 << ") = " << pow(9.0, 0.5); cout << setprecision(3) << "\nfmod(" << 2.6 << ", " << 1.2 << ") = " << fmod(2.6, 1.2) << setprecision(1); cout << "\nsin(" << 0.0 << ") = " << sin(0.0); cout << "\ncos(" << 0.0 << ") = " << cos(0.0); cout << "\ntan(" << 0.0 << ") = " << tan(0.0) << endl; }

sqrt(9.0) = 3.0 exp(1.0) = 2.718282 exp(2.0) = 7.389056 log(2.718282) = 1.0 log(7.389056) = 2.0 log10(10.0) = 1.0 log10(100.0) = 2.0 fabs(5.1) = 5.1 fabs(0.0) = 0.0 fabs(-8.8) = 8.8 ceil(9.2) = 10.0 ceil(-9.8) = -9.0 floor(9.2) = 9.0 floor(-9.8) = -10.0 pow(2.0, 7.0) = 128.0 pow(9.0, 0.5) = 3.0 fmod(2.600, 1.200) = 0.200 sin(0.0) = 0.0 cos(0.0) = 1.0 tan(0.0) = 0.0

6.4

Give the function header for each of the following functions: a) Function hypotenuse that takes two double-precision, floating-point arguments, side1 and side2, and returns a double-precision, floating-point result.

ANS: double hypotenuse(double side1, double side2)

b) Function smallest that takes three integers, x, y and z, and returns an integer.

ANS: int smallest(int x, int y, int z)

c) Function instructions that does not receive any arguments and does not return a value. [Note: Such functions are commonly used to display instructions to a user.]

ANS: void instructions()

d) Function intToDouble that takes an integer argument, number, and returns a doubleprecision, floating-point result.

ANS: double intToDouble(int number)

6.5

Give the function prototype (without parameter names) for each of the following: a) The function described in Exercise 6.4(a).

ANS: double hypotenuse(double, double);

b) The function described in Exercise 6.4(b).

ANS: int smallest(int, int, int);

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Self-Review Exercises

5

c) The function described in Exercise 6.4(c).

ANS: void instructions();

d) The function described in Exercise 6.4(d).

ANS: double intToDouble(int);

6.6 Write a declaration for double-precision, floating-point variable lastVal that should retain its value between calls to the function in which it’s defined.

ANS: static double lastVal;

6.7 Find the error(s) in each of the following program segments, and explain how the error(s) can be corrected (see also Exercise 6.46): a) void g() { cout << "Inside function g" << endl; void h() { cout << "Inside function h" << endl; } }

ANS: Error: Function h is defined in function g.

Correction: Move the definition of h out of the definition of g. b) int sum(int x, int y) { int result{0}; result = x + y; }

ANS: Error: The function is supposed to return an integer, but does not.

Correction: Place a return result; statement at the end of the function’s body or delete variable result and place the following statement in the function: return x + y;

c)

int sum(int n) { // assume n is nonnegative if (0 == n) return 0; else n + sum(n - 1); }

ANS: Error: The result of n + sum(n - 1) is not returned; sum returns an improper result.

Correction: Rewrite the statement in the else clause as return n + sum(n - 1);

d) void f(double a); { float a; cout << a << endl; }

ANS: Errors: Semicolon after the right parenthesis that encloses the parameter list, and re-

defining the parameter a in the function definition.

Corrections: Delete the semicolon after the right parenthesis of the parameter list, and delete the declaration float a;.

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6

Chapter 6 Functions and an Introduction to Recursion e)

void product() { int a{0}; int b{0}; int c{0}; cout << "Enter three integers: "; cin >> a >> b >> c; int result{a * b * c}; cout << "Result is " << result; return result; }

ANS: Error: The function returns a value when it isn’t supposed to.

Correction: Eliminate the return statement or change the return type.

Why would a function prototype contain a parameter type declaration such as double&?

6.8

ANS:

(True/False) All arguments to function calls in C++ are passed by value.

6.9

ANS: This creates a reference parameter of type “reference to double” that enables the func-

tion to modify the original variable in the calling function.

6.10 Write a complete program that prompts the user for the radius of a sphere, and calculates and prints the volume of that sphere. Use an inline function sphereVolume that returns the result of the following expression: (4.0 / 3.0 * 3.14159 * pow(radius, 3)).

ANS: See the following program: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23

// Exercise 6.10 Solution: ex06_10.cpp // Inline function that calculates the volume of a sphere. #include <iostream>

#include <cmath> using namespace std; const double PI{3.14159}; // define global constant PI // calculates volume of a sphere inline double sphereVolume(const double radius) { return 4.0 / 3.0 * PI * pow(radius, 3); } int main() { // prompt user for radius cout << "Enter the length of the radius of your sphere: "; double radiusValue; cin >> radiusValue; // input radius // use radiusValue to calculate volume of sphere and display result cout << "Volume of sphere with radius " << radiusValue << " is " << sphereVolume(radiusValue) << endl; }

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Exercises

7

Exercises NOTE: Solutions to the programming exercises are located in the ch06solutions folder.

6.11

Show the value of x after each of the following statements is performed: a) x = fabs(7.5); ANS: 7.5 b) x = floor(7.5); ANS: 7.0 c) x = fabs(0.0); ANS: 0.0 d) x = ceil(0.0); ANS: 0.0 e) x = fabs(-6.4); ANS: 6.4 f) x = ceil(-6.4); ANS: -6.0 g) x = ceil(-fabs(-8 + floor(-5.5))); ANS: -14.0

6.15

(Short-Answer Questions) Answer each of the following questions: a) What does it mean to choose numbers “at random?”

ANS: Every number has an equal chance of being chosen at any time. b) Why is the rand function useful for simulating games of chance?

ANS: Because it produces a sequence of pseudorandom numbers that appears to be random. c) Why would you randomize a program by using srand? Under what circumstances is it desirable not to randomize?

ANS: The sequence of numbers produced by the random number generator differ each time function srand is called. Not randomizing is useful for debugging purposes— the programmer knows the sequence of numbers. d) Why is it often necessary to scale or shift the values produced by rand?

ANS: To produce random values in a specific range. e) Why is computerized simulation of real-world situations a useful technique?

ANS: It enables more accurate predictions of random events such as cars arriving at a toll booth, people arriving in lines, birds arriving at a tree, etc. The results of a simulation can help determine how many toll booths to have open or how many cashiers to have open at specified times.

6.16 (Random Numbers) Write statements that assign random integers to the variable n in the following ranges: a) 1 ≤ n ≤ 2 ANS: n = 1 + rand() % 2;

b) 1 ≤ n ≤ 100

ANS: n = 1 + rand() % 100;

c) 0 ≤ n ≤ 9

ANS: n = rand() % 10;

d) 1000 ≤ n ≤ 1112

ANS: n = 1000 + rand() % 113;

e) –1 ≤ n ≤ 1

ANS: n = rand() % 3 - 1;

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8

Chapter 6 Functions and an Introduction to Recursion f) –3 ≤ n ≤ 11 ANS: n = rand() % 15 - 3;

6.17 (Random Numbers) Write a single statement that prints a number at random from each of the following sets: a) 2, 4, 6, 8, 10.

ANS: cout << 2 * (1 + rand() % 5)) << ’\n’;

b) 3, 5, 7, 9, 11.

ANS: cout << 1 + 2 * (1 + rand() % 5)) << ’\n’;

c) 6, 10, 14, 18, 22.

ANS: cout << 6 + 4 * (rand() % 5) << ’\n’;

6.43 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

What does the following program do?

// Exercise 6.43: ex06_43.cpp // What does this program do? #include <iostream> using namespace std; int mystery(int, int); // function prototype int main() { cout << "Enter two integers: "; int x{0}; int y{0};

cin >> x >> y; cout << "The result is " << mystery(x, y) << endl; } // Parameter b must be a positive integer to prevent infinite recursion int mystery(int a, int b) { if (1 == b) { // base case return a; } else { // recursion step return a + mystery(a, b - 1); } }

ANS: This program multiplies two integers recursively.

Enter two integers: 8 2 The result is 16

6.46 (Find the Error) Find the error in each of the following program segments and explain how to correct it: a) float cube(float); // function prototype cube(float number) { // function definition return number * number * number; }

ANS: Error: The function definition defaults to a return type of int.

Correction: Specify a return type of float for the function definition.

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Exercises

9

b) int randomNumber{srand()}; ANS: Error: Function srand takes an unsigned argument and does not return a value.

Correction: Use rand instead of srand. c) float y{123.45678}; int x; x = y; cout << static_cast<float>(x) << endl;

ANS: Error: The assignment of y to x truncates decimal places.

Correction: Declare x as type float instead of int and remove the now-redundant static_cast. d) double square(double number) { double number{0}; return number * number; }

ANS: Error: Variable number is declared twice.

Correction: Remove the declaration of variable number within the {}. e)

int sum(int n) { if (0 == n) { return 0; } else { return n + sum(n); } }

ANS: Error: Infinite recursion.

Correction: Change sum(n) to sum(n - 1).

6.50 ator?

(Unary Scope Resolution Operator) What’s the purpose of the unary scope resolution operANS: The unary scope resolution operator is used to access a global variable. In particular,

the unary scope resolution operator is useful when a programmer needs to access a global variable when a local variable exists with the same name.

6.53 (Find the Error) Determine whether the following program segments contain errors. For each error, explain how it can be corrected. [Note: For a particular program segment, it’s possible that no errors are present.] a) template <typename A> int sum(int num1, int num2, int num3) { return num1 + num2 + num3; }

ANS: Error: The function return type and parameter types are int.

Correction: The function return type and parameter types should be A or the function should not be a template. b) void printResults(int x, int y) { cout << "The sum is " << x + y << '\n'; return x + y; }

ANS: Error: The function specifies a void return type and attempts to return a value.

Two possible solutions: (1) change void to int, or (2) remove the line return x + y;.

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10

Chapter 6 c)

Functions and an Introduction to Recursion

template <A> A product(A num1, A num2, A num3) { return num1 * num2 * num3; }

ANS: Error: Keyword class is missing in the template declaration.

Correction: Insert keyword class (or keyword typename), as in template <class A>. d) double cube(int); int cube(int);

ANS: Error: The signatures are not different. Overloaded functions must have different sig-

natures—the name and/or parameter list must be different. If only the returns types differ, the compiler generates an error message.

Correction: Change either the name or parameter list of one of the functions.

6.55 (C++11 Scoped enum) Create a scoped enum named AccountType containing constants named SAVINGS, CHECKING and INVESTMENT. ANS: enum class AccountType {SAVINGS, CHECKING, INVESTMENT};

6.56 (Function Prototypes and Definitions) Explain the difference between a function prototype and a function definition.

ANS: A function prototype tells the compiler the name of a function and the type of data returned by the function. A prototype also describes any additional data required by the function to perform its task (i.e., the function’s parameters). A prototype does not contain code to make the function perform the task—it merely "outlines" the function so that the compiler can verify that programs call the function correctly. A function definition contains the actual code that executes to perform the function’s specified task when the function is called. Parameter names are optional in the function prototype.

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Class Templates array and vector; Catching Exceptions

7 Objectives In this chapter you’ll: ■

Use C++ Standard Library class template array—a fixed-size collection of related data items.

■

Declare arrays, initialize arrays and refer to the elements of arrays.

■

Use arrays to store, sort and search lists and tables of values.

■

Use the range-based for statement.

■

Pass arrays to functions.

■

Use C++ Standard Library function sort to arrange array elements in ascending order.

■

Use C++ Standard Library function binary_search to locate an element in a sorted array.

■

Declare and manipulate multidimensional arrays.

■

Use one- and twodimensional arrays to build a real-world GradeBook class.

■

Use C++ Standard Library class template vector—a variable-size collection of related data items.

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2

Chapter 7 Class Templates array and vector; Catching Exceptions

Self-Review Exercises 7.1

(Fill in the Blanks) Answer each of the following: a) Lists and tables of values can be stored in or .

ANS: arrays, vectors. and b) An array’s elements are related by the fact that they have the same .

ANS: array name, type. . c) The number used to refer to a particular element of an array is called its ANS: subscript or index. d) A(n) should be used to declare the size of an array, because it eliminates magic numbers.

ANS: constant variable. e) The process of placing the elements of an array in order is called the array.

ANS: sorting. f) The process of determining if an array contains a particular key value is called the array.

ANS: searching. g) An array that uses two subscripts is referred to as a(n) array.

ANS: two-dimensional.

7.2 why.

(True or False) State whether the following are true or false. If the answer is false, explain a) A given array can store many different types of values.

ANS: False. An array can store only values of the same type.

b) An array subscript should normally be of data type float.

ANS: False. An array subscript should be an integer or an integer expression. c) If there are fewer initializers in an initializer list than the number of elements in the array, the remaining elements are initialized to the last value in the initializer list.

ANS: False. The remaining elements are initialized to zero. d) It’s an error if an initializer list has more initializers than there are elements in the array.

ANS: True.

7.3 (Write C++ Statements) Write one or more statements that perform the following tasks for an array called fractions: a) Define a constant variable arraySize to represent the size of an array and initialize it to 10.

ANS: const size_t arraySize{10};

b) Declare an array with arraySize elements of type double, and initialize the elements to 0.

ANS: array<double, arraySize> fractions{0.0};

c) Name the fourth element of the array.

ANS: fractions[3]

d) Refer to array element 4.

ANS: fractions[4]

e) Assign the value 1.667 to array element 9.

ANS: fractions[9] = 1.667;

f) Assign the value 3.333 to the seventh element of the array.

ANS: fractions[6] = 3.333;

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Self-Review Exercises

3

g) Display array elements 6 and 9 with two digits of precision to the right of the decimal point, and show the output that’s actually displayed on the screen.

ANS: cout << fixed << setprecision(2); cout << fractions[6] << ' ' << fractions[9] << endl;

Output: 3.33 1.67 h) Display all the array elements using a counter-controlled for statement. Define the integer variable i as a control variable for the loop. Show the output.

ANS: for (size_t i{0}; i < fractions.size(); ++i) { cout << "fractions[" << i << "] = " << fractions[i] << endl; }

Output: fractions[0] = 0.0 fractions[1] = 0.0 fractions[2] = 0.0 fractions[3] = 0.0 fractions[4] = 0.0 fractions[5] = 0.0 fractions[6] = 3.333 fractions[7] = 0.0 fractions[8] = 0.0 fractions[9] = 1.667

i) Display all the array elements separated by spaces using a range-based for statement.

ANS: for (double element : fractions) cout << element << ' ';

7.4 (Two-Dimensional array Questions) Answer the following questions regarding a two-dimensional array called table: a) Declare the array to store int values and to have 3 rows and 3 columns. Assume that the constant variable arraySize has been defined to be 3.

ANS: array<array<int, arraySize>, arraySize> table;

b) How many elements does the array contain?

ANS: Nine. c) Use a counter-controlled for statement to initialize each element of the array to the sum of its subscripts.

ANS: for (size_t row{0}; row < table.size(); ++row) { for (size_t column{0}; column < table[row].size(); ++column) { table[row][column] = row + column; } }

d) Write a nested for statement that displays the values of each element of array table in tabular format with 3 rows and 3 columns. Each row and column should be labeled with the row or column number. Assume that the array was initialized with an initializer list containing the values from 1 through 9 in order. Show the output.

ANS: cout << "

[0]

[1]

[2]" << endl;

for (size_t i{0}; i < arraySize; ++i) { cout << '[' << i << "] "; for (size_t j{0}; j < arraySize; ++j) { cout << setw(3) << table[i][j] << " } cout << endl; }

";

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4

Chapter 7 Class Templates array and vector; Catching Exceptions Output:

7.5

[0]

[1]

[2]

[0]

1

2

3

[1]

4

5

6

[2]

7

8

9

(Find the Error) Find and correct the error in each of the following program segments: a) #include <iostream>; ANS: Error: Semicolon at end of #include preprocessing directive.

Correction: Eliminate semicolon. b) arraySize = 10; // arraySize was declared const ANS: Error: Assigning a value to a constant variable using an assignment statement.

Correction: Initialize the constant variable in a const size_t arraySize declaration. c) Assume that array<int, 10> b{}; for (size_t i{0}; i <= b.size(); ++i) { b[i] = 1; }

ANS: Error: Referencing an array element outside the bounds of the array (b[10]).

Correction: Change the loop-continuation condition to use < rather than <=. d) Assume that a is a two-dimensional array of int values with two rows and two columns: a[1, 1] = 5; ANS: Error: array subscripting done incorrectly.

Correction: Change the statement to a[1][1] = 5;

Exercises 7.6

(Fill in the Blanks) Fill in the blanks in each of the following: a) The names of the four elements of array p are , , and .

ANS: p[0], p[1], p[2], p[3] b) Naming an array, stating its type and specifying the number of elements in the array is called the array.

ANS: declaring. c) When accessing an array element, by convention, the first subscript in a two-dimensional array identifies an element’s and the second subscript identifies an el. ement’s ANS: row, column. d) An m-by-n array contains rows, columns and elements.

ANS: m, n, m × n. e) The name of the element in row 3 and column 5 of array d is .

ANS: d[3][5].

7.7

(True or False) Determine whether each of the following is true or false. If false, explain why. a) To refer to a particular location or element within an array, we specify the name of the array and the value of the particular element.

ANS: False. The name of the array and the subscript of the array are specified. b) An array definition reserves space for an array.

ANS: True.

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Exercises

5

c) To reserve 100 locations for integer array p, you write p[100];

ANS: False. A data type must be specified. An example of a correct definition would be: array<int, 100> p;

d) A for statement must be used to initialize the elements of a 15-element array to zero.

ANS: False. The array can be initialized in a declaration with a member initializer list. e) Nested for statements must be used to total the elements of a two-dimensional array.

ANS: False. The sum of the elements can be obtained without for statements, with one for statement, three for statements, etc.

7.8

(Write C++ Statements) Write C++ statements to accomplish each of the following: a) Display the value of element 6 of character array alphabet.

ANS: cout << alphabet[6] << '\n';

b) Input a value into element 4 of one-dimensional floating-point array grades.

ANS: cin >> grades[4];

c) Initialize each of the 5 elements of one-dimensional integer array values to 8.

ANS: array<int, 5> values{8, 8, 8, 8, 8};

d) Total and display the elements of floating-point array temperatures of 100 elements.

ANS: double total{0.0}; for (int k{0}; k < 100; ++k) { total += temperatures[k]; cout << temperatures[k] << '\n'; }

or double total{0.0}; for (int temp : temperatures) { total += temp; cout << temp << '\n'; }

e) Copy array a into the first portion of array b. Assume that both arrays contain doubles and that arrays a and b have 11 and 34 elements, respectively.

ANS: for (int i{0}; i < 11; ++i) { b[i] = a[i]; }

f) Determine and display the smallest and largest values contained in 99-element floatingpoint array w.

ANS: double smallest{w[0]}; double largest{w[0]}; for (int j{1}; j < 99; ++j) { if (w[j] < smallest) { smallest = w[j]; } else if (w[j] > largest) { largest = w[j]; } } cout << smallest << ' ' << largest;

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6

Chapter 7 Class Templates array and vector; Catching Exceptions or you could write the loop as for (double element : w) { if (element < smallest) { smallest = element; } else if (element > largest) { largest = element; } } // end for

7.9

(Two-Dimensional array Questions) Consider a 2-by-3 integer array t. a) Write a declaration for t.

ANS: array<array<int, 3>, 2> t;

b) How many rows does t have?

ANS: 2 c) How many columns does t have?

ANS: 3 d) How many elements does t have?

ANS: 6 e) Write the names of all the elements in row 1 of t.

ANS: t[1][0], t[1][1], t[1][2]

f) Write the names of all the elements in column 2 of t.

ANS: t[0][2], t[1][2]

g) Write a statement that sets the element of t in the first row and second column to zero.

ANS: t[0][1] = 0;

h) Write a series of statements that initialize each element of t to zero. Do not use a loop.

ANS: t[0][0] = 0; t[0][1] = 0; t[0][2] = 0; t[1][0] = 0; t[1][1] = 0; t[1][2] = 0;

i) Write a nested counter-controlled for statement that initializes each element of t to zero.

ANS: for (int i{0}; i < 2; ++i) { for (int j{0}; j < 3; ++j) { t[i][j] = 0; } }

j) Write a nested range-based for statement that initializes each element of t to zero.

ANS: for (auto& row : t) { for (auto& element : row) { element = 0; } }

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Exercises

7

k) Write a statement that inputs the values for the elements of t from the keyboard.

ANS: for (int i{0}; i < 2; ++i) { for (int j{0}; j < 3; ++j) { cin >> t[i][j]; } }

l) Write a series of statements that determine and display the smallest value in array t.

ANS: int smallest{t[0][0]}; for (int i{0}; i < 2; ++i) { for (int j{0}; j < 3; ++j) { if (t[i][j] < smallest) { smallest = t[i][j]; } } } cout << smallest;

m) Write a statement that displays the elements in row 0 of t.

ANS: cout << t[0][0] << ' ' << t[0][1] << ' ' << t[0][2] << '\n';

n) Write a statement that totals the elements in column 2 of t.

ANS: int total{t[0][2] + t[1][2]};

o) Write a series of statements that prints the array t in neat, tabular format. List the column subscripts as headings across the top and list the row subscripts at the left of each row.

ANS: cout << "

0

1

2\n";

for (int r{0}; r < 2; ++r) { cout << r << ' '; for (int c{0}; c < 3; ++c) { cout << t[r][c] << " "; } cout << '\n'; }

7.11 (One-Dimensional array Questions) Write statements that perform the following one-dimensional array operations: a) Initialize the 10 elements of integer array counts to zero.

ANS: array<int, 10> t{};

b) Add 1 to each of the 15 elements of integer array bonus.

ANS: for (int i{0}; i < 15; ++i) { ++bonus[i]; } or for (int& element : bonus) { ++element; }

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8

Chapter 7 Class Templates array and vector; Catching Exceptions c) Read 12 values for the array of doubles named monthlyTemperatures from the keyboard.

ANS: for (int p{0}; p < 12; ++p) { cin >> monthlyTemperatures[p]; } or for (int& element : monthlyTemperatures) { cin >> element; }

d) Print the 5 values of integer array bestScores in column format.

ANS: for (int u{0}; u < 5; ++u) { cout << bestScores[u] << '\t'; } or for (int element : bestScores) { cout << element << '\t'; }

7.12

(Find the Errors) Find the error(s) in each of the following statements: a) Assume that a is an array of three ints. cout << a[1] << " " << a[2] << " " << a[3] << endl;

ANS: a[3] is not a valid location in the array. a[2] is the last valid location.

b) array<double, 3> f{1.1, 10.01, 100.001, 1000.0001}; ANS: Too many initializers in the initializer list. Only 1, 2, or 3 values may be provided in

the initializer list. c) Assume that d is an array of doubles with two rows and 10 columns. d[1, 9] = 2.345;

ANS: Incorrect syntax array element access. d[1][9] is the correct syntax.

7.15

(Two-Dimensional array Initialization) Label the elements of a 3-by-5 two-dimensional

array sales to indicate the order in which they’re set to zero by the following program segment: for (size_t row{0}; row < sales.size(); ++row) { for (size_t column{0}; column < sales[row].size(); ++column) { sales[row][column] = 0; } }

ANS: sales[0][0], sales[0][1], sales[0][2], sales[0][3],

sales[0][4], sales[1][0], sales[1][1], sales[1][2], sales[1][3], sales[1][4], sales[2][0], sales[2][1], sales[2][2], sales[2][3], sales[2][4]

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Exercises 7.17 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26

(What Does This Code Do?) What does the following program do?

// Ex. 7.17: Ex07_17.cpp // What does this program do? #include <iostream> #include <array> using namespace std; const size_t arraySize{10}; int whatIsThis(const array<int, arraySize>&, size_t); // prototype int main() { array<int, arraySize> a{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}; int result{whatIsThis(a, arraySize)}; cout << "Result is " << result << endl; } // What does this function do? int whatIsThis(const array<int, arraySize>& b, size_t size) { if (size == 1) { // base case return b[0]; } else { // recursive step return b[size - 1] + whatIsThis(b, size - 1); } }

Fig. 7.23 | What does this program do?

ANS: This program sums array elements. The output would be Result is 55

9

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Class Templates array and vector; Catching Exceptions

10

Chapter 7

7.20

(What Does This Code Do?) What does the following program do?

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

// Ex. 7.20: Ex07_20.cpp // What does this program do? #include <iostream> #include <array> using namespace std; const size_t arraySize{10}; void someFunction(const array<int, arraySize>&, size_t); // prototype int main() { array<int, arraySize> a{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}; cout << "The values in the array are:" << endl; someFunction(a, 0); cout << endl; } // What does this function do? void someFunction(const array<int, arraySize>& b, size_t current) { if (current < b.size()) { someFunction(b, current + 1); cout << b[current] << " "; } }

Fig. 7.24 | What does this program do?

ANS: This program prints array elements in reverse order. The output would be The values in the array are: 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

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8

Pointers

Objectives In this chapter you’ll: ■

Learn what pointers are.

■

Declare and initialize pointers.

■

Use the address (&) and indirection (*) pointer operators.

■

Learn the similarities and differences between pointers and references.

■

Use pointers to pass arguments to functions by reference.

■

Use built-in arrays.

■

Use const with pointers.

■

Use operator sizeof to determine the number of bytes that store a value of a particular type.

■

Understand pointer expressions and pointer arithmetic.

■

Understand the close relationships between pointers and built-in arrays.

■

Use pointer-based strings.

■

Use C++11 capabilities, including nullptr and Standard Library functions begin and end.

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2

Chapter 8 Pointers

Self-Review Exercises 8.1

Answer each of the following: a) A pointer is a variable that contains as its value the of another variable.

ANS: address. or . b) A pointer should be initialized to ANS: nullptr, an address. c) The only integer that can be assigned directly to a pointer is .

ANS: 0.

8.2

State whether each of the following is true or false. If the answer is false, explain why. a) The address operator & can be applied only to constants and to expressions.

ANS: False. The operand of the address operator must be an lvalue; the address operator cannot be applied to literals or to expressions that result in temporary values. b) A pointer that is declared to be of type void* can be dereferenced.

ANS: False. A pointer to void cannot be dereferenced. Such a pointer does not have a type that enables the compiler to determine the type of the data and the number of bytes of memory to which the pointer points. c) A pointer of one type can’t be assigned to one of another type without a cast operation.

ANS: False. Pointers of any type can be assigned to void pointers. Pointers of type void can be assigned to pointers of other types only with an explicit type cast.

8.3 For each of the following, write C++ statements that perform the specified task. Assume that double-precision, floating-point numbers are stored in eight bytes and that the starting address of the built-in array is at location 1002500 in memory. Each part of the exercise should use the results of previous parts where appropriate. a) Declare a built-in array of type double called numbers with 10 elements, and initialize the elements to the values 0.0, 1.1, 2.2, …, 9.9. Assume that the constant size has been defined as 10.

ANS: double numbers[size]{0.0, 1.1, 2.2, 3.3, 4.4, 5.5, 6.6, 7.7, 8.8, 9.9};

b) Declare a pointer nPtr that points to a variable of type double.

ANS: double* nPtr;

c) Use a for statement to display the elements of built-in array numbers using array subscript notation. Display each number with one digit to the right of the decimal point.

ANS: cout << fixed << showpoint << setprecision(1); for (size_t i{0}; i < size; ++i) { cout << numbers[i] << ' '; }

d) Write two separate statements that each assign the starting address of built-in array numbers to the pointer variable nPtr. ANS: nPtr = numbers; nPtr = &numbers[0];

e) Use a for statement to display the elements of built-in array numbers using pointer/offset notation with pointer nPtr. ANS: cout << fixed << showpoint << setprecision(1); for (size_t j{0}; j < size; ++j) { cout << *(nPtr + j) << ' '; }

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Self-Review Exercises

3

f) Use a for statement to display the elements of built-in array numbers using pointer/offset notation with the built-in array’s name as the pointer.

ANS: cout << fixed << showpoint << setprecision(1); for (size_t k{0}; k < size; ++k) { cout << *(numbers + k) << ' '; }

g) Use a for statement to display the elements of built-in array numbers using pointer/subscript notation with pointer nPtr. ANS: cout << fixed << showpoint << setprecision(1); for (size_t m{0}; m < size; ++m) { cout << nPtr[m] << ' '; }

h) Refer to the fourth element of built-in array numbers using array subscript notation, pointer/offset notation with the built-in array’s name as the pointer, pointer subscript notation with nPtr and pointer/offset notation with nPtr. ANS: numbers[3] *(numbers + 3) nPtr[3] *(nPtr + 3)

i) Assuming that nPtr points to the beginning of built-in array numbers, what address is referenced by nPtr + 8? What value is stored at that location?

ANS: The address is 1002500 + 8 * 8 = 1002564. The value is 8.8. j) Assuming that nPtr points to numbers[5], what address is referenced by nPtr after nPtr -= 4 is executed? What’s the value stored at that location?

ANS: The address of numbers[5] is 1002500 + 5 * 8 = 1002540.

The address of nPtr -= 4 is 1002540 - 4 * 8 = 1002508.

The value at that location is 1.1.

8.4

For each of the following, write a statement that performs the specified task. Assume that dou-

ble variables number1 and number2 have been declared and that number1 has been initialized to 7.3.

a) Declare the variable doublePtr to be a pointer to an object of type double and initialize the pointer to nullptr.

ANS: double* doublePtr{nullptr};

b) Assign the address of variable number1 to pointer variable doublePtr. ANS: doublePtr = &number1;

c) Display the value of the object pointed to by doublePtr. ANS: cout << "The value of *fPtr is " << *doublePtr << endl;

d) Assign the value of the object pointed to by doublePtr to variable number2.

ANS: number2 = *doublePtr;

e) Display the value of number2.

ANS: cout << "The value of number2 is " << number2 << endl;

f) Display the address of number1.

ANS: cout << "The address of number1 is " << &number1 << endl;

g) Display the address stored in doublePtr. Is the address the same as that of number1?

ANS: cout << "The address stored in fPtr is " << doublePtr << endl;

Yes, the value is the same.

8.5

Perform the task specified by each of the following statements: a) Write the function header for a function called exchange that takes two pointers to double-precision, floating-point numbers x and y as parameters and does not return a value.

ANS: void exchange(double* x, double* y)

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4

Chapter 8 Pointers b) Write the function prototype without parameter names for the function in part (a).

ANS: void exchange(double*, double*);

c) Write two statements that each initialize the built-in array of chars named vowel with the string of vowels, "AEIOU".

ANS: char vowel[]{"AEIOU"}; char vowel[]{'A', 'E', 'I', 'O', 'U', '\0'};

8.6 Find the error in each of the following program segments. Assume the following declarations and statements: int* zPtr; // zPtr will reference built-in array z int number; int z[5]{1, 2, 3, 4, 5};

a)

++zPtr;

ANS: Error: zPtr has not been initialized.

Correction: Initialize zPtr with zPtr = z; (Parts b–e depend on this correction.) b) // use pointer to get first value of a built-in array number = zPtr;

ANS: Error: The pointer is not dereferenced.

Correction: Change the statement to number = *zPtr; c)

// assign built-in array element 2 (the value 3) to number number = *zPtr[2];

ANS: Error: zPtr[2] is not a pointer and should not be dereferenced.

Correction: Change *zPtr[2] to zPtr[2]. d) // display entire built-in array z for (size_t i{0}; i <= 5; ++i) { cout << zPtr[i] << endl; }

ANS: Error: Referring to an out-of-bounds built-in array element with pointer subscript-

ing.

Correction: To prevent this, change the relational operator in the for statement to < or change the 5 to a 4. e)

++z;

ANS: Error: Trying to modify a built-in array’s name with pointer arithmetic.

Correction: Use a pointer variable instead of the built-in array’s name to accomplish pointer arithmetic, or subscript the built-in array’s name to refer to a specific element.

Exercises 8.7

(True or False) State whether the following are true or false. If false, explain why. a) Two pointers that point to different built-in arrays cannot be compared meaningfully.

ANS: True. b) Because the name of a built-in array is implicitly convertible to a pointer to the first element of the built-in array, built-in array names can be manipulated in the same manner as pointers.

ANS: False. An array name cannot be modified to point to a different location in memory because an array name is a constant pointer to the first element of the array.

8.8 (Write C++ Statements) For each of the following, write C++ statements that perform the specified task. Assume that unsigned integers are stored in four bytes and that the starting address of the built-in array is at location 1002500 in memory.

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Exercises

5

a) Declare an unsigned int built-in array values with five elements initialized to the even integers from 2 to 10. Assume that the constant size has been defined as 5.

ANS: unsigned int values[SIZE]{2, 4, 6, 8, 10};

b) Declare a pointer vPtr that points to an object of type unsigned int.

ANS: unsigned int* vPtr;

c) Use a for statement to display the elements of built-in array values using array subscript notation.

ANS: for (int i{0}; i < SIZE; ++i) { cout << setw(4) << values[i]; }

d) Write two separate statements that assign the starting address of built-in array values to pointer variable vPtr. ANS: vPtr = values; and vPtr = &values[0]; e) Use a for statement to display the elements of built-in array values using pointer/offset notation.

ANS: for (int i{0}; i < SIZE; ++i) { cout << setw(4) << *(vPtr + i); }

f) Use a for statement to display the elements of built-in array values using pointer/offset notation with the built-in array’s name as the pointer.

ANS: for (int i{0}; i < SIZE; ++i) { cout << setw(4) << *(values + i); }

g) Use a for statement to display the elements of built-in array values by subscripting the pointer to the built-in array.

ANS: for (int i{0}; i < SIZE; ++i) { }

cout << setw(4) << vPtr[i];

h) Refer to the fifth element of values using array subscript notation, pointer/offset notation with the built-in array name’s as the pointer, pointer subscript notation and pointer/offset notation.

ANS: values[4], *(values + 4), vPtr[4], *(vPtr + 4) i) What address is referenced by vPtr + 3? What value is stored at that location?

ANS: The address of the location pertaining to values[3] (i.e., 1002506). 8. j) Assuming that vPtr points to values[4], what address is referenced by vPtr -= 4? What value is stored at that location?

ANS: The address of where values begins in memory (i.e., 1002500). 2.

8.9 (Write C++ Statements) For each of the following, write a single statement that performs the specified task. Assume that long variables value1 and value2 have been declared and value1 has been initialized to 200000. a) Declare the variable longPtr to be a pointer to an object of type long.

ANS: long* longPtr;

b) Assign the address of variable value1 to pointer variable longPtr. ANS: longPtr = &value1;

c) Display the value of the object pointed to by longPtr. ANS: cout << *longPtr << '\n';

d) Assign the value of the object pointed to by longPtr to variable value2.

ANS: value2 = *longPtr;

e) Display the value of value2.

ANS: cout << value2 << '\n';

f) Display the address of value1.

ANS: cout << &value1 << '\n';

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6

Chapter 8 Pointers g) Display the address stored in longPtr. Is the address displayed the same as value1’s?

ANS: cout << longPtr << '\n'; yes.

8.10

(Function Headers and Prototypes) Perform the task in each of the following: a) Write the function header for function zero that takes a long integer built-in array parameter bigIntegers and a second parameter representing the array’s size and does not return a value.

ANS: void zero(long bigIntegers[], unsigned int size) or void zero(long *bigIntegers, unsigned int size)

b) Write the function prototype for the function in part (a).

ANS: void zero(long bigIntegers[], unsigned int size); or void zero(long *bigIntegers, unsigned int size);

c) Write the function header for function add1AndSum that takes an integer built-in array parameter oneTooSmall and a second parameter representing the array’s size and returns an integer.

ANS: int add1AndSum(int oneTooSmall[], unsigned int size) or int add1AndSum(int *oneTooSmall, unsigned int size)

d) Write the function prototype for the function described in part (c).

ANS: int add1AndSum(int oneTooSmall[], unsigned int size); or int add1AndSum(int *oneTooSmall, unsigned int size);

8.11 (Find the Code Errors) Find the error in each of the following segments. If the error can be corrected, explain how. a) int* number; cout << number << endl;

ANS: Pointer number does not "point" to a valid address—assigning a valid address of an int to number would correct this the problem. Also, number is not dereferenced in the output statement.

b) double* realPtr; long* integerPtr; integerPtr = realPtr;

ANS: A pointer of type double cannot be directly assigned to a pointer of type long.

c)

int* x, y; x = y;

ANS: Variable y is not a pointer, and therefore cannot be assigned to x. Change the assign-

ment statement to x = &y; or declare y as a pointer. d) char s[]{"this is a character array"}; for (; *s != '\0'; ++s) { cout << *s << ' '; }

ANS: s is not a modifiable value. Attempting to use operator ++ is a syntax error. Changing

to [] notation corrects the problem as in: for (int t{0}; s[t] != '\0'; ++t) cout << s[t] << ' ';

e)

short* numPtr, result; void* genericPtr{numPtr}; result = *genericPtr + 7;

ANS: A void * pointer cannot be dereferenced.

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Exercises f)

7

double x = 19.34; double xPtr{&x}; cout << xPtr << endl;

ANS: xPtr is not a pointer and therefore cannot be assigned an address. Change xPtr’s type

to double* to correct the problem. The cout statement display’s the address to which xPtr points (once the previous correction is made)—this is not an error, but normally you’d output the value of what the pointer points to, not the address stored in the pointer.

8.13 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27

(What Does This Code Do?) What does this program do?

// Ex. 8.13: ex08_13.cpp // What does this program do? #include <iostream> using namespace std; void mystery1(char*, const char*); // prototype int main() { char string1[80]; char string2[80]; cout << "Enter two strings: "; cin >> string1 >> string2; mystery1(string1, string2); cout << string1 << endl; } // What does this function do? void mystery1(char* s1, const char* s2) { while (*s1 != '\0') { ++s1; } for (; (*s1 = *s2); ++s1, ++s2) { ; // empty statement } }

Fig. 8.1 | What does this program do?

ANS: Enter two strings: string1 string2 string1string2

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8

Chapter 8 Pointers

8.14

(What Does This Code Do?) What does this program do?

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

// Ex. 8.14: ex08_14.cpp // What does this program do? #include <iostream> using namespace std; int mystery2(const char*); // prototype int main() { char string1[80]; cout << "Enter a string: "; cin >> string1; cout << mystery2(string1) << endl; } // What does this function do? int mystery2(const char* s) { unsigned int x; for (x = 0; *s != '\0'; ++s) { ++x; } return x; }

Fig. 8.2 | What does this program do?

ANS: Enter a string: length 6

Special Section: Building Your Own Computer In the next several problems, we take a temporary diversion away from the world of high-level-language programming. We “peel open” a simple hypothetical computer and look at its internal structure. We introduce machine-language programming and write several machine-language programs.

To make this an especially valuable experience, we then build a computer (using software-based simulation) on which you can execute your machine-language programs!1 8.15 (Machine-Language Programming) Let’s create a computer we’ll call the Simpletron. As its name implies, it’s a simple machine, but, as we’ll soon see, it’s a powerful one as well. The Simpletron runs programs written in the only language it directly understands, that is, Simpletron Machine Language, or SML for short.

The Simpletron contains an accumulator—a “special register” in which information is put before the Simpletron uses that information in calculations or examines it in various ways. All 1.

In Exercises 19.30–19.34, we’ll “peel open” a simple hypothetical compiler that will translate statements in a simple high-level language to the machine language you use here. You’ll write programs in that high-level language, compile them into machine language and run that machine language on your computer simulator.

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Special Section: Building Your Own Computer

9

information in the Simpletron is handled in terms of words. A word is a signed four-digit decimal number, such as +3364, -1293, +0007, -0001, etc. The Simpletron is equipped with a 100-word memory, and these words are referenced by their location numbers 00, 01, …, 99.

Before running an SML program, we must load, or place, the program into memory. The first instruction (or statement) of every SML program is always placed in location 00. The simulator will start executing at this location.

Each instruction written in SML occupies one word of the Simpletron’s memory; thus, instructions are signed four-digit decimal numbers. Assume that the sign of an SML instruction is always plus, but the sign of a data word may be either plus or minus. Each location in the Simpletron’s memory may contain an instruction, a data value used by a program or an unused (and hence undefined) area of memory. The first two digits of each SML instruction are the operation code that specifies the operation to be performed. SML operation codes are shown in Fig. 8.3.

Operation code

Meaning

Input/output operations const int read{10}; const int write{11};

Read a word from the keyboard into a specific location in memory.

Write a word from a specific location in memory to the screen.

Load and store operations const int load{20}; const int store{21};

Load a word from a specific location in memory into the accumulator.

Store a word from the accumulator into a specific location in memory.

Arithmetic operations const int add{30}; const int subtract{31};

const int divide{32}; const int multiply{33};

Add a word from a specific location in memory to the word in the accumulator (leave result in accumulator).

Subtract a word from a specific location in memory from the word in the accumulator (leave result in accumulator).

Divide a word from a specific location in memory into the word in the accumulator (leave result in accumulator).

Multiply a word from a specific location in memory by the word in the accumulator (leave result in accumulator).

Transfer-of-control operations const int branch{40}; const int branchneg{41}; const int branchzero{42}; const int halt{43};

Branch to a specific location in memory.

Branch to a specific location in memory if the accumulator is negative.

Branch to a specific location in memory if the accumulator is zero.

Halt—the program has completed its task.

Fig. 8.3 | Simpletron Machine Language (SML) operation codes.

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10

Chapter 8

Pointers

The last two digits of an SML instruction are the operand—the address of the memory location containing the word to which the operation applies.

Now let’s consider two simple SML programs. The first (Fig. 8.4) reads two numbers from the keyboard and computes and displays their sum. The instruction +1007 reads the first number from the keyboard and places it into location 07 (which has been initialized to zero). Instruction +1008 reads the next number into location 08. The load instruction, +2007, places (copies) the first number into the accumulator, and the add instruction, +3008, adds the second number to the number in the accumulator. All SML arithmetic instructions leave their results in the accumulator. The store instruction, +2109, places (copies) the result back into memory location 09. Then the write instruction, +1109, takes the number and displays it (as a signed four-digit decimal number). The halt instruction, +4300, terminates execution.

Location

Number

Instruction

00

+1007

01

+1008

02

+2007

03

+3008

04

+2109

05

+1109

06

+4300

07

+0000

08

+0000

09

+0000

(Read A) (Read B) (Load A) (Add B) (Store C) (Write C) (Halt) (Variable A) (Variable B) (Result C)

Fig. 8.4 | SML Example 1.

The SML program in Fig. 8.5 reads two numbers from the keyboard, then determines and displays the larger value. Note the use of the instruction +4107 as a conditional transfer of control, much the same as C++’s if statement.

Location

Number

Instruction

00

+1009

01

+1010

02

+2009

03

+3110

04

+4107

05

+1109

06

+4300

07

+1110

08

+4300

09

+0000

10

+0000

(Read A) (Read B) (Load A) (Subtract B) (Branch negative to 07) (Write A) (Halt) (Write B) (Halt) (Variable A) (Variable B)

Fig. 8.5 | SML Example 2.

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Special Section: Building Your Own Computer

11

Now write SML programs to accomplish each of the following tasks: a) Use a sentinel-controlled loop to read positive numbers and compute and display their sum. Terminate input when a negative number is entered.

ANS: 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09

+1009 +2009 +4106 +3008 +2108 +4000 +1108 +4300 +0000 +0000

(Read Value) (Load Value) (Branch negative to 06) (Add Sum) (Store Sum) (Branch 00) (Write Sum) (Halt) (Storage for Sum) (Storage for Value)

b) Use a counter-controlled loop to read seven numbers, some positive and some negative, and compute and display their average.

ANS: 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21

+2018 +3121 +4211 +2018 +3019 +2118 +1017 +2016 +3017 +2116 +4000 +2016 +3218 +2120 +1120 +4300 +0000 +0000 +0000 +0001 +0000 +0007

(Load Counter) (Subtract Termination) (Branch zero to 11) (Load Counter) (Add Increment) (Store Counter) (Read Value) (Load Sum) (Add Value) (Store Sum) (Branch 00) (Load Sum) (Divide Counter) (Store Result) (Write Result) (Halt) (Variable Sum) (Variable Value) (Variable Counter) (Variable Increment) (Variable Result) (Variable Termination)

c) Read a series of numbers, and determine and display the largest number. The first number read indicates how many numbers should be processed.

ANS: 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14

+1017 +2018 +3117 +4215 +2018 +3021 +2118 +1019 +2020 +3119 +4112 +4001 +2019 +2120 +4001

(Read Endvalue) (Load Counter) (Subtract Endvalue) (Branch zero to 15) (Load Counter) (Add Increment) (Store Counter) (Read Value) (Load Largest) (Subtract Value) (Branch negative to 12) (Branch 01) (Load Value) (Store Largest) (Branch 01)

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12

Chapter 8

Pointers

15 16 17 18 19 20 21

(Write Largest) (Halt) (Variable EndValue) (Variable Counter) (Variable Value) (Variable Largest) (Variable Increment)

+1120 +4300 +0000 +0000 +0000 +0000 +0001

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9

Classes: A Deeper Look

Objectives In this chapter you’ll: Engineer a class to separate its interface from its implementation and encourage reuse.

■ Access class members via an object’s name or a reference using the dot (.) operator.

■ Access class members via a pointer to an object using the arrow (->) operator.

■ Use destructors to perform “termination housekeeping.”

■ Learn the order of constructor and destructor calls.

■ Learn about the dangers of returning a reference or a pointer to private data.

■ Assign the data members of one object to those of another object.

■ Create objects composed of other objects.

■ Use friend functions and learn how to declare friend classes.

■ Use the this pointer in a member function to access a non-static class member.

■ Use static data members and member functions.

■

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2

Chapter 9 Classes: A Deeper Look

Self-Review Exercises 9.1

Fill in the blanks in each of the following: a) Class members are accessed via the operator in conjunction with the name of an object (or reference to an object) of the class or via the operator in conjunction with a pointer to an object of the class.

ANS: dot (.), arrow (->). b) Class members specified as are accessible only to member functions of the class and friends of the class.

ANS: private. c) class members are accessible anywhere an object of the class is in scope.

ANS: public. d) can be used to assign an object of a class to another object of the same class.

ANS: Default memberwise assignment (performed by the assignment operator). of a class to have e) A nonmember function must be declared by the class as a(n) access to that class’s private data members.

ANS: friend. ; it cannot be modified after it’s created. f) A constant object must be ANS: initialized. data member represents classwide information. g) A(n) ANS: static. h) An object’s non-static member functions have access to a “self pointer” to the object pointer. called the ANS: this. i) Keyword specifies that an object or variable is not modifiable.

ANS: const. j) If a member initializer is not provided for a member object of a class, the object's is called.

ANS: default constructor. k) A member function should be static if it does not access class members.

ANS: non-static. their enclosing class object. l) Member objects are constructed ANS: before. m) When a member function is defined outside the class definition, the function header , followed by the function name to “tie” must include the class name and the the member function to the class definition.

ANS: :: scope resolution operator.

9.2

Find the error(s) in each of the following and explain how to correct it (them): a) Assume the following prototype is declared in class Time: void ~Time(int);

ANS: Error: Destructors are not allowed to return values (or even specify a return type) or

take arguments.

Correction: Remove the return type void and the parameter int from the declaration. b) Assume the following prototype is declared in class Employee: int Employee(string, string);

ANS: Error: Constructors are not allowed to return values.

Correction: Remove the return type int from the declaration. c) The following is a definition of class Example:

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Exercises

3

class Example { public: Example(int y = 10) : data(y) { } int getIncrementedData() const { return ++data; } static int getCount() { cout << "Data is " << data << endl; return count; } private: int data; static int count; };

ANS: Error: The class definition for Example has two errors. The first occurs in function getIncrementedData. The function is declared const, but it modifies the object.

Correction: To correct the first error, remove the const keyword from the definition of getIncrementedData. [Note: It would also be appropriate to rename this member function, as get functions are typically const member functions.]

Error: The second error occurs in function getCount. This function is declared static, so it’s not allowed to access any non-static class member (i.e., data).

Correction: To correct the second error, remove the output line from the getCount definition.

Exercises 9.3

(Scope Resolution Operator) What’s the purpose of the scope resolution operator?

ANS: The scope resolution operator is used to specify the class to which a function belongs.

It resolves the ambiguity caused by multiple classes having member functions of the same name. It also associates a member function in a .cpp file with a class definition in a .h file.

9.16 (Friendship) Explain the notion of friendship. Explain the negative aspects of friendship as described in the text.

ANS: Functions that are declared as friends of a class have access to that class’s private and protected members. Some people in the object-oriented programming community prefer not to use friend functions. Such people believe friendship corrupts information hiding and weakens the value of the object-oriented design approach, because friend functions can directly access a class’s implementation details that are supposed to be hidden.

9.17 (Constructor Overloading) Can a Time class definition that includes both of the following constructors: Time(int h = 0, int m = 0, int s = 0); Time();

be used to default construct a Time object? If not, explain why.

ANS: No. There is ambiguity between the two constructors. When a call is made to the default constructor, the compiler cannot determine which one to use because both constructors can be called with no arguments.

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4

Chapter 9 Classes: A Deeper Look

9.18 (Constructors and Destructors) What happens when a return type, even void, is specified for a constructor or destructor?

ANS: A compilation error occurs. You cannot specify a return type for a constructor or destructor.

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10

Operator Overloading; Class string

Objectives In this chapter you’ll: ■

Learn how operator overloading can help you craft valuable classes.

■

Overload unary and binary operators.

■

Convert objects from one class to another.

■

Use overloaded operators and additional features of class string.

■

Create PhoneNumber, Date and Array classes that provide overloaded operators.

■

Perform dynamic memory allocation with new and delete.

■

Understand how keyword explicit prevents a constructor from being used for implicit conversions.

■

Experience a “light-bulb moment” when you’ll truly appreciate the elegance and beauty of the class concept.

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2

Chapter 10 Operator Overloading; Class string

Self-Review Exercises 10.1

10.2

Fill in the blanks in each of the following: a) Suppose a and b are integer variables and we form the sum a + b. Now suppose c and d are floating-point variables and we form the sum c + d. The two + operators here are . clearly being used for different purposes. This is an example of ANS: operator overloading. b) Keyword introduces an overloaded-operator function definition.

ANS: operator. c) To use operators on class objects, they must be overloaded, with the exception of operators , and .

ANS: assignment (=), address (&), comma (,). d) The , and of an operator cannot be changed by overloading the operator.

ANS: precedence, associativity, “arity.” e) The operators that cannot be overloaded are , , and .

ANS: ., ?:, .*, and ::. f) The operator reclaims memory previously allocated by new.

ANS: delete. g) The operator dynamically allocates memory for an object of a specified type and returns a(n) to that type.

ANS: new, pointer. h) Append a(n) after the closing quote (") of a string literal to indicate that it’s a C++14 string-object literal.

ANS: s.

Explain the multiple meanings of the operators << and >>.

ANS: Operator >> is both the right-shift operator and the stream extraction operator,

depending on its context. Operator << is both the left-shift operator and the stream insertion operator, depending on its context.

10.3

10.4

In what context might the name operator/ be used?

ANS: For operator overloading: It would be the name of a function that would provide an overloaded version of the / operator for a specific class.

(True/False) Only existing operators can be overloaded.

ANS: True.

10.5 How does the precedence of an overloaded operator compare with the precedence of the original operator?

ANS: The precedence is identical.

Exercises 10.6 (Memory Allocation and Deallocation Operators) Compare and contrast dynamic memory allocation and deallocation operators new, new [], delete and delete[].

ANS: Operator new creates an object and dynamically allocates space in memory for that object. Operator delete destroys a dynamically allocated object and frees the space that was occupied by the object. Operators new [] and delete [] are used to allocate and deallocate arrays dynamically. Operator delete [] ensures that the destrctor is called for each element in the array before the array is reclaimed.

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Exercises 10.8

3

(Complex Class) ANS: [Note: In the solution, the == operator compares double values—a practice that is er-

ror-prone due to the way computers handle floating-point values. You may want to modify the == operator to take the difference between two doubles and determining if the difference is less than a threshold value such as 0.00001.]

10.9

(HugeInt Class) ANS: [Note: This solution does not handle negative values, or cases when a value causes overflow. Also, the solution overloads the - operator, but this is not necessary—students need to implement subtraction of HugeInts to implement division, but they can use a private helper function if they wish.]

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11

Object-Oriented Programming: Inheritance

Objectives In this chapter you’ll: ■

Learn what inheritance is.

■

Understand the notions of base classes and derived classes and the relationships between them.

■

Use the protected member access specifier.

■

Use constructors and destructors in inheritance hierarchies.

■

Understand the order in which constructors and destructors are called in inheritance hierarchies.

■

Understand the differences between public, protected and private inheritance.

■

Use inheritance to customize existing software.

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2

Chapter 11 Object-Oriented Programming: Inheritance

Self-Review Exercises 11.1

Fill in the blanks in each of the following statements: a) enables new classes to absorb the data and behaviors of existing classes and embellish these classes with new capabilities.

ANS: Inheritance. b) A base class’s and members can be accessed in the base-class definition, in derived-class definitions and in friends of the base class and derived classes.

ANS: public, protected. c) In a(n) relationship, an object of a derived class also can be treated as an object of its base class.

ANS: is-a or inheritance (for public inheritance). d) In a(n) relationship, a class object has one or more objects of other classes as members.

ANS: has-a or composition or aggregation. e) In single inheritance, a class exists in a(n) relationship with its derived classes.

ANS: hierarchical. members are accessible within that base class and anywhere that f) A base class’s the program has a handle to an object of that class or one of its derived classes.

ANS: public. g) A base class’s protected access members have a level of protection between those of public and access.

ANS: private. h) C++ provides for , which allows a derived class to inherit from many base classes, even if the base classes are unrelated.

ANS: multiple inheritance. i) When an object of a derived class is instantiated, the base class’s is called implicitly or explicitly to do any necessary initialization of the base-class data members in the derived-class object.

ANS: constructor. j) When deriving a class with public inheritance, public members of the base class bemembers of the derived class, and protected members of the base class come become members of the derived class.

ANS: public, protected. k) When deriving from a class with protected inheritance, public members of the base class become members of the derived class, and protected members of the base class become members of the derived class.

ANS: protected, protected.

11.2

State whether each of the following is true or false. If false, explain why. a) Base-class constructors are not automatically inherited by derived classes.

ANS: True. b) A has-a relationship is implemented via inheritance.

ANS: False. A has-a relationship is implemented via composition. An is-a relationship is implemented via inheritance. c) A Car class has an is-a relationship with the SteeringWheel and Brakes classes.

ANS: False. This is an example of a has-a relationship. Class Car has an is-a relationship with class Vehicle. d) When a derived-class object is destroyed, the destructors are called in the reverse order of the constructors.

ANS: True.

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Exercises

3

Exercises 11.3 (Composition as an Alternative to Inheritance) Many programs written with inheritance can be written with composition instead, and vice versa. Rewrite class BasePlusCommissionEmployee of the CommissionEmployee–BasePlusCommissionEmployee hierarchy to use composition rather than inheritance. After you do this, assess the relative merits of the two approaches for designing classes CommissionEmployee and BasePlusCommissionEmployee, as well as for object-oriented programs in general. Which approach is more natural? Why? ANS: For a relatively short program like this one, either approach is acceptable. Inheritance becomes preferable when it makes the program easier to modify and promotes the reuse of code. The inheritance approach is more natural because a base-salaried commission employee is a commission employee. Composition is defined by the “has-a” relationship, and clearly it would be strange to say that “a base-salaried commission employee has a commission employee.”

11.4 (Inheritance Advantage) Discuss the ways in which inheritance saves time during program development and helps prevent errors.

ANS: Inheritance allows developers to create derived classes that reuse code declared already in a base class. Avoiding the duplication of common functionality between several classes by building an inheritance hierarchy to contain the classes can save developers a considerable amount of time. Placing common functionality in a single base class, rather than duplicating the code in multiple unrelated classes, helps prevent the same errors from appearing in multiple source-code files and makes debugging easier. If several classes each contain duplicate code containing an error, the software developer has to spend time correcting each source-code file with the error. However, if these classes take advantage of inheritance, and the error occurs in the common functionality of the base class, the software developer needs to modify only the base class’s code.

11.5 (Protected vs. Private Base Classes) Some programmers prefer not to use protected access because they believe it breaks the encapsulation of the base class. Discuss the relative merits of using protected access vs. using private access in base classes.

ANS: private data members are hidden in the base class and are accessible only through the public or protected member functions of the base class. Using protected access enables the derived class to manipulate the protected members without using the access functions of the base class. If the base-class members are private, the member functions of the base class must be used to access the data. This may result in a decrease in performance due to the extra function calls, yet accessing and modifying private data in this indirect manner helps ensure that the data in the base class remains consistent.

11.6 (Student Inheritance Hierarchy) Draw an inheritance hierarchy for students at a university similar to the hierarchy shown in Fig. 11.2. Use Student as the base class of the hierarchy, then include classes UndergraduateStudent and GraduateStudent that derive from Student. Continue to extend the hierarchy as deep (i.e., as many levels) as possible. For example, Freshman, Sophomore, Junior and Senior might derive from UndergraduateStudent, and DoctoralStudent and MastersStudent might derive from GraduateStudent. After drawing the hierarchy, discuss the relationships that exist between the classes. [Note: You do not need to write any code for this exercise.]

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4

Chapter 11 Object-Oriented Programming: Inheritance ANS: This hierarchy contains many “is-a” (inheritance) relationships. An UndergraduateStudent is a Student. A GraduateStudent is a Student, too. Each of the classes Freshman, Sophomore, Junior and Senior is an UndergraduateStudent and is a Student. Each of the classes DoctoralStudent and MastersStudent is a GraduateStudent and is a Student.

Student

UndergraduateStudent

Freshman

Sophomore

GraduateStudent

Senior

DoctoralStudent

MastersStudent

Junior

11.7 (Richer Shape Hierarchy) The world of shapes is much richer than the shapes included in the inheritance hierarchy of Fig. 11.3. Write down all the shapes you can think of—both two-dimensional and three-dimensional—and form them into a more complete Shape hierarchy with as many levels as possible. Your hierarchy should have the base-class Shape from which class TwoDimensionalShape and class ThreeDimensionalShape are derived. [Note: You do not need to write any code for this exercise.] We’ll use this hierarchy in the exercises of Chapter 12 to process a set of distinct shapes as objects of base-class Shape. (This technique, called polymorphism, is the subject of Chapter 12.)

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Exercises

5

ANS: [Note: Solutions may vary.]

Shape

TwoDimensionalShape

ThreeDimensionalShape

Quadrilateral

Ellipse

Triangle

Sphere

Trapezoid

Circle

Isosceles Triangle

Cone

Equilateral Triangle

Parallelogram

Rhombus

Dodecahedron

Cube

Cylinder

Prism

Tetrahedron

Rectangle

Square

11.8

(Quadrilateral Inheritance Hierarchy) Draw an inheritance hierarchy for classes Quadri-

lateral, Trapezoid, Parallelogram, Rectangle and Square. Use Quadrilateral as the base class of

the hierarchy. Make the hierarchy as deep as possible.

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6

Chapter 11 Object-Oriented Programming: Inheritance ANS:

Quadrilateral

Trapezoid

Parallelogram

Rectangle

Square

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Object-Oriented Programming: Polymorphism

12 Objectives In this chapter you’ll: ■

See how polymorphism makes programming more convenient and systems more extensible.

■

Understand the relationships among objects in an inheritance hierarchy.

■

Use C++11’s overrides keyword when overriding a base-class virtual function in a derived class.

■

Use C++11’s default keyword to autogenerate a virtual destructor.

■

Use C++11’s final keyword to indicate that a base-class virtual function cannot be overridden.

■

Create an inheritance hierarchy with both abstract and concrete classes.

■

Determine an object’s type at runtime using runtime type information (RTTI), dynamic_cast, typeid and type_info.

■

Understand how C++ can implement virtual functions and dynamic binding.

■

Use virtual destructors to ensure that all appropriate destructors run on an object.

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2

Chapter 12 Object-Oriented Programming: Polymorphism

Self-Review Exercises 12.1

Fill in the blanks in each of the following statements: a) Treating a base-class object as a(n) can cause errors.

ANS: derived-class object. logic. b) Polymorphism helps eliminate ANS: switch. c) If a class contains at least one pure virtual function, it’s a(n) class.

ANS: abstract. d) Classes from which objects can be instantiated are called classes.

ANS: concrete. can be used to downcast base-class pointers safely. e) Operator ANS: dynamic_cast. f) Operator typeid returns a reference to a(n) object.

ANS: type_info. g) involves using a base-class pointer or reference to invoke virtual functions on base-class and derived-class objects.

ANS: Polymorphism. h) Overridable functions are declared using keyword .

ANS: virtual. i) Casting a base-class pointer to a derived-class pointer is called .

ANS: downcasting.

12.2

State whether each of the following is true or false. If false, explain why. a) All virtual functions in an abstract base class must be declared as pure virtual functions.

ANS: False. An abstract base class can include virtual functions with implementations. b) Referring to a derived-class object with a base-class handle is dangerous.

ANS: False. Referring to a base-class object with a derived-class handle is dangerous. c) A class is made abstract by declaring that class virtual.

ANS: False. Classes are never declared virtual. Rather, a class is made abstract by including at least one pure virtual function in the class. d) If a base class declares a pure virtual function, a derived class must implement that function to become a concrete class.

ANS: True. e) Polymorphic programming can eliminate the need for switch logic.

ANS: True.

Exercises NOTE: Solutions to the programming exercises are located in the ch12solutions folder.

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13

Stream Input/Output: A Deeper Look

Objectives In this chapter you’ll: ■

Use C++ object-oriented stream input/output.

■

Perform input and output of individual characters.

■

Use unformatted I/O for high performance.

■

Use stream manipulators to display integers in octal and hexadecimal formats.

■

Specify precision for both input and output.

■

Display floating-point values in both scientific and fixedpoint notation.

■

Set and restore the format state.

■

Control justification and padding.

■

Determine the success or failure of input/output operations.

■

Tie output streams to input streams.

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2

Chapter 13 Stream Input/Output: A Deeper Look

Self-Review Exercises 13.1

(Fill in the Blanks) Answer each of the following: a) Input/output in C++ occurs as of bytes.

ANS: streams. , and . b) The stream manipulators for justification are ANS: left, right and internal. c) Member function can be used to set and reset format state.

ANS: flags. d) Most C++ programs that do I/O should include the header that contains the declarations required for all stream-I/O operations.

ANS: <iostream>. e) When using parameterized manipulators, the header must be included.

ANS: <iomanip>. stream manipulator causes positive numbers to display with a plus sign. f) The ANS: showpos. g) The ostream member function is used to perform unformatted output.

ANS: write. h) Input operations are supported by class .

ANS: istream. i) Standard error stream outputs are directed to the stream objects or .

ANS: cerr or clog. . j) Output operations are supported by class ANS: ostream. k) The symbol for the stream insertion operator is .

ANS: <<. l) The four objects that correspond to the standard devices on the system include , , and .

ANS: cin, cout, cerr and clog. m) The symbol for the stream extraction operator is .

ANS: >>. , and specify that integers should n) The stream manipulators be displayed in octal, hexadecimal and decimal formats, respectively.

ANS: oct, hex and dec.

13.2 (True or False) State whether each of the following is true or false. If the answer is false, explain why. a) The stream member function flags with a long argument sets the flags state variable to its argument and returns its previous value.

ANS: False. The stream member function flags with a fmtflags argument sets the flags state variable to its argument and returns the prior state settings. b) The stream insertion operator << and the stream extraction operator >> are overloaded to handle all standard data types—including strings and memory addresses (stream insertion only)—and all user-defined data types.

ANS: False. The stream insertion and stream extraction operators are not overloaded for all user-defined types. You must specifically provide the overloaded operator functions to overload the stream operators for use with each user-defined type you create. c) The stream member function flags with no arguments resets the stream’s format state.

ANS: False. The stream member function flags with no arguments returns the current format settings as a fmtflags data type, which represents the format state.

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Self-Review Exercises

3

d) Input with the stream extraction operator >> always skips leading white-space characters in the input stream, by default.

ANS: True. e) The stream member function rdstate returns the current state of the stream.

ANS: True. f) The cout stream normally is connected to the display screen.

ANS: True. g) The stream member function good returns true if the bad, fail and eof member functions all return false.

ANS: True. h) The cin stream normally is connected to the display screen.

ANS: False. The cin stream is connected to the standard input of the computer, which normally is the keyboard. i) If a nonrecoverable error occurs during a stream operation, the bad member function will return true.

ANS: True. j) Output to cerr is unbuffered and output to clog is buffered.

ANS: True. k) Stream manipulator showpoint forces floating-point values to print with the default six digits of precision unless the precision value has been changed, in which case floatingpoint values print with the specified precision.

ANS: True. l) The ostream member function put outputs the specified number of characters.

ANS: False. The ostream member function put outputs its single-character argument. m) The stream manipulators dec, oct and hex affect only the next integer output operation.

ANS: False. The stream manipulators dec, oct and hex set the output format state for integers to the specified base until the base is changed again or the program terminates.

13.3 (Write a C++ Statement) For each of the following, write a single statement that performs the indicated task. a) Output the string "Enter your name: ".

ANS: cout << "Enter your name: ";

b) Use a stream manipulator that causes the exponent in scientific notation and the letters in hexadecimal values to print in capital letters.

ANS: cout << uppercase;

c) Output the address of the variable myString of type char *.

ANS: cout << static_cast<void*>(myString);

d) Use a stream manipulator to ensure that floating-point values print in scientific notation.

ANS: cout << scientific;

e) Output the address in variable integerPtr of type int *.

ANS: cout << integerPtr;

f) Use a stream manipulator such that, when integer values are output, the integer base for octal and hexadecimal values is displayed.

ANS: cout << showbase;

g) Output the value pointed to by floatPtr of type float *.

ANS: cout << *floatPtr;

h) Use a stream member function to set the fill character to '*' for printing in field widths larger than the values being output. Repeat this statement with a stream manipulator.

ANS: cout.fill('*'); cout << setfill('*');

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4

Chapter 13 Stream Input/Output: A Deeper Look i) Output the characters 'O' and 'K' in one statement with ostream function put.

ANS: cout.put('O').put('K');

j) Get the value of the next character to input without extracting it from the stream.

ANS: cin.peek();

k) Input a single character into variable charValue of type char, using the istream member function get in two different ways.

ANS: charValue = cin.get(); cin.get(charValue);

l) Input and discard the next six characters in the input stream.

ANS: cin.ignore(6);

m) Use istream member function read to input 50 characters into char array line.

ANS: cin.read(line, 50);

n) Read 10 characters into character array name. Stop reading characters if the '.' delimiter is encountered. Do not remove the delimiter from the input stream. Write another statement that performs this task and removes the delimiter from the input.

ANS: cin.get(name, 10, '.'); cin.getline(name, 10, '.');

o) Use the istream member function gcount to determine the number of characters input into character array line by the last call to istream member function read, and output that number of characters, using ostream member function write.

ANS: cout.write(line, cin.gcount());

p) Output 124, 18.376, 'Z', 1000000 and "String", separated by spaces.

ANS: cout << 124 << ' ' << 18.376 << " Z " << 1000000 << " String";

q) Display cout’s current precision setting.

ANS: cout << cout.precision();

r) Input an integer value into int variable months and a floating-point value into float variable percentageRate.

ANS: cin >> months >> percentageRate;

s) Print 1.92, 1.925 and 1.9258 separated by tabs and with 3 digits of precision, using a stream manipulator.

ANS: cout << setprecision(3) << 1.92 << '\t' << 1.925 << '\t' << 1.9258;

t) Print integer 100 in octal, hexadecimal and decimal, using stream manipulators and separated by tabs.

ANS: cout << oct << 100 << '\t' << hex << 100 << '\t' << dec << 100;

u) Print integer 100 in decimal, octal and hexadecimal separated by tabs, using a stream manipulator to change the base.

ANS: cout << 100 << '\t' << setbase(8) << 100 << '\t' << setbase(16) << 100;

v) Print 1234 right justified in a 10-digit field.

ANS: cout << setw(10) << 1234;

w) Read characters into character array line until the character 'z' is encountered, up to a limit of 20 characters (including a terminating null character). Do not extract the delimiter character from the stream.

ANS: cin.get(line, 20, 'z');

x) Use integer variables x and y to specify the field width and precision used to display the double value 87.4573, and display the value.

ANS: cout << setw(x) << setprecision(y) << 87.4573;

13.4 (Find and Correct Code Errors) Identify the error in each of the following statements and explain how to correct it.

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Exercises a)

5

cout << "Value of x <= y is: " << x <= y;

ANS: Error: The precedence of the << operator is higher than that of <=, which causes the

statement to be evaluated improperly and also causes a compiler error.

Correction: Place parentheses around the expression x <= y. b) The following statement should print the integer value of 'c'. cout << 'c'; ANS: Error: In C++, characters are not treated as small integers, as they are in C.

Correction: To print the numerical value for a character in the computer’s character set, the character must be cast to an integer value, as in the following: cout << static_cast<int>('c');

c)

cout << ""A string in quotes"";

ANS: Error: Quote characters cannot be printed in a string unless an escape sequence is

used.

Correction: Print the string: cout << "\"A string in quotes\"";

13.5

(Show Outputs) For each of the following, show the output. a) cout << "12345\n"; cout.width(5); cout.fill('*'); cout << 123 << "\n" << 123;

ANS: 12345 **123 123

b) cout << setw(10) << setfill('$') << 10000; ANS: $$$$$10000

c)

cout << setw(8) << setprecision(3) << 1024.987654;

ANS: 1024.988

d) cout << showbase << oct << 99 << "\n" << hex << 99; ANS: 0143 0x63

e)

cout << 100000 << "\n" << showpos << 100000;

ANS: 100000 +100000

f)

cout << setw(10) << setprecision(2) << scientific << 444.93738;

ANS:

4.45e+002

Exercises NOTE: Solutions to the programming exercises are located in the ch13solutions folder.

13.6

(Write C++ Statements) Write a statement for each of the following: a) Print integer 40000 left justified in a 15-digit field.

ANS: cout << left << setw(15) << 40000 << '\n';

b) Read a string into character array variable state.

ANS: cin >> state;

c) Print 200 with and without a sign.

ANS: cout << showpos << 200 << setw(4)

<< '\n' << noshowpos << 200 << '\n';

d) Print the decimal value 100 in hexadecimal form preceded by 0x.

ANS: cout << showbase << hex << 100 << '\n';

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Chapter 13 Stream Input/Output: A Deeper Look e) Read characters into array charArray until the character 'p' is encountered, up to a limit of 10 characters (including the terminating null character). Extract the delimiter from the input stream, and discard it.

ANS: cin.getline(charArray, 10, 'p');

f) Print 1.234 in a 9-digit field with preceding zeros.

ANS: cout << fixed << showpoint

<< setw(v)

<< setfill('0') << internal << 1.234 << '\n';

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14

File Processing

Objectives In this chapter you’ll: ■

Create, read, write and update files.

■

Perform sequential file processing.

■

Perform random-access file processing.

■

Use high-performance unformatted I/O operations.

■

Understand the differences between formatted-data and raw-data file processing.

■

Build a transactionprocessing program using random-access file processing.

■

Understand the concept of object serialization.

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Chapter 14 File Processing

Self-Review Exercises 14.1

(Fill in the Blanks) Fill in the blanks in each of the following: a) Member function of the file streams fstream, ifstream and ofstream closes a file.

ANS: close. b) The ostream member function is normally used when writing data to a file in random-access applications.

ANS: write. c) Member function of the file streams fstream, ifstream and ofstream opens a file.

ANS: open. d) The istream member function is normally used when reading data from a file in random-access applications.

ANS: read. e) Member functions and of istream and ostream set the file-position pointer to a specific location in an input or output stream, respectively.

ANS: seekg, seekp.

14.2

(True or False) State which of the following are true and which are false. If false, explain why. a) Member function read cannot be used to read data from the input object cin.

ANS: False. Function read can read from any input stream object derived from istream. b) You must create the cin, cout, cerr and clog objects explicitly.

ANS: False. These four streams are created automatically for you. The <iostream> header must be included in a file to use them. This header includes declarations for each predefined stream object. c) A program must call function close explicitly to close a file associated with an ifstream, ofstream or fstream object.

ANS: False. The files will be closed when destructors for ifstream, ofstream or fstream objects execute when the stream objects go out of scope or before program execution terminates, but it’s a good programming practice to close all files explicitly with close once they’re no longer needed. d) If the file-position pointer points to a location in a sequential file other than the beginning of the file, the file must be closed and reopened to read from the beginning of the file.

ANS: False. Member functions seekp and seekg can be used to reposition the “put” or “get” file-position pointers, respectively, to the beginning of the file. e) The ostream member function write can write to standard-output stream cout.

ANS: True. f) Data in sequential files always is updated without overwriting nearby data.

ANS: False. In most cases, sequential file records are not of uniform length. Therefore, it’s possible that updating a record will cause other data to be overwritten. g) Searching all records in a random-access file to find a specific record is unnecessary.

ANS: True. h) Records in random-access files must be of uniform length.

ANS: False. Records in a random-access file normally are of uniform length. i) Member functions seekp and seekg must seek relative to the beginning of a file.

ANS: False. It’s possible to seek from the beginning of the file, from the end of the file and from the current position in the file.

14.3

Assume that each of the following statements applies to the same program.

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Exercises

3

a) Write a statement that opens file oldmast.dat for input; use an ifstream object called inOldMaster.

ANS: ifstream inOldMaster{"oldmast.dat", ios::in};

b) Write a statement that opens file trans.dat for input; use an ifstream object called inTransaction.

ANS: ifstream inTransaction{"trans.dat", ios::in};

c) Write a statement that opens file newmast.dat for output (and creation); use ofstream object outNewMaster.

ANS: ofstream outNewMaster{"newmast.dat", ios::out};

d) Write a statement that reads a record from the file oldmast.dat. The record consists of integer accountNumber, string name (containing spaces) and floating-point currentBalance. Use ifstream object inOldMaster.

ANS: inOldMaster >> accountNumber >> quoted(name) >> currentBalance;

e) Write a statement that reads a record from the file trans.dat. The record consists of integer accountNum and floating-point dollarAmount. Use ifstream object inTransaction.

ANS: inTransaction >> accountNum >> dollarAmount;

f) Write a statement that writes a record to the file newmast.dat. The record consists of integer accountNum, string name, and floating-point currentBalance. Use ofstream object outNewMaster.

ANS: outNewMaster << accountNum << " " << name << " " << currentBalance;

14.4

Find the error(s) and show how to correct it (them) in each of the following. a) File payables.dat referred to by ofstream object outPayable has not been opened. outPayable << account << company << amount << endl;

ANS: Error: The file payables.dat has not been opened before the attempt is made to out-

put data to the stream.

Correction: Use ofstream function open to open payables.dat for output. b) The following statement should read a record from the file payables.dat. The ifstream object inPayable refers to this file, and ifstream object inReceivable refers to the file receivables.dat. inReceivable >> account >> company >> amount;

ANS: Error: The incorrect ifstream object is being used to read a record from the file

named payables.dat.

Correction: Use ifstream object inPayable to refer to payables.dat. c) The file tools.dat should be opened to add data to the file without discarding the current data. ofstream outTools("tools.dat", ios::out);

ANS: Error: The file’s contents are discarded because the file is opened for output

(ios::out).

Correction: To add data to the file, open the file either for updating (ios::ate) or for appending (ios::app).

Exercises NOTE: Solutions to the programming exercises are located in the ch14solutions folder.

14.5

(Fill in the Blanks) Fill in the blanks in each of the following: a) Computers store large amounts of data on secondary storage devices as ANS: files.

.

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Chapter 14 File Processing b) The standard stream objects declared by header <iostream> are , and .

ANS: cin, cout, cerr, clog. c) ostream member function repositions the file-position pointer in a file.

ANS: put. d) is the default file-open mode for an ofstream.

ANS: write. repositions the file-position pointer in a file. e) istream member function ANS: seekg.

,

14.10 Write a series of statements that accomplish each of the following. Assume that we’ve defined class Person that contains the private data members char lastName[15]; char firstName[10]; int age; int id;

and public member functions // accessor functions for id void setId(int); int getId() const; // accessor functions for lastName void setLastName(const string&); string getLastName() const; // accessor functions for firstName void setFirstName(const string&); string getFirstName() const; // accessor functions for age void setAge(int); int getAge() const;

Also assume that any random-access files have been opened properly. a) Initialize nameage.dat with 100 records that store values lastName ="unassigned", firstName = "" and age = 0.

ANS: // fstream object "fileObject" corresponds to file nameage.dat Person blankPerson; blankPerson.setLastName("unassigned"); blankPerson.setFirstName(""); blankPerson.setAge("0"); blankPerson.id = 0; for (size_t r{0}; r < 100; r++) { fileObject.write(reinterpret_cast<const char *>(&blankPerson), sizeof(Person) ); }

b) Input 10 last names, first names and ages, and write them to the file.

ANS: string last; string first; string age; int id; unsigned int counter{1}; while (counter <= 10) {

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Exercises

5

do { // obtain id-number value cout << "Enter id number for new record (1 - 100): " cin << id; } while ((id < 1) || (id > 100)); // move file-position pointer to correct record in file fileObject.seekg((id - 1) * sizeof(Person)); // read record from file to determine if one already exists Person person; fileObject.read(reinterpret_cast<char *>(&person), sizeof(Person)); // create record, if record does not previously exist if (person.getId() == 0) { cout << "Enter last name, first name, and age: "; cin >> setw(15) last; cin >> setw(15) first; cin >> setw(4) >> age; person.setLastName(last); person.setFirstName(first); person.setAge(age); person.setId(id); // move file-position pointer to correct record in file fileObject.seekp((id - 1) * sizeof(Person)); // insert new record fileObject.write(reinterpret_cast<const char *>(&person), sizeof(Person)); ++counter; // record added, increase counter } else { // display error if record previously exists cerr << "Record #" << id << " already contains data." << endl; } }

c) Update a record that already contains information. If the record does not contain information, inform the user "No info".

ANS: char lastName[15]; char firstName[10]; int age; int id; do { // obtain id-number value cout << "Enter id number for new record (1 - 100): " cin << id; } while ((id < 1) || (id > 100)); // move file-position pointer to correct record in file fileObject.seekg((id - 1) * sizeof(Person)); // read record from file to determine if one already exists Person person; fileObject.read(reinterpret_cast<char *>(&person), sizeof(Person)); // update record, if no record currently exists if (person.getId() != 0) { cout << "Enter new last name, first name, and age: "; cin >> setw(15) last;

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6

Chapter 14 File Processing cin >> setw(10) >> first; cin >> age; person.setLastName(last); person.setFirstName(first); person.setAge(age); person.setId(id); // move file-position pointer to correct record in file fileObject.seekp((id - 1) * sizeof(Person)); // insert new record fileObject.write(reinterpret_cast<const char *>(&person), sizeof(Person)); } else { // display error if record did not previously exists cerr << "No info." << endl; }

d) Delete a record that contains information by reinitializing that particular record.

ANS: do { // obtain id-number value cout << "Enter id number for new record (1 - 100): " cin << id; } while ((id < 1) || (id > 100)); // move file-position pointer to correct record in file fileObject.seekg((id - 1) * sizeof(Person)); // read record from file Person person; fileObject.read(reinterpret_cast<char *>(&person), sizeof(Person)); if (person.id != 0) { // delete record, if record exists in file // create blank record Person blankPerson; blankPerson.setLastName("unassigned"); blankPerson.setFirstName(""); blankPerson.setAge("0"); blankPerson.id = 0; // move file-position pointer to correct record in file fileObject.seekp((id - 1) * sizeof(Person)); // replace existing record with blank record fileObject.write(reinterpret_cast<const char *>(&blankPerson), sizeof(Person)); cout << "Record #" << id << " deleted." << endl; } else { // display error if record does not exist cerr << "Record #" << id << " is empty." << endl; }

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15

Standard Library Containers and Iterators

Objectives In this chapter you’ll: ■

Be introduced to the Standard Library containers, iterators and algorithms.

■

Use the vector, list and deque sequence containers.

■

Use the set, multiset, map and multimap associative containers.

■

Use the stack, queue and priority_queue

container adapters.

■

Use iterators to access container elements.

■

Use the copy algorithm and ostream_iterators to output a container.

■

Understand how to use the bitset “near container” to manipulate a collection of bit flags.

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2

Chapter 15 Standard Library Containers and Iterators

Self-Review Exercises 15.1

State whether each of the following is true or false. If false, explain why. a) Pointer-based code is complex and error prone—the slightest omissions or oversights can lead to serious memory-access violations and memory-leak errors that the compiler will warn you about.

ANS: False. The compiler does not warn about these kinds of execution-time errors. b) deques offer rapid insertions and deletions at front or back and direct access to any element.

ANS: True. c) lists are singly linked lists and offer rapid insertion and deletion anywhere.

ANS: False. They are doubly linked lists. d) multimaps offer one-to-many mapping with duplicates allowed and rapid key-based lookup.

ANS: True. e) Associative containers are nonlinear data structures that typically can locate elements stored in the containers quickly.

ANS: True. f) The container member function cbegin returns an iterator that refers to the container’s first element.

ANS: False. It returns a const_iterator. g) The ++ operation on an iterator moves it to the container’s next element.

ANS: True. h) The * (dereferencing) operator when applied to a const iterator returns a const reference to the container element, allowing the use of non-const member functions.

ANS: False. Disallowing the use of non-const member functions. i) Using iterators where appropriate is another example of the principle of least privilege.

ANS: False. Using const_iterators where appropriate is another example of the principle of least privilege. j) Many algorithms operate on sequences of elements defined by iterators pointing to the first element of the sequence and to the last element.

ANS: False. Many algorithms operate on sequences of elements defined by iterators pointing to the first element of the sequence and to one element past the last element. k) Function capacity returns the number of elements that can be stored in the vector before the vector needs to dynamically resize itself to accommodate more elements.

ANS: True. l) One of the most common uses of a deque is to maintain a first-in, first-out queue of elements. In fact, a deque is the default underlying implementation for the queue adaptor.

ANS: True. m) push_front is available only for class list.

ANS: False. It’s also available for class deque. n) Insertions and deletions can be made only at the front and back of a map.

ANS: False. Insertions and deletions can be made anywhere in a map. o) Class queue enables insertions at the front of the underlying data structure and deletions from the back (commonly referred to as a first-in, first-out data structure).

ANS: False. Insertions may occur only at the back and deletions may occur only at the front.

15.2

Fill in the blanks in each of the following statements: a) The three key components of the “STL” portion of the Standard Library are and .

ANS: containers, iterators and algorithms.

,

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Self-Review Exercises

3

b) Built-in arrays can be manipulated by Standard Library algorithms, using as iterators.

ANS: pointers. c) The Standard Library container adapter most closely associated with the last-in, first. out (LIFO) insertion-and-removal discipline is the ANS: stack. d) The sequence containers and containers are collectively referred to as the firstclass containers.

ANS: associative. e) A(n) constructor initializes the container to be a copy of an existing container of the same type.

ANS: copy. f) The container member function returns true if there are no elements in the container; otherwise, it returns false.

ANS: empty. g) The container member function (C++11) moves the elements of one container into another—this avoids the overhead of copying each element of the argument container.

ANS: move version of operator=. is overloaded to return either an iterator or h) The container member function a const_iterator that refers to the first element of the container.

ANS: begin.

to prevent modification to i) Operations performed on a const_iterator return elements of the container being manipulated.

ANS: const references. and . j) The sequence containers are array, vector, deque, ANS: list and forward_list. k) Choose the container for the best random-access performance in a container that can grow.

ANS: vector. l) Function push_back, which is available in sequence containers other than , adds an element to the end of the container.

ANS: array. m) As with cbegin and cend, C++11 includes vector member function crbegin and crend which return that represent the starting and ending points when iterating through a container in reverse.

ANS: const_reverse_iterators. function takes a single argument, performs a comparison using that n) A unary argument and returns a bool value indicating the result.

ANS: predicate. o) The primary difference between the ordered and unordered associative containers is .

ANS: the unordered ones do not maintain their keys in sorted order. . p) The primary difference between a multimap and a map is ANS: a multimap allows duplicate keys with associated values to be stored and a map allows only unique keys with associated values. . q) C++11 introduces class template tuple, which is similar to pair, but can ANS: hold any number of items of various types.

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4

Chapter 15 Standard Library Containers and Iterators r) The map associative container performs fast storage and retrieval of unique keys and associated values. Duplicate keys are not allowed—a single value can be associated with mapping. each key. This is called a(n) ANS: one-to-one. provides functionality that enables insertions in sorted order into the s) Class underlying data structure and deletions from the front of the underlying data structure.

ANS: priority_queue.

15.3

Write a statement or expression that performs each of the following bitset tasks: a) Write a declaration that creates bitset flags of size size, in which every bit is initially 0.

ANS: bitset<size> flags;

b) Write a statement that sets bit bitNumber of bitset flags “off.”

ANS: flags.reset(bitNumber);

c) Write a statement that returns a reference to the bit bitNumber of bitset flags.

ANS: flags[bitNumber];

d) Write an expression that returns the number of bits that are set in bitset flags.

ANS: flags.count()

e) Write an expression that returns true if all of the bits are set in bitset flags.

ANS: flags.all()

f) Write an expression that compares bitsets flags and otherFlags for inequality.

ANS: flags != otherFlags

g) Write an expression that shifts the bits in bitset flags left by n positions.

ANS: flags <<= n;

Exercises NOTE: Solutions to the programming exercises are located in the ch15solutions folder.

15.4

State whether each of the following is true or false. If false, explain why. a) Many of the Standard Library algorithms can be applied to various containers independently of the underlying container implementation.

ANS: True. b) arrays are fixed in size and offer direct access to any element.

ANS: True. c) forward_lists are singly linked lists, that offer rapid insertion and deletion only at the front and the back.

ANS: False. They offer rapid insertion and deletion anywhere. d) sets offer rapid lookup and duplicates are allowed.

ANS: False. No duplicates are allowed. e) In a priority_queue, the lowest-priority element is always the first element out.

ANS: False. The highest priority element is always the first element out. f) The sequence containers represent non-linear data structures.

ANS: False. They represent linear data structures. g) As of C++11, there is now a non-member function version of swap that swaps the contents of its two arguments (which must be of different container types) using move operations rather than copy operations.

ANS: False. The two arguments must be of the same container type. h) Container member function erase removes all elements from the container.

ANS: False. It removes one or more elements from the container i) An object of type iterator refers to a container element that can be modified.

ANS: True.

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Exercises

5

j) We use const versions of the iterators for traversing read-only containers.

ANS: True. k) For input iterators and output iterators, it’s common to save the iterator then use the saved value later.

ANS: False. For input and output iterators, it’s not possible to save the iterator then use the saved value later. l) Class templates array, vector and deque are based on built-in arrays.

ANS: True. m) Attempting to dereference an iterator positioned outside its container is a compilation error. In particular, the iterator returned by end should not be dereferenced or incremented.

ANS: False. It’s a run-time logic error. n) Insertions and deletions in the middle of a deque are optimized to minimize the number of elements copied, so it’s more efficient than a vector but less efficient than a list for this kind of modification.

ANS: True. o) Container set does not allow duplicates.

ANS: True. p) Class stack (from header <stack>) enables insertions into and deletions from the underlying data structure at one end (commonly referred to as a last-in, first-out data structure).

ANS: True. q) Function empty is available in all containers except the deque.

ANS: False. Function empty is available in all containers 15.5

Fill in the blanks in each of the following statements: and near cona) The three styles of container classes are first-class containers, tainers.

ANS: container adapters. b) Containers are divided into four major categories—sequence containers, ordered assoand container adapters. ciative containers, ANS: unordered associative containers. c) The Standard Library container adapter most closely associated with the first-in, first. out (FIFO) insertion-and-removal discipline is the ANS: queue. containers. d) Built-in arrays, bitsets and valarrays are all ANS: near. e) A(n) constructor (new in C++11) moves the contents of an existing container of the same type into a new container, without the overhead of copying each element of the argument container.

ANS: move. container member function returns the number of elements currently in f) The the container.

ANS: size

g) The container member function returns true if the contents of the first container are not equal to the contents of the second; otherwise, returns false.

ANS: operator!=

h) We use iterators with sequences—these can be input sequences or output sequences, or they can be .

ANS: in containers.

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Chapter 15 Standard Library Containers and Iterators i) The Standard Library algorithms operate on container elements only indirectly via .

ANS: iterators. j) Applications with frequent insertions and deletions in the middle and/or at the extremes . of a container normally use a(n) ANS: list. k) Function is available in every first-class container (except forward_list) and it returns the number of elements currently stored in the container.

ANS: size. l) It can be wasteful to double a vector’s size when more space is needed. For example, a full vector of 1,000,000 elements resizes to accommodate 2,000,000 elements when a new element is added, leaving 999,999 unused elements. You can use and to control space usage better.

ANS: resize, reserve. m) As of C++11, you can ask a vector or deque to return unneeded memory to the system by calling member function .

ANS: shrink_to_fit

n) The associative containers provide direct access to store and retrieve elements via keys (often called search keys). The ordered associative containers are multiset, set, and .

ANS: multimap and map. and provide operations for manipulating sets of values where o) Classes the values are the keys—there is not a separate value associated with each key.

ANS: multiset, set. . p) We use C++11’s auto keyword to ANS: infer the variable’s type from its initializer. q) A multimap is implemented to efficiently locate all values paired with a given .

ANS: key. r) The Standard Library container adapters are stack, queue and .

ANS: priority_queue.

Discussion Questions 15.6

Why is it expensive to insert (or delete) an element in the middle of a vector?

ANS: The entire portion of the vector after the insertion (or deletion) point must be

moved, because vector elements occupy contiguous cells in memory.

15.7 Containers that support random-access iterators can be used with most but not all Standard Library algorithms. What is the exception?

ANS: If an algorithm modifies a container’s size, the algorithm can’t be used on built-in arrays or array objects.

15.8 15.9

Why would you use operator * to dereference an iterator?

ANS: So that you can use the element to which it points.

Why is insertion at the back of a vector efficient?

ANS: The vector simply grows, if necessary, to accommodate the new item.

15.10 When would you use a deque in preference to a vector?

ANS: Applications that require frequent insertions and deletions at both ends of a container normally use a deque rather than a vector. Although we can insert and delete elements at the front and back of both a vector and a deque, class deque is more efficient than vector for doing insertions and deletions at the front.

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Exercises

7

15.11 Describe what happens when you insert an element in a vector whose memory is exhausted.

ANS: The vector allocates a larger contiguous area of memory, copies the original elements into the new memory and deallocates the old memory.

15.12 When would you prefer a list to a deque?

ANS: Class deque is implemented for efficient insertion and deletion operations at its front and back, much like a list, but a list is also capable of efficient insertions and deletions in the middle of the list.

15.13 What happens when the map subscript is a key that’s not in the map?

ANS: When the map subscript is a key that’s already in the map, the operator returns a reference to the associated value. When the subscript is a key that’s not in the map, the operator inserts the key in the map and returns a reference that can be used to associate a value with that key.

15.14 Use C++11 list initializers to initialize the vector names with the strings "Suzanne", "James", "Maria" and "Juan". Show both common syntaxes.

ANS: vector< string > names{"Suzanne", "James", "Maria", "Juan"};

15.15 What happens when you erase a container element that contains a pointer to a dynamically allocated object?

ANS: Erasing an element that contains a pointer to a dynamically allocated object does not delete that object—this can lead to a memory leak. If the element is a unique_ptr, the memory would be deleted. If the element is a shared_ptr, the reference count to the dynamically allocated object would be decremented and the memory would be deleted only if the reference count reached 0.

15.16 Describe the multiset ordered associative container.

ANS: The multiset ordered associative container (from header <set>) provides fast storage and retrieval of keys and allows duplicate keys. The elements’ ordering is determined by a so-called comparator function object. For example, in an integer multiset, elements can be sorted in ascending order by ordering the keys with comparator function object less<int>.

15.17 How might a multimap ordered associative container be used in a credit-card transaction processing system?

ANS: In a credit-card transaction-processing system, one credit-card account can have many associated transactions; in a university, one student can take many courses, and one professor can teach many students; in the military, one rank (like “private”) has many people.

15.18 Write a statement that creates and initializes a multimap of strings and ints with three key– value pairs.

ANS: multimap<string, int, less<string>> pairs{ {"Sam", 2}, {"Judy", 9}, {"Jerry", 7}};

15.19 Explain the push, pop and top operations of a stack.

ANS: push inserts an element at the top of the stack. pop removes the top element of the stack. top gets a reference to the top element of the stack.

15.20 Explain the push, pop, front and back operations of a queue.

ANS: push inserts an element at the back of the queue. pop removes the element at the front of the queue. front gets a reference to the first element in the queue. back gets a reference to the last element in the queue.

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Chapter 15 Standard Library Containers and Iterators

15.21 How does inserting an item in a priority_queue differ from inserting an item in virtually any other container?

ANS: push inserts an item at the appropriate location based on priority order of the priority_queue.

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16

Standard Library Algorithms

Objectives In this chapter you’ll: ■

Understand minimum iterator requirements for working with Standard Library algorithms and containers.

■

Create anonymous functions using lambda expressions.

■

Capture local variables for use in lambda expressions.

■

Use containers and iterators with many of the dozens of Standard Library algorithms.

■

Use iterators with algorithms to access and manipulate the elements of Standard Library containers.

■

Pass lambda expressions, function pointers and function objects into Standard Library algorithms to help them perform their tasks.

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Chapter 16 Standard Library Algorithms

Self-Review Exercises 16.1

State whether each of the following is true or false. If false, explain why. a) Standard Library algorithms can operate on C-like pointer-based arrays.

ANS: True. b) Standard Library algorithms are encapsulated as member functions within each container class.

ANS: False. Standard Library algorithms are not member functions. They operate indirectly on containers, through iterators. c) When using the remove algorithm on a container, the algorithm does not decrease the size of the container from which elements are being removed.

ANS: True. d) One disadvantage of using Standard Library algorithms is that they depend on the implementation details of the containers on which they operate.

ANS: False. Standard Library algorithms do not depend on the implementation details of the containers on which they operate. e) The remove_if algorithm does not modify the number of elements in the container, but it does move to the beginning of the container all elements that are not removed.

ANS: True. f) The find_if_not algorithm locates all the values in the range for which the specified unary predicate function returns false.

ANS: False. It locates only the first value in the range for which the specified unary predicate function returns false. g) Use the set_union algorithm to create a set of all the elements that are in either or both of two sorted sets (both sets of values must be in ascending order).

ANS: True.

16.2

Fill in the blanks in each of the following statements: a) Standard Library algorithms operate on container elements indirectly, using .

ANS: Iterators. iterator. b) The sort algorithm requires a(n) ANS: random-access. c) Algorithms and set every element in a range of container elements to a specific value.

ANS: fill, fill_n. d) The algorithm compares two sequences of values for equality.

ANS: equal. e) The C++11 algorithm locates both the smallest and largest elements in a range.

ANS: minmax_element. function to insert an element at f) A back_inserter calls the container’s default the end of the container. If an element is inserted into a container that has no more space available, the container grows in size.

ANS: push_back. g) Any algorithm that can receive a function pointer can also receive an object of a class that overloads the parentheses operator with a function named operator(), provided that the overloaded operator meets the requirements of the algorithm. An object of such and can be used syntactically and semantically like a a class is known as a(n) function or function pointer.

ANS: function object.

16.3

Write a statement to peform each of the following tasks:

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Exercises

3

a) Use the fill algorithm to fill the entire array of strings named items with "hello".

ANS: fill(items.begin(), items.end(), "hello");

b) Function nextInt returns the next int value in sequence starting with 0 the first time it’s called. Use the generate algorithm and the nextInt function to fill the array of ints named integers.

ANS: generate(integers.begin(), integers.end(), nextInt);

c) Use the equal algorithm to compare two lists (strings1 and strings2) for equality.

Store the result in bool variable result.

ANS: bool

result{equal(strings1.cbegin(),

strings1.cend(),

strings2.cbe-

gin())};

d) Use the remove_if algorithm to remove from the vector of strings named colors all of the strings that start with "bl". Function startsWithBL returns true if its argument string starts with "bl". Store the iterator that the algorithm returns in newEnd. ANS: auto newEnd remove_if(colors.begin(), colors.end(), startsWithBL);

e) Use the replace_if algorithm to replace with 0 all elements with values greater than 100 in the array of ints named values. Function greaterThan100 returns true if its argument is greater than 100.

ANS: replace_if(values.begin(), values.end(), greaterThan100, 0);

f) Use the minmax_element algorithm to find the smallest and largest values in the array of doubles named temperatures. Store the pair of iterators that’s returned in result.

ANS: auto result = minmax_element(temperatures.cbegin(), temperatures.cend());

g) Use the sort algorithm to sort the array of strings named colors.

ANS: sort(colors.begin(), colors.end());

h) Use the reverse algorithm to reverse order of the elements in the array of strings named colors.

ANS: reverse(colors.begin(), colors.end());

i) Use the merge algorithm to merge the contents of the two sorted arrays named values1 and values2 into a third array named results.

ANS: merge(values1.cbegin(), values1.cend(), values2.cbegin(), values2.cend(), results.begin());

j) Write a lambda expression that returns the square of its int argument and assign the lambda expression to variable squareInt. ANS: auto squareInt = [](int i) {return i * i;};

Exercises NOTE: Solutions to the programming exercises are located in the ch16solutions folder.

16.4

State whether each of the following is true or false. If false, explain why. a) Because Standard Library algorithms process containers directly, one algorithm can often be used with many different containers.

ANS: False. Because Standard Library algorithms process containers only indirectly through iterators, one algorithm can often be used with many different containers. b) Use the for_each algorithm to apply a general function to every element in a range; for_each does not modify the sequence.

ANS: False. It is possible to modify the sequence if the general function receives the elements by reference. c) By default, the sort algorithm arranges the elements in a range in ascending order.

ANS: True.

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Chapter 16 Standard Library Algorithms d) Use the merge algorithm to form a new sequence by placing the second sequence after the first.

ANS: False. The merge algorithm combine two sorted ascending sequences of values into a third sorted ascending sequence. e) Use the set_intersection algorithm to find the elements from a first set of sorted values that are not in a second set of sorted values (both sets of values must be in ascending order).

ANS: False. This algorithm is used to find the elements from the first set of sorted values that are in the second set of sorted values. f) Algorithms lower_bound, upper_bound and equal_range are often used to locate insertion points in sorted sequences.

ANS: True. g) Lambda expressions can also be used where function pointers and function objects are used in algorithms.

ANS: True. h) C++11’s lambda expressions are defined locally inside functions and can “capture” (by value or by reference) the local variables of the enclosing function then manipulate these variables in the lambda’s body.

16.5

16.6

Fill in the blanks in each of the following statements: satisfy the requirements of an ala) As long as a container’s (or built-in array’s) gorithm, the algorithm can work on the container.

ANS: iterators. function to create values for evb) Algorithms generate and generate_n use a(n) ery element in a range of container elements. That type of function takes no arguments and returns a value that can be placed in an element of the container.

ANS: generator function. c) Pointers into built-in arrays are iterators.

ANS: random-access. algorithm (the template of which is in header <numeric>) to sum the d) Use the values in a range.

ANS: accumulate. algorithm to apply a general function to every element in a range e) Use the when you need to modify those elements.

ANS: for_each. f) In order to work properly, the binary_search algorithm requires that the sequence of values must be .

ANS: sorted. g) Use the function iter_swap to exchange the elements that are pointed to by two iterators and exchanges the values in those elements.

ANS: forward. in which the h) C++11’s minmax algorithm receives two items and returns a(n) smaller item is stored in first and the larger item is stored in second.

ANS: pair. algorithms modify the containers they operate on. i) ANS: mutating sequence algorithms.

List several advantages function objects provide over function pointers.

ANS: The compiler can inline a function object’s overloaded operator() to improve per-

formance. Since they’re objects of classes, function objects can have data members that operator() can use to perform its task.

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Exercises

5

16.7 What happens when you apply the unique algorithm to a sorted sequence of elements in a range?

ANS: All of the duplicated elements in that range are removed.

16.14 Explain why using the “weakest iterator” that yields acceptable performance helps produce maximally reusable components.

ANS: More containter types can be used by the code with the specified iterators.

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17

Exception Handling: A Deeper Look

Objectives In this chapter you’ll: ■

Understand the exceptionhandling flow of control with try, catch and throw.

■

Define new exception classes.

■

Understand how stack unwinding enables exceptions not caught in one scope to be caught in another.

■

Handle new failures.

■

Use unique_ptr (a Standard Library “smart pointer” class) to prevent memory leaks.

■

Understand the standard exception hierarchy.

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Chapter 17 Exception Handling: A Deeper Look

Self-Review Exercises 17.1

List five common examples of exceptions.

ANS: Insufficient memory to satisfy a new request, array subscript out of bounds, arithmetic

overflow, division by zero, invalid function parameters.

17.2 Give several reasons why exception-handling techniques should not be used for conventional program control.

ANS: (a) Exception handling is designed to handle infrequently occurring situations that often result in program termination, so compiler writers are not required to implement exception handling to perform optimally. (b) Flow of control with conventional control structures generally is clearer and more efficient than with exceptions. (c) Problems can occur because the stack is unwound when an exception occurs and resources allocated prior to the exception might not be freed. (d) The “additional” exceptions make it more difficult for you to handle the larger number of exception cases.

17.3

Why are exceptions appropriate for dealing with errors produced by library functions?

ANS: It’s unlikely that a library function will perform error processing that will meet the

unique needs of all users.

17.4

What’s a “resource leak”?

ANS: A program that terminates abruptly could leave a resource in a state in which other

programs would not be able to acquire the resource, or the program itself might not be able to reacquire a “leaked” resource.

17.5 If no exceptions are thrown in a try block, where does control proceed to after the try block completes execution?

ANS: The exception handlers (in the catch handlers) for that try block are skipped, and the program resumes execution after the last catch handler.

17.6

What happens if an exception is thrown outside a try block?

ANS: An exception thrown outside a try block causes stack unwinding.

17.7

Give a key advantage and a key disadvantage of using catch(...).

ANS: A catch handler of the form catch(...) catches any type of exception thrown in a try block. An advantage is that all possible exceptions will be caught. A disadvantage

is that the catch has no parameter, so it cannot reference information in the thrown object and cannot know the cause of the exception.

17.8

17.9

What happens if no catch handler matches the type of a thrown object?

ANS: This causes the search for a match to continue in the next enclosing try block if there is one. As this process continues, it might eventually be determined that there is no handler in the program that matches the type of the thrown object; in this case, the program terminates.

What happens if several handlers match the type of the thrown object?

ANS: The first matching exception handler after the try block is executed.

17.10 Why would you specify a base-class type as the type of a catch handler, then throw objects of derived-class types?

ANS: This is a nice way to catch related types of exceptions.

17.11 Suppose a catch handler with a precise match to an exception object type is available. Under what circumstances might a different handler be executed for exception objects of that type?

ANS: If a base-class handler is defined before a derived-class handler, the base-class handler would catch objects of all derived-class types.

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Exercises

3

17.12 Must throwing an exception cause program termination?

ANS: No, but it does terminate the block in which the exception is thrown.

17.13 What happens when a catch handler throws an exception?

ANS: The exception will be processed by a catch handler (if one exists) associated with the try block (if one exists) enclosing the catch handler that caused the exception.

17.14 What does the statement throw; do?

ANS: It rethrows the exception if it appears in a catch handler; otherwise, the program terminates.

Exercises NOTE: Solutions to the programming exercises are located in the ch17solutions folder.

17.15 (Exceptional Conditions) List various exceptional conditions that have occurred throughout this text. List as many additional exceptional conditions as you can. For each of these exceptions, describe briefly how a program typically would handle the exception, using the exception-handling techniques discussed in this chapter. Some typical exceptions are division by zero, arithmetic overflow, array subscript out of bounds, exhaustion of the free store, etc.

ANS: A few examples are: Division by zero—check the denominator to see if it is equal to zero, and throw an exception before the division occurs. Array subscript out of bounds—catch the exception, print an error message telling the user what index was trying to be referenced, and exit the program in a controlled manner. Exhaustion of the free store—catch the exception, and either deallocate enough other objects so that you can allocate memory for the new object or delete all objects and terminate the program. Bad cast—catch the exception and either cast the operand to the proper type, if that can be determined, or print an error message indicating what the bad cast was, and exit the program.

17.16 (Catch Parameter) Under what circumstances would you not provide a parameter name when defining the type of the object that will be caught by a handler?

ANS: If there is no information in the object that is required in the handler, a parameter name is not required in the handler.

17.17 (throw Statement) A program contains the statement throw;

Where would you normally expect to find such a statement? What if that statement appeared in a different part of the program?

ANS: The statement would be found in an exception handler to rethrow an exception. If any throw; expression occurs outside a catch block, the function unexpected is called.

17.18 (Exception Handling vs. Other Schemes) Compare and contrast exception handling with the various other error-processing schemes discussed in the text.

ANS: Exception handling enables the programmer to build more robust classes with builtin error-processing capabilities. Once created, such classes allow their clients to concentrate on using the classes rather than defining what should happen if an error occurs. Exception handling also allows a program that should not continue to exit in a controlled manner, returning any resources that it might have obtained, therefore preventing possible resource leaks, and it allows the program to display meaningful messages about the problem, instead of just terminating. Exception handling provides a single, uniform technique for processing errors; this helps programmers working on large projects understand each other’s error-processing code.

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Chapter 17 Exception Handling: A Deeper Look

17.19 (Exception Handling and Program Control) Why should exceptions not be used as an alternate form of program control?

ANS: Exception handling is designed to handle infrequently occurring situations that often result in program termination. Exceptions do not follow conventional forms of program control. Handling a larger number of exception cases can be cumbersome, and programs with a large number of exception cases can be difficult to read and maintain.

17.20 (Handling Related Exceptions) Describe a technique for handling related exceptions.

ANS: Create a base class for all related exceptions. From the base class, derive related exception classes. Once the exception class hierarchy is created, all exceptions from the hierarchy can be caught as the base class exception type.

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18

Introduction to Custom Templates

Objectives In this chapter you’ll: ■

Use class templates to create groups of related classes.

■

Distinguish between class templates and class-template specializations.

■

See how nontype template parameters can be used in place of constants declared inside a class.

■

Learn about default template arguments.

■

Learn about overloading function templates.

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2

Chapter 18 Introduction to Custom Templates

Self-Review Exercises 18.1

State which of the following are true and which are false. If false, explain why. a) Keywords typename and class as used with a template type parameter specifically mean “any user-defined class type.”

ANS: False. Keywords typename and class in this context also allow for a type parameter of a fundamental type. b) A function template can be overloaded by another function template with the same function name.

ANS: True. c) Template parameter names among template definitions must be unique.

ANS: False. Template parameter names among function templates need not be unique. d) Each member-function definition outside its corresponding class template definition must begin with template and the same template parameters as its class template.

ANS: True.

18.2

Fill in the blanks in each of the following: a) Templates enable us to specify, with a single code segment, an entire range of related , or an entire range of related classes called . functions called ANS: function-template specializations, class-template specializations. b) All template definitions begin with the keyword , followed by a list of template . parameters enclosed in ANS: template, angle brackets (< and >). c) The related functions generated from a function template all have the same name, so resolution to invoke the proper function. the compiler uses ANS: overload. d) Class templates also are called types.

ANS: parameterized. e) The operator is used with a class-template name to tie each member-function definition to the class template’s scope.

ANS: scope resolution.

Exercises NOTE: Solutions to the programming exercises are located in the ch18solutions folder.

18.3

(Operator Overloads in Templates) Write a simple function template for predicate function

isEqualTo that compares its two arguments of the same type with the equality operator (==) and

returns true if they are equal and false otherwise. Use this function template in a program that calls isEqualTo only with a variety of fundamental types. Now write a separate version of the program that calls isEqualTo with a user-defined class type, but does not overload the equality operator.

What happens when you attempt to run this program? Now overload the equality operator (with the operator function) operator==. Now what happens when you attempt to run this program?

ANS: If the user-defined class does not overload the equality operator (i.e., comment out lines 30–33 in the solution below), the compiler would report an error indicating that the class does not define this operator or a conversion to a type acceptable to the predefined operator. Once the class overloads the equality operator, the program should run fine.

18.5

Distinguish between the terms “function template” and “function-template specialization.”

ANS: A function template is used to instantiate function-template specializations.

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Exercises 18.6

3

Explain which is more like a stencil—a class template or a class-template specialization?

ANS: A class template can be viewed as a stencil from which class-template specializations

can be created. A class-template specialization can be viewed as a stencil from which objects of that class can be created. So, in a way, both can be viewed as stencils.

18.7

What’s the relationship between function templates and overloading?

ANS: Function templates create function-template specializations—these are overloaded

versions of a function. The main difference is at compile time, where the compiler automatically creates the code for the template functions from the function template rather than the programmer having to write the code.

18.8 The compiler performs a matching process to determine which function-template specialization to call when a function is invoked. Under what circumstances does an attempt to make a match result in a compile error?

ANS: The compiler tries to find a single best match using either an existing function or by creating a function template specialization. If there is no single best match, the compiler generates an error.

18.9

Why is it appropriate to refer to a class template as a parameterized type?

ANS: When creating specializations of a class template, it is necessary to provide a type (or

possibly several types) to complete the definition of the new type being declared. For example, when creating an "array of integers" from an Array class template, the type int can be provided to the class template to complete the definition of an array of integers.

18.10 Explain why a C++ program would use the statement Array<Employee> workerList{100};

ANS: When creating class-template specializations from a class template, it is necessary to

provide a type (or possibly several types) to complete the definition of the new type being declared. For example, when creating an "array of Employees" from an Array class template, the type Employee is provided to the class template to complete the definition of an array of Employees. In this case, the number of Employees is known in advance.

18.11 Review your answer to Exercise ANS: . Explain why a C++ program might use the statement Array<Employee> workerList;

ANS: Declares an Array object to store Employees. The default constructor is used. The

number of Employees is not known in advance.

18.12 Explain the use of the following notation in a C++ program: template<typename T> Array<T>::Array(int s)

ANS: This notation is used to begin the definition of the Array(int) constructor for the

class template Array<T>.

18.13 Why might you use a nontype parameter with a class template for a container such as an array or stack?

ANS: To specify at compile time the size of the container class object being declared.

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19

Custom Templatized Data Structures

Objectives In this chapter you’ll: ■

Form linked data structures using pointers, self-referential classes and recursion.

■

Create and manipulate dynamic data structures such as linked lists, queues, stacks and binary trees.

■

Use binary search trees for high-speed searching and sorting.

■

Learn important applications of linked data structures.

■

Create reusable data structures with class templates, inheritance and composition.

■

Have the opportunity to try many challenging datastructures exercises, including the Building Your Own Compiler project.

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Chapter 19 Custom Templatized Data Structures

Self-Review Exercises 19.1

19.2

Fill in the blanks in each of the following: a) A selfclass is used to form dynamic data structures that can grow and shrink at execution time ANS: referential. b) The operator is used to dynamically allocate memory and construct an object; this operator returns a pointer to the object.

ANS: new. c) A(n) is a constrained version of a linked list in which nodes can be inserted and deleted only from the start of the list and node values are returned in last-in, firstout order.

ANS: stack. d) A function that does not alter a linked list, but looks at the list to determine whether it’s function. empty, is an example of a(n) ANS: predicate. e) A queue is referred to as a(n) data structure, because the first nodes inserted are the first nodes removed.

ANS: first-in, first-out (FIFO). . f) The pointer to the next node in a linked list is referred to as a(n) ANS: link. g) The operator is used to destroy an object and release dynamically allocated memory.

ANS: delete. h) A(n) is a constrained version of a linked list in which nodes can be inserted only at the end of the list and deleted only from the start of the list.

ANS: queue. i) A(n) is a nonlinear, two-dimensional data structure that contains nodes with two or more links.

ANS: tree. j) A stack is referred to as a(n) data structure, because the last node inserted is the first node removed.

ANS: last-in, first-out (LIFO). k) The nodes of a(n) tree contain two link members.

ANS: binary. l) The first node of a tree is the node.

ANS: root. or of that node. m) Each link in a tree node points to a(n) ANS: child or subtree. n) A tree node that has no children is called a(n) node.

ANS: leaf. o) The four traversal algorithms we mentioned in the text for binary search trees are , , and .

ANS: inorder, preorder, postorder and level order.

What are the differences between a linked list and a stack?

ANS: It’s possible to insert a node anywhere in a linked list and remove a node from any-

where in a linked list. Nodes in a stack may only be inserted at the top of the stack and removed from the top of a stack.

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Self-Review Exercises 19.3

3

What are the differences between a stack and a queue?

ANS: A queue data structure allows nodes to be removed only from the head of the queue

and inserted only at the tail of the queue. A queue is referred to as a first-in, first-out (FIFO) data structure. A stack data structure allows nodes to be added to the stack and removed from the stack only at the top. A stack is referred to as a last-in, firstout (LIFO) data structure.

19.4 Perhaps a more appropriate title for this chapter would have been “Reusable Data Structures.” Comment on how each of the following entities or concepts contributes to the reusability of data structures: a) classes ANS: Classes allow us to instantiate as many data structure objects of a certain type (i.e., class) as we wish. b) class templates ANS: Class templates enable us to instantiate related classes, each based on different type parameters—we can then generate as many objects of each template class as we like. c) inheritance ANS: Inheritance enables us to reuse code from a base class in a derived class, so that the derived-class data structure is also a base-class data structure (with public inheritance, that is). d) private inheritance ANS: Private inheritance enables us to reuse portions of the code from a base class to form a derived-class data structure; because the inheritance is private, all public base-class member functions become private in the derived class. This enables us to prevent clients of the derived-class data structure from accessing base-class member functions that do not apply to the derived class. e) composition ANS: Composition enables us to reuse code by making a class object data structure a member of a composed class; if we make the class object a private member of the composed class, then the class object’s public member functions are not available through the composed object’s interface.

19.5

Provide the inorder, preorder and postorder traversals of the binary search tree of Fig. 19.1.

49 28 18 11

19

83 40 32

44

71 69

72

Fig. 19.1 | A 15-node binary search tree.

ANS: The inorder traversal is 11 18 19 28 32 40 44 49 69 71 72 83 92 97 99

The preorder traversal is 49 28 18 11 19 40 32 44 83 71 69 72 97 92 99

The postorder traversal is 11 19 18 32 44 40 28 69 72 71 92 99 97 83 49

97 92

99

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4

Chapter 19 Custom Templatized Data Structures

Exercises NOTE: Solutions to the programming exercises are located in the ch19solutions folder.

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20

Searching and Sorting

Objectives In this chapter you’ll: ■

Search for a given value in an array using linear search and binary search.

■

Sort an array using insertion sort, selection sort and the recursive merge sort algorithms.

■

Use Big O notation to express the efficiency of searching and sorting algorithms and to compare their performance.

■

Understand the nature of algorithms of constant, linear and quadratic runtime.

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Chapter 20 Searching and Sorting

Self-Review Exercises 20.1

Fill in the blanks in each of the following statements: a) A selection sort application would take approximately times as long to run on a 128-element array as on a 32-element array.

ANS: 16, because an O(n2) algorithm takes 16 times as long to sort four times as much information. b) The efficiency of merge sort is .

ANS: O(n log n).

20.2 What key aspect of both the binary search and the merge sort accounts for the logarithmic portion of their respective Big Os? ANS: Both of these algorithms incorporate “halving”—somehow reducing something by half. The binary search eliminates from consideration half of the array after each comparison. The merge sort splits the array in half each time it’s called.

20.3 In what sense is the insertion sort superior to the merge sort? In what sense is the merge sort superior to the insertion sort?

ANS: The insertion sort is easier to understand and to implement than the merge sort. The merge sort is far more efficient (O(n log n)) than the insertion sort (O(n2)).

20.4 In the text, we say that after the merge sort splits the array into two sub-arrays, it then sorts these two sub-arrays and merges them. Why might someone be puzzled by our statement that “it then sorts these two sub-arrays”?

ANS: In a sense, it does not really sort these two sub-arrays. It simply keeps splitting the original array in half until it provides a one-element sub-array, which is, of course, sorted. It then builds up the original two sub-arrays by merging these one-element arrays to form larger sub-arrays, which are then merged, and so on.

Exercises NOTE: Solutions to the programming exercises are located in the ch20solutions folder.

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Class string and String Stream Processing: A Deeper Look

21 Objectives In this chapter you’ll: ■

Manipulate string objects.

■

Determine string characteristics.

■

Find, replace and insert characters in strings.

■

Convert string objects to pointer-based strings and vice versa.

■

Use string iterators.

■

Perform input from and output to strings in memory.

■

Use C++11 numeric conversion functions.

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2

Chapter 21 Class string and String Stream Processing: A Deeper Look

Self-Review Exercises 21.1

Fill in the blanks in each of the following: a) Header must be included for class string.

ANS: <string>. namespace. b) Class string belongs to the ANS: std. c) Function deletes characters from a string.

ANS: erase. d) Function finds the first occurrence of one of several characters from a string.

ANS: find_first_of.

21.2 State which of the following statements are true and which are false. If a statement is false, explain why. a) Concatenation of string objects can be performed with the addition assignment operator, +=.

ANS: True. b) Characters within a string begin at index 0.

ANS: True. c) The assignment operator, =, copies a string.

ANS: True. d) A pointer-based string is a string object.

ANS: False. A string is an object that provides many different services. A pointer-based string does not provide any services. Pointer-based strings are null terminated; strings are not necessarily null terminated. Pointer-based strings are pointers and strings are objects.

21.3

Find the error(s) in each of the following, and explain how to correct it (them): a) string string1{28}; // construct string1 string string2{'z'}; // construct string2

ANS: Constructors for class string do not exist for integer and character arguments. Other

valid constructors should be used—converting the arguments to strings if need be. b) // assume std namespace is known const char* ptr{name.data()}; // name is "joe bob" ptr[3] = '-'; cout << ptr << endl;

ANS: Function data does not add a null terminator. Also, the code attempts to modify a const char. Replace all of the lines with the code: cout << name.substr(0, 3) + "-" + name.substr(4) << endl;

Exercises NOTE: Solutions to the programming exercises are located in the ch21solutions folder.

21.4

(Fill in the Blanks) Fill in the blanks in each of the following: a) Class string member function converts a string to a pointer-based string.

ANS: c_str

b) Class string member function

is used for assignment.

ANS: assign

c)

is the return type of function rbegin.

ANS: string::reverse_iterator

d) Class string member function ANS: substr

is used to retrieve a substring.

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Exercises

3

21.5 (True or False) State which of the following statements are true and which are false. If a statement is false, explain why. a) strings are always null terminated.

ANS: False. strings are not necessarily null terminated. b) Class string member function max_size returns the maximum size for a string.

ANS: True. c) Class string member function at can throw an out_of_range exception.

ANS: True. d) Class string member function begin returns an iterator.

ANS: True (it returns a string::iterator).

21.6

(Find Code Errors) Find any errors in the following and explain how to correct them: a) std::cout << s.data() << std::endl; // s is "hello" ANS: The array returned by data is not null terminated. b) erase(s.rfind("x"), 1); // s is "xenon" ANS: Function erase is a string class member function (i.e., erase must be called by an object of type string). c) string& foo() { string s("Hello"); ...

// other statements

return; }

ANS: A value is not being returned from the function (i.e., the return statement should be return s;). The return type should be string not string&—reference returns are

dangerous.

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22

Bits, Characters, C Strings and structs

Objectives In this chapter you’ll learn: ■

To create and use structs and to understand their near equivalence with classes.

■

To use typedef to create aliases for data types.

■

To manipulate data with the bitwise operators and to create bit fields for storing data compactly.

■

To use the functions of the character-handling library <cctype>.

■

To use the string-conversion functions of the generalutilities library <cstdlib>.

■

To use the string-processing functions of the stringhandling library <cstring>.

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Chapter 22 Bits, Characters, C Strings and structs

Self-Review Exercises 22.1

Fill in the blanks in each of the following: a) The bits in the result of an expression using the operator are set to one if the corresponding bits in each operand are set to one. Otherwise, the bits are set to zero.

ANS: bitwise AND (&). b) The bits in the result of an expression using the operator are set to one if at least one of the corresponding bits in either operand is set to one. Otherwise, the bits are set to zero.

ANS: bitwise inclusive OR (|). c) Keyword introduces a structure declaration.

ANS: struct. d) Keyword is used to create a synonym for a previously defined data type.

ANS: typedef. operator is set to one if exactly e) Each bit in the result of an expression using the one of the corresponding bits in either operand is set to one.

ANS: bitwise exclusive OR (^). bits (i.e., to select certain bits f) The bitwise AND operator & is often used to from a bit string while zeroing others).

ANS: mask. g) The and operators are used to shift the bits of a value to the left or to the right, respectively.

ANS: left-shift operator (<<), right-shift operator (>>).

22.2

Write a single statement or a set of statements to accomplish each of the following: a) Define a structure called Part containing int variable partNumber and char array partName, whose values may be as long as 25 characters.

ANS: struct Part { int partNumber; char partName[26]; };

b) Define PartPtr to be a synonym for the type Part*.

ANS: typedef Part* PartPtr;

c) Use separate statements to declare variable a to be of type Part, array b[10] to be of type Part and variable ptr to be of type pointer to Part.

ANS: Part a; Part b[10]; Part* ptr;

d) Read a part number and a part name from the keyboard into the members of variable a.

ANS: cin >> a.partNumber >> a.partName;

e) Assign the member values of variable a to element three of array b.

ANS: b[3] = a;

f) Assign the address of array b to the pointer variable ptr.

ANS: ptr = b;

g) Print the member values of element three of array b, using the variable ptr and the structure pointer operator to refer to the members.

ANS: cout << (ptr + 3)->partNumber << ' ' << (ptr + 3)->partName << endl;

22.3 Write a single statement to accomplish each of the following. Assume that variables c (which stores a character), x, y and z are of type int; variables d, e and f are of type double; variable ptr is of type char* and arrays s1[100] and s2[100] are of type char.

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Exercises

3

a) Convert the character stored in c to an uppercase letter. Assign the result to variable c.

ANS: c = toupper(c);

b) Determine if the value of variable c is a digit. Use the conditional operator as shown in Figs. 22.18–22.20 to print " is a " or " is not a " when the result is displayed.

ANS: cout << '\'' << c << "\' " << (isdigit(c) ? "is a" : "is not a") << " digit" << endl;

c) Determine whether the value of variable c is a control character. Use the conditional operator to print " is a " or " is not a " when the result is displayed.

ANS: cout << '\'' << c << "\' " << (iscntrl(c) ? "is a" : "is not a")

<< " control character" << endl;

d) Assign to ptr the location of the last occurrence of c in s1.

ANS: ptr = strrchr(s1, c);

e) Convert the string "8.63582" to double, and print the value.

ANS: out << atof("8.63582") << endl;

f) Determine whether the value of c is a letter. Use the conditional operator to print " is a " or " is not a " when the result is displayed.

ANS: cout << '\'' << c << "\' " << (isalpha(c) ? "is a" : "is not a") << " letter" << endl;

g) Assign to ptr the location of the first occurrence of s2 in s1.

ANS: ptr = strstr(s1, s2);

h) Determine whether the value of variable c is a printing character. Use the conditional operator to print " is a " or " is not a " when the result is displayed.

ANS: cout << '\'' << c << "\' " << (isprint(c) ? "is a" : "is not a") << " printing character" << endl;

i) Assign to ptr the location of the first occurrence in s1 of any character from s2.

ANS: ptr = strpbrk(s1, s2);

j) Assign to ptr the location of the first occurrence of c in s1.

ANS: ptr = strchr(s1, c);

k) Convert the string "-21" to int, and print the value.

ANS: cout << atoi("-21") << endl;

Exercises NOTE: Solutions to the programming exercises are located in the ch22solutions folder.

22.4

(Defining Structures) Provide the definition for each of the following structures: a) Structure Inventory, containing character array partName[30], integer partNumber, floating-point price, integer stock and integer reorder.

ANS: struct Inventory { char partName[30]; int partNumber; double price; int stock; int reorder; };

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Chapter 22 Bits, Characters, C Strings and structs b) A structure called Address that contains character arrays streetAddress[25], city[20], state[3] and zipCode[6].

ANS: struct Address { char streetAddress[25]; char city[20]; char state[3]; char zipCode[6]; };

c) Structure Student, containing arrays firstName[15] and lastName[15] and variable homeAddress of type struct Address from part (b).

ANS: struct Student { char firstName[15]; char lastName[15]; struct Address homeAddress; };

d) Structure Test, containing 16 bit fields with widths of 1 bit. The names of the bit fields are the letters a to p.

ANS: struct Test { unsigned a:1, b:1, c:1, d:1, e:1, f:1, g:1, h:1, i:1, j:1, k:1, l:1, m:1, n:1, o:1, p:1; };